History of the periodic table

Mendeleev and Meyer arranged the elements

according to increasing atomic mass
Mendeleev insisted that
the elements with similar
characteristics be listed in
the same families
This left several blank
spaces in the table

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
http://www.bpc.edu/mathscience/chemistry/history_of_the_periodic_table.html
 With such arrangement of the elements,
Mendeleev was able to predict the
properties of then unknown elements

Property Mendeleevs Actual Value

(of Germanium) Prediction (1886)
(1871)
Atomic mass 72 72.59
Density, g/cm3 5.5 5.35
Color Dark gray Grayish white
Melting Point High 947

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
 The periodic table arranged according to
increasing atomic mass had inconsistencies
Atomic mass of Ar (A = 39.95 amu) is
greater than that of K (A = 39.10 amu)
Ar, like the other noble gases, is
unreactive
K, like the other elements in the first
column of the periodic table, is reactive

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
 In a modern periodic table, the elements are
arranged according to increasing atomic number (Z)

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
 The elements in a horizontal row of the
periodic table belong to the same period

Properties of the element vary periodically

across the period

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
 The elements in a column of the periodic
table belong to the same group or family
Elements in the same group have
similar properties

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
The periodic table and
electron configuration
The electrons can be divided into categories
depending on the type of subshell being filled

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

 The outer electron configurations are similar
for elements belonging to the same group

ns2np6
ns1

ns2np4
ns2np1
ns2np2
ns2np3

ns2np5
ns2

d10
d5
d1

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

 Some atoms lose electrons so that the
resulting positively-charged species (cation)
will have a noble gas configuration

Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]

Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar]
Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Electrons are always removed first from the
orbitals with the highest occupied principal
quantum number (n)

Li [He]2s1 Li+ [He]

Ga [Ar]4s23d104p1 Ga3+ [Ar]3d10

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

 Atoms belonging to the same group lose the
same number of electrons, hence they have
the same charge

+3
+1
+2

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

 Some atoms gain electrons so that the
resulting negatively-charged species (anion)
will have a noble gas configuration

F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Electrons are added first to an empty or partially
filled orbital with the highest available principal
quantum number (n)

F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Atoms belonging to the same group gain the
same number of electrons, hence they have
the same charge

-1
-3
-2
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
 Atoms belonging to the same group either gain or
lose the same number of electrons, depending which
mode is easier (note: their goal is to have the
configuration of a noble gas)

+3
+1
+2

-1
-3
-2
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
Ions having the same electron configuration
and same number of electrons are said to
be isoelectronic

Ion Electron Number of

Configuration Electrons
Na+ [Ne] 10

F- [Ne] 10

O2- [Ne] 10

N3- [Ne] 10
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
 The periodic table and
classification of elements
 The elements can either be a metal,
a nonmetal, or metalloid

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
Here are some examples of metals

lithium sodium

lead
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
 Metals have the following properties

Shiny luster
Conduct heat and electricity
Malleable (can be pounded into thin
sheets)
Ductile (can be drawn into wire)
All are solids at room temperature except
for mercury (which is a liquid)

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
 Here are some examples of nonmetals

carbon tellurium

chlorine
bromine sulfur phosphorus
iodine
Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
 Nonmetals have the following properties

Not lustrous
Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Usually brittle; some are hard, and some
are soft
Some are gases (H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2), one
is a liquid (Br2), and one is a volatile solid
(I2)
The rest are solids that can be hard like
diamond or soft like sulfur

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
 Metalloids have properties intermediate
between those of metals and nonmetals
i.e. silicon
looks like a metal but is
brittle rather than
malleable
Poorer conductor of heat
and electricity than
metals silicon

Brown, T., E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
Opposites attract
attract
repel
In a many-electron atom, each electron feels both
the attraction to the protons in the nucleus and
the repulsion from other electrons

Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
In a many-electron atom, each electron feels both
the attraction to the protons in the nucleus and
the repulsion from other electrons
Force of attraction increases as nuclear
charge (# of protons) increases
Force of attraction decreases as the
electron goes farther from the nucleus

Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
In effect, the charge felt by an electron is
less than the full nuclear charge

Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Effective nuclear charge
 In effect, the charge felt by an electron is
less than the full nuclear charge
The effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the
nuclear charge that is actually felt by an
electron
An electron is shielded from the full charge
of the proton
greatly by the inner electrons
only slightly by the other electrons in the
same principal quantum number (n)
not at all by outer electrons
Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
 The effective nuclear charge and electron
configuration are key in understanding the
periodic trends
Atomic radius Physical properties
Ionic radius
neutral vs. charged
isoelectronic series
Ionization energy Chemical properties
one atom vs. another
same atom
Electron affinity
Atomic radius
Atomic radius is the distance between the
two nuclei in two adjacent atoms

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

*Radii in pm Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
 Left to right: decreasing atomic radius
Decreasing atomic radius

Zeff dominates
number of protons increases
electrons are added to the same n, so
shielding by inner electrons does not
change while shielding by electrons
belonging to the same n is poor
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Top to bottom: increasing atomic radius

n dominates
going down the group, each
member has one more level of
inner electrons that shield the outer
electrons very effectively

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
 Ionic radius:
Neutral vs. charged
If the atom forms a cation, its radius decreases

same number of
protons
less electrons
electron-electron
repulsion is reduced
the electron cloud
becomes smaller

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

If the atom forms an anion, its radius increases

same number of
protons
more electrons
electron-electron
repulsion is
enhanced
the electron cloud
becomes bigger

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

 Ionic radius:
Isoelectronic series
Ions having the same electron configuration
and same number of electrons are said to
be isoelectronic

Ion Electron Number of

Configuration Electrons
F- [Ne] 10

O2- [Ne] 10

N3- [Ne] 10

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

 Left to right: decreasing ionic radius

same number of electrons

increasing number of
protons
stronger attraction
between the protons and
the electrons
 Ionization energy:
One atom vs. another
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum energy
required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom

energy + X(g) X+(g) + e-

The higher the IE, the more difficult it is to

remove the electron

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Brown, , E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. 8th ed. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
 Left to right: increasing ionization energy
Increasing ionization energy

Zeff dominates
number of protons increases
same n
stronger attraction between the protons and
the electrons
harder to remove an electron
Brown, , E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
 Top to bottom: decreasing ionization energy

n dominates
Decreasing ionization energy

there are more electrons in

between the protons and the
outer electrons
weaker attraction
easier to remove an electron

Brown, , E. LeMay, and B. Bursten. 2000. Chemistry: The Central Science. Phils: Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd.
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
Ionization energy:
Same atom
If more than one electron could be removed from
the same atom, there will be different IE values

X(g) X+(g) + e- IE1

X+(g) X2+(g) + e- IE2

X2+(g) X3+(g) + e- IE3

. .
. .
. .
Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
 For the same atom, IE1 < IE2 <IE3

same number of protons, less electrons

same nuclear charge, less electron-
electron repulsion
greater attraction between the proton and
the remaining electrons
harder to remove another electron

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

There is a dramatic increase in IE when an
electron is removed from an atom/ion with a
noble gas configuration

the noble gas configuration is stable

removing another electron from it will
result in instability

Chang, R. 2002. Chemistry 7th ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Electron affinity
 Electron affinity (EA) is the energy change
accompanying the addition of electrons to
atoms or ions

X(g) + e- X-(g) energy gained (+) or released (-)

*usually released

The more negative the electron affinity, the

greater the tendency to accept an electron
Note: different books may use different
sign conventions

Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
 Left to right: increasing(?) electron affinity
Increasing(?) electron affinity

Zeff dominates
size decreases
stronger attraction between the protons and
the added electron
Factors other than Zeff and atomic size affect electron
affinities, so trends are not as regular as those for the
other properties
Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
 Top to bottom: no general trend except for
Group 1A

For Group 1A,

Decreasing electron affinity

the nucleus is farther away

from an electron being added
weaker attraction between the
protons and the added
electron

Silberberg, M. 2010. Principles of General Chemistry. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.