11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

DocumentsofFreedom:History,Government&
EconomicsThroughPrimarySources
Menu

Overview
ExploretheCourse
SignIn
SignUpForFree

SeparationofPowerswithChecksandBalances
Theaccumulationofallpowers,legislative,executiveandjudicia[l]inthesamehands,whetherof
one,afew,ormany,andwhetherhereditary,selfappointed,orelective,mayjustlybepronouncedthe
verydefinitionoftyranny(JamesMadison,FederalistNo.51,1788).

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 1/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

JamesMadisontheorizedthatasitistheConstitutionthatgrantseachbranchits
power,honorableambitionthatultimatelyservesthehighestinterestsofthe
peoplecouldworktomaintaintheseparation.

TheFoundingFatherswerewellacquaintedwithalongheldtenetofgovernment:theaccumulationofpowerbya
singlepersonorbodyofgovernmentisthegreatestthreattoliberty.Infact,acelebratedfeatureoftheConstitution,
theseparationofpowersdoctrine,developedoverthecourseofmanycenturies.

Asearlyas350B.C.,GreekphilosopherAristotleobservedinthePoliticsthateverygovernment,nomatterits
form,performedthreedistinctfunctions:thedeliberative,themagisterial,andthejudicative.Inmodern
terminologytheseactivitiescorrelate,respectively,tothelegislative(lawmaking),executive(lawenforcing)and
judicial(lawinterpretation)functionsofgovernment.WhileAristotleidentifiedthesebasicpowerscommontoall
governments,hedidnotnecessarilysuggestthattheyshouldbeexercisedbyentirelydifferentbranches.

Theprinciplethatmajorgovernmentalfunctionsshouldbedividedintodifferentbrancheswouldbeadvanced
centurieslater.TheFrenchphilosopherBarondeMontesquieu,[t]heoraclethecelebratedMontesquieu,as
JamesMadisonreferredtohim,advocatedthreedistinctandseparatebranchesinwhichthegeneralpowersof
governmentshouldbelodged.WhileJohnLockemadethecaseforseparatingthelegislativeandexecutivepowers,
MontesquieuprovidedtheFounderswithaconvincingdefenseforanindependentjudiciary:

Whenthelegislativeandexecutivepowersareunitedinthesameperson,orinthesamebodyof
magistrates,therecanbenolibertyAgain,thereisnoliberty,ifthejudiciarypowerbenotseparated
fromthelegislativeandexecutive.Wereitjoinedwiththelegislative,thelifeandlibertyofthesubject
wouldbeexposedtoarbitrarycontrolforthejudgewouldthenbethelegislator.Wereitjoinedtothe
executivepower,thejudgemightbehavewithviolenceandoppression.Therewouldbeanendto
everything,werethesameman,orthesamebody,whetherofthenoblesorofthepeople,toexercise
thosethreepowers,thatofenactinglaws,thatofexecutingthepublicresolutions,andoftryingthe
causesofindividuals(BarondeMontesquieu,SpiritofLaws,1748).

ItwasMontesquieusvisionofatrulyseparated,tripartitesystemthattheFoundingFatherswouldcometoadoptat
theConstitutionalConvention.ArticleI,Section1oftheU.S.ConstitutionvestslegislativepowersinaCongressof
theUnitedStates,itselfseparatedintoaHouseofRepresentativesandaSenate.ArticleII,Section1vestsexecutive
authorityinaPresidentoftheUnitedStates.ArticleIII,Section1vestsjudicialauthorityinasingleSupremeCourt
oftheUnitedStatesandinsuchinferiorCourtsastheCongressmayfromtimetotimeordainandestablish.

Duringtheratificationdebatesfrom1787to1788,somecriticschargedthatuponcloseinspectiontheseparationof
powersinArticlesIIIIoftheConstitutionwerenotascompleteasMontesquieuappearedtoadvocateandwould
tendtowardanaccumulationofpowerinonebranchoranotherovertime.Thepresident,forexample,hasthe
powertoacceptorrejectabilldulypassedbyCongress,aseeminglylegislativepower.Foritspart,theSenatemay
approveorrejectapresidentialappointmenttohisownbranch,aseeminglyexecutivepower.

TheConstitutionscriticswererighttheFramersdidnotproposeapureseparationofpowers.Madisonretorted
thatapureseparationofpowerswasneitherwhatMontesquieuintendednorpractical:

[Montesquieu]didnotmeanthatthese[branches]oughttohavenopartialagencyin,ornocontrol
over,theactsofeachother.Hismeaningcanamounttonomorethanthis,thatwherethewhole
powerofone[branch]isexercisedbythehandsthatholdthewholepowerofanother,thefundamental
principlesofafreeconstitutionaresubverted.[T]hereisnotasingleinstanceinwhichtheseveral
[branches]ofpowerhavebeenkeptabsolutelyseparateanddistinct(JamesMadison,FederalistNo.
47,1788).

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 2/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

TheFrenchphilosopherBarondeMontesquieuadvocatedthreedistinctand
separatebranchesinwhichthegeneralpowersofgovernmentshouldbe
lodged.

ImplicitinMadisonsargumentwasaninterestingchallengetotheverydoctrineofseparationofpowers:whatwill
preventtheaccumulationofpowerintheabsenceofpureseparation?Theanswerwastobefoundinaunique
featureoftheConstitution:thepairingofseparatedpowerswithanintricatesystemofchecksandbalancesdesigned
togiveeachbranchfortificationsagainstencroachmentsbytheothers.TheMadisonianModel,asitisnow
generallycalled,gavegenuineandpracticallifetoboththeobservationofAristotleandthevisionofMontesquieu.

AttheheartoftheMadisonianModelisambition.Adesireforpower,influence,andauthorityisembeddeddeeply
inhumannature.Formanypeople,theverywordambitionsmacksofgreed,corruption,orawinatallcost
mentality.

Madisonsawitdifferently.Ambition,ifproperlyharnessedbygoodjudgmentandrootedinanappreciationforthe
benefitsofconstitutionalrepublicanism,couldworktoadvancethepublicgood.Itcouldbebeneficialnotonlyto
theeffectiveseparationofpowersbuttolimitedgovernmentandlibertyitself.InFederalistNo.51,JamesMadison
stated:

Thegreatsecurityagainstagradualconcentrationoftheseveralpowersinthesame[branch],consists
ingivingtothosewhoadministereach[branch],thenecessaryconstitutionalmeans,andpersonal
motives,toresistencroachmentsoftheothersAmbitionmustbemadetocounteractambition.The
interestofthemanmustbeconnectedwiththeconstitutionalrightsoftheplace(JamesMadison,
FederalistNo.51,1788).

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 3/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

Inoursystemofseparatedpowers,eachbranchofgovernmentisnotonlygivenafiniteamountofpowerand
authoritybutarrivesatitthroughentirelydifferentmodesofelection.Madisontheorizedthatasitisthe
Constitutionthatgrantseachbranchitspower,honorableambitionthatultimatelyservesthehighestinterestsofthe
peoplecouldworktomaintaintheseparation.Inotherwords,sinceCongressisnotdependentonthepresidencyor
thecourtsforeitheritsauthorityoritselectiontooffice,memberswilljealouslyguarditspowerfrom
encroachmentsbytheothertwobranchesandviceversa.ForMadison,thisorganizationofpowersansweredthe
greatchallengeofframingalimitedgovernmentofseparatedpowers:firstenabl[ing]thegovernmenttocontrol
thegovernedandinthenextplace,obling[ing]ittocontrolitself(JamesMadison,FederalistNo.51,1788).

WhatdoesMadisonstheorylooklikeinpractice?Whileitisthelegislativebranchthatmakeslaw,thepresident
maycheckCongressbyvetoingbillsCongresshaspassed,preventingthemfrombeingenacted.Inturn,Congress
mayenactalawoverthepresidentsobjectionbyoverridinghisvetowithavoteoftwothirdsofboththeHouse
andSenate.TheSupremeCourtcanthencheckbothbranchesbydeclaringalawunconstitutional(knownas
judicialreview),buttheSupremeCourtitselfischeckedbyvirtueofthefactthepresidentandSenateappointand
approve,respectively,membersoftheCourt.Furthermore,boththepresidentandfederaljudgesaresubjectto
impeachmentbyCongressfortreason,bribery,orotherhighcrimesandmisdemeanors(UnitedStates
Constitution:ArticleII,Section4).

ThePresidentmaycheckCongressbyvetoingbillsCongresshaspassed.Congress
mayoverridethepresident'svetowithavoteoftwothirdsofbothHouses.The
SupremeCourtcanthencheckbothbranchesbydeclaringalawunconstitutional.

Byandlarge,Madisonsmodelremainsconstitutionallyintact,butmanypeoplewonderifoursystemstillbalances
power,inrealityandinpractice,totheextentthatheenvisioned.Ourchecksandbalancessystemreflectsan
understandingaboutrepublicangovernment,heldbymanyFounders,thatthelegislativebranchshouldbethe
superiorbranchand,therefore,mostinneedofrestraint.TheyreasonedthatthisisthecasebecauseWethe
Peoplegovernourselvesthroughthelawswegiveourselvesthroughourelectedrepresentativesinthelegislative
branch.

Thelegislative[branch]derivessuperiority[i]tsconstitutionalpowers[are]moreextensive,andless
susceptibletopreciselimits[it]isnotpossibletogiveeach[branch]anequal[numberofcheckson
theotherbranches](JamesMadison,FederalistNo.48,1788).

Someobserversmaintainthatthisconceptionofthelegislativeasthepredominantbranchisobsoleteinmodern
times.TheexecutiveandjudicialbrancheshaveexpandedtheirpowersbeyondtheFoundersexpectationsover
time(i.e.executiveorders,theroleoftheSupremeCourtasthearbiteroflawsateverylevel,notjustthefederal
level.)IsMadisonsassumptionoflegislativesuperioritytruetoday?Ifyouwereaskedtopickabranchtodescribe
asmostpowerfulwouldyouranswermirrorMadisons?

Despitedisagreementastohowwellithasworked,onecharacteristicofthechecksandbalancessystemcannotbe
denied:itencouragesconstanttensionandconflictbetweenthebranches.Thatconflict,however,isfrequently
beneficial,andourConstitutionsmilesuponit.
https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 4/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

06:25

Video:SeparationofPowers

TestYourKnowledge

1.Question1of3

Whichofthefollowingpoliticalthinkerscontributedtothedevelopmentoftheprincipleofseparationof
powersasreflectedintheUnitedStatesConstitution?

Aristotle.
Montesquieu.
Madison.
Allofthese.

SubmitAnswer NextQuestion>

2.Question2of3

WhichstatementbestreflectsJamesMadisonsargumentaboutseparationofpowers?

Thepowersdelegatedtothelegislative,executive,andjudicialbranchesofgovernmentshouldbe
completelyseparatedfromoneanother.
Powersshouldbesharedbetweenbranchessothateachbranchservesasawatchdogoverthe
others.
Ambition,asaharmfulfeatureofhumannature,mustbeeliminatedinordertoprotectliberty
throughseparationofpowers.
Separationofpowersprovidedtheonlyremedyforadangerousaccumulationofpowerinthe
handsofanelectivebody.

SubmitAnswer NextQuestion>

3.Question3of3

AccordingtotheMadisonianModel,whichbranchofgovernmentdidtheFoundersexpecttobethe
predominantbranch?

Legislative.
Executive.

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 5/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

Judicial.
Noneofthese.

SubmitAnswer NextQuestion>

Signupforafreeaccountforaccesstocorrespondingteachermaterials:

Anextensivelibraryofresources.

Teacherscanaccessallstudentreadingsalongwithcorrespondingteachermaterialsincludingclassroom
activities,presentations,andassessments.

Materialsthatmeetstandards.

Teachersunderstandwhat'sneededtoproperlyteachcontentintheclassroombetterthananyoneelse.That's
whyallofourcoursecontentiswrittenbyteachers.

Resourcescreatedbyfellowteachers.

Allmaterialsmeetavarietyofstandardsincludingstatestandards,CommonCorestandards,andCollege
Boardstandards.

Allofthecontentcoveredintraditionaltextbooks.

Thecoursecontentcoversallofthecriticalareasofcivics,economics,andAmericanhistorythatareincluded
inAmericanGovernmentbyMagruderCivicsToday:Citizenship,Economics,andYoubyGlencoe
Economics:PrinciplesinActionbyPrenticeHallandCivicsinPractice:PrinciplesofGovernmentand
EconomicsbyPrenticeHall.

LearnMore
SignUpforFree

LawofDemand
Aspricesdecrease,thequantitydemandedincreasesoraspricesincrease,thequantitydemandeddecreases.
Naturalrights
Rightswhichbelongtousbynatureandcanonlybejustlytakenawaythroughdueprocess.
Inalienablerights
Rightswhichbelongtousbynatureandcanonlybejustlytakenawaythroughdueprocess.
Liberty
ExceptwhereauthorizedbypeoplethroughtheConstitution,governmentdoesnothavetheauthoritytolimit
freedom.
Popularsovereignty
Thepowerofgovernmentflowsfromthepeople.
Separationofpowers
Asystemofdistinctpowersbuiltintotheconstitution,topreventanaccumulationofpowerinonebranch.
Checksandbalances
Powersdistributedamongthebranchesofgovernmentallowingeachtolimittheapplicationofpowerofthe
otherbranchesandtopreventexpansionofpowerofanybranch.
Federalism
Thepeopledelegatecertainpowerstothenationalgovernment,whilethestatesretainotherpowersandthe
people,whoauthorizethestatesandnationalgovernment,retainallfreedomsnotdelegatedtothegoverning
bodies.
Justice
Fairnessorreasonablenessinthewaypeoplearetreatedordecisionsaremade.
privateproperty
Thenaturalrightofallindividualstocreate,obtain,andcontroltheirpossessions,beliefs,faculties,and
opinions,aswellasthefruitsoftheirlabor.
limitedgovernment

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 6/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

Citizensarebestabletopursuehappinesswhengovernmentisconfinedtothosepowerswhichprotecttheir
life,liberty,andproperty.
representativegovernment
(orrepublicangovernment)Formofgovernmentinwhichthepeoplearesovereign(ultimatesourceofpower)
andauthorizerepresentativestomakeandcarryoutlaws.
republicangovernment
(orrepresentativegovernment)Formofgovernmentinwhichthepeoplearesovereign(ultimatesourceof
power)andauthorizerepresentativestomakeandcarryoutlaws.
civildiscourse
Reasonedandrespectfulsharingofideasbetweenindividualsistheprimarywaypeopleinfluencechangein
society/government,andisessentialtomaintainselfgovernment.
Constitution
Thefundamentalprinciplesbywhichastateornationisgoverned.TheUnitedStatesConstitution,writtenin
1787,laysouttherolesandpowersofeachofthethreebranchesofgovernment(legislative,executive,and
judicial),theprotectionsofdueprocessandruleoflawinthestates,arepublicanformofgovernment,and
themannerinwhichtoamendthedocument.
ThomasJefferson
JeffersonwasaVirginiaplantationownerwhowastheprincipleauthoroftheDeclarationofIndependence.
JeffersonservedasalegislatorandgovernorinVirginia,aswellasanambassadortoFrance,Secretaryof
StateunderGeorgeWashington,VicePresidentunderJohnAdams,andthethirdPresidentoftheUnited
States.Duringhispoliticalcareer,JeffersonfoundedtheDemocraticRepublicanPartywithJamesMadison,
andheboughttheLouisianaPurchasefromFrance.Afterhispresidency,JeffersonstartedtheUniversityof
Virginianearhishome,Monticello.
BillofRights
ThefirsttenamendmentstotheConstitution,ratifiedin1791,whichlimitgovernmentpowerandprotect
individualliberties,includingthefreedomsofspeech,press,religion,petition,andassembly,aswellas
protectionsagainstcruelandunusualpunishment,unreasonablesearchandseizure,andotherdueprocess
rights.
SecondAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,itprotectscitizensrightstocreateamilitiaandtobeararms.Awellregulatedmilitia,
beingnecessarytothesecurityofafreestate,therightofthepeopletokeepandbeararms,shallnotbe
infringed.
DueProcess
Thegovernmentmustinteractwithallpersonsaccordingtothedulyenactedlawsapplyingtheserules
equallyamongallpersons.
Equality
Everyindividualisequaltoeveryotherpersonwithrespecttonaturalrightsandtreatmentbeforethelaw.
Consentofthegoverned
Theauthorityofthegovernmentmustcomefromthepeoplethroughelectionsandthroughthepeoples
interactionwithgovernment.
Individualresponsibility
Individualsmusttakecareofthemselvesandtheirfamilies,andbevigilanttopreservetheirlibertyandthe
libertyofothers.
Ruleoflaw
Governmentofficialsandcitizensallabidebythesamelawsregardlessofpoliticalpower.
DeclarationofIndependence
Thedocumentwrittenin1776bytheFounderstosendtoBritainsKingGeorgeIIIinwhichindependence
fromBritainwasdeclaredandthereasonsfortheseparationwereexplained.
ArticlesofConfederation
Thefirstnationalgovernmentdocumentdevelopedin1781bytheFounders.TheArticlescreatedafederal
legislativebranch,buttherewasnoexecutiveorjudiciary.Thestatesretainedmostofthegovernmental
powers.
Founders
ThegroupofpeoplewhowroteandinfluencedtheDeclarationofIndependence,theArticlesof
Confederation,theUnitedStatesConstitution,andtheUnitedStatesBillofRights.Thesemenwere
instrumentalinestablishingthenationanditsgovernmentaldocumentsandpractices.
FederalistPapers
Aseriesof85essayswrittentoconvincethepeopleofNewYorktoratifytheConstitution.Theauthorswere
JamesMadison,AlexanderHamilton,andJohnJay.Thesedocumentsareconsideredtobethemost
authoritativeexplanationofthepoliticaltheoryoftheConstitution.
FirstAmendment

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 7/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

Ratifiedin1791,itprotectsthefreedomofspeech,thefreedomofreligion,freedomofthepress,freedomto
assemble,andfreedomtopetitionthegovernment.Congressshallmakenolawrespectinganestablishment
ofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereoforabridgingthefreedomofspeech,orofthepressorthe
rightofthepeoplepeaceablytoassemble,andtopetitionthegovernmentforaredressofgrievances.
LawofSupply
Asthepricedrops,thequantitysuppliedalsodrops.
FourthAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,itprotectscitizensrightsagainstunreasonablesearchesandseizuresofpropertyand
explainsthatwarrantsmustbeissuedwithprobablecause.Therightofthepeopletobesecureintheir
persons,houses,papers,andeffects,againstunreasonablesearchesandseizures,shallnotbeviolated,andno
warrantsshallissue,butuponprobablecause,supportedbyoathoraffirmation,andparticularlydescribing
theplacetobesearched,andthepersonsorthingstobeseized.
FifthAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,itprotectstherightindictmentbyajury,againstdoublejeopardy,selfincrimination,lossof
life,liberty,orpropertywithoutdueprocess,andjustcompensationforprivatepropertytakenforpublicuse.
Nopersonshallbeheldtoanswerforacapital,orotherwiseinfamouscrime,unlessonapresentmentor
indictmentofagrandjury,exceptincasesarisinginthelandornavalforces,orinthemilitia,wheninactual
serviceintimeofwarorpublicdangernorshallanypersonbesubjectforthesameoffensetobetwiceputin
jeopardyoflifeorlimbnorshallbecompelledinanycriminalcasetobeawitnessagainsthimself,norbe
deprivedoflife,liberty,orproperty,withoutdueprocessoflawnorshallprivatepropertybetakenforpublic
use,withoutjustcompensation.
TenthAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,itstatesthatthepowersnotenumeratedordelegatedintheConstitutionarereservedforthe
statesandthepeople.ThepowersnotdelegatedtotheUnitedStatesbytheConstitution,norprohibitedbyit
tothestates,arereservedtothestatesrespectively,ortothepeople.
EighthAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,itprotectsagainstexcessivebailandfinesandcruelandunusualpunishments.Excessive
bailshallnotberequired,norexcessivefinesimposed,norcruelandunusualpunishmentsinflicted.
NinthAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,thelistingofcertainrightsprotectedbytheConstitutioncannotbeusedtodenyrightsnot
enumeratedinthedocument.TheenumerationintheConstitution,ofcertainrights,shallnotbeconstruedto
denyordisparageothersretainedbythepeople.
AlexanderHamilton
OneoftheFoundingFathersoftheUnitedStates,AlexanderHamiltonservedasGeneralWashingtonschief
ofstaff,promotedtheratificationoftheConstitutionintheFederalistPapers,andfoundedthenations
financialsystemandfirstpoliticalparty.
JamesMadison
MadisonwasaFramerwhowasinstrumentalinwritingtheConstitutionandBillofRights.Heisknownas
theFatheroftheConstitution.MadisonpartneredwithAlexanderHamiltonandJohnJaytowritethe
FederalistPapersinsupportoftheratificationoftheConstitution.HealsoservedasamemberoftheVirginia
HouseofDelegates,theUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentatives,SecretaryofStateunderThomasJefferson,
andthefourthpresidentoftheUnitedStates.
GeorgeWashington
FirstPresidentoftheUnitedStates,GeorgeWashingtonservedascommanderinchiefoftheContinental
ArmyduringtheAmericanRevolutionandwasoneoftheFoundingFathersoftheUnitedStates.
JohnLocke
AnEnglishphilosopherandphysician,JohnLockewasoneofthemostinfluentialEnlightenmentthinkers
andisknowntodayastheFatherofClassicalLiberalism.
ContinentalCongress
TheContinentalCongress,comprisedofdelegatesfrom12ofthe13Americancolonies,representedthe
colonistsduringandaftertheAmericanRevolution.TheContinentalCongressissuedtheDeclarationof
IndependenceandratifiedtheArticlesofConfederation.
KingGeorgeIII
KingGeorgeIIIwastheKingofGreatBritainatthetimeoftheAmericanRevolution.Hisactionstowards
theAmericancolonies,outlinedintheDeclarationofIndependence,spurredtheAmericanRevolution.
GreatDepression
Spanningtenyearsfrom1929to1939,theGreatDepressionwasoneofthelongestlastingeconomic
downturnsinthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesaffectingtheU.S.andmostoftheworld.
Preamble
Anintroductorystatement,preface,orintroduction.
Tyranny

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 8/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

Cruelandunfairtreatmentbypeoplewithpoweroverothers.
Tyrannical
Usingpoweroverpeopleinawaythatiscruelandunfair.
JohnAdams
BeforebecomingthesecondPresidentoftheUnitedStates,JohnAdamsservedasthecountrysfirstVice
PresidentunderGeorgeWashington.AdamswasanadvocateofAmericanindependencefromBritainanda
Federalist.
JohnJay
FoundingFatherJohnJaywasoneofthesignersoftheTreatyofParisandservedasthefirstChiefJusticeof
theUnitedStates.HewasalsooneoftheauthorsoftheFederalistPapers.
ThirdAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,itprotectscitizensagainstthequarteringofsoldiersinprivatehomeswithouttheirapproval.
Nosoldiershall,intimeofpeacebequarteredinanyhouse,withouttheconsentoftheowner,norintimeof
war,butinamannertobeprescribedbylaw.
SixthAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,itprotectstherightsofimpartialjurytrials,therighttobeinformedoftheaccusations
againstyou,therighttobeconfrontedbywitness,andtherighttobeassistedbycounsel.Inallcriminal
prosecutions,theaccusedshallenjoytherighttoaspeedyandpublictrial,byanimpartialjuryofthestate
anddistrictwhereinthecrimeshallhavebeencommitted,whichdistrictshallhavebeenpreviously
ascertainedbylaw,andtobeinformedofthenatureandcauseoftheaccusationtobeconfrontedwiththe
witnessesagainsthimtohavecompulsoryprocessforobtainingwitnessesinhisfavor,andtohavethe
assistanceofcounselforhisdefense.
SeventhAmendment
Ratifiedin1791,itprotectstherightofjurytrialsinlawsuitsdealingwithmorethantwentydollarsand
protectsagainstreexaminationofthetrialinanycourtifdecidedbyajury.Insuitsatcommonlaw,where
thevalueincontroversyshallexceedtwentydollars,therightoftrialbyjuryshallbepreserved,andnofact
triedbyajury,shallbeotherwisereexaminedinanycourtoftheUnitedStates,thanaccordingtotherulesof
thecommonlaw.
AlexisdeTocqueville
Frenchpoliticalthinkerandhistorian,AlexisdeTocquevilleisbestknownforhisworksDemocracyin
AmericaandTheOldRegimeandtheRevolution.HevisitedtheU.S.inthe1830sandwroteadmiringly
aboutmanyaspectsofAmericanlawandsociety.
DemocracyinAmerica
WrittenbyAlexisdeTocquevilleaftervisitingtheUnitedStates,DemocracyinAmericacontainsde
TocquevillesanalysisofandreflectionsontheUnitedStatesdemocraticsystemandsociety.Thefirst
volumewaspublishedin1835andthesecondin1840.
MagnaCarta
Writtenin1215,itistheoldestdocumentintheBritishandAmericanheritageofrights.Contributedtothe
adoptionoftheFirst,Third,Fourth,Fifth,Sixth,andEighthAmendmentsoftheBillofRights,andspeaksof
theserightsasancient.
TwoTreatisesofCivilGovernment
WrittenbyJohnLockein1690,theTwoTreatisesofCivilGovernmentcriticizeabsolutepowerforkingsand
outlineLockessuggestionsforamorecivilizedsocietybasedonnaturalrightsandthesocialcontract.
ThirteenthAmendment
TheThirteenthAmendmenttotheConstitutionabolishedslaveryandinvoluntaryservitude,exceptas
punishmentforacrime.Section1.Neitherslaverynorinvoluntaryservitude,exceptasapunishmentfor
crimewhereofthepartyshallhavebeendulyconvicted,shallexistwithintheUnitedStates,oranyplace
subjecttotheirjurisdiction.Section2.Congressshallhavepowertoenforcethisarticlebyappropriate
legislation.
Framers
ThegroupofpeoplewhoactuallyattendedtheConstitutionalConventionandparticipatedinwritingthe
Constitution.
FourteenthAmendment
Ratifiedin1868,itstatesthatallpeoplebornornaturalizedintheUnitedStatesarecitizensandensuresthat
Nostateshallmakeorenforceanylawwhichshallabridgetheprivilegesorimmunitiesofcitizensofthe
UnitedStatesnorshallanystatedepriveanypersonoflife,liberty,orproperty,withoutdueprocessoflaw
nordenytoanypersonwithinitsjurisdictiontheequalprotectionofthelaws.
SixteenthAmendment
Ratifiedin1913,theSixteenthAmendmentgaveCongresstheabilitytocollectincometaxes.TheCongress
shallhavepowertolayandcollecttaxesonincomes,fromwhateversourcederived,withoutapportionment
amongtheseveralstates,andwithoutregardtoanycensusofenumeration.

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 9/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

EighteenthAmendment
atifiedin1919,theEighteenthAmendmentintroducedProhibition,theperiodofUnitedStateshistorywhen
themanufacture,sale,andtransportationofalcoholwasmadeillegalthroughoutthecountry.Section1.
Afteroneyearfromtheratificationofthisarticlethemanufacture,sale,ortransportationofintoxicating
liquorswithin,theimportationthereofinto,ortheexportationthereoffromtheUnitedStatesandallterritory
subjecttothejurisdictionthereofforbeveragepurposesisherebyprohibited.Section2.TheCongressandthe
severalstatesshallhaveconcurrentpowertoenforcethisarticlebyappropriatelegislation.Section3.This
articleshallbeinoperativeunlessitshallhavebeenratifiedasanamendmenttotheConstitutionbythe
legislaturesoftheseveralstates,asprovidedintheConstitution,withinsevenyearsfromthedateofthe
submissionhereoftothestatesbytheCongress.
TwentiethAmendment
TheTwentiethAmendmentwasratifiedin1933,anditestablishesproceduresforpresidentialsuccessionand
thestartandendoffederalofficialstermsofoffice.Section1.ThetermsofthePresidentandVice
Presidentshallendatnoononthe20thdayofJanuary,andthetermsofSenatorsandRepresentativesatnoon
onthe3rddayofJanuary,oftheyearsinwhichsuchtermswouldhaveendedifthisarticlehadnotbeen
ratifiedandthetermsoftheirsuccessorsshallthenbegin.
TwentyFirstAmendment
In1933,theTwentyFirstAmendmentrepealedtheEighteenthAmendment,endingProhibition.Section1.
TheeighteentharticleofamendmenttotheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesisherebyrepealed.Section2.
Thetransportationorimportationintoanystate,territory,orpossessionoftheUnitedStatesfordeliveryor
usethereinofintoxicatingliquors,inviolationofthelawsthereof,isherebyprohibited.Section3.Thisarticle
shallbeinoperativeunlessitshallhavebeenratifiedasanamendmenttotheConstitutionbyconventionsin
theseveralstates,asprovidedintheConstitution,withinsevenyearsfromthedateofthesubmissionhereof
tothestatesbytheCongress.
EnglishBillofRights
PassedbytheBritishParliamentin1689,theEnglishBillofRightslimitedthepoweroftheBritishmonarch,
outlinedtherightsoftheParliament,andguaranteedProtestantstherighttobeararms.
Parliament
ThelegislativebodyoftheUnitedKingdom(knownasGreatBritainorEnglandduringtheFoundingera).
BenjaminFranklin
OneoftheFoundingFathersoftheUnitedStates,BenjaminFranklinwasastatesman,author,publisher,
scientist,inventoranddiplomat.HeservedintheSecondContinentalCongressduringtheAmerican
RevolutionandhelpeddrafttheDeclarationofIndependence.Inaddition,Franklinhelpednegotiatedthe
TreatyofPariswhichendedtheRevolutionaryWarandlaterservedasadelegatetotheconventionthat
producedtheU.S.Constitution.
Suffrage
Therighttovote.
Republic
Agovernmentinwhichthepowerbelongstocitizensthroughtherighttovote.
FifteenthAmendment
Ratifiedin1870,itstatesthattherightcouldnotberestrictedbasedonrace,color,orpreviousconditionof
servitude.Section1.TherightofcitizensoftheUnitedStatestovoteshallnotbedeniedorabridgedbythe
UnitedStatesorbyanystateonaccountofrace,color,orpreviousconditionofservitude.Section2.The
Congressshallhavepowertoenforcethisarticlebyappropriatelegislation.
SeventeenthAmendment
Ratifiedin1913,theSeventeenthAmendmentintroduceddirectelectionofSenators.TheSenateofthe
UnitedStatesshallbecomposedoftwoSenatorsfromeachstate,electedbythepeoplethereof,forsixyears
andeachSenatorshallhaveonevote.Theelectorsineachstateshallhavethequalificationsrequisitefor
electorsofthemostnumerousbranchofthestatelegislatures.Whenvacancieshappenintherepresentationof
anystateintheSenate,theexecutiveauthorityofsuchstateshallissuewritsofelectiontofillsuchvacancies:
Provided,thatthelegislatureofanystatemayempowertheexecutivethereoftomaketemporary
appointmentsuntilthepeoplefillthevacanciesbyelectionasthelegislaturemaydirect.Thisamendment
shallnotbesoconstruedastoaffecttheelectionortermofanySenatorchosenbeforeitbecomesvalidas
partoftheConstitution.
NineteenthAmendment
Ratifiedin1920,theamendmentstatedthatacitizensrighttovotemustnotberestrictedbasedongender.
TherightofcitizensoftheUnitedStatestovoteshallnotbedeniedorabridgedbytheUnitedStatesorby
anystateonaccountofsex.Congressshallhavepowertoenforcethisarticlebyappropriatelegislation.
DirectDemocracy
Directdemocracyisapoliticalsysteminwhichthepeoplevotedirectlyonpoliciesorlaws,asopposedto
votingforrepresentativeswhoenactlawsontheirbehalf.

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 10/11
11/4/2016 BillofRightsInstitute

Arbitrary
Notplannedorchosenforaparticularreasondonewithoutconcernforwhatisfairorright.
JudicialReview
Theprocessbywhichcourtsanalyzetheconstitutionalityofanactofgovernment.
Majorityrule/minorityrights
lawsmaybemadewiththeconsentofthemajority,butonlytothepointwheretheydonotinfringeonthe
inalienablerightsoftheminority.
Fiat
Anarbitraryorderordecree.
Property
Somethingthatisownedbyaperson,business,etc.Thisincludespossessions,beliefs,faculties,andopinions,
andthefruitsofone'slabor.
Democracy
Agovernmentinwhichthepowerisheldbythepeople.
ElectoralCollege
AbodyofelectorschosenbyeachstatetovoteforthepresidentandvicepresidentoftheUnitedStates.
Virtue
Conductthatreflectsuniversalprinciplesofmoralandethicalexcellenceessentialtoleadingaworthwhile
lifeandtoeffectiveselfgovernment.FormanyleadingFounders,attributesofcharactersuchasjustice,
responsibility,perseverance,etc.,werethoughttoflowfromanunderstandingoftherightsandobligationsof
men.Virtueiscompatiblewith,butdoesnotrequire,religiousbelief.

BillofRightsInstitute

OverviewExploreCourseHelpContact

SharewithTeachers
Facebook
Twitter

TermsofUsePrivacyPolicy2016.Allrightsreserved.

https://www.docsoffreedom.org/readings/separationofpowerswithchecksandbalances 11/11