8.

4 Water

8.4 Water
1. Water is Distributed on Earth as a solid, Liquid and a gas

Define the terms solute, solvent and solution

(Define: state meaning and identify essential qualities)

Solute: Substance that dissolves (e.g. sugar in water)

Solvent: Substance that the solute is dissolved in. Present in greater quantities. (water, when dissolving sugar)
Solution: homogenous (uniform) mixture where one substance is dissolved in another
- Formation of a solution is related to the attraction between the solvent and solute particles
#Aqueous solutions have water as the solvent

Identify the importance of water as a solvent

(Identify: Recognize and name)
Water is known as the UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
- Ability to dissolve a large array of different substances- both polar and non-polar
- Allows biological processes to occur in aqueous solutions; serves as a transport system for nutrients and waste
products in living things

Compare the state, percentage and distribution of water in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere
(Compare: Show how things are similar and different)

Biosphere: The living things of the earth

Lithosphere: The rocks of the earth
Hydrosphere: The water of the earth
Atmosphere: The air surrounding the earth
#movement of water through the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere is referred to as the water
cycle

Sphere of the State Percentage of Percentage Distribution

Earth Earths makeup
Biosphere liquid 0.0001 70% In living things
Component of all cells, serves as
the transport system for nutrients
and waste products in living
things, acts as a reaction medium
for many biochemical processes,
and is a reactant in photosynthesis
Lithosphere Liquid, ice, 0.6 Variable In the rocks of the earth
water of Underground aquifers
crystallisation
Hydrosphere Solid, liquid 99.4 96-100% Oceans, icecaps and glaciers
Atmosphere Solid, liquid, Gas 0.001 0-5% Rain, hail, snow, water vapor
 8.4 Water

Outline the significance of the different states of water on Earth in terms of water as:
o A constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism
o A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats
o An agent of weathering of rocks both as liquid and solid
o A natural resource for humans and other organisms

(Outline: Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of)

Role in Cells:
- A raw material (e.g. photosynthesis for plants)
- A solvent in which life processes occur (e.g. digestion)
- A transport medium for bringing nutrients to cells (e.g. O2) and removing waste products (e.g.CO2)
- A reactant to hydrolyse CO2 in order to balance the pH of the blood
- A thermal regulator by smoothing out sudden and large temperature variations

Role as a Habitat
- Water is a habitat for some life forms (fish, algae and bacteria)
- Water bodies have the advantage that they show less fluctuation in temperature than land and air masses (due to
their specific heat capacity; water needs more heat than other substances to cause the same rise in temperature)
o Marine organisms do not have to be adapted to survive in such a wide range of temperatures

Role in Weathering
Weathering: the breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces, eventually contributing to the formation of soil

- There are four processes:

1. Rain, rivers and ocean waves wash loose material to lower altitudes and eventually to sea
2. Glaciers grind rocks as the glacier flows downward
3. A freeze-thaw mechanism sees liquid water seep into small cracks in rocks, freeze and
expand and so widen the crack until large fragments of rock break away
4. Chemical weathering; dissolves carbon Dioxide from the air, forming carbonic acid, which
dissolves limestone rocks

Human Life as a natural resource

- Water is a natural resource for humans to use:
o For drinking, food preparation, washing and recreation
o For irrigating crops and watering livestock
o As a working fluid in electricity generating stations and as a coolant in them and in many industries
o For generating electricity directly (hydro power stations)
o In industry as a reactant, solvent and cleaning agent, and for waste disposal and settling dust
o As a mode of transport
o In the human body; it lubricates joints, transport in the blood, coolant in the evaporation of sweat

Perform an investigation involving calculations of the density of water as a liquid and a solid using:
- Density = mass/ volume

Density: the measure of relative heaviness of objects with a constant volume. The density of a material is due to how
closely packed its particles are. More dense particles have more closely packed particles.
 8.4 Water
- The unit for density is expressed as kgm-3 or gcm-3

Practical:

Aim: to measure the mass of several different volumes of water and use these to calculate the density of water.
And use a similar procedure to calculate the density of ice.
Method for Liquid:
1. Accurately measure the mass of an empty beaker
2. Add one aliquot (volume) of distilled water using the pipette to the beaker and reweigh
3. Repeat step 2 four more times
4. Graph (using a line of best fit)
The volume of water on the horizontal axis and mass on the vertical
The slope of the line is a measure of density
Method for Solid:
o Accurately measure the mass of the empty dry measuring cylinder
o Measure 100mL of water in a measuring cylinder
o Accurately weigh the mass of an ice cube
o Place ice cube in water and measure the displacement in mL
o Repeat steps 2-3 to obtain similar results

Density = Mass (g)/ Volume (mL)

Results:
1. The density of water is 0.9998 gcm-3
2. The density of ice is 0.9167 gcm-3

Analyse information by using models to account for the differing densities of ice and liquid water
- The density of a substance usually decreases as the temperature increases because more kinetic energy is being
supplied. Therefore the particles are spread out, creating a less dense substance.
Structure of Liquid Water
- Water molecules are randomly orientated
- Overall structure of water is random

Structure of Ice
- More structured than liquid water
o Adjacent water molecules hydrogen bonding
to form hexagonal clusters
This causes large vacant spaces
within the hexagonal clusters
This means that there are less
particles occupying the same
amount of space
Plan and perform an investigation to identify and describe the effect of anti-freeze or salt on the boiling
point of water
- Dissolving a solute in water will elevate its Bp
- To make a liquid boil, you must add enough energy to break all of its intermolecular forces with other molecules.
The presence of polar substance like ethylene glycol and salts make this task more difficult. Hence, more energy is
required.
 8.4 Water

2. The wide distribution and importance of water on earth is a consequence of its molecular
structure and hydrogen bonding

Construct Lewis electron dot structures of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide to identify the distribution
of electrons
(Construct: put together items or arguments)

Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams: Give information about all the atoms and covalent bonds, and all paired and
unpaired outer-shell electrons
Molecular Total number of valence electrons Distribution of electrons Lewis Electron Dot
formula Diagram
Water H2O Hydrogen is in group 1, therefore Two lone pairs of
has 1 valence shell electron valence electrons
Oxygen is in group 6, and
therefore has 6 valence shell
electrons

Ammonia NH3 Nitrogen is in group 5, therefore One lone pair of

has 5 valence shell electrons valence electrons
Hydrogen is in group 1, and
therefore has one valence shell
electron

Hydrogen H2S Hydrogen is in group 1, therefore Two lone pairs of

Sulfide has 1 valence shell electron valence electrons
Sulfur is in group 6, therefore
has 6 valence shell electrons

Compare the molecular structure of Water, Ammonia, and Hydrogen Sulfide, the differences in their
molecular shapes and in their melting and boiling points
(Compare: Show how things are similar and different)

VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY (VSEPR)

- The shape of the molecule depends on the arrangement of the electron pairs surrounding the central atom in the
molecule
- electron pairs in the valence energy level of an atom repel each other and are therefore arranged as far apart as
possible to minimize the repulsion between them
- The shape of a molecule is influenced by both:
o Bonded pairs of electrons
o Lone pairs in the valence energy level
 8.4 Water
Lone pairs have a slightly stronger repulsive force; bond angles slightly larger
Two lone pairs have an even greater repulsive power
SHAPES OF MOLECULES
- There are 5 different types of molecular shapes

Water Ammonia Hydrogen Sulfide

Molecular Bent Pyramidal Bent
structure

Arrangement A water molecule has two An Ammonia molecule A hydrogen-sulfide

of electrons lone pairs of electrons, and
two bonded pairs of electrons
The two lone pairs of
electrons have a stronger
repulsive force on the other
electrons, therefore creating
a bent shape, by compressing
the bonded pairs
Melting 0oC
points
has only one lone pair of
electrons, and three
bonded pairs
The single lone pair of
electrons have a slightly
more repulsive force on
the other electrons,
therefore creating a
pyramidal shape
-78oC
-83 C
molecule has two lone
pairs of electrons, and
two bonded pairs of
electrons
The two lone pairs of
electrons have a
stronger repulsive force
on the other electrons,
therefore creating a bent
shape, by
comprehending the
bonded pairs
o
 8.4 Water
o o o
Boiling 100 C -33 C -62 C
points
State at Liquid Gas Gas
Room
temperature

Water has the largest intermolecular forces, because to break covalent bonds energy input is needed, and Water
has the highest BP/MP, therefore needs more energy to break the larger intermolecular forces between the
molecule
Describe hydrogen bonding between molecules
(Describe: Provide characteristics and Features of)

HYDROGEN BONDING:
- Strongest type of INTERMOLECULAR Forces
- Special form of dipole-dipole interaction
- Occurs between hydrogen atoms bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine atoms in one molecule and a non-bonding
electron pair on the nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine atom in an adjacent molecule
- These are very polar molecules
o F, O, N have very HIGH electronegativity, H has relatively LOW electronegativity
- The requirements for Hydrogen bonding are:
1. A H atom bonded to N, O or F (so that H is partially +ive, due to the unequal sharing of the electrons in the
covalent bond)
2. An unshared pair of electrons on a neighboring N, O or F atom which can attract the partially positive H atom

Identify the Water molecule as a polar molecule

(Identify: Recognize and name)

POLAR MOLECULES:
- A polar molecule is a molecule in which there is an uneven charge distribution
- One atom acquires a small positive charge (+); and the other a small negative charge (-)
- The degree of polarity of a bond between two atoms can be determined by the electronegativity of the atoms
Electronegativity: Tendency to attract electrons
Ionisation Energy: the energy needed to remove an electron from an atom

WATER AS A POLAR MOLECULE:

- The oxygen atom attracts electrons more
strongly than the Hydrogen atoms (O >
electronegativity; H < electronegativity)
- The vector sum of the two dipoles in the
water molecule, produce a net molecular
dipole
 8.4 Water
Describe the attractive forces between polar molecules as dipole-dipole forces
(Describe: Provide characteristics and Features of)

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES:
- Bonds that exist between molecules or single atoms
- Not chemical bonds
o Formed and broken during physical changes
- Weaker than intramolecular forces
o Hence lower Mp and Bp than ionic and metallic
substances

DIPOLE: occurs when there is an uneven charge distribution

Dispersion Forces:
1. Van Der Waals Forces
2. Forces of attraction between fluctuating dipoles in
atoms and molecules
3. Act on all atoms and molecules (despite polarity)
4. Only exist for an instant as the distribution of electrons
change constantly
5. The larger the molecules the greater the dispersion forces

Dipole-Dipole Interaction
1. Occur between oppositely
charged ends of permanent polar
molecules
Opposites attract
(electrostatically)
o As the molecule becomes
MORE polar, dipole-dipole
forces become more significant (increasing BP&MP)

Explain the following properties of water in terms of its intermolecular forces:

o Surface Tension
o Viscosity
o Melting and Boiling Point
(Explain: provide why and/or how, RELATE CAUSE AND EFFECT)

SURFACE TENSION:
- The measure of the resistance of a liquid to increasing its surface area
- Molecules on the surface have an overall attractive force downwards into the rest of the water. Hence, creating
tension on the surface of the water
- Strength of surface tension is directly proportional to the strength of the forces between the particles of the liquid,
therefore water has a relatively strong surface tension, due to the hydrogen bonding between the individual polar
water molecules.
VISCOSITY:
 8.4 Water
- Refers to liquids ability to flow or be poured
- Viscous fluids flow more slowly than less Viscous fluids
- The viscosity of water is greater than many other liquids (such as Kerosene, petrol) because the intermolecular
forces are much stronger (hydrogen bonding) than those in other liquids
- As temperature increases, viscosity decreases
o At higher temperature, there is higher kinetic energy to overcome the intermolecular attractions
E.g. why hot honey, pours faster than cold honey

MELTING AND BOILING POINT:

- Melting and boiling point increases as intermolecular forces become stronger
- MP and BP for water are higher due to the strength between the hydrogen bonds between the small polar
molecules

Process information from secondary sources to graph and compare the boiling and melting points of
water with other similar sized particles
- The melting and boiling points of water compared to other similar sized compounds is higher, due to the strong
intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonding). Therefore more energy input is needed to break the bonds and turn in to
vapor.

Identify data and process information from

secondary sources to model the structure of
the water molecule and effects of forces
between water molecules

Chose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrated the following properties of
water: Surface tension & Viscosity
Practical:
Surface Tension:
1. Method:
i) Place a drop of water onto a coin and observe the shape formed
ii) Place additional drops around the first
iii) Record how many drops can fit on the coin
- Water has a relatively high surface tension
o Due to the strong intermolecular (hydrogen bonds) forces
o Adding detergent to water significantly decreases the surface tension of the solution. Because the forces
between the molecules are weakened.
Viscosity:
o Method:
i) Use the board to create a slope of 45 degrees
ii) Cover the board with waxed paper
iii) Draw a starting line at the top of the board and a finishing line at the bottom (15-20 cm in-
between)
iv) Place one drop of liquid at the line at the top of the board
v) Time how long it takes for the drop to move from the top line to the bottom line
vi) Repeat the experiment with one drop of each of the liquids
 8.4 Water
- Water has a low viscosity due to its small size. However, it is still higher than expected due to the strong
intermolecular forces
3. Water is an important solvent

Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when the following types of
chemicals interact with water:
o A soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride
o A soluble molecular compound such as sucrose
o A soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as iodine, oxygen or
hydrogen chloride
o A covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide
o A substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or polyethylene
(Explain: provide why and/or how, RELATE CAUSE AND EFFECT)
- Covalent molecular substances vary greatly in their solubilitys in water
- Polar substances are more soluble in water than non-polar substances
- Polar substances that are able to form hydrogen bonds with water are more soluble than polar substances that are
only able to form dipole-dipole forces with water
- Increasing solubility:
1. Non-polar substances
2. Polar substances with dipole-dipole interaction
3. Polar substances with Hydrogen bonds

Bonding type Solubility in Water Examples

Ionic Most are soluble NaCl, NH4Cl,
When solutions are formed the charged ions are surrounded by water CuSO4, NaHCO3
molecules. The positive (Hydrogen) ends attracted to the Anion (Cl-), the
negative (Oxygen) attracted to the cation (Na+)

ELECTROLYTES: substances which produce ions in solution

Partially Non-polar molecules are slightly soluble. This is due to the dispersion forces Iodine(I2) or
Molecular that stabilise their interactions. oxygen (O2)
Compounds Hydrocarbons such as hexane and octane are also insoluble and immiscible in (non-polar)
water. unable to form hydrogen bonds (non-polar)

Soluble - Polar covalent molecular compounds are very soluble in water ammonia,
Molecular - To dissolve: glucose,
compound o If stronger bonds between the solvent and the other molecules can be sucrose, ethanol
formed (very polar, or hydrogen bonds formed) and methanol
o Solute reacts with the solvent

Covalent - Insoluble in water and most other solvents Silicon, silicon

network - Due to the very strong covalent bonds which form the crystal lattices of these dioxide and
Structure substances cannot be broken by the weaker intermolecular forces that could be diamond
formed with water molecules
Large - Do not dissolve in water or other solvents Cellulose,
Molecules - Due to the very strong covalent bonds that form these large molecules cannot Polyethene
be broken by the weaker intermolecular forces that could possible be formed
with the water molecules
 8.4 Water

Analyse the relationship between the solubility of substances in water and the polar nature of the
water molecule
The high polar nature of the water molecule and the ability to form hydrogen bonds with other molecules
causes the solubility in water.
Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents and not in non-polar solvents while non-polar substances
dissolve in non-polar solvents and not polar solvents.
Due to water being a polar solvent, it will dissolve substances which have polar molecules

Perform a first hand investigation to test the solubilitys in water of a range of substances that include ionic,
soluble molecular, insoluble molecular, covalent networks and large molecules \
Practical:
Method:
1) Test the solubility of a range of substances as indicated in the table
2) Place a small amount (the size of a rice grain) of solid or less than 1mL of a pure liquid in about 5mL
of water in separate test tubes
3) If the substance dissolves, test the electrical conductivity of the solution using the electrodes
4) To clear solutions, add two drops of universal indicator solution and observe any colour changes
Tested:
1. Sodium chloride, Ammonium chloride, iodine, Sucrose, sulfur, Ethanol, Cyclohexane, Silicon Dioxide, Copper
Sulfate, paraffin, Copper Carbonate, polyethene, starch, cellulose, wax, hydrochloric Acid, Carbon Dioxide gas,
Sodium bicarbonate
To ensure Validity:
Control variables such as using the same volume of water and amount of each chemical being
tested
Treat all chemicals the same
Results:
1. It was found that:
Covalent molecular = Not soluble (depends on overall polarity of molecule Like dissolves Like)
Covalent Network = insoluble
Ionic = Soluble
Metallic = Not Soluble

Process information from secondary sources to visualize the dissolution in water of various types of
substances and solve problems by using models to show the changes that occur in particle arrangement as
dissolution occurs

DISSOCIATION: the splitting of a molecule into its ions

o DISSOLUTION OF SALT IN WATER:

i. Breaking of ionic bonds
ii. Breaking of hydrogen bonds between molecules
iii. Hydration
- The ions of the salt crystals are being removed by the water
molecules
Models
 8.4 Water
- Have a group of students hold hands to represent the salt crystal. Another group of single students, representing
water molecules, can approach the students holding hands and remove these students one at a time.

4. The concentration of salts in water will vary accordingly to their solubility, and
precipitation can occur when the ions of an insoluble salt are in solution together

Identify some combinations of solutions which will produce precipitates, using solubility data
(Identify: Recognize and name)
Precipitation: An insoluble ionic compound formed as a solid in solution from solutions of two soluble ionic
compounds
Ion Solubility Exceptions
NO3- Soluble None
Cl- Soluble Except Ag+, Hg2+, Pb2+
CO32- Insoluble Except Group 1A and NH4+
NH4 + Soluble None

Describe a model that traces the movement of ions when solution and precipitation occur
(Describe: Provide characteristics and Features of)
When two solutions have not been mixed, they exist as free moving ions.
The electrostatic attraction between the water molecules and the ions is greater than the electrostatic
attraction between the ions itself.
When the two solutions have been mixed, a precipitate may form.
- A precipitation reaction only occurs when the force of attraction between the two ions is stronger than the electrostatic
attraction between the water molecules and the ions
Model:
1. Group of students representing lead ions and another group of students representing carbonate ions. Have some
leads and carbonates holding hands to represent the solid, with some single leads to represent free ions
 8.4 Water
2. One lead and one carbonate break away to become free (representing dissolution), while at the same moment a free
lead and a free carbonate join the solid group (representing a precipitate). These two processes continue
simultaneously

Identify the dynamic nature of ion movement in a saturated dissolution

(Identify: Recognize and name)
o A saturated solution is one in which no more of a particular solute can dissolve into a particular solvent.
o In a saturated solution, a dynamic equilibrium exists between the dissolution and the precipitation i.e. these two
processes are occurring at equal rates.
Equilibrium: a dynamic situation in a closed system, where there is continual interchange between reactants
and products in a reaction at the atomic level but with no observable change at the macroscopic level
o This means that as two ions break off from the ionic crystal and dissolve into the solution, another two ions will
precipitate out.
o Overall, there is NO NET CHARGE IN CONCENTRATION of the solution nor mass of the excess solid.

Describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution using: c= n/v
(Describe: Provide characteristics and Features of)
o Molarity is a type of measurement that is used to measure concentration.
o The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre of solution
o It can be given by the formula: c = n / V E.g. Find the concentration given 1 mole of Ca(NO3)2 in a
Where solution with 2L of water.
c = molarity or concentration (M or mol/L)
C= n / v
n = number of moles (mol.) C=1/2
V = volume of solution (L) C = 0.5 mol/L

Explain why different measurements of concentration are important

(Explain: Relate Cause and Effect)
Concentration: indicates the amount of a given substance dissolved in a specified amount of solution
o Quantitative methods of expressing solution concentrations are needed so that the precise quantity of solute
in a given volume of solution can be determined
o The use of solution concentrations is important in chemical analysis, chemical manufacturing, the prescription
of drugs and medicines, and other situations requiring quantitative work.

Method Units Definition Uses

Percentage by volume
Percentage by mass
Grams in a volume
% (v/v) Volume of solute expressed as
a % of total volume of solution
% (w/w) Mass of solute expressed as a
% of total mass of the solution
gL-1 Grams of solute per litre of
solution
- General labelling in medicines
and foods in liquid solutes
e.g. alcohol in wine
- General commercial labelling for
solid solutes
e.g. fluoride in toothpaste
NaOH is oven cleaner
Glucose in soft drink
General commercial labelling for
solid solutes
 8.4 Water
Parts per million by ppm (v/v) Volume in millilitres per Environmental studies such as air
volume kiloliter of solution pollution
Parts per million by ppm (w/w) Mass in milligrams per Environmental studies such as water
mass kilogram of solution pollution

Construct ionic equations to represent the dissolution and precipitation of ionic compounds in water
Present information in balanced chemical equations and identify the appropriate phase descriptors for all
chemical species

The dissolution of lead iodine in water:

The precipitation of lead iodide in water:

Precipitation reaction between lead nitrate solution and sodium Bromide solution:

Perform a first-hand investigation, using micro-techniques, to compare the solubility of appropriate salts in
solution through precipitation reactions
Practical:
Method:
1. Design a paper grid of a selection of solutions containing various positive and negative ions, with the positive
ions drawn up along the horizontal edge
2. Place one drop of solution containing each positive ion in its correct horizontal column and place one drop of
negative ion in its correct vertical column
3. Observe and record which pairs of ions produced precipitates and so indicate the insolubility of the salt
involved

Ensuring Validity:
- Guard against contamination of solutions

Results:
- Nitrates do not form a precipitate
- Carbonates form a precipitate with everything but group one cations
- Lead cations always form a precipitate with everything except for nitrates

Carry out simple calculations to describe the concentration of given solutions, given masses of solute and
volumes of solution
 8.4 Water
1. A solution contains 58.5g of NaCl in 5L water. Assume the final volume of the solution is 5L and the density of water is
1g/ml. Find the concentration in:
a) g/mL.
C = g / mL
C = 58.5 / 5000
C = 0.0117g/mL
b) w/v.
C = w/v = g/ml
C = 0.0117w/v
c) %w/v
C = 0.0117 x 100
C = 1.17%w/v

Perform a first hand investigation to make solutions to specified volume-to-volume and mass-to-volume
specifications and dilute them to specified concentrations (cV = constant)
Practical:
o A primary standard is a solution of very accurately known concentration. It is prepared by dissolving a
precisely weighed mass of a solute in an accurately known volume
Method:
1. Weigh approx. 1.0mg KMnO4 (Potassium Permanganate) into a beaker and record
mass
2. Add enough water to dissolve the crystals and transfer all of the solution to
the volumetric flask
3. Accurately fill the flask so the meniscus rests on the 250mL mark with water
4. Invert the flask and mix thoroughly
5. Calculate the concentration of the solution in molL-1
6. Pipette 25mL of the 1st solutions into a 2nd volumetric flask and fill with
water up to 250 mL
7. Use C1V1= C2V2 to calculate the concentration of the diluted solution
8. Repeat steps 6-7 using the second and third solutions to make successive
dilutions

5. Water has a higher Heat Capacity than many other liquids

Explain what is meant by the specific Heat Capacity of a substance

(Explain: Relate Cause and Effect)

Specific Heat Capacity: the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 unit mass of a substance by 1 Kelvin
Degree

Molar Heat Capacity: the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of the substance
through one degree Celsius, or one Kelvin
 8.4 Water
Compare the specific heat capacity of water with a range of other solvents
(Compare: Show how things are similar and different)
Substance Specific heat capacity (J/K/g)
Mercury 0.14
Ethanol 2.44
Water 4.18
o Water has a relatively high specific heat capacity compared to other solvents
Absorbs a great deal of heat and this will only result in a small temperature rise

Explain and use the equation H = -mCT

(Explain: provide why and/or how, RELATE CAUSE AND EFFECT)
H = change in heat energy/ the amount of heat given to a substance (J)
m = mass of substance (g)
C = specific heat capacity (J/K/g)
T = temperate change (C or K)

Explain how waters ability to absorb heat is used to measure energy changes in chemical reactions
(Explain: provide why and/or how, RELATE CAUSE AND EFFECT)
Due to many chemical reactions occurring in water, and water can absorb
heat better than most other liquids, as it has a higher specific heat capacity.
Calorimetric measurements can be used to measure the heat changes.
However, there are limitation of calorimeter such as:
- The calorimeter itself doesnt absorb a significant amount of heat energy
of the reaction
- There is no heat lose or gained between the calorimeter and its surroundings

Describe dissolutions which release heat as exothermic and give examples.

(Describe: Provide characteristics and Features of)
An exothermic reaction is one where heat is released
Exothermic Dissolution: A chemical dissolves in water and heat is released causing a
temperature rise
*Dissolution: the action or process of dissolving
When the temperature rises, the energy is considered negative. H<0
Examples of exothermic reactions are freezing water, precipitation,
neutralisation, combustion

e.g. sodium Hydroxide dissolving in water; concentrated sulfuric acid

dissolving in water, combustion
 8.4 Water
Describe dissolutions which release heat as endothermic and give examples.
(Describe: Provide characteristics and Features of)

An endothermic reaction is one where heat is absorbed

Endothermic Dissolution: A chemical dissolves in water and heat is absorbed casuing

a drop in temperature

When the temperature drops, the energy quantity is considered positive.

H>0
Examples of endothermic reactions are melting ice, evaporating liquid water

e.g. Sodium chloride dissolving in water; ammonium chloride dissolving in water

Explain why waters ability to absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to life on earth
generally.
(Explain: provide why and/or how, RELATE CAUSE AND EFFECT)
- For aquatic organisms, waters high heat capacity (ability to absorb heat) means that their environment (such as
lakes, rivers, oceans and ponds) maintains a much more stable temperature than the surrounding atmosphere or
land. For example on a hot day, the temperature on land can reach 50C making it difficult for organisms on land to
survive. However the temperature of the water may only be 25C. This allows aquatic organisms to thrive.

Not only is waters ability to absorb heat important to aquatic organisms, it is also important to life on earth
generally. Water is such a large component of the biosphere. As a result it has a moderating influence on global
temperatures, stabilising the day-to-night and summer-to-winter temperature fluctuations. This in turn produces a
more hospitable and friendly environment for all life forms.

Explain what is meant by Thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a body of water is
affected by thermal pollution
(Explain: provide why and/or how, RELATE CAUSE AND EFFECT) (Discuss: identify issues and provide
points for and against)
o Thermal pollution is the harm to the environment (lakes and rivers) resulting from the release of excessive
waste heat.
o Increase in temperature as a result of thermal pollution, can kill aquatic life as they cannot cope with the
temperature rise.
Thermal pollution has many adverse consequences. In particular, the solubility of oxygen decreases as water temperature
increases. Less dissolved O2 causes stress to aquatic organisms. Other detrimental effects of rising water temperature are:
- Increases metabolic rates further demand for O2
- Fish eggs do not develop properly or hatch with high temperatures or sudden changes in temperature
- False temperature cues given to aquatic life
 8.4 Water
Choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the change in temperature when
substances dissolve in water and calculate the molar heat of solution
Practical:
Aim:
To determine the molar heat of solution of a solution of ammonium chloride and sodium
hydroxide
Calculations:
Calculate the heat released or absorbed using H = -mCT
Calculate the number of moles of each compound
Calculate the molar heat of solution (heat released divided by moles)
Conclusions:
Sodium Hydroxide is an exothermic reaction
Ammonium Chloride is an endothermic reaction

Process and present information from secondary sources to assess the limitations of calorimetry
experiments and design modifications to equipment use
Calorimetry: The process that involves the use of a calorimeter, which is an insulated container that can
hold a liquid such as water, to measure heat changes in reactions
Limitations:
The calorimeter may lose or gain heat from the surroundings (thermal equilibrium)
The water and solid may not be mixed evenly and heat could accumulate in one area of the
calorimeter
The thermometer absorbs some heat
Modifications:
Use double insulation for the calorimeter
Provide an insulated lid
Add the solid quickly and stir well
Use a data logger and temperature probe rather than a thermometer
Repeat the experiment with several calorimeters and take the average value