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JO`~f ~OQO:
`~, ^~ K ^ ^= Ò "OzOk. nx=# ~`^ xH P ^ =^
16
O $uH O|O^ |_~.
*", HO_ =O\ J<H ^ " H ~OQ xH ~f e He~Ok.
2. ^, *# =^ eH Uq?
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1. ^, *# =` ~ O_ H.. 6= `|O O^ =`xH =u~HOQ Pq~q OK~.
2. ~ O_ =` =~= =# x~O K~
3. ~ O_ =` [O` =^# , "^ PkH `# =u~HOK~.
4. ~ O_ =` "~ HOk "i @ L^~`# H#|~K~.
5. ^, *# =` ~ O_ JO, =Oz =~# "H =~x ~<~.
D JOh ^, *# =` =^ ~`# è*~.
3. ^ =Ò, *# =` =^ =` Uq?
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1. ^ JO q^#O ~ ` ~ " # k. HQ *# JO q^#O Hi# `~" # k èO_
H H=# KO_O _ *# ^$+ O J=Òk.
2. f="# JO , H$u="# P_O|~` _# rq`xH =^ =~O Q ^= Ò [#
PHiOzOk.
P~O fHO_ s~x +O K Hx x~}O O^_O ^~ "HO a O ^x *#
=Ò k O k.
3. ^= Ò Ò`" # ` H =ÒQ Ja=$k KOkOk.
*# =Ò P`, #~# =O\ O^=` PK~ Hx~.
4. ^=Ò q^ _ " KOk JO`~f =` Q~"x OkOk. *#=Ò
~`^ O Hx O` =`" iq`=~#k.
1. *# Ò =_ ^ # Q# ~#O_?
["|: `` GO, =`QO^, HH QO^
2. *# Ò ^~ Ja=$k J~# ~ O_ ~f + ~# ~O_?
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17
3. *# =Ò U ~OQO Ja=$kH q+O Q `__Ok?
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4. *# =` QO^ ^ #"# "q?
["|: JOQ, LOQ, H~ }

5. *# " x~} QkQ QiOK|_#"q?
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6. ~` Ô Jx OH = q^# ="q\?
["|: [ =^ a#Ò L< UH` O OOkOzOk.
7. ^x ~H}
HO ^= Ò ZO^ @ \ O k?
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8. ^ H "xH <# ~ O_ P ^ ~ ~#O_?
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9. ^ Òx uiH ~?
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10. qq^Q ~O`~O KOk# M` q~ Uq?
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11. ^= ` Ja=$k " U t e Ja=$kH ^^_ O k?
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12. Q H`H` He# ^ H@_ Uq?
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1. *# Òx =_ ^ # Q# ~#O_?
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2. *# Ò ^~ Ja=$k J~# ~ O_ ~f +~# ~O_?
["|: =~s, Q[~u 18
3. ~`^ O Jx OH = q^#O =O Uq\?
["|: [ =^ a#Ò L< UH` O OOkOK@
4. ^x ~H}
HO ^= Ò ZO^ @ \ O k?
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5. ^ H " xH <# ~ O_ P ^" ~ ~#O_?
["|: *", HO_
6. ^, *# =` Q ~ O_ eH ~#O_?
["|: ~ O_ =` JO kOz, "+ = e ZkiOK~.
7. |^x ''=^ =~O J#Q<q?
["|: Y rq`xH, Hi# x=` _H# rq`xH =^ O Q LO_ r=# q^#O.
8. *# ==x =$uQ ZO^ fH^ ?
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Mm iO=
9. *# =Ò ", ` ~OQO Ja=$kH q+O Q `__Ok.
10. *# =` QO^ ^ #"# JOQ, LOQ, H~ }

11. *# " x~} QQ QiOK|_q ~*y~ y~~, =O\ J|.
12. ^ Òx uiH q#iH , ` iH , Ja^= iH
13. q q^Q ~O`~O KOk# M` q~ c~x #O^, qH=t Q[~`x
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14. ^= ` " QO^~, =^ ~ Ja=$kH ^^_ O k.
15. Oz, J=~=u Q H`H` He# ^ H@_ .
19
=Q^ =[ q[$O} , ~jH
10 =i w Ô_ `
~`^ Ki` H ~O 6= `|O XH =Y"# @O. P HO XH 'OkQO
=O\k. WO` =O^ ~O =#O, }=Ò =`, =lH x~# , ^ *# =` ~O
aH#@ `<O. J^ q^" # =~ ~[H q^#O _ Ja=$k KOk#@ QiOK=K.
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=#O Q=xOKQ O.
D HO L`~ ^ `~ OÒ =i c~ OÒ qiqQ W#= L QOH
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~=@O = H u =O"~ D HO#O_ =[O =Y ` +OKQ~. W# x=@`
J_=# OQ #iH JkH qx ==QO K\xH g HeyOk. JO`QH W#
x=@ O` ~ ` "iH H=# ^xHO> JkH P~ ^<x O_OK@O ^ "O k. qQ
Lùx ~A OQOz ^x x, ~[ L^Q rÒ HO` QO HO^ WK"~.
XHHi qQ P~ ^<x ^Q~ x @} , #Q~ fHx~ JH_ J""~. `` e ÒQ
"~O XH H= û Ja=$k KO^@"QH "~ H O^ HH" } Q @} Q K~OxH
=K~.
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qi O*
< HiH# HeyOK~. @} , #Q~#, JkHiH H O^Q K Hx ^ ~*
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"i `Q HO> [# ^ ^ ~* ~}_@ "QH Ja=<x OKHx q ` LO_
<~OaOK~. JO> ^ H J< #`# =O ~O" O k.
20
1. H.. 6= `|O L`~ ~`^ ~[H i` @O_\ q ?
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" e ~[^xQ K Hx H= O`" # eKq ~[ =OO"~ ieOK"~.
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H Ht ~*x Ô [~OK~.
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^#` D ~[ H..68 `yO k.
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L`~ O`xH L[~x, ^H}
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W# P^ JkHO Q ` ~ K _xH H O^=~#O^# L[~x |"# OÒQ ~OkOk.
=[#^ Hx ~[iH ~* =iHx Q}Ò` ~*
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2. =Q^~ [ q[$O}
î f# i` QiOz ~=?
["|: =Q^ =[O _ = [#^ H H= O`" # ~[OQ ~OkOk. aOa~_
i< HO (H.. 544-492) =Q^ Q =[OQ Pq~q OzOk.
H$ u Ô Q <Hx=# #^, ~ ` =Q^ [ ~H}
Q U~_~.
~=O`" # == q LO_@O =# O^ =iOk.
QOQ#k L#k J~# <#k "}*a=$kH ^^_ O k. "}[O =# aOK P^xH J^#OQ
21
qt PÔ aOKk.
=Q^ OÒ aOK W# Yx[O ~[ P^ H x OKH=_xH L Q_ O k. P OÒx
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^` =^ ~*a=$k ^ =~Ok.
3. aOa~x XH "Y ~O_

["|: aOa~_ H.. 544-492 =^ HO =Q^# ieOK_. W`# ~OH =OxH
KOk#"_. W`x HO =Q^ Q ~[OQ ~OkOk.
~[q~ } : ^, "" H O|O^ ^~ =Q^# aOa ~_ H= O`" # ~[OQ ~OkOK_.
aOa~_ Q =~H HO^"# JOQ~[~[^x KO #Q~x [~Oz ~[O HH<_.
J=Ou x` n~ ^ K_. J~#\H J=Ou ~A ^`# H J<~Q zH` HO
aOa~_ r=_< "^ x O_.
H, " e, =^ ~*` "" H O|O^ U~~K H<_.
i#: aOa~_ `#~[O KH x i< ==# U~~K_.
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J=HO HeOK_. aOa~x =kOz J*` `= ~*kH~O K\ _ .
4. ~`^ O g^ ~jH Ô_ ` =O QiOz ~=.

"= OÒx HO[, QO^~, =^ ~* O^ H O^Q LO_q.
WK\ O^ K` PHi` # ~j ~[H J<H `He y# "= ~` Ô g^ Ô_`~ .
Jvqx =OxH KOk# i _ ~ (H.. 558-530) "^@ O^ OÒ =~
Ô_ ` K_.
W`x "~ _ _i (HII 522-486) O* HO` O`x PHqOK_.
O^ #k g^ [iy# <HÔ H <H` Ox ~jH <H |O xH # O g^
q[O kOzOk.
D q[ =# "= i^ OÒ, O^ , O*| O` ~j ''` Q (~)
22
=~~.
F_# ~j 360 \O@ |OQ~ ~[# H OQ KeO K~.
~j # O ~f _ K~~. D ~f x # w` [iy# ^ ~j
LyOKH<~.
JkH [<` ~=O`" # QO Hey=# O*, O^ O` ~j =iO` P^x
=~~.
5 ~` Ô JQO_~ Ô_ ` QiOz ~O_

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W~H, W~< ~*# [~OK_.
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J<H ` U~_ LO_k.
H.. 326 [iy# rO Ô JQO_~` g~zÒQ ~_#\H ~`= _H J[O
` ^ . JQO_~ J`x ^~ =Q_ J`x ~*x uiy J`xH WK_.
D Ô_ ` H=O JQO_~ a #k OÒx Hx ~[# _ [~OK_.
`~ ~` Ô x =Q^ ~[O g^ Ô_ `# Hx H~} =# =#H= =zOk.
=Q^ # #O^~A x H H, ~H=O QiOz qx w x ^xH "#H_~.
~ a_ #, # K_< HiH H~}OQ `~kQ JQO_~ Ô_ `Q^ .
JQO_~ u~Q }O ta, ^H, = =O\ Q}~*# [~OK_.
JQO_~ HII. 323 OII 32 O=`~ = ax =~}O K_.
W`x =~}O`~O t= x `~ w~[ O`xH H Jku J_.
JQO_~ Ô_ ` =# z# ~* JOìOz ~` Ô ~[H " H ` U~_\xH J=HO
HeyOk.
1. . U"< <Q =[#^ ~ ~O_?

[. Hj, H, J=Ou =i =Q^
23
2. . =Q^ ~*xH aOa~_ U qÔ Q " x `K_?
[. J`x q[ `, "" H O|O^ =i ~[hu[`.
3. . #O^=O ~A ZO^ JMu ~?

[. "~ ~, =i JOH~ = [# JkH #` _O K~.
4. . JQO_~ U HO ~` Ô Ô_`_
[. H.. 4 à HO
5. . H #Q~x ^ OOHqOzO^=~?
[. Jaqx< =[O _# ~ KH=i
6. . _i [~Oz# ~` ~*q?
[. "= ~`^ O , O*, O^ #Oê Q
7. . *~H KH=iH ~f UqÔ Q _~ .

[. w` [iy# n~ Ô *~H ~f x # L yOKH<_.
8. . w ~`^ O ZO^ Ô_ ` K~.

[. JOê iO^ , Q O^_xH.
9. . JQO_~ ZO^K` Q"_Q ~O^_?

[. J`# Jaqe< =*x <#O K P "# ~, W~H, W~< =i ~` Ô x Hx
O`# [~OK_.
10. . JQO_~ =Q^ H ZO^ Ô_` ^ ?

[. #O^~A Q`#O, x H |O QiOz qx `~ kQ Ô_ ` K _xH x~HiOK~.
11. . JQO_~ Ô_ ` =~ HO "= ~`^ " H ` Z ^^_ O k?

[. z# z# ~*x JQO_~K ^ OO K |_#q.
24
=Q^ =[ = ^#`
11 =i q^j Ô_ ` =O
L`~ ~`^ O H. . 6= `|O "# ^ ~ [#^ =Q^ z=~ XH =Y"# kQ
Pq~q Oz#@ g~ Q` ~O `<~. =Q^ =[O q"# ^ QH JuH= O`" # kQ
~OkOk. Wk i KOk# JMqx< = =*xH =Hb#"# k.
L`~ =i =^ ~`^ ~[= =^ [iy# Pk` ~@O =Q^ XH |b"#
~[OQ J=ìOz#@ g~ WO` =O^ `<~. `# ky[`, ~[hu` aOa~_
=Q^ =*xH <^ "_. aOa~x "~ ^xx =iO` \ + O K~. =Q^, i~
O` aOK W# Yx[=#, QoHOQ HH < L# ~[^x #Q~# qxyOKHx
"i "i #=# =Q^ \ + ~ K H#@ =O\ [<# =Q^ =[O Ok#@
g~ D ~O Ò\~.
8 =~
1. =Q^ XH H= O`" # ~[OQ Pq~q OK_xH îf# i` Uq?
*"|: ^, *# =` Pq~"xH H O^" # =Q^ ~[ OÒ XH ^ =*xH H OÔQ
=iOk. D i}=xH HOk i` ^^_ ~.
1. ~=O`" # q, JkH =~Ò, `y# j`+ u H~}OQ O@ =$kQ O_ O^
=iOk.
2. =Q^ ~[Ox QOQ, QO_H, }, ~

#^- x H ~"} =~Q#, "}[ ~"}
=~Q L Q _~. #n "~O g^ qkOz# OH ^~ =Q^ JkH O^
=iOk.
3. =Q^ "^\ ~[^x J~# ~[Q$O S^ ~ ` =^ # L#O^# - ^~ ^ "# ^~O Q
~OkOk. =Q^ `~ "u HO ~[^x J~# @bÒ QOQ, QO_H, } #^ OQ=
OÒ L#O^# - ` ^~ ^ "# ''[^~O Q ~OkOk.
25
4. =Q^ Q[|O H= O`" # k =Q^ Q[|O QiOz qx# JQO_~ # P ~[O Ô_`
O K H ~.
5. =Q^ OÒ qiqQ aOK W# Yx[O` P^, == x=@# `~
K HQeQ~. =Q^ PiH ~ ~Q_ xH Wq LHi OK~.
6. O## " L#` O H ^# HeOK f~Q, ==xH L Q_ =#
|e WK O^x x~`~K #`# =`# ~[ PîOK~. *# , ^ =`#
PîOK_O =# [ J<H L Q HeQ~.
7. Jx =~, *` " #O` =~ OQ rqOK J=HO HeOK *# , ^ =`# ~A
PîOK~.
#`# O H ^# Ok# qq^ *` " #"# =Q^ [ ~ \O z# LÒ` =Q^
Ja=$kH H$+ K~.
8. H OnH$` # Hey# =Q^ H ~A aOa~_, J*` `=, =^ #O^_ =Q^
~*x qiOK _xH q+ H$+ K~.
2. =~ " tH ~jH H == QiOz 50 ^= "Y# "=?
["|: ~j =O =~ i# H , e, =`~O Q Hx O k.
1. =~ ~j i< q^<x J#iOz =[ i# K~. ~jH ` J#
^Q ~R Q=~~# =~ ~[O H`# ~R Q=~~ ~Q "_~.
2. Jx HO<\ Y~+ #eH ="# k ~j J~qH e.
3. QO@ PH~Ox =@OQ Jx HO<\ UHt O #O iex q[ O #
e #q.
4. KH=i, [#k#O ~A# [i J OQ# # L`=O, [e# JyÒ =^ ~x ~A-
~[ "^ x, <# OkOK O^= - ~jH O^ J#H~}
.
3. ~`^ Ki` JQO_~ Ô_ ` ="\k?
["|: 1. JQO_~ Ô_ ` =# ~` t= ^ =^ =^, =~ `~= |_#q.
nx=# ~`, S~ =^ x` O|O^ U~_~.
26
2. JQO_~ q`_ x~ O^ =Y^~O #O_ \ #k =~ K# QoH J<+}
=#, =# q"# QoH =K~O `# k.
3. w, ~f tH " #O =# QO^~ t=# #`# tsu @HzOk.
4. ~f w#O_ |OQ~, "O_ <}# ` ~ K @O <~ H<~.
5. Ji<, x~, "Qh =O\ w ~K# ^~ ~`Ôx =lH Ki` q=~
`#q.
6. JQO_~ Ô_ ` H= H.. 326. D Hx Q~Q @Hx, P HxH =O^ `~ "`
~`^ Ki` [iy# O @## HH= û ~@ g HeyOk.
7. "= ~`^ O x Q}~* JQO_~ Ô_ ` =# JOìOK~. H=# D OÒ
KO^Q =~_ `# Pk` x U~~K H=_xH =~O U~_Ok.
27
12 =~QO
=~ # p# ~`^ Ki` JÒ` ^#` Hey# QOQ Ja=iOK=K. =~

KH=~ "@"^\ iQ ~` LYO_Ox ~[H "qÔ` _H# z# z# ~*
~[H UH`x kOz XH i# HO^ fHx=K~.
=~ =[ _ KO^Q =~_. KO^Q =~_ =~= O`" # , qh"#
` OÒQx ~OkOK_. W`x "~ # aO^~_ =i J_ =~ =[ Hi
u+# =iO` W#=_OK ~. =~ QO O H " H` HO J_ ~OkOz#
'^= =Hb# =*xH _ L QH~ " # ^x Ki`H~ =#. z=i =~ ~A J=~`
= D ~[O `# "O k. ~`^ O $uH =~ q $`" # =# JOkOK~.
28
13 q^j Ô_ `
=O^ Kkq# ~O =~=O ~A# KO^Q _ , aO^~_, J_ "^# "~

~[H , O H, =`~O Q kOz# Ja=$kx QiOz `H<O. z=i =~~A HO
=~ =[ == qz<xH Q~ O k.=~~[O |#" D ~A HO z# z# ~*Q
q_~Ok.
W^ =O =^ P x _ ~=kH~O _ =~K~. _
J=~` H~}OQ, =[Ox "~ ~ O` Ò` ~* U~_~. k < Ô_ `=#
=^ P `Q Jx"~OQ ~`^ O " ==K~. D ~O "= ~`^ O "t Oz
HH" } ~`^ O xHOQ ~ _ ~# H < w, , i <,}# QiOz,
Ò\~.
29
14 `"# QO
Jx =~}#O`~O =~ =[O ì`Qu# qz#"#k. "= O`x w,

, i < =i } PHqOKH<~. =Q^ "^@ OQ `~ "` H} =O
JkH~x U~~K H<~.
^H< =~ #O `"# JkH~x OKH<~. `"# PO^.

#~^#kH ^H} OQ U~_# `"# ~[O H.. 28 #O_ H..219 =~ H#yOk.
~[O z#^# \H, Wk L`~ ~`^ O #O_ ^H}
~`^ xH q^j q~}
# J_H #k.
D ~O ^H < `"# ~[H SH`#, O $uH UH`x kOz# q^#O QiOz

`HO\=.
30
15 Q =[O
Q~[ # =O^ HO ~`^ O ~[H J<H ` =O_k. H.. 3= `|O <\H

=, Q[~` , L`~ ~`^ O }, ^H < `"# `= ~[H JkH~
x H~.
L`~ ^ OÒ } =O`Q =O_# Q H.. 300 Ò` ~[HQ

=~~. L`~ ^ , c~ Hx+x =[O #O Q~ [O Pq~q OzOk. giHO G
q*#O, H , =Ò, ` ~OQ Q}h"# Ja=$k kOK_O [iyOk.
31
16 Q QO <\ i`
XH@= KO^Q _ , =^Q _ , ~ O_= KO^Q _ H =~= O`" # # =# D

OÒ =O^ O=`~ @ ~[H SH`# U~~KQ e Q~. J^ qÔ Q O $uH ~OQO
_ Q Q}h"# Qu x kOK~.
a # <, `^~# |\ D HO <\ O H, PiH, =` i` QiOz#
=K~O =# =QK#k. g~ [ HOkOz# =~= O`" # i< q^#O =# Q
Hx ''~ QOQ Ki`H~ ~#_O [iyOk. J@x Q QO H ^ . Q
QO == Pq~=O, } =Ò O^=ÒQ ~O^_O =O\ =Y"# i}=
OqOK~.
8 =~
1. = = == U~_\xH Q < q^< UqÔ Q ^^_ ~?
["|: Q~ A HO = = == =O` ~* U~_Ok.
Q ` q" O|O^ Hey# =O` = Q~A PiH, ~[H , x H =
K"~.
giH Of =O` Q Q JkH~ QiO# WK"~.
nxH uQ =O` = Q~A H O |=< KeO K"~.
Q~A #O_ "~` Hey# = Ok# ~` =~O # qkOK_O ,
< x~} =O\ ^ ` Hey =O_"~.
=O` = =^, ~` =^ ==O ## H^~ x~OK"~.
DqÔ Q Q HO = == H^~ ==, Lz` x~O ^ " q^#O [=#
x~} ukHQ LO_k.
32
NOH ~A " =~ q[ "~ Q ^ q~ x~}xH J#=uK_.
Hq~A a~^ Q =^ Q_ à=x OwÒ` W`xH iK O LOk.
J"^
QO x~Oz# =^ Q_ O $uH q[ kOz# #_.
~ O_= KO^Q _ H.. 335-380
KO^Qx KO^Q qH=k`_x _ ~. "H@H ~A ~^#xH `# =~
=uxz q"O K_.
"H@` U~_# |O^ ` |O` KO^Q _ , =, Q[~`x g^ q[O
O^_. à=x J~# KO^Q _ ''#=~` J# 9 =Ok H=# +OK_. Ho^
gi =Y_.
W`x HO L[~x ~[H , =`, "}[ H~H H OÔQ =iOk. L[~x giH
~ O_= ~[^x.
W`x HO =z ~[O ~ \Oz# K< u_ < ~K# =# Q HO<\
q<HO è~.
} Ô_ `
KO^Qx `~"` =~Q_ H.. 414-415, O^Q_ H.. 455-467 =~Q
ieOK~.
giHO } Ô_ ` K Q O^Q _ "i<kiOz x=iOK_.
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35
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36
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48
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49
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Qql OK|_~. J~QO_ Q=# x~OK"~.
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n~H eH ^ K~. D ^ q[#Q~ PiH == f= "x K~. q[#H~
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JK`~ HO`HO q[#Q~x eOK_. JK`~ =~}O` q[#Q~ OQ<xH
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ql OKeOK q^#O ^~ "ix <#O K x qOK_. Hx ~=~ n`hx @#
Q \ |=h ~* " H " PH@ Ô (1565) ~=~<QH, H= Ok q[#Q~
x # =kOK~. D "~ q#O`< ^t=~ #QO_ i_. ~H} x q[#Q~x
=O # ^KHx ^QO K~. nx` qr[#Q~O ~ <#" HHx u H K~ Ok. P`@
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~ O`x PHqOK_. OQ=O=O` < =# Q fOz Q", O# Q ` O K <_HoOQ
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== KH |~K_.
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è q[#Q~ =, OQ==Oj Q"_ ~ O_=^=~. W`_ <^ _,
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95
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^|uOk. `` e ÒQ =#Ô ~w "i `< xH _ ` H@ Ô ~HO Q ^Ô
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kxQ~ K H#^ . Ô =y# "O@< =O @q =z#", ~ ~ H` x=Q"
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q[#Q~ ~[O < x +OK = =~O
4. ==^ Q"< ~ à=xx Z@ K Q~?
c^~ =^~ # O K_
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~ u_# xH\<
96
6. ^H < ~* =^ O ~} =H~}q?
PiH, ~[H HOH
7. |=h H=x =~O U =~ QqOzxk.? PH, ^H<
8. Q"< Li`` |=h ~[qz<xH Z^Ô KO k? ~+ Q=~~# J^ #OKQ
|"# H O^ Ò H =@
9. q[#Q~, |=h ~* qz#` ^Ô K# L=_ H~}q?
~[H PiH, Pk` O HO x~O`~O ^ x=Q=Q@
10. ~=~ Ô` q[#Q~ ~[O HeO z# e `q?
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q[#Q~ `# O
97
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15261530 |~) P< =i ~} OQ= O <H` Ox ~[`# OQnH#_x
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98
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1. +~ qt q^<x =iOz, D q^#O +~, JH~ ZO`=~ =~^ ~ _ _ `=?
+~ "\# < O~} J`xH Hi u+# `z#k. J`x qtq^#O
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H # J#iOK_. Jq 1. q ~ , 2. ~x |\ = q[ # 3. qt x~
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`~Q ` Q ql OK~.
3. qt x~
O u ~H= x q H kO=`~ kQ|_x fHx ~i x~~ Oz,
JO^ =_= =O` tQ x~~ OK_. D t ^# ~O Qx H = ~O Qx KeO =K#.
^# ~O KeO K\xH O@# |\ O`x |\ ^~ \ H # ` ~K~.
4. ~ ` s q^#O q t# ~ ` =^ =~ QO_ <~ Q ` L^Q KeO K
U~@ K_ nx< ~ ` s û JO^~.
5. ~ ` OH = K~ H$ u " s ` Oq Oz#_ P^H=\#H O 2 1/2 ~ =K
i[~O _# U~@ K_ nx< îH =O ~ ` Q q # QiOz "iH \eK#.
JQ ~ ` Ò @ Q ^ `# è* @ "i=^ #O_ H|e (|_O|_H `)
fH<_. ^ = O@ <#O K ~^x x # P^tOK~.
JH~ =~^ ~ _ +~ ~ q# q^<x J#i JO^x # `yOz ~ , =sH~ }

99
=#Q JO OQ, `|Ô Q ==iOK_. 1. qx HK\ +~ L yOz#
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QK# Hx iQ}xH fHx
*, ~ \, K~, |O[~ J# < ~HQ ql OK_. nx` Jx ~H = qt
=OQ x~~ O|_k.
2. ~A JkH~# ` HOQ q=i, +~ i#x H O^ O`Q=# =iO=. D
q^#O +~ "~ HO ZO^H q "O k?
+~ Q <^ _. ~A ~kHi, xO`Hx +~ *c+= #< ukHQ KH x
LOz# è ~f =O KH=i, +~ ~ ~O|= qOK"_x, [ ^ # `H=\xH
~[O uiQ"_x, uY# xtÒQ ijeOK"_x =v ~`# |\ Ò k.
H O^ Ò <x~} < ez _ @ =Ou =O_e H^. < O
H~ i# J<k YQ, qH " XHH Jku O_"~. <\ =Y Y=#Q
1. k"< W =l~` nxx PiH Y H~îQ ==iOK =r~ Jku . W`_ ~ q# JkH~
=#Q ==~ K"~.
2. k"< W J~ nxH Ji* W ==e< Jku W`_ x H ==~ K_ .
3. k"< W W< = `, ` L`~ ` `~ ~[< =#Q#q K_ .
4. k"< W i =` q+ Of` =#Q#q K_ .
5. |s^ W ==eH Q_Ki qQ H~î
~~ # < O H~ +~ ~*x 47 ~~Q (+Q) ql OK_. +H~ W
+H ^<, =x =x< J# W^~ JkH~ ~~ ## x~xK"~ +H~ W +H ^< ^~}
# Ou|^` x~ =x, =x< qt ~ q# q+ KH<"_.
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== ^ # L^Q x~~ . +H~ x H^y, Ou|^` # H_@O, ~ q# q+
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`^~ HkHi g~QH H~< J< Q= _H ^.
Q= # iQ} Q=Q ql O|_~ Q= ## =Y^~ , \s x~OK"~
=M^" Q=^ \s Q=`# î K L^y.
100
4 =~
1. |~ ^ ^` " \# #`# ^` Uq?
|~ Ô J<H #`# ^` # " \_ . `= ^` O Ò, `Q ^H $ +, ~ O Q
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^xx ~H} Q_ (|~A) xiOK~. J^# ^` ^x=O^ HO^HO `qOK_. u ~ O_ |O_
=^ x # xO H qÔ Q k= xiOK_. `# < x =_ qQQ K `< x
"#H#O_ H #O_ Z^~Q^_ K"_. D ^ =O `# =~K< |~ q[
=YH~}O.
2. =Ò |~ Ja Uq? ~} OQ= J`_ K# ^x r^Q ZO^ ~<_?
|~ x =` _ ~} OQO OQ `# K# ^x r^Q H\ O K@x PO`~ O
~[H |O[#" JO> x~Ò` # # =``x xO_O H" #x HO^~
Ki` H~ JaO `# x["# =O #x #qOK\xH =^ hO # `h ^ OO
K~OK_. J~` ^" ÔO ZO^ K_? O^= @ ~OQ ZO^ =iOK_?
gxH =^< K @O H+O .
3. =~H "}*# ÒK@ +~ K\ # K~ x?
=~H , "}*# ÒKO^ +~ ^= O ~} " \_ `# =[O H =O
zx_ P^< J#Q XH\ HQ, ~ O_=k _= ~ O^ #k =^ =`" OH = K_.
~ ^~ "O@ |@ =^ =~H_ Z\ OH qkOK^ . <_ J= ## <} q=
Z\ x+u H =@ =#, q= =kO|_@K` +~ g@xO\x ~^ K #`# <}
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JOaH` @ ^=<Ô` O_@q+O +~ " \# "O_ ~ a\+ QO 1855=~
K=} <k.
=~H , "~# "~Q ~K \ xH < ^ # ~ ^~# xiOK_. Jq PQ #Oz *^ ~,
~ #O_ =< =#Q#q.
4. +~ K# x H O~}q?
x H# +~, JLn< db J_Q*_ #_K_. *w~~ ~ ~ K # O QH, `<
OQ ~[^x` ~ " # < x +OK_. # O `Q ^ xH, JtH ^xH Z= ^#`
xK_.
101
1. x ZO@~, tH}
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3. Q~= ~[=^ (^_ ) "~OK_.
4. x P#" (K) "~OK_.
5. O^=# ` O < =O^ ~Hx qye# "i` =#OQ K_.
5. |~ ~^ PQ=# ~[H ="\k ?
~` _b =# JOÒK ~ "Q =[ # K_. nx` J`x "~
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H~# KH=i ^#, Q~=` # |~ # u+O K_.
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OÒ #O_ ^ ~` ^_ [~Q`< <~. WC_ ~Ò |~ ==Q@` q^j
^_ =C ` Ok. nx=# ^^ ~ O_ =O^ O`=~ @ q^j ^_ #O_ ~` ~H}
=iOk q^j "}[O =Y"# "\ ^H OKOk.
6. ~ ~`^ Ô_ ` ~^ Ki` #`# ^ NH~O K\O^< q+ x L^}
q=iO=?
|~ Ô_ ` ~` J<H Pq+~} jH~O K\Ok.
1. _b =` # JO`" "Q =[ # liQk. P# ~[` ^~ =Qx Jd
~` =[# `# =#=_# JH~ =~O Q=O K_.
2. ^ ÒÒ #`# ^` # " \_ .
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4. # Yb, L= *Hx x"iOz ÒÒQ ==ixK_.
5. ~ ` H~OQ# ÒK_. `# OQ O_` _ `~ + `# Ki` `*
H .|~ ~_.
6. H|, HO^ ~# `# =[O JO`~QO Q K @=# ~` ~ O_ =O^ O=`~
@ q^^_ #O_ ~H} HeO|_xk. PiHO Q P "}[O ~` =Y"\
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102
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2. ~[iH ÔÒ |~ U=~ K_?
KH=i ^, Q~"# #~î OK_. Yb, L= P^~_ H Ò` ~=kH~x
K\_.
3. |~ =` ^$H^ " \k?
Ô`~ =_OH =@
4. H|, HO^ ~ "Q xO`} kOK@O =# Ok# [< Uq?
PiHO Q P "}[O =Y "\ O^@
5. ^ Ò`=O^ |~ H$+ Uq?
`= ^ ÒÒ, `H=O^, ` ~O y ^ qxQO
103
36 "Q =[ ~`
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g~ K^ =<~. Hx W`_ =*x ~ O K H =O^ =~}O K_. W`x "~ _# =<
`# =*x |=O`_# `= +~ ~ Ku Q@ <_. ~ =[O qz#"# `~`
=< _b x uiy n#O K HQeQ_. W`_ =*x ~ O K H=O^ =$`= W`xx
H|oOzOk. #=_# J`x =~_ JH~ =< "~ _< _. D qÔ Q JH~ XH
xi+" # O` x =*xH "~ _< _. D ~O "^\ qQO JH~ `# `=`
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=[ q~} [Ow~, [< `# QiOz K^ =`~. z=i qQO JH~, [Ow~,
[< "= i^ q^#O =^ P q^<# QiOz K^ =`~.
104
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kOz# q[
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1. n< W W JO> Uq\? ^x ^ # H Uq?
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=Ok~x xiOK_. WK@ ` P WO=` K~ H iqÒ K |_Ok. Hx WOx qq^ Y
=^ D ~< =Ok~O P= J""O k. D `Q =` qy, "i JH~ W`~ =` #
O^, *# , sM, H = =`kH~# ` O PxOz =` K~ [i_. D K~ =# JH~
q`_ Jx =`` ` O |OÔ Q OK_. nxH `_ qq^ =` =^ ## ^+#
`yOz =Ò, ^~ =O OOkOK su =Ò O_x k< W W J< #`# =`x
OK_.
~ =` ~O" n< W W D =` `==#Q 1. Q = O`_H_ 2.=O~ x+Ô
3.~= ` #O 4.hu=~H O 5.~[O H~ Px =`x `^ }x `QO K @O =#Q#q.
D =`x HiOK=x JH~ Z=ih |=O` K ^ . " K ^ . JO^=# H =O =Ok
=`" WO^K~. JH~ Jq"HxH x~^~ #=x ` O_` _ q=iOK_. D =`# JH~
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2. ZO^= JH~ Hx O $uH #~r=#O JO\~?
JH~ x~H~ _< J<H= Ok H=#, O_` # Ki` H~# +Oz, ~ à=$k K_.
P# P^~} ~jH, O^~` Q =$k KO^~. H#H< P# < Hx =^
Q O $uH #~r=#OQ Ja=iOK~.
~H ~ à=$k JH~ P#= 59 =Ok ~jH H=<~x fu gi =Y J|[ ,
105
x*=n<, J^, |^x r =Q"~. J|[ JH~ P# O_` _ W`_ J<H QO^ "
Hq~g J# a~^ =OK_. W`x ~K# =Y"# q JH~ <= W< W JH~ WOH# <\ =Y
KiuH ~K# =#Q x*=n< J=^ "# JaH` W JH~, |^t "# =O`H L J"iH
=< î "# =< <=.
2. On~ à=$k On ~ ` Ki` JH~ HO ~ QO g~ J| ~ ", Q " <^,
c~, =<O Q, ~^ =#Q ^ On H=JH~ P#O <~. c~ `# He`
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106
4. =" `~ ` O Ò L#` L^Q WK~. L^. ~[=< OQ, c~ =#Q"~
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Q_ "x HeO K~.
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107
gx `*= O K J^` <H\ Q Q}#HHOk, WOH# =~O #O "# =[O
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108
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qi OzOk. B~OQ*| x HkHi J~# g~ A= Kc~, P" ~* q[# kOKQ
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[:- q t PiH q`
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[:- "Q # O |#OKO^@O, PiH == ^|u#@O
112
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113
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114
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115
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x HeyOzO^ q=iOKO_?
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3. B~Q* | ~O L^=x q=iOKO_?

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J}Qi# =~ "~, q x"~ `*|^~ t+ =#, JkH~# kH iO Q~.
D K~ PQ Oz# B~OQ*| , K*|^~# |OkOz, Lif_.
`*|^~ L`_ "Q |O^ g iQ K_ ~. T Li`_` t L^=O x H
116
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O z B~OQ*| ` O ~} __ . D O ~} QqOÔ Q `h #~ =~ Q@Hx<
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O|O^ @ <_.
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Q~J~< # Lif@O
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Q~QqO^ OQ
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Q~QqO^ OQ # O P# LO_@O.
117
42 " ^H< q^#O
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`QH #HO ^H < K O` _b # ~[O qb#O J~.
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118
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119
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t x~ O [i"~. nx< ^ q^#O J<"~. JH~ `^# O`~ "Q ~A _
^^ D t q^<< H#yOK~.
(a) " =^# (4 =~)
1. _b # HO == qx Zx ~HQ =sHi OK~?
[. _b # HO == qx 4 ~HQ =sHi OK~. Jq
132
1) M q ^ < q Wk < ~ "# i# Pn#O LO_k. nxx Hx
+H Q ql Oz, P O` t = Jq J< JkH~# xqOK~. giH #
= Q= K^s, =H^= , \s HiOK"~.
2) WH q x Hk` Wz# =, g\ Jk` # WH^~, =H , "b
J<"~. gi Pn#Ox x +} xqÒ giH = H \~OK~.
3) = Jn#Ox q D = O|OkOu = f O=`~O <
t KeO K"~.
4) =H ^ W<O = ==n =^kH~ =^ Wz# q D =
# q#~O LO_k.
2. _b # r=# q^<x q=iOKO_?
[. _b # JÒ` q r=#O Q_ "~. ~*xH "~ ~kHi. ~#` <kHi,
< Ys^# ^ îOz,=^#O q HO Q_"~. ^^ f < `#
" "x î OKO^ uOK"~. ~A JO` ~ _ q r=#O Q_ "~.
< , W`~ @O| = KO^ =O^kQ x LO_"~. `= " QxH
`y#@Q # O` = <# x~OK<"~.
3. _b # HO <\ ~ ` iu x q=iOKO_.
[. _b # HO <\ ~[ [< JkH Ò ~ ` OQ" "i H$+ e `" # =
O@ JkH Ò qtQ `xH KeO Ke =Kk. ~[ ^ # P^=#~ _
q t. J~# ~ ` OQr=# u Q` ^~~OQ LO_q. "iH Hh H~ _ LO_q
H=. qt HO_ =HÔ "^ JkH~ _ O@ "\ W"e =Kk.
~ ` q t` @ WO\# , h\ =#~ # J=H # "^# q #~O
"q. =YOQ =#~` OQO D # JkH~ ^\H `@HH k. _b <
=~_ # J=n< Yb =`" JkH~ ~ ` # ^KHO_ xOuOK_.
4. "Q HO <\ == q =sH~ } # q=iO=?
[. "Q HO <\ Q qx 4 ~HQ =sHi OK~. Jq
1) * u O=`~O O@O_ q
2) ~\ XH\ ^ ~ O_ O=`~ Q K |_x q D ~ O_ ~H = 13
=O` O@# tQ = K"~.
133
3) K~ =_ ^ <Q O=`~ Q K |_# q
4) |O[~ 5 O=`~ qOz Q|_ Hx q D ~ O_ ~H = #= Q|_ [iy
i J~# =@ # = K"~.
5. "Q HO <\ [gO^s == QiOz Ò_?
[. "Q =lH == L#` JkH~ Q}O `~ "` #O [gO^~^. gix ^=M,
< Jx_ ==iOK"~. g~ x~ QOQ L# =# QxH `z "\H
[=#"~. Q= q t = gi^ ^ #`. Hh [gO^s ==
q JO`\ H [gO^~ [=x H_. q H=OQ Ke # ~ ` # W`_ `yOK_ .
`=, `= O` D [gO^~ ~kH~O J#KiOK"~. J~` KH=iH q^ Q
LO_"~. =~ [gO^~ H@ _ xiOK<~.
6. "Q # =^ `~Q u =~O u Q` # q=iOKO_?
[. "~, =$ux "~, "^ , =, O_` , <"^ "^# "ix "Q =lH
== =^ `~Q u =~O Q Ja=iOK=K. =YOQ "~ D =~O ^ #` +OK~.
<\ u ~K# H~O "Q HO "~, PiH == JÒ` i+ u
L<~. "~ ~ox J#iOz "~ =~# +~, Q=, ^ Q qlOK~.
|O*~ < =~O == # qq^ O` ~"}K"~. =^ `~Q u =~O Ku=$u HH~
_ =Y.
7. "Q HO O^, =O Y`# q=iO=?
[. "Q HO ^ #OQ K H^y#k O^, =O Y` JH~ KH=i J#iOz# ~= `
#O q^#O, H L^=H~ ^# , ^ H$+ e ÒQ W~ =` ^Q~ ~.
=O O_Q "_ H O^= <" ~. O^ O_Q# ^~ , n=o, ^~ *
L`" KH=i L#`kH~ <" ~. O^=O Y e ÒQ =[O
Ou ^` "eq i Ja=$k ^ =~Ok.
8. _b # "~a=$kH `__# ~ = @} ~ î =~q ?
[. _b # HO O^ #Oê ^, Q[~`x K, HO, =~+ x Ô, q[#QO
~[Ox =OQ~, |=h ~[Ox K, ^, =~ f~Ox HeH\,. H<,
H H=i<...... `k`~ ~ = @} =~H , "}[ Ja=$kH q+O Q `__~. "\` @
WO_ H~*< ~ î, H|HO^ ~ =~ _ "~a=$kH `__~. OQ
f= =~^ # ` O x~kOz, x=Q ~ ^~# An< `QH xiOK_.
134
9. "Q HO "~a=$kH H~}O\?
[. "Q HO "~a=$kH H~} L<~. Jq
1) ~[O <H# ~[H ~ `
2) "Q ` H ^$+ iOz# Ou, ^` i~H}
3) ~ ^~, "\ "O|_ ~~ x~}O =YOQ PQ@ ~ î, OQc~#
He ~ î, =^ P , PQ# H` HO^ ~, _b g^Q xiOz# ~ ^~.
4) f~O` ^~ [iy# =Ô`~ "~O
5) xH =~\ Ja=$k
6) #Q~ r=#O [ "A ~Q_ O
7) ~[O "}[ O@ q $u
10. "Q HO "~O S~ HOh `# q=iO=?
[. "Q HO< S~ HOh ~f =~\H "t OK~. =YOQ ~` = "~x,
QO^ ^== "~x H OQ K # S~ HOh J#O`~ HO ~` `=
@ayOK~. "^\ ~w"~, J#O`~O _K, WOw+ HOh ~` =~@
" # <~. H..1606 <\H _K" ~ =zb@} O =~H "~x U~@ K <~.
Ô` @ *=, =~ _ =~ U~@ K <~. J#O`~O giH t=# L#
HeH\ ^ # H O^=~Ok. J~` ì` HO< a\+ =~H HOh ~` "~ H~H
^ # Q=#. H.. 1612 g~ ~` `= Hs x <H~. POQ H..
1618 "Q KH=i ~ < # rsK "~ # =OE~K#. J#O`~O HO
POQ =~H , "}* Q`k ` O` @ ~*kH~x _ Q` O K <~.
~ O_ "H =^#
1. O_ J#Q <q?
[. ^ "Ò ^< x fx " _xH |^Q xs` HxH K|_ J qÔ Q *sK#
`# O_ JO\~.
2. "Q HO =Y"# O_Q Uq?
[. "Q HO "=n <~*, D^ =Y"# O_Q HQ, n=o, o,
^~ , |O` ^~ [ "^# q O^= ^ # ~ k<.
3. "Q HO<\ =Y q^HO^ Uq?
[. "Q HO <~, <_ (OQ), qk, Q, J^ , j#Q~, Pi\, `\,
135
=<, H=~, ~ O^ "^# q ^ # q^HO^Q =i~.
4. "Q HO `= [# î Oz# = Z=~?
[. "Q HO = = `= [# î OK~. "i =~#, <=# ~zOz#
Q|^< QO , ~} H~=u, ~} ^~=u, ~} ~=u, KO^cc, #~ <, =O`*Q O ,
[<~, ~+<~, ll~ (t"r =`$=i), `~~ (~*~O f=}) ....`k`~
=Y.
5. _b # HO ^ # ZQ=u, kQ=`# q=iO=?
[. _b # HO ^ #OQ P~ } , =`, Ô`, QO^= , =OQ, qi,
H|i, H~ ~O, u, @, [#=, "^# "\x ZQ=u K"~. JQ @s, J~a
#Oz Q~, |OQ~O , "O_, =M= =, K< #Oz @ kQ=u K <"~.
6. "Q HO <\ ZQ=`, kQ=`# q=iOKO_?
[. "Q HO ^ #OQ =, HyÒ, he=O^, #=O^, B+^ # ZQ=u K"~.
JQ "O_, =_@ , , q"# ~, QO^ ^", =^ O, K< #Oz QA, PH
#Oz x# kQ=u K<"~.
7. "Q HO <\ O# #Q~ Uq?
[. "Q HO PQ, ` ~ H, ~ =O\q O# #Q~Q ~QOK~. ~
J< POQ u_ PQ, ` ~ H O_< #Q~O H< ^= x, [# =$k H=x
=iOK_. JQ i H< _b #Q~O ^^ x i~ J< q^j u_ ~<_.
UH"H =^#
1. ^ Hq Jq~ Y# +Oz# =~A Z=~?
[. < =~_# "=^
2. H.. 1470 |=h ~*x OîOz# ~ "i Z=~?
[. xH\ <
3. _b # =~_ # ~A
[. J=n< Yb
4. `QH HO<_ r~ PÔ U ~[_ PÔ H< Z=?
[. W~H
5. ~ * `QH =^ ZO`=Ok x LO_"~?
[. 1,80,000 =Ok x
136
6. xQ r=#O yOz, J#O`~O ~*# è _b < Z=~?
[. `|n< S|~
7. SxJH~ # ~zOz#k Z=~?
[. J|[
8. "Q HO JÒ` ^# =O`_# "iQ ~QOz#k Z=~?
[. ~` #Q~xH KOk# qi"~
9. k"<WH J#Q Uq\?
[. "=^ `QH #`#OQ U~@ K# == Y
10. ~ ` `xH <~ Q O|O^ <He# ~A?
[. P=n< Yb
137
48 , H L^=
=^ Q ~`^ O ~ O_ ^ =` L^= L^q OK~. JO^ "^\ k L^"` ,

~ O_=k H L^=O. O^, =O D ~ O_ =` L^= H` "# OOkOK~.
WO L^~"^xH `~n ~. "~ ~[h# =` _# ==*x HOHO K~. WH
~H ^# q`" # H x ^# OQ K Hx O^=`x i=iO K =Kx H L^=H~
qOK~. "i ^$+ xH ZO\ ^#` ^ . =#=O` =#"#x "~ #=~. O^,
=O SH` D , H L^= O~ H$+ K~. g~ `= ^# # q=iOK_xH xH
+# L yOK_O = g\x [ èHQ J~O K HQeQ~.
138
=_ 6
49 "Q KH=~ =`q^#O
~`^ O " =*x H..1526 |~ O K_. QoHOQ, i<~O Q
q ~`=xQ " KH=i B~OQ* HO " =[O ~k^ Ok. D QO
" =[O ~OO #O_ B~OQ*| HO=~ "i =`q^#O QiOz Ò\O.
" KH=~ ~[H J=~ `Q =`q^<# J=OaOK~. *f " H `#
OOkOK qÔ Q ~[ ==~, =`q^< =~ fHz# "^\ " KH=i
JH~. D HO ~[O HH " L^~ q^< i_q ~. " H O^< fHQ
" KH=i LO_"~. JH~ L^~ =`q^< [Ow~, [< =~ H#Q~. =" `~
_ # O, i# J`#` ^= x~OK~. J~` D HH ~[ =# B~OQ*|
HO #" Z^~ O k. D ~O " =`q^<xH H~}"# ~[H , PiH H~}
QiOz K^ =OÔ.
"~ =^# (8 =~)

1. |~ #Oz B~OQ*| =~ "Q e =`q^#O K@K # =~# OQ
q=iOKO_.
[. "Q =[ _# |~ #Oz B~OQ*| =~ _ "Q =` q^#O
=Hb# ~[H i` # J#Q}OQ =~` =zOk. =` O^` O x L^~"^
=`qQ |~# ~#=K. =< _ ^^ |~ q^## J#iOK_.
J~` PH~ [xOK<\H (1542) =[O ~= ` #O` _# "`=~}O <HOk.
Ô`@ PH~ è Q~= L^~ " JH~ =O K~. JQ ^# , H
L^=H~ ==# `^# O`~ HO JH~ L^~"` =` q^# ~H # ^^_ ~.
JO` HO_ =[ q~} H~}OQ Jx =^ =^` O_ ~[O ` ^ OH^x
JH~ Q OK_. =O , =" `~ `# ~[O =#~ HeOK_. =" `~
=` O_` # Q~qOK_. "i L`" <_. =" `~ `= O` ^"
xiOKH=_xH J#=uOK_. Jx =` ~` Q = O`_H_ J< J~O iOK `^
WW J< #`# P^`H =~x Jq+iOK_. `# q^<` J#=` H~O
Ok#\H, =O KO^ " ^ JO`$x , PQ x JH~ KqK_e =zOk. JH~#
139
OK ~H "~ K~ H ~. ^^ JH~ =`q^#< [Ow~ J#iOK_. Hx
[< =Ò KO^"^ <`# =O. J~` HO`HO `~` =~_# ^~+H
L^~ = =O` HkQ =i# [<, L^~"^ q^<# J=OaOK_. [<
`~` O<x Jk~Oz# B~OQ*|HO <\H =[O HH =~
K@K <~. =[O q"O k. *\, Y@H, P^ , `g u~Q@ [iQ~.
K@ xH =O` |`=~. "~` ~ HOQ HO # =u~H` LOk.
D i` =O =^` ` x~# H~}OQ B~OQ*| =`q^#O"^@ =O H Ò,
J#O`~O HO =O KO^" Ô He~. PiHO Q,~[H OQ |Ò H=_OHO
B~OQ*| `~K Q =`x L yOK<_. [ PK## qÒ K Q =`^
`#" LO_# H~<_. ll# "^# q=Hi` x~ f<_.
Ô` O^= == `~ B~OQ*| ^~=~.
2. JH~ L^~"Ô, ~= ` #O OO^_xH îf# i` q\? JH~ K\ # L^~"^
K~q\?
[. ~}H@ J~# Jg~H@ JH~ 1542 [xOK_. O JH~ iy# "`=~}O
J`xH ~= ` #O J=_ KO k. JH~ è g^# QO XH i < qÔx
`~. J" L^~ " He# . O Q~= J| f JH~ (qOu)
J< Q Ô`x L^t OK_. JH~ O~H _ ~ OM< _ L^~ " He# +=
=O. g~Oî L^` JH~ z#_ ~=` #O, L^~"` c* _~.
JO`HO_ ^ = x*=n< Be, H L^=H~# Hc~, Q~<#H, K` # _ P
HO =[O =" "H ~ H$+K ~. "i =O` JH~ [xOK<\H <\
=[O K\ # `~ "` <\ ~[H i` _ JH~ ~= ` #, L^~"^ =`
q^#O J=OaOKO^ ^^_ ~. ~*x |ÒK, ~ # JOkOK_xH H =O
=O =^` i^x, Jx =~, =` Ja=#O O^_O J=~= x JH~ Q OK_.
=[ Ou, ``# <H_" JH~ =`q^# H OQ K @=K. JH~ K\ #
L^~"^ K~
1. ll ##, f~ ` ## ~^ K _.
2. ^ v # |=OÒQ WOH =~_x =u~HOK_.
3. =" `~ `= O` ^" xiOKH=_xH J#=uOK_.
4. =" `~ `= O_Q# #OQ [~H=_xH J#=uOK_. JO`HO_ P
L`" `# OQ <" _.
5. ~[`` O|O^# \ +~<_. "i` ""H O|O^
U~~K<_.
140
6. =O , ="`~ `# ~[O =#~ HeOK_.
7. =" `~ `# P#O L#` ^= eK_.
3. `^WW QiOz q=iOKO_?
[. "^\ #Oz JH~ =Ò, ùH` PH Z=. ~OO HkQ KO^"^
"#\HH H" } "\ #Oz ^~OQ [iQ~. ~A qÒQ LO_#, P^`H
*}x HeyLO_# JH~ qOK"_. qq^ =` ~x J~O K H"< L^ O `H..
1575 PQ gOx #`# ~[^x `~ H W^^` M< ~<=Ok~O#
xiOK~. WO^ f Q~"~O qq^ =` q+ K~ [iQq. "^\ H =O =O
=`^ =`" D K~ <" ~. Hh J#O`~ HO W`~ =`# O^, *# , s,
H < O_` # _ JH~ K~ PxOK_. K~ O^~ O Q Jx =` "#
x[=O^x JH~ Q OK_. qq^ =`x =Oz q+ #, ~x H_Hi Oz XH #`#
PûH =~x Pq+iOK_. J^ `^WW. Q = O`_H_ Jx n#~O . `^WW
K~_xH JH~ J#=u `xi WO^ K~^#"~ `= ~# JH~ KH=i
^ =O^ LOKe. "ix JH~ `# ^ =^ #Oz `\ + Jx ez, =Ò
K~ <"~. ~< =O J JH~ Jx LKiOK"~. ^=_ K Q"_ Jx
n#~O . JH~ ^=_< =~ J~O _LOk. D =Ò Ki#"~ =Oz =~# HeL O_e.
=O~xH ^~OQ LO_e. D =` Jyx, ~x l~ . ZO\ Hi# =`K~
H ~#\H JH~ =~}#O`~O D =Ò JO`~#"O k.
4. B~OQ*| =`q^<x q+ O KO_?
[. =[O q"# H~}OQ ~ ` H~ `# ~ KH=~ =`q^#O HH
=~ B~OQ*| jH~O K\_ . ~= ` #O, L^~"` " #O =` KO^
" ^ @ "_. =" `~ @ q=Hi` x~ f<_. `# ~=`xH
=O ^ =^` JÒ`==x qOz, "i PK# J#Q}OQ =` q^# x~
f<_. `^~ O^= =" `~ qO H_. "Q =[ `< xH
Wn XH H~}OQ Ki`H~ q~. JH~, [Ow~ L^~ q^# = O^=
^# =O`Q, |_ Q"iQ ` ~ ~x, KH=ix kHiOK ~H K~~x qOz#
B~OQ*| , "i HH kO K~ ~OaOK_. JO` HO_ `# Ò_x * |OkOz,
^~ # KOOz, O<x Jk+O z# q+ O #Oz [ =YOQ =O ^$+ =oOK^
=`^ `#" LO_x H~<_. ~[H OQ |Ò H=_O HO =`x `~K Q
"_<_. ^~# =O Ja=#O K~Q#_O HO K~ K\_. =Hx
=`^ |OQ~ H iOK_. <}# Z=~# `H JqÒ K~"## L^ O `
"\ H# xe" _. *~+ # O^ L`=O <~*# x+kOK_.
141
JH~ HO HOk~ L^Q# =# Z= r`` =#Q ^#u
HeOK_. +i H~O [r=#O yOK g~ K~ . U=~# JuHq WO ^Q
iQ}OK@ g~ K~ fO\~. WO =u~H=x \H O^x x+kOK_.
tk"# =^ # =~=` K~Oz, "\ `y# OY L^Q# xqOK_. OKOQ,
`~K *`+# x+kOK_. ~^# ^" e"_^ Hx #`#
^"# =Ò xiOK _^x ~ < *sK_. J#O`~O 1669 ^", ~ #
<#O K =x P^ *s K_. "\ ^~ u~Q@ |`<x qOz P x~ O
f<_. W" HO_ ll## #~î OK_. OQ =O Ja=#O K~Q#_O
HO B~OQ*| =g `~ =` @ q=H iÒQ ==iOK_.
(a) " =^# (4 =~)
1. JH~ L^~"^ =`q^# e `q\?
[. JH~ J=OaOz# L^~ "^ =`q^#O P# ^~^$ +H , q ^$H^xH x^~ #O. JH~
L^~"^ q^< <`# =O KO^ "^ PQ O ` OK~. Hh =[O ~= `
# "`=~}O <Hx, =[ q~} `__~. =" `~ JH~ =#eQ
=^` è~. ~[`` U~~# "" H O|O^ "Q =[ q~ } # ` ~ O
K~. JH~ =` q^# e ÒQ <@ =[O ~= ` # "`=~}O, Ou, ` ` O
i` <H<~.
2. =l~<= JO> Uq\? q=iOKO_?
[. ~[O `# <x \ + ~ H=_xH Mr, =` ==~ #_O Ke LO@O^x
JH~ Q OK_. nx kOK_xH =[~<= H@ # O^_. Y~<# "MxOK@_
U =` ^ =^ << q^ =z#_ ~[ =Q` ^$ , J`kH [ [< s`
x~
O f< JkH~x JH~ D H@ # HeOzOk. nO` =`==~ JH~ x~ "
J`#`" # kQ =iOk. D H@ ## J|l ` Ò_ +H=~H , * ~OkOK~.
3. [Ow~, [< =` q^<# q=iOKO_?
[. JH~ =` q^<< [Ow~ J#iOK_. W`# _ ~[`` q= O|O^
U~~<_. ="`~ =` q+ *HO K H^ . ~[O` ~ L`", O_Q
[~H#_x H#yOK_. Hx *< =Ò KO^ " ^ <`# =O . W`# W`~
=` ` q= O|O^ <HH^ . H`Q O^ ^" xiOK~^x OK_.
[< HO |<~ l 76 ^" <#O K |_~. J~` ll##,
f~ ` ## [< #~î OK^ . `# =~_ ^~+H L^~"^ " =O`
`~"u HO [< _ ~=` #O J=~<_. [< HO _
=" `~ #, # O L#` ^= xK~.
142
4. ll# #~^~ H } H~}q\?
[. O^= JO`$H H~}"# ^ # x~ OQ ll # #~^~ }
# K H=K. JH~
~^ K # D ## B~OQ*| #~î OK_. <`#,KO^ =O =^` H" B~OQ*|
D x~ O f<_x q~ . =[O u~Q@ [i` # i` =*x
H_H=#_#H, =O |"# <kx "H"_xH ll## ~[H, ùH
PÔQ B~OQ*| qxyOK<_. x*xH D # = PiHOQ =K O K
O. Q #, # nx #Oz q#~OK~. D # H~}OQ =` =i_ [iy#
^Y _ Ug=. D # ^~ aOz# P^x ^= H Q L`= =O , L=
KeO K"~. Ô` =~O "~ B~OQ*| q^ Q LO_"~.
() 2 =~
1. B~O*| =HQ rq`x q=iOKO_?
[. B~O*| =HQ` O Q x~_O|~_. ## \OK"_. W`# H~ ~= K KO^ " k.
^= H JkHO Q H h =O . W`x JO^~ ^ =Q eK"~. J~` JkH~ Ô`
O` ^~ # KOOK_. Ò_ [<# M^ K_.
2. =< ` =` q^<x ~OkOKHH =_xH H~}"q\?
[. "Q =[ _# |~ J#O`~O ~[kH~O =< K\ _ . |~ =` q^<x
=~< H#yOK_. `# ~*x ~[H OQ ~ ~ H=_O< H=O` Q_ _ O
=# =~< ` H =` q^<x ~OkOK< =O aOK^ .
(_) 1 =~
1. JH~# H~ Jx q=iOz# Ki`H~_ Z=~?
[. JH~ ~OaOz# `^WW x q=i =Hb# Ki`H~_ |^x JH~# H~
Jx q=iOK_.
2. `^WWx ZO`=Ok J#iOK~?
[. JH~ HO 18 =Ok =Y ^^ 18" =Ok `^WWx J#iOK~.
3. J=$`~ #Q~xH <^ "O z Z=~?
[. Q~ ~"^
4. B~OQ*| HO <#"# =Y ^" Uq?
[. |~ x q<^ ^"O, =^ ~x H =~ ^"O
5. "Q ZO^ ^~=~?
[. 1675 Q~ `*|^~# KOOz#O^= "Q =u~HOQ =~~.
6. B~OQ*| f# U ~ O_ =Y"# x~ = O^= ^~=~?
1) ^" e"` 2) ll# #~^~ }
143
=^Q ~`^
50 O$uHa=$k
=^ Q ~`^ Ki` JO` qq^ O $` q=O. @~ O^ ~`^
O $u He=_O "O@< ~O" O k. =^ , t= #O_ =z# @~ rqOK_xH
^=`~^# ^ J=~= ~. nxHO JO` =O^ L# ^"#, W`~ H@_ #
=^Q, Q$Q =~<~. `~` HO [iy# #`# x~}# O^ ^j
x"~ K~. JO^= #` HO [iy# x~} ~f, @s He~ Hx~.
#` HO ~O" # D O^ "Q HO _ H#Q~. @~W~x<
O $ux #`# JO ~f e He~. JH~ x~} O^. *#, ^
^", q~ Hx~. [Ow~ HOx z` =`~ " # "\`@ HH" # q
_ Hx~. =^ QO i <, J~aH, L~, O $` +`@ Of + _
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L yOK_O Hh P HO [iy# O $` "qO x^~ #OQ L<~. @~ "Q~
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2. @~ = # x~} JOH~}
....................... qxyOK"~.
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144
5. ~ Ox +~ i =k Z=i " e H H#yOQ LOk?
[. _
6. \^~ û QiOz "O_
[. \^~ û ~u q"# ~, z`# ~ "~.
7. JH~ |O^ ^~* xiOK_xH Q H~}x ~#O_?
[. "Q Q[~` kOz# q[ Q~Q [iy# x~}O.
~ O_ =~
1. JH~ x~} `# =H` x, q^<# U qÔ Q è~ Ò_?
[. (Z) JH~ -S- O^, =O " H} LO_q. _, K*, z# `~}
KH _, JOH~} W`~ O^ =` JO LO_q. (a) JH~ q ~` =*x
U~iz ~ ~< HiH LO_k. nx O^_xH P# Z## û D x~} HxO k. g\
^~ JH~ HH` ` O L^~"Ô, #O Òk.
2. "Q " e H `H ~ x^~ #OQ `*= ZO^ HxOk?
[. [< x~} J^`" # ^xQ `*=# ~#=K. "Q Ja=$k iz# Jx
" D x~}O L<~. ^ ~u Q=@O nx ^ # PH~ }. WOH Wk i < e
L# ~ O_ Q=\ Hey LOk. < " #x Z`# Q~<~. x`" # ~u `~ `,
JO^" # Ku ~`` L# Y~< O ` "`xH iq`" # JOH~} < `*= LOk.
3. JH~ H x~} [< x~} UqÔ Q a#"# q?
[. JH~ x~}O Z~ WH~~ ~OQ W@H qxyOK"~. ^~}OQ Wq ^ x~}Q
HxOKq. [< x~} ~u` K~. @^~ JOH~}
# OHuH`# qxyOK~.
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[. =< W^~ z`H~# i #O_ ~` ^xH f=K~. "Q z`H
i < z`H =O JkHO Q LOk.
5. Of + H L^= ="O\?
[. H L^=H~ `= Hq`x Of, xH + ~_O = P + _ *a=<x
O^~.
145
51 ~`Ô a\+ ~[ #
~`^ Ki`# Q=x, ~` =[O "^\ #Oz JO`~f "~O =YOQ O`
<iOk. ~`# ~f Ki` J~# ~ HO #O_ ~f == @ O ==
LO_k. WO` =Y` Hey# "~O =^ QO _ ~` ~ =^ H#Q_O
P~O Ug ^ . HQ=#O ~` ~w, _K, O z =i WOw+ "~ "~ H O^
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JkH~O K~OK =~ Zky# "# O KÔ.
a\+ # PiH ==
52 =O
~`Ô a\+ # Ki` ^ PiH ^_Q K|_Òk. D WO_ HOh
^= , Jx _ ~f ~ ` # ^_ K _O ^~ OkOz#". D ~O
^xH H~}. L yOz# q^< ==, iqH ~OQ a\+ # =O QiOz
KiÔ.
146
53 a \+ < gH
HÒ ~O g~ POQ =[ # , q~}

, POQ PiH q^< `=^ J=~#
f~\xH L^t O|_ x Kk"O. D ~O POQ =[ q~ } a\+" ~ J#iOz# #`#
q^<# QiOz K^ =Ò. P q^< Ô^ #, # H û , ~[ OH=} ÔÒ.
POQ J#iOz# ==H, iqH q^< =# PiH ==# Z@ <#O K
Ò\O. gxx|\ a\+" ~ K O=`~ ~`^ x eOz< JO^ g~ JO`~QO
H^ . H =O q*` Q< qy~.
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1. Ô^ # HOhx OQ x["# Q KO ^x U K Q=?
[. k"h JkH~x ` HO Q, x*=` JkH~x ~HO Q _ \ ^~ ^~ HOh OQ
x["# < ~.
2. Ô^ # a\+ "i H \ [<# HeO zOk?
[. ^ `~ `" # JkH~x O^_" QH, OQ PiH =#~# ` O qxyOKHx, HOh
`= <x kO K H=\xH g HeOzOk.
3. OQ [ Ô^ # Z\ e `x HeO zO^ XH^xx `=?
[. OQ PiH û H =i H~ = <O k.
4. # H Ok O`HO K @ =O^, " U ~ O_ O<` Ô K_?
[. " ~, =~~ ~*
5. ~[ OH=} ÔÒ J#Q<q?
[. POQ ~=Ò QiOz# ^j ~A O`##` , "i ^`` # HOh JOwHiOH `
P ~[O a\+ "iH OHqOK\x - ~[ OH=} ÔÒ JO\~.
6. ^+i# J# <O ^~ _ PHqOz# ~["k?
[. J^
147
7. qt = q^#O a\+ "~ "O@ û " \~ . "O @^~_ qt
KeO KH ` Z=~ a O^`~?
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8. #`# = == U~_\xH Q ~ O_ H~}# `=?
[. (1) =# HH=@O (2) JkH H (3) QK x =
~ O_ =~
1. qx QK x =#Q Z=~?
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~ q# = K O\~.
2. # H Ok O`HO K# ^j ~A `= Ò`x H=@ K# O`HO
Jx Z K Q=?
[. ^j ~[O H Ok K~ @ =# `= JO`~O yH, q^j q^<# iQ a\+ "i
J#=u` x~OK@O, `= < x ~^ K `= ~H} POQ # O P^~_ @
O.
3. ~`^ iqH ~OQO 1720, 1813, a\+ ` K\ ="\k?
[. Z. 1720 K@O - ~`^ O ` ~ =# î OK@O POH qkOzOk. `` e ÒQ
~f ZQ=` `Q~.
a. 1813 K@O - HOh ~`^ =~H Q`k ` x ~^ KO k. a\+ "i qH L``
~` =~@# =OK~.
4. O^ `~e =@O J#Q<q?
[. Z\ uO O_ ~f O^ qq^ ~ (#, OKs =Q~) a@<
`~e=@O.
54. ~`Ô POQq^

a\+" ~ p# ~f O $uH a#"# O $ux, q^# fHK~x =# `.
P^ xH q^, OHuH i*#= S~"# ~f HO> q#Q fikkOk. HOh "~ è
~A <\ H J= L# ~ f q^== *H O K H=_xH W+ _ ^ .
~*~""<~, ^~H<^ ~Q~, =#Q ~f POQ q^ P=H`# <HK~.
HQ=#O HO`=Ok WOw+ "~ ~f =i =O P^ xH q^" ^# ~ ,
H O K~. D Hk H=< ` q^ *f` "xH, #=~` x~}xH <^
"Ok.
148
55 =Ò~}^=
~`^ O P^ xH q^ H iK x Qi iqÒQ<< , g~ WO` =O^ J^ #O
K~. 19= `|O ~OO < ~*~""#~, O_` q^Q~ =O\ q" # ~f
P^xH q^"x =iOK_O ~OaOK~ Jx g~ Q=xOK~. 1858 `^#O`~ HO
~`^ O =`, =lH O~} HO PO^# "Q= O`" O k. PK<~ # HO^~ ~f
~f <`#, O^H =`x OiOK@, "k H H~ HO_ =_ q =O\ "\x
u~ iOK@, ~f "Ô`, q*# G= kOz# ~Qux iK O K _xH P^ xH
O KO #O_ ~`^ O UHO` q^#O ("~ Q LO__O ) JOÒ K @ #<~.
D O~}^= | =[O, P~ =[O, ~=H$+ q+<, Jb ~ L^=O =i
`k`~ O Pq~"xH îf~. D O~}^=xO\# JO`s# OQ L# SH` XH>.
Jk U=O> Wq Jh `"Ô# (Rationalizm) =i =#=`x(Humanizm)H ^#q=_O.
Wq q"H #"# O^# =`K~ Pk` x kH iOz "\ #O `~ =, =#=
OH=O ^$HÔ, îH QO^=# "MxOK@ Q =HQ` # <H K~. D
L^= =^ `~Q u [ # <H K~. D L^= =^ `~Q u [ O#"#
~f O $uH "~` x Qi q=iOz "ix K` # =O`Q ` ~ K~. D O~
" " `" # Q`x P^ xH =~= #O` "qOK\x =iOK~. PqÔ Q "~ ~f
P`Q~"x P`qx =i â=<x =$k K~. J^ =O "~ O KxH
KOk# HH" Ô#, *f ^$HÔ # ÒK~.
D ~O g~ 19= à ~`* ux *Q$` "#~@ =Y ` +Oz# =`
O~}^=# QiOz K^ =`<~. Jq q^ O # QO^#, "^ #, J<^
~}# =i W`~ " O# OK_O =Y `# +OK~. J~`
HQ=#O g\ Hx O qq^ =` [ =^ =~ =# ^|f\xH H~}=~.
D qÔ Q Wq P^ xH HO XH" *f K` < x Ja=$k K @, =~" , =``` O
~Q^ ^^_ # q.
XH=~
1. 1854 ''L_ x"kH ^x Qi <H K Ok?
[. ~f ^q H q^ #OkOK\x Qi <H K Ok.
149
2. ~< =*x Z=~, U H O` O K~?
[. _II P`~O O_~OQ `|^ P~^# , =lH O~} J< H O` ~OaOK_.
3. =^" QqO^ ~#_K O K|_# U"< ~ O_ O # ~#=?
[. qÒ` #i" O O, _H < Z_H+< \ , < ~[xH .
4. ^ #O^ ~ uK ~zOK|_# =Y"# QO^" k?
[. `~ H=
5. H.. 1886 P~ =[OK O K|_# H Uk?
[. ^ #O^ POQ "k H H
6. q"H#O^x =lH `` O =Y H}
"k?
[. =# [<^~ }

7. q"H#O^x ^$+ J`#`" # =Ò Uk?
[. ^ =i k` =~ L^~ }

8. ~=H$+ q+<# Z=~, ZC_ O zOk?
[. H.. 1897, q q"H#O^
9. H.. 1875 k=*# =[= U =_ H` O K|_Ok?
[. p#=`, Ô` =i G J^ #O.
10. k=*# =[OK #_| _# "~ uH# ~#=?
[. 'k=*x
11. 19= `|O WO =Ò P^ xH =*x KOK_x Òz# O# ~#=?
[. '==n ` O (Mohammadin Literacy Society)
12. ~|~b ^ J^M<# Òz# è J#K~ Z=~?
[. Ku=$` "~
~ O_ =~
1. ^ J^M< 1875 O z# O Uk? ^x Hq? `~` Wk Z =|_Ok?
[. ==n POQ FiO@ H, ` q*<x, O $`# "O K _O nx
H O. nxx `~` Pb ~ =" qqÔ Jx eK~.
150
2. ^ J^M< =iOz# = =lH O~}# ~ O_O\x ~#=?
[. (1) =" = q^=O` H"x Ja+OK_ (2) U~ q^<x Zu " x "kOK_.
3. ~* ~="#~ =Hb# ~` =[O qq^ O~}# " \_ . P# K\ #
=_ ^ #"# O~}# ~#=?
[. ux =u~HOK_. OQb `x ÒK_. WOw+ q^# _ ÒK_.
qQ ~^# # =~ ==# =u~HOK_.
4. P~ =[ =Y"# O H =u~H ^$HÔ Uk?
[. P~ =[O ~` Ô *f"^ Ja=$kH H$+ K# \H `~` HO =` q^+
"`=~}O $+O z qq^ =` KOk# "i =^ =` q^ H~}"O k.
5. JxaO\ `#=rq`x ^xH JOH`q zOk? P" kOz# # H~ XH^xx ~#=?
[. JxaO\ `# rq`x O^ =*xH JOHÒ KO k. P" kOz# #H~ H On
O^ ~ O K_O XH\ .
6. k=*# =[O ~`Ô ZC_ "@|_#k? ^x ^# Y ZC_, ZH_
U~~K|_#k?
[. H.. 1879 " @|_#k. nx ^ #Y H.. 1886 =^ gOx J_ ~
<H|_Ok.
<Q =~
1. | =[O =Y Ô`# ~#=?
[. |=[O =Y Ô`: O^ =` H}, UH~# qO, =#=
O^`#= ^ =OzOk. qQ~^## =u~HOzOk. 'u =O\ =lH ^~K~#
YO_OzOk. qQ ~^# xH ~^. [ Q^ J=~O ^ . =H Ò`=, *f " H `,
^$_` O, =lH O *gH~}
J< ` D =[O ^ =OzOk.
151
56 O O~}
WO` =O^ ~O g~ 19= `|O "^# =` O~} L^=(religious reform
movements)# QiOz Kkq<~. D L^= ~*~="#~, q ^ #O^ ~ u,
q q"H#O^, ^ J^ M< =O\ P^ xH "# = (progressive Indians) =~^ ~ .
D L^= ~f ~~# [_` O(| ` ) (rigidness)=i x~`^H` (degeneration)#
`yOK@ L Q_ < ~.
19= Ò [iy# =` =i O O~}^= K ^Q~ O|OÔ LOk.
^^ =` O~ O^~ O O~} H$+ K~. nxH H~}O ^^ Jx O ^~K~,
=`^ O(religious sanction)LO__" . q^=O`# ~f Hi# O O^# =i
<`# PK~# =u~HOK~. =` O~} ^^_ # J^ `"^`` O, O q=
O~} _ H~}=~Ok.
20= `|O O O~} L^=O HH ^$HÔ ` yOk. =`~ O Q <`# rqÒ
Q_ K# J<H= Ok [ D L^=O <~. JO`QH, O O~}=H` J=Q#
q^k =~O #O_ "^ O O J@_ Q =~O =~ KK~Ok.
D O ^~K~# `yOK@ K# ~@O *u , a.P~.JO^ ~ =i
=`QOn =O\ =#= H$+ Z#xk.
(Z) "~ (8 =~)
1. [<^~ }
HO ~*~" "#~, D~KO ^ q^Q~ K# H$+x q=iOKO_?
["|:- ~`^ Ki` [<^~ }
HO H$+ K# =h ~*~" "< ~, D~
KO^ q^Q~ JQQ} . <\ =[O Z^~O@# ^~}, ^~K~# ~ =_O
HO "~ Jq~ H$+ [i~. =YOQ <\ =*x \ _ # 'u ^~K~x ~=_O
HO ~*~" "<~ q+O Q H$+ K~. ~ Kx`, ~ ` @ J^ zu ~# ^ #O
152
K ^~K~x 'u JO\~. J\ OQ, ~*`<, ^H} ~` O` D ^~K~O
~ ^~}OQ LO_k. ~ Kx~# ~ ` @ `#O`@ `# zu ^H =~}O K K XH
|"# =lH Xu_ J\ # LO_k. ~ H YO HO, "HO HO K e# XH
L#`" # H~OQ nxx iQ}O K"~. [ #Oz =u~H` =H= =Ò^# O = XH qeO
O\H q# a\+ "~ _ D ^~K~ x~# uOK^ . Hh Q O O~ J~#
~*~" "#~ 1818 O=`~O #Oz D ^~K~xH =u~HOQ [# K`# ~_O
~OaOK~. O^=Ò 'uH =u~H=x J<H p# O^=` QO^# L@OH P#
"kOK"~. 'uH =u~HOQ , =", T~yO x~OK~. <`#"^ PQ O
KqK_e =z< P# "~= ^ . z=~ ~*~" "#~ K# H$+ e ÒQ H.. 1829
_|~ 4= `n# 'ux K@ =u~H K~ Q x~iOz, ^xx x+kOK~. J^qÔ Q <\ =[O
qÒ`= iu JÒ` ^ hOQ LO_k. q" H~}OQ z# =< ~ #
Q@ x qÒ`=Q ^~~ r=#O Q_ `# # P^<O^ D~KO ^ q^Q~ #_O
ayOK~. qÒ` #i"# =*xH P"^ QO KO^, qÒ` #i"# K@| Ô
KO^ J~Qx ~@O K_. P# H$+ e ÒQ qÒ` #i"# K@| Ô K
Ò 1856 XH K@O KO k. qÒ` #i" H" HO_ q", | ~Ò
`k`~ =u~H ^~K~# ~=O^ D~ KO^ q^Q~ H$+ K_. Ô`@
P# ` ~ `xv JkHiQ 35 eH ~ # x~OK~. ` < ~ H~îQ
xK~.
2. q=H =u~HOQ QOnr, _H~ JO^ ~ K# H$+x q=iOKO_?
["|:- q=H ~@O O O~}^= JÒ` ^#"# JOO. p# HO
=$` P^~_ , J#O`~ HO J#=OtHOQ =i# O =[O J=#`xH, J}z"`H
H~}"Ok. *f L^= =O, =[O q^=O` OY ~Q_O `k`~ H~}
== =u~HOQ "^= Q" `_ xH H~}=~. JO\ "^= =Y QOnr, _H~
JO^ ~. QOnr `# H~H=xO\# JO@~x`#O x~# J`kH ^#`# WK_.
P# `# uH 'i[< J< ~ \, ^x ^~ `# O H, ~[H , =`~ " # "#
"O* ~. JO@~x "ix ^=x H x["# a_ Jx qOz "iH 'i[# Jx eK"~.
P# H$+ H~}OQ< i[# ^"H " O ^ =~Ok. QOnr 1932 'Jd ~`
i[# O O (All India Harijan Sangh) # O K~.
153
_II a.P~. JO^ ~ _ xH =u~HOQ f="# ~\x yOK~. x~O`xH
=u~HOQ `# rq`x JOHÒ WK~. ÒÒ J#O`~O ~*OQ ~H # ^ #` +Oz#
JO^ ~ J}Qi# =~ J #uH ^^_ J<H x|O^# # ~*OQO O^~~. JO@~x`#O
x~# HO 'Jd ~` J}Qi# =~ =Y (All India Depressed Classes Federation) #
O K~. H =O Ò` ~` Ò =`" Ô x J@_ Q PiH iu x "~Q~ Q^x
#""_. [ PiH u =~x^ "ix =lHOQ L#` u H f=_O ^ OH^x JO^ ~
qOK"_.
(a) - "H =^# (4 =~)
1. eH t ` ^~K~O QiOz ~O_?
["|:- 19= `|O ~OO PK~} L# JÒ` ~"# ^~K~O 'eH t `.
=Q [xOKx H~H< èÔ_, `= [xOz# P_t=# i\< KO JÒ`
"# ^~K~O eH t `. P_ PiHa=$kH P@OHQ qOK"~. JO`HH, P
~A P_ q"O K H =_O =lHOQ XH J==#OQ, =` O|O^ q^ LO #Q
qOK"~. JO^= JO\ = i #Oz ` OKH"O> eHt `< i~OQ
ZOz, z<i eH t=# H `~= H=O^ KO"~.
=lHOQ D ^~K~xH =u~HOQ PO^# f=O H=_O` H.. 1870 nxx x+k
XH K@O K~.
2. *u K\ # O~} L^=q?
["|:- =~R qÒ` #i" L^=x =OÔ_ #_O z# =H *u . H
^ # ^ O }kH `# " K _" J~<, [<^~}
_ q+O Q H$+
K_. =[O J@_ Q =~ "ix q^=O`# K _O ^~ =~ q=H# ~ ==Kx
#=HO. 1851 O=`~O < eH HO XH ~ # ~OaOK_. J\H P#
= 21 U. 1854 JO@~x"i HO XH ~# ~OaOK_. ~[xH ` ^~,
'QOys QO^# ~, `# "# " ~_.
3. ~f "^ O JOkOKO^ O K|_# O q ?
["|:- H.. 1885 _< = ~} ~f "^ O JOkOKO^ ~f K
154
'k <+# J +< # ~OaOzOk. nx ^ # H O "^ Q, P` Q,
#~Q, =O`#Q tH}
x=_O =i P`#, zH` H O^# U~@ K _O. D
O P^ ~O ~f ` H "^ = 1914 ~O= ~. =O`# tH}

W=_O HO 1903 _ H~< ''qHi ""i ~+ O _ # x~OK~. ~f
"^ GO tH}
x_O HO 1916 ~ iO* _b ''_ iO* "_H H*#
~OaOK~. D O ` @ ''z`~ O [< " ^# O, u, t OH = O J< ~ O_ O
_ ~`^ O x "^ O JOkOKO^ H$+ K~.
4. f="^ *f L^=O K L^=x Z ÒzOk?
["|:- 20= `|O *f L^=O f="^ =~O Pq~=O K L^=xH T~ kOk.
"i Ò` a\+ "i # =u~HOQ [~Q`# ~@O =Y` +OK_O
~OaOK~. ~[H T~yO, q^j = J" ^H}# J_H =_O, Mn =G^~} K~O,
W`~ *f^= H~H= K~Q #Q~. + KO^ O z# WO_ < <+# Ps
(~` *f # INA) # Ki Ò` ~@O <~. P qÔ Q ~[H , q=
H~H #_O ^~ P` qx OKHQ~ .
5. 19= `~O O qÒ` iu x q=iOKO_?
["|:- 19= `~O O <\H =[O iu ^ hOQ LO_k. P # ~ #
H~# iu =iO` $^ q^~HO Q LO_k. =[O "ix JO@~x"i Kk. O^
qÒ`= `# ~ x =^x r=K= O |`He =Kk. P" HhO =Oz P~O, =Oz
=, "^# q _ WK"~ H^. P" H ~ " _^ . O Q LO_ _^ . g^
qÒ`= `=H^~ ` JO Q qOK"~. qÒ`=# pî OK<"~. O< =$^ # ~+`
q"O [iy, P `~ "` H<H P ~ Kx=_O` qÒ`=# "i iu =iO` ^ hOQ
LO_k. JÒ` z#=< ~ # H~# P rqÒÒ #i"O K HO_, =[O
qkOz# POH J#Q}OQ rqOKe =Kk.
155
() 2 =~
1. qÒ` J ^ O HO H$+ K# =Y=~?
["|:- D~KO ^ q^Q~, O_\ q+ , [ ~#_, P~l O _~~, JQ~~, _.H . H~,
H~<^ =e... `k`~ qÒ` J ^ O HO q+O Q H$+ K~.
2. '~O\ P WO_ \ x Z=~ O K~? ^x HO\?
["|:- '~O\ P WO_ \ x QH$+ QY 1905 ~OaOK~. D O JO@~x
`<xH =u~HOQ [iy# ~@O Ok. ~`^ = HO D \ *f, =` O
tH}
xzOk. P O ^ =, ~f OH = O HO H$+ K e LO@Ok.
(_) 1 =~
1. 'u ^~K~x x+kOz# O=`~O?
["|:- H.. 1829 _O|~ 4
2. qÒ` #i" K@| ^` HeOz# O=`~O?
["|:- H.. 1856
3. P WO_ >_ x< HOQ (AITUC) # Z=~, ZC_ O K~?
["|:- N.M. *+, 1920
4. H = q+#s O ~ # [ ZO^ PîOK^ ?
["|:- H = q+#s O `= ~ H = =` q^# Z=Q kOK_O =# "\x
[ PîOK^ .
156
~` Ò` ^= ~@O
57 1857 u~Q@
~`^ Ki` H..1857 O=`~O XH qt+ \xH fHQ xezOk. ~`^ O POQ

i# "^\ iQ XH O \` " (formidable challenge) Z^~ O k. L`~ ~`^ O =i
=^ ~` [ a\+ "i i# =u~HOQ XH = u~Q@# =n, ^^Q a\+
"ix, ~`^ O #O_ "Q @@ Ò K~. D u~Q@ ~=_xH U XH H~}" ["|^s
H^. D u~Q@, `~ WO_ =~H OO (DO_ HOh) "i ~i` =i
~f# J}Q^H < q^#O =# Z< ^ _ ~f O \`" K# ~@O.
H..1857 [iy# O @#, `~ WO_ =~H O O i# ~` =[Ox ^^
u =~xH KOk# [ _ ^ # uaOa~. P qÔ Q `~ WO_ =~H O O "i
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1. 1857 u~Q@ ~, "# q=iOKO_?
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159
3. 1857 u~Q@ J#O`~O ^ < == =z# =~q?
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K~ NH~O K\Ok. JO^ QOQ< f# HH x~ O - ~`^ O JkH~x DO _
HOh #Oz a\+ KH=iH |^~OK_O . 1858 P "~ a@< ~" O\ XH K@O K~.
`` e ÒQ HOh _~ H~ #Oz JkH~O ~`^ ==~ H~î (Secretary of State) KuH =zOk.
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1. 1857 u~Q@ # "~=~?
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160
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O<n # <<, Òu`, ~h~} a\+ < x Q_Q _ _OK~. J=^, ~YO_,
^P, |O^YO_, =^ ~`^ O , c~x K O`, `~ O* O` u~Q@
<~. O^, =O SHOQ u~Q@ HiOK~.
2. 1857 u~Q@ ZC_, Z ~O" O k?
["|:- H.. 1857 " 10= `n# D u~Q@ g~\ ~O" O k JO` =O^ H=`
|_# `\# LyOK_xH x~HiOz# 85 =Ok ~f x# L^Q #Oz
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3. 1857 u~Q@# XH ==H $ ` @Q qOK=K?
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x H ta~ =#H~ Q ==iOK~. D @ O|OkOz# q+ x qq^ O`
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5. 1857 `~ "u ~A ~f Hi u Q` # q=iOKO_?
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LO_k H^. ~A 12 #Oz 16 QO@ xK e =Kk. rÒ _ ~. 4 #Oz ~. 20 =^
LO_k. "i P~QO QiOz \ O K< <^ _ _ . J~` `^# O`~ i` 1881 Ò
"@" ^\ ~` H~Q~ K@O KO k. Wk Hi O|OkOz#k. J#O`~O 1891
11 QO@ x k<x, "~O` =# H\ =~ K@O K~.
() 2 =~
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["|:- ~ i`, J~# Qe~, Ok , WO_~, ~, ^~^ (x*"),
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a\+ "iH HiOK~.
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# Jx
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3. WO_ < q s (ICS) Hk=Ok ~f ZOH
"~? ZO^?
["|:- D sH# O_< , POQ =^ =O x~OK"~. D sH Lf~ "O> wH, \<
+ i*#O J=~O H#H ~f D sH Lf~` kOK_O H+^=k. JO`
HO_ 1878 D sH < J~` =# 23 O=`~ #Oz 19 U `yO K~.
162
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~x Z=~, Z=i QiOz J<~?
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#^t Oz Q=~~ [#~ ~ HxOQ "MxOK~.
2. qHi ~} ~`^ ~} ^q x ZC_ HiOK~?
["|:- H.. 1876
3. a@<, WO_ =^ =Ô`~ H | ==# ZC_, U =Ô QO_ U~@ K~?
["|:- H.. 1870, Z~ =Ô QO_
4. ^ x , ^` ~ x J#Q<q?
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HiOz# x x ^ x x a\+ Ò =sHi OzOk.
163
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1858 `^#O`~O '#=~Ò "Q=OÒQ =$k KOkOk. *f~ [ ~[H
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K "#, =Q`# OOkOKyi.
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1. ~f *f " "H H~}"# q Uq\? q=iOKO_?
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K~ ~f SH` H~}=~. "\ =Y"# q.
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~f Q= =~x ` ~ K H=_O HO POQ ~`^ O P^ xH q^# ~OaOK~.
J~` Wk P^ xH, *f, K "# XH #`# ~f q^=O`# =~O ~O^_xH
H~}"O k. "~ POQ ^_ q^<# J~O K H=_" HH, "\x ~f q=iOK_O
164
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^Q~~Ok.
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~ ^~#, =O`## xiOK~. D ~"} ^< _ ~f SH` ^^_ ~. P
^< # L yOK# ~f , =" U~@ K x *f "# "
K~. ` H~#, >bQ H~# L yOKx " "H , =K~ =i_H
uOK~.
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H, uH ^~ *f " ", ~[H K` # O [ q $ÒQ iyOk. POQ
q=Hi` q^<# [ J~O K H=_O ~OaOK~.
g@xO\`@ POQ J#iOz# *ÒH~ ^~}, *=u~H K~ , ^_ q^<
~f *f"^ =# "H , q $uH ^^_ ~.
2. ~f *f " |_\ xH ~ e@< f# K~ Z H~}=~?
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K\ _ . WOQO _x #q [=# J#OQ x~ fx ~f "~
=u~H` O^_. ~`^ O f= H~= i` LO_Q P< Ô K _O, ~ ^
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K _O O\ Y~` _#, P_O|~ =_O ~f HH~}"O k. 1878 e@<
~OkOz# xOQ q^#O #Oz ~ ## q#~ f# x~ O _ ~f
PQ O ` OzOk. J^ O=`~O Of uH# x+k e@< K@O K_. nx #Oz
POQ uH# q#~OK_. D K~ # ~f f=OQ x~O K~. q s sH
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#__. D qÔ Q e@< J=OaOz# ~` =u~H q^< ~f *f "# =iO`
|Ò K L^=O ^" OQ qiOK@ H~}=~.
3. *f = " uH ` Z\k ? <\ HO L# =Y uHq ?
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19= à z=i #Oz uH JÒ` H= O`" # `# + < ~. POQ ~` =u~H
165
q^<# [ q=iOK_O, "\H =u~HOQ *aO _Q@_O uH HH`
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POQ +, HHOQ Of + "=_`<~. WqHH 147 uH H=O POQO
"=_KO_q. Of uH< [ Z=Q K^ =Ò_"~. uH H~}OQ< HH`
KOk# D~KO ^ q^Q~, O~H KOk# ^^~ <~r, Pb ~ KOk# ^ J^
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+), J=$`|*~ uH (POQ, OQb +) "=_q. W`~ O` #Oz
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*ÒH~ ^~}# q=iOKO_?
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x"# ~f x" ^~OQ "~ Q xiOK<"~. "i H ~f " O
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x K"~. <# ` O D ^~}# K~. XH `~ <~O K# ~f_H
Hi# tH# , POQ _H èH\ tH# qkOK"~. ZO`\ L#` q^ K^ =# "_< ~f
"l\ POQ
_x qKiOK_xH J~_ H^. WO\ *ÒH~ ^~}# î OK_O =
~f "i @ `=O =iO` iyOk.
2. ~f PK## O O~} L^= Z qÒ K~?
["|:- 19= à ~OO #Oz L^$ `" # O O~} L^= ~fx =_ q#,
^~K~# x~eOKO^ H$+ K~. [ q^"H H$+ K~. ^ H x ~ Oz, *f
=# "Q `_Q_ xH ^^_ ~. P~ =[O, ~< =*, | =[O "^# q ~f
O $u B#`x K>O^ uOK~. "^ q*# ~ h K\ K~. O~} =O`
~f =~ ~yOk. ~f O $u B#`x, ~f H =~# QiOKQ~.
166
J^ =O q^j # = HQ`# ## J~O K <~. D qÔ Q O O~}
L^= ~f # =~ H~}=~.
3. 'W~ a QiOz q=iOKO_?
["|:- e@< `~ "` ~[ uxkQ =z# ~ i< ~f "l\ `* u =^~#
qKiOK JkH~# He XH K@O `K O^ uOK_. D a# i< < ^~_
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fOk. Ô` ~f POQ J ~O +O Q J~" O k. POQ
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["|:- POQ ^_ q^<# q=iOz# ZO.l. ~#_, ^^~ <~l, P~.. ^` `k`~
~# H [# *Q$u ~ _O HH` +OK~. J" HO_ |HOKO^ K@ s ~zOz#
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A
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2. ~f q^=O` POQ
ZO^ ^~=~?
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HQ, ~f q^=O` L^Q=H Wz# gx qiOK@, L#`^Q "ix J#~Q
H\ O K@, WO_ < q s =iqux 19 U `yO K@ `k`~ H~} = ~f
q^=O` POQ # =u~H`# OK<~.
3. J~=O^ +#, ~ O^<^ #sx q s ZO^ J#~Q H\ O K~?
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s J#~Q H\ O K~.
167
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60 (18851905)
19= à kf QO ~f ~[H K`#O OO^@ ^^_# qq^
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K# ~f `=O` O\`" O# U~@ KHx L^qOK@ ^"i.
H..1857 èiQ POQ # ZkiOz ~_# ~f =@ H..185960 he=O^
`@ [=# =u~HOQ ~_ `= `# Ki. H..1875 ~ ` JOu =~R#Oê
J=^#Q~, < L^=O ~^#. ~ ` HH Hx yi[# =~, #Q~x L#` =~
` O `= x~# # u~Q@ ~O =H i zi. q^=O`# ~f "^= a\+ =[
"^ q^<#, PiH ^_ =u~HOzi. POQ Oz# ##, uH POH #, q^ q^<#,
Oz# Lk H~#, POQ *ÒH~O# f==Q ~f x~O zi. ~f
*=xH J#~x POQ K# H@ # ~f f= PQ xH H~}=#.
H..1885 72 =Ok ~[H ux^ ` ~` *f HOQ J=ìOK#. *f ~
J=ìOz# è "kH HOQ. #`# *f K` < xH ~[H PK# HOQ fHQ qOK|_#.
1885 #O_ HOQ HkHO< XH =# "kH ~#O_ L^= OQ =i Ô x a#
=~ [#, a# Ô` <# HH#QeyOk. D HO ~`^ O XH #`#*uQ
~O`~O KO^QeQ#. q $`<k xiOK|_# *f^=O OK Ki`< Ju^ *
~@OQ k KO^#.
168
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61 (1905-1918)
*f^= ~QuH è `~xH KOk# < Q\ <k "i . D < H$+ =
*uH JOkOKH ~## `^# O`~ H < iJ~# =~O # KQe yi.
H..1905 1918 O=`~= =^ HO *f^=O =iO` =O^ Q#. Ò`
L^== Jx ^ # ^~} "t Oz#q. D ~O # OQ q[ # (H..1905)` ~OaOKÔ .
OQ q[ # =u~H L^=O *f^=xH #`# k# KOz#k. D L^=H= #O_
=, q^~ *f^=O Q= Hyeyi. D HO q`"^ ~*OQ ^~},
Ju"^ L^= =O`~O Q H#y#q. Ò`= H~ f="^ K# `Q# =~=O.
POQ 'qlOK eOK q^#O e`=Q O^=O SH` ^|ux "~@ ^~}
~O= #. qO\=~ O~}, =O>Q K" ~ ~*OQ O~} D HO [iQ~.
*f^=O f=~H K~ Hx H..1918 <\H QOn PQ=#O ^~ Ò`^==
z=i ^ K~ H<#.
169
~` *f^==
62 (1919-1939)
19191947 =^ HO# *f^=O z=i JOHOQ K =K#. O K Ki`< q#`"#
JO J# PÔ ` QOn *f L^= JOu=H O# 1947 <\H kOK#.
D ~O 19191939 =^ HO *f L^= Q=<x =#O J^ #O KÔ. D
HO *f L^=O a# Ô` "t Oz#q. QOn `Q O, Q ` O Q q= ~@O,
~[ "^ # " O , < ="^ ", +KO ^ ~~ H "^# "~
"~ ~[H " *f^=O K=. D ^ =, =$^ , , , "^=,
Hi, ~ ` JO^~ L^=O Q=i . D JÔ *f L^= Q=#O` @
= *Q$u, JO@~x`<xH =u~HOQ K\ # L^=, =^# =u~H L^= "^Q#q
JO`~QQ K_Q O. Hx D ^ O^=O O|O^ <<\H |#_ =`<Ô
KiQ#.
~ ~* kQ y# L^=Ox =Y i}=# J^ #O K^=.
170
63 ~ ~[ ^#
HÒ ~O "<^ H~" KO^ QOn #`# *f <_Q Pq~q Oz# "< x
Kk"O. P# <`$ Ò Ò`^=O #`# = uiyOk. P^ xH QO OKO Hxqh
Z~Qx * L^=OQ *f^=O =i~Ok.
ZO`\ H =O`" # =["# Ou` * L^= ^\H x=^x *f^=O
x~OzOk. Ou` ~*OQ ^` ^~ Ò`x Z O^=K =# *f^=O XH
L^~}.
D ~O *f^=Ox `k \# QiOz K^=Ò. ~O_= OK Ô
*f^ =O HeO z# =O, a\+ "Y i =z# =~# =YOQ qO. JkH~ =i_,
^ q[ # ù # =# QiO. =# ^ H `Q OQ ÒÒ kW OzO^x =##
K O\O. D Ò`x Q~qOz, ^ " H ` H$+ K _O =# qk.
"~ (8 =~)
1. PQ u^#, H u^#q\? "\x HOQ ZO^ u~ iOzOk?
["|:- 1940 <\H ~O_= OK Ô [~h # q[ k ^Òk. D
=O ~`^ O *f HOQ =^` a@< ` x~ O k. H OÔ `èH *f `x
U~@ K Ô a@< _Q =x HOQ ukOzOk. D O^~ O Q J\ "
XH H@ # K_. ^x< PQ u^# JO\~. ^xx =MO (1) ^ q~=} `~ "`
_qx< uu û i ^ `` ` # (2) J OM (=O ) =u
O_ a\+ ` ` ^ `g U `xH |kb K |_=. D u^# = Ô x
=`<^ |O K iOk. D u^## HOQ x~ OÔQ ` zOk. D ~ O_
O K ^= q\ x< [~h ^_ KO k. [< ~OQ<# PHqOz ~` i^ H
=zOk. D i` ~f H~O J=~= x QiOz# a@< Ò 1942 H a<\ =Ou
J~# ~ ~ H # ~iQ ~` OOzOk. P# *f <` q $ÒQ KiOz
u^# K_. Jq
171
1. ^#O`~O ~`^ xH _qx< uu
2. ~R # K Z#H|_#, ^j ~A xqOz# K ~*OQ i+` U~@
3. #`# ~*OQx P"kOKx ~, a\+ "i` ` H X_O|_H K x `=
q +`# `" x~~ OKH=K.
4. `H}
" JkH~ |kb [~Q^
5. ` O ~H}
==~ a@< xO`} H#QÒk.
D u^## HOQ u~ iOzOk. *f ` U~> UHH `==x ~Ok.
H< U~@ H +` H =_O` =O bQ _ D u^## u~ iOzOk.
2. ~` Ò`^=O 'H\ WO_ L^= =O Uq\?
["|:- H u^## Jx ~[H H u~ iOK_O ` ` H L^=O ^~< ÒÒ
^ =x qOz# HOQ 1942 PQ 8# 'H\ WO_ f~<x P"kOzOk. D O^~ O Q
QOnr =\_ ` ''=#O ~` ^xH K# HeÔ ^ P Ò =~}^ O... kOK ^
=~}O K DO OR DIE" J< x<^x L^t OK_. Ou` ^` < L^=O Qx H~_.
'~` ^ JO> ^" O Q [ P L^=O <~. D L^=x J}z"O^ a\+
Ò Jx K~ fOk. L^=O ~OO H=_xH =O^ PQ 9= `n#< QOnr, <
*f <Oîh J~ KO k. HOQ# x+kOzOk. J~< L^=O PQ^ . <
J~ ` [ =iO` PQ ^Q ^" OQ ~ , x~# ^~ #, =" [i~.
O~, _b , HH`, J=$`~ , <Q ~ Jx ^ # #Q~ L^=O `~~H KiOk. Jx
~[H H L^=O <~. ` ^=#HO_` L^=O O`HOQ =iOk. b+ #
^_, ~"} H~ ^ OO, x~H~} *~O^<~. J~` D L^=x Ò qHOQ
J}z"O k. J~ , J`K~, s Ks, H ~ ^~}=~. J}z" |_#\H
H\ WO_ L^=O ~` Ò`^= #O HH =Q Ki` xe~Ok. ~`#
g_H ` ^# q+ O D L^=O ^~ a\+ "iH += ~Ok.
3. ~` *f^=O P*^ O^ * (~` *f # O) `# q=iOKO_?
["|:- H\ WO_ L^=O `~ "` *f^=O HO` | ` <HOk. *f <O`
* LO_@O, #`# <H` H~` L^= L^$ ux `yO K~. J~` W^ HO Ô "
Ò` ~\x H#yOz# <` <`r + KO^. q^j H~O`, J=~" ` Ô K
ÒÒ kOK# H O` P# ~` #Oz ` OKx q\ x< "_. J~`
q\ x< O K Ô a@< q`H O H=_O` Ò O H^ . Ô`
172
P# [~h "o JH_ #Oz OQ ~ g^Q [<"o P ^ O H~_. ~`# PHqOK<
L^ O `= ^x , a@< `= `=x, Ò` ~@O ~` Hi=x [< ^ x
g WK_. J#O`~O 1943 JH|~ OQ ~ P*^ O^ q= `x (K
~` `èH Ò) U~~_. D `x 9 ^ QiOK~. PQ x ~f#
[< KuH zH# ~f ^ Mn ` He ~` *f < x #~==H i OK_. ~h H;
~` XH = # qQx _ U~~_.
* O^, K _b x<^` P # O [< # O` He |~ #Oz WO_ |i Ok. D
< "^\ Hx q[ kOz<, z=~ q =~. [< J"iH ^_ f=O
H=_O` [< # ^xH "e ~=_O` ~` *f # O a@< < x Z^~H ~Ok.
J#O`~ i}= [< O K Ô F_~ q` H Oy~Ok. Ô` P O
<~"~^. P `~"` XH q=# =Ô + KO^ =~}OK_O P*^ O^ *#
`~ Hx ^| fOk. F@q # \H # ~f Ò` PHOH# O KxH KOk.
4. =O\ @< }oH# q=iOKO_?
["|:- 1947 =i "" #O =O\@< ~[uxkQ ~` =K_. HOQ, =O bQ
<` K~ [i XH }oH# Ô K_. D }oH# J#iOz
i) 1947 PQ 15# ~` ÒÒ W=|_Òk.
ii) ~` ~ O_Q J#Q WO_ < x<, H< J# ~ O_ Ò` ^Q q_Òk.
iii) ^j ~A WO_ < x< Hh, H< Hh K~= K. ^ ÒÒQ
LO_=K.
iv) *aO f# `~ "` OQ, O* ~ q[ # [~QÒk.
v) WC_# ~*OQ H#QÒk. H< "~ ~*OQ U~@=Òk.
=O\ @< u^# P"^ QO H#\H JC_# i` JO` qOz# i~O,
`=O H =_O` "\H HOQ P"Ô èOk. ^q [ # JOwHiOzOk.
=O\ @< u^#
''=# W~ H (O^, =O ) XH JOwH~xH ~H ~#C_ ~[uxkH =~
Q` O`~O U=O@Ok? Jx QOnr "MxOK~. =O bQ =` ~[H # a\+ Ò \
+ ^ q[ # H~}"O ^# q+ O xi"ÔO. JO^H ''^ q[ # a\+ "~ +Oz#
` HO `=O H^ Jx < ~<~.
173
(a) " =^# (4 =~)
1. ~ O_= O K ^ =O Ô x HOQ =Ou=~h ZO^ ~r<= K~?
["|:- 1939 O |~ ~ O_ O K Ô ~O" O k. =[ HOH` @~ O_ ^_
K_. O_ =^` Q a@<, < [~h ^xH kQ~. *f HOQ# Hh, ~x
HOQ =Ou =~# Hh OkOK O_< [~hH ~` ` ~[=x a@< H\ O zOk. ,
<l xO`$`xH *f HOQ =u~H" J~<, x` O =Q` # `= W`~ Ò`xH
Z _Q =x HOQ qOzOk. ^ HO\ Kx a@<# HiOk. = Ò`x
Qi< Ô =^` W=x +O KOk. D K## a@< \ OKHH=_O` 1939
JH|~, #=O|~ Ô x HOQ =Ou =~h ~r<= K~. <r xO`$`xH, ~`
a@< xO`$`xH `_ ^x QOnr a@< +O K_.
2. O K ^#O`~O a@< "Y i =~ ~=_xH H~}q\?
["|:- ~O_ OK Ô q[O kOz#\H a@< xHOQ, PiHOQ Oy~Ok.
Ô # i` kQ*~~. JnQH ^#O`~O JQ~*Q Pq~q Oz# J"iH, ~
~` Ò` ~\xH =^` è~. =~" 1945 a@< [iy# ZxH |~ s
JkH~OH =zOk. P s QÒ ~` ÒÒ W=_xH JOwHiOzOk. ~` # u
Q H"O\ J\ a@< ^x J_. ~`# Ò`^=O |`=~Ok. ^"OQ
a\+ # x~# H#Q`<~. HH` q^~ b` ` HO Q O ~} kQ~.
1946 ~ WO_ < <HÔ x XH qQO u~Q@ KO k. Ô x ^ # #Q~ #
OaOzOk. D i` h iQ}#H f# a@< J} "Y ix =~x, ~` ÒÒ
W=H ` ^x x~~} =zOk.
3. 'Ha<\ ~~O u^# q\?
["|:- ~`^ xH JkH~x JyOK q+ O J#iOKe# ^` # KiOK_O HO 1946
=i a@< H a<\ =O` =Qi x ^ x H " O\ J\ ~` OOK_. P =O` (yH
~<, ~ H , Ug JQO_~) HOQ, =O bQ <` K~ [i K# KO k.
^ " H `# H_`< ~ Z= K, JkH~ W"x, H O^ *a` ~H} , q^j
==~ LO_x zOzOk. a\+ WO_ # =_ Of ~R QQ (D#, =^ ,
"=) ql OKx ~Ok. "\H =` =~ ukH# ZxH [i #`# ~*OQ ~H #
296 =Ok H ~*OQ i+`# U~@ K x zOzOk. qq^ ~[H s` _#
`èH `x U~@ K x zOzOk. J~` D u^# HxO\x P"kOz# HOQ
174
=i HxO\x u~ iOzOk. =O UHH uxk =O bQ J< "^##, HOQ# O^ uxkQ
~#_x =u~HOzOk.
4. ~` ~*OQ "t Hx =MO Uq\?
["|:- ~` ~*OQO ~H # 1949, #=O|~ 26 <\H ~~ , ~*OQ i+` P"Ô
OkOk. ~*OQOx "t H ~*OQO P , H# +O Q q=iOK~.
1. JO`~O yHOQ Hh, OQ Hh J=~ W`~ JkH~ |_ LO_^ J#Q ~`^ O
~=kH~ ~[O.
2. OH = ~[ ^# , PiH J=#`# `yOK ="^ ^< H O.
3. K, =#Ò, `$Ò, <O ukHQ *= |^" # =*x <H_O.
4. U =`x ÒKx, =` K# kOK HH ~[ #
5. *= Q}Ò` J#Q [ ~=kH~. [K Z#H|_# D xi+ H
iqu` _# ` i# LO@Ok. P qÔ Q ~` ~ Ò`, ="^,
HH, *=, Q}Ò` Ô Q Pq~q OzOk.
() 2 =~
1. H u^# QOnr, < O^# Uq\?
["|:- 'k" f O g^ ~ `n " Wz# K Jx QOnr "MxOK_. D
u^# K^=Q< f= x~x $ ##x, D u^# JOwHi Ô =H
KH =Ò^x < P"^# =HO K_.
2. 1946 <\ ~[OQ i+` ZxH e `q\?
["|:- 1946 A [iy# ~*OQ i+` ZxH HOQ, ^x q` H 210 < aOKQ,
=O bQ 75 < aOK~. nO` ~*OQ|Ô Q H<# kOK@ J^ =x qOz#
=O bQ ` H K~ kyOk. =`H _Ok.
3. ~` `èH Ò ZC_ U~_Ok?
["|:- 1946 O |~ [=~ <, <H` O ~` `èH Ò U~_Ok. JH|~
=O bQ Ò KiOk. _O|~ 9# ~*OQ i+` è ="O [iyOk. | ~*O^^
~*OQ i+` J^ _Q ZxH _.
175
4. ÒÒ` @ =z# q^" q\?
["|:- ^ q[ # $+O z# =`H , =~}HO_ ^xH # q^x qyeOk. i^
#Oz HOkj `= P #, @O| # H~ = "e =zOk.
5. l< k*u Ô`x q=iOKO_?
["|:- 1906 =O bQ U~_<, H< U~@ PK# 1940 =~ "iH ~^ . ==^
Jb l< k*u Ô`x ukOK_. O^, =O =`, O $uH ~O Q ~ O_ ` H
*`h, JO^= "i Ou` r=#O ^ O H^x l< ^$ _aO. JO^= ~`^ x
O^<, H< J< ~ O_ ` H ^Q ql OK< XH f~<x 1940 =i < =O bQ
P"kOzOk.
(_) 1 =~
1. a@< LitH qkOz# P*^ O^ * <=~?
["|:- #"*M<, Q~^ O Q k<, "=~ Q. J~` gi LitH =u~HOQ
^" OQ x~# , * L^= ~OO H=_O` P LitH # a\+ Ò ~^ KO k.
2. '~ ~~ @# J#Q<q?
["|:- ~ O_ O K ^ HO J"iHx ~ ~~ (<H O) [< ^_ KO k. Ô`
J"iH _ ^~ O QOH "t OzOk.
3. a@< ~` =ke "oÒ^x Z=~, ZC_ H\ O K~?
["|:- 1947 |=i 20# a@< ^ x H " O\ P\ E< 1948 <\H a@< ~` =ke " O ^x
H\ O K_. J~` `^# O`~ i}= P Q_= PQ 15, 1947 H =iOk.
4. 1947 PQ 15# <, =\_# ^ "H Uq?
["|:- 1947 PQ 15 J~~ u, ~*OQ i+` ="O [=~ < ~`^ Ò`
H@
# K_. P O^~ O Q < =\_# ''O K=O` x^ `# <\ #_~~ =O,
~`^ O XH K rqÒH "O@Ok (At the strike of midnight hour, when the world sleeps,
India will awake to life and freedom).
176
64 *f^=O - XH gH
u~O *f^= ~Q=ux Qi, 1947 PQ 15# ~ ~[O Ok# sux
QiOz Kk"O.
D ~O *f^=x gHO K^ KO. JO^ D ~x ~ O_ QQ ql OK_O
[iyOk. "^\ QO *f^= ^ <O, ~ O_= QO =Y *f < =Oz#
`# Qi K^ =Ò.
"~ =^# (8 =~)
1. ~` *f^=O XH * L^==x Z x~iOK=K?
["|:- ~` *f^=O O K Ki`< XH qH} JOHO. JO` ^` ^~ ~q
JqOKx a\+ =*x Q_Q _ _Oz, ÒÒ =iOK# L^=Q Jk Ki`
xezÒk. qa# , O $u, O^ ~`^ O XH`\ xez SHOQ L^=O yOz,
H= O`" # a@< q[O kOK_O J~O. # q[xH H~}O *f^=O U XH O`xH,
=~xH, =`xH, iqÒ HO_ H [# O JO^ KOÔ Q OKH=_" .
H..1905 ~O" # OQ q[ # =u~H =O^=`~O L^=O è * L^=O. WO^
"^=, q^~ , , q^=O` JOMHOQ <~. P `~ "` 1906-1918 =^ HO
HOQx q`"^, Ju"^, q=H~ `= H~H= ^~ *f` "x [
KK K~. QOnr <H` O Jx =~ [e L^=O ="HO J KO k. [
H~O` Q Ou` `Q" ~[ ^# ~# =~=x QOnr #=_. *f
HOQ P^ ~O Q=~ =~ Y O K|_, *f^= H~H= <~. xH
+ *f "# K~O K _O, Mn^~}, q^=O` =~O L^=O x [#
K` # =OÒ K _O `k`~ H~}` *f^=O * L^=OQ =iOk JO@~x`#O O\
=lH ^~K~ x~# HO *f^=O H$+ K _O J}Qi# =~# *f^=O
Q=# K Q, q=H L^= K` < x `\ ~.
177
2. *f^=O *f HOQ `# q=iOKO_?
["|:- ~` *f^=O *f HOQ <H` O< H#y Ò` Hx kOzOk.
1885 UF " O z# O HH" } ~f K Ò` PHOH u~OQ
=iOk. 1885 _O|~ 28# O~ nx ^= ="O [iyOk. ="xH _| #s
J^ _Q ==iOK~. ^^~ <~l, ~ * "`, P#O^K~, qq^ O^
70 =Ok ux^ D ="xH [~ ~.
~`^ O x a\+ `x ~HO KO^, Ô a\+ =u~H ~H ` q" x x~kOKO^,
XH ~HH H"@OQ L Q_ O ^ =`" <\ Q=~~ [#~ _< PK# "~ Ul "
~` *f HOQ# OK~. J~` HH"} *f"^ "# < =O`
*f HOQ *f^= <H` O K\ O k. "^\ a\+ ` q^<# ~ O Q< q=iOKk.
1885-1905 =^ Hx q`"^ QOQ, *f^= è^Q ~O\~. P HO a\+
`xH HOQ ~f [< O|OkOz# , K# =`" WKk. J#O`~O
*f HOQ kQ= ~ #Oz ~ =~ \ + " # , x~}`H OQ ~ k^ Ok. *f
< , =`, O` ^ O_ HOQ <H` O *f " "H H$+ K~.
1920 <Q ~ [iy# ="O Jd ~` ~, ~R ~ HOQ =iOQ Hq\
U~@ K |_~. J\H *f HOQ QO_r <H` O =OK_O ~OaOK~. H =O
* L^=, x~# ^~ # HO_ HOQ P^ ~O =lH ^~K~ x~#, PiH
}oH, Q= #i~}O, qq^ JO J^ #O, x"kH ` s, a\+ ^_ q^<
[ J=Q# HeOK@. `k`~ H~H=# _ HOQ K\ O k.
3. *u`Q QOnr Pq~q Oz# q^<x O Q q=iOKO_?
["|:- =`QOnQ Mu QOz# "<^ H~O KO^ QOn 1869 JH|~ 2# H "_x
~|O^~ [xOK_. 1887 WOQO _ "o i~ \ Kx 1891 ^xH =z ~*H\
<~O Q H ~OaOK_. 1893 J| JO_ HOx J< O H # "kOK_xH ^H} H
"_. JH_ ` *f ^=#HO_, *ÒH~ ^~} P## kOK~. JH_ ~ _ #
~f, P " HO ~@O K, |` ^=# HO_# Z^~x, q[O kOK_.
J#O`~O 1915 ^xH uiy=z J^^ =^ |~f P=x O K_. 1917 c~x
KO~< ~ ` <H` O =Oz "ix POQ WO_ < `@ [=# #Oz H__. JQ
J^^ q@ Hi _=O_ ^# , Q[~`x 'M_ ~ ` # x~H~} L^=O x
q[O kOK_. ~f ^# '`Q O J< ~@ ^< x ZOK<_. Ou,
178
JO# P^Q K<_. 1919 ~\ K\xH =u~HOQ `QO x~OK_.
1920 ^" O Q x~H~} L^=x ~OaOK_. #=r=<, OQ WO_ uH# ~OaOz,
`# "# [ è K"_. D uH ~# " Q# a\+ Ò ~[Ô
<~O " P~ H~Q~ tH qkOzOk. J~` J<~Q H~}` 1924 q_^ KO k. QOnr
Ô``, P# =H` O` q` ^" OQ [ OMHOQ *f^=O <~.
1930 Ô_ `Q O x~OK_. i[# ` H x[H =~# H \~ a@< H=#
J"~# H\ O zOk. nxH x~# Q QOnr P=~} x~~ nH #<_.
1942 H ~~O q O H=_O` ''kOK ^ =~}O K Do or Die" x<Ô` H\
WO_ L^=x ~OaOK_. L^= L^$ ux K# a\+ `xH ~` ÒÒ W=H
` ^# q+ O +" O k. D qÔ Q Ò` =~# ~` QO^$ r <`$ Ò q[O kOzOk.
u, JO=~O , Mn L^=O, *f q^, =^# x+Ô , HH` ` O, Q= ~[O, JH~ `,
i[<^~ } `k`~ *` P HO z=i =~ QOnr H$+ K, *u`Q ~f
Ja=#O K~Q<~.
4. < =H`x, Ò`^=O P# `# q=iOKO_?
["|:- ~` ^ Ò`^=x, ÒÒ J#O`~O ~` yOz# Ja=$k <x, [=~
<x "~ "~ Q K_= . Ò` ~`^ è ^ xQ, O K ^~x_Q, ~K~ `Q, Jb#
q^# ~H~ Q , OK=~ }oH ~H~ Q , < |=Y [ ~`^ Mux YO_O`~
K\Ok.
1889 #=O|~ 14# < J^ [xOK_. P# Ò_ ^ <"k "f
<. [=~ < WOQO _ i~ \ kOz 1912 ~` uiy =K_. O ~
L^=O K~_. QOnr` iKO < # =~ H~}"Ok. P# =O`
*f^=O HH` +OK_O ~OaOK_. *f HOQ J^ _Q J<H ~ (1929,
1936, 1937, 1946, 1951-54) ZxH _. 1927 | [iy# J}Qi# *f ="xH
[~_. < *a=#O "O_. ="^ "# =H. 1929 P WO_ >_
x< HOQ (AITUC) H J^ _ _. ="Ô H OQ *f^=O Qx Ja+OK_.
1929 [iy# ~ HOQ ="xH J^ _ O~ ~[ ^< HOQ H =x
f~xOK_. HOQ x~Oz# Jx L^= < K~Q <_. L`~ ^ ~ ` L^=xH
<H` O =OK_. 1945 = ="xH [~ _. a@< #Oz =z# H a<\ ~~`
1946 K~ [i_. 1946-47 HO U~_ `èH `xH <`$ Ò =OK_. <
179
O~ HH"k =```x f=OQ =u~HOK_. ÒÒ J#O`~O ~`^ è ^xQ
1964 =~ ^ ` x~iOK_. ~`^ qÔQ q^# ~H~ , Jb# q^# ~H~ , P ,
PH x = ^ *f^= =^` eH_. ="^ `~ =[ # H PiH }oH#
" \_ . ^ xQ J<H Qu j K\# ~OkOK_. 1955 < '~`~ ` ~~x
H\ O K~. ~`^ Ki` XH =[ \xH ~teQ < Ki` xez`_.
(a) " =^# (4 =~)
1. *f^=O `# q=iOKO_?
["|:- *f^=O x~iOz# ` qiOKx k. 1905 ~O" # =O^=`~O L^=O
K~Q <~. J~` *f HOQ <H` ^ ` QOnr HiOz# `~ "`
*f^=O JOMHOQ, K~Q #_O ~O" O k. 1930 ~O" # LC `Q O
<eOkQ QOnr # H~_. Ô` O^ # =ke L^=O ="H=~.
O^ #Q~O Q ~QOz# _b #Q~O < ^^ 1600 =Ok ~[H H~H #
H~}OQ J~ J~. x~ OQ, JÒ` ^~ ` x~# ^~ # x QO@
`~| _ =^ qH= H O^ =^, #=^ ^H} =^ H \OQ [i~. `H Q# Z^~<~.
* "~. QOnr xz# u L^= H~H=xH J+OQ `~e=z, *f^=O
Q=~. JhaO\, ~lh<_ `k`~ *f "^ ~[H `=^# ` +OK~.
1925 *f HOQ J^ ~eQ ~lh <_ ZxH ~.
2. gi QiOz "Y ~O_ (u^xH <Q =~)
Z) Q ` O Q:- z# =< ^ ÒÒ HO }iOz# q= g~_ ~~ Q ` O Q.
P# t= O*x ~ l, |OQ Q=O [xOK_. ^ #O^ PQ-"kH H,
[u ~ O z# *f H qÔ K_. JC_ qî <_Q ZkQ_.
1923 O^< +e iaH < J +< Ki, P O H O^ Hq\ [#~ H@sQ ZxH _
="^ " q`_ 1925 ~ #=["< ~` # O K_. =`~O q=
"e ~QO^ H$+ K_. <\ q= H~# , M^" , KO^Y ~ P*^, ~ O^<^
O_ "^# "i` He a\+ "iH =u~HOQ q= H~H= K\ _ . 1926 HHi @
H xOk`# q_OKO^ uOK_. [u ~ =~}xH H~}"# O_~ J<
a\+ JkHix ~*Q ~` He He KO_. 1929 H O^ # =" =Ok~O Q ` O Q,
|`H ~ ^` O| "~. WOH lO^^ Jx x<^ K H~ ` q~~. i
J=HO L#\H iO_ b Oy~. ~[Ô <~O HO^ Q ` O Q# 1931
=i 23# Li f~. Q ` O Q Q uH_ _. JHb (O*c), Hi (L~) uH O^ _Q
xK_.
180
(a) QOQ^~ uH:- Ju"^ *f"k J~# H=# QOQ^~ uH ^ H ~A
(prince of patriots) Q ~QOK_. uH 1856 = ~R [xOK_. 1879 <GO \
kOK_. JQ~~, ~#_, <`r ^#` q`_ _. q`"^ J#iOz# ~# , q*# ,

x~# ^` P# qO ^ . K# H^, ~` O H"x x#kOK_. '~[O <
[# Jx L^\ O K_. [u~, a< KO^` He Ju"^ (*f) sx O K_.
P `~ "` HOQ K~_. 1907 uH Ju"^# HOQ #Oz |+iOK~. P `~ "`
1916 uiy "ix HOQ K~ <~. a\+" i @ q^ Q L# HOQ "ix uH a\+
=["^ =u~H Q =~_. P# "# *f <^< QOn, <, =O\
< Ò` ~@ ^x xiOK~. uH q^"` _. 1880 < # #,
1885 ~ < H# O K_. "^ QO^ ~K# K# O_` _ uH. 'Hi J< =~i
uH#, =~~ J< WOw+ uH# O K_.
() ~~ = > :- ÒÒ kO K<\H =H KH Q L# ~`=xx " H iz JYO_
P^ xH ~`^ Q =i# #` ~~ = > ^. 544 O<# ~`^ O qb# ~_.
= > 1875 Q[~` [xOK_. WOQO _ i~ Kkq 1915 ~` uiy=z <"^
=$u K\ _ . 1916 QOnr` iK O U~_ P# J#K~ _Q =~_.
1924-28 =^ J^^ =xe\ J^ _Q x K_. *f^= H~H= K~Q
<_. > Q ~ `zOk 1928 ~b `Q O. c_ = Ò qkOz#
# x~# Q D L^=O ~O" O k. Ò J}z"` _#\H > F~ î Oz,
L^=O q[=OÒ K_. nxH Ja#O^#Q > QOnr '~~ a~^# kOK_. 1931
H~p ="O > HOQ J^ _ _. 1942 H\ WO_ L^=O <_. Ò`
~`^ O ^= L ^ xQ ^ ` x~iOK_.
(_) ==^ Jb l<:- H< x~`Q qOK ==^ Jb l< 1875 H~p [xOK_.
=` `` "kQ ^ q[ # H~}"# l< "^\ HH" k JO> P~O HQH =#^. l<
_ WOQO_< <G \ kOK_. JH_ ^^~ <~l` iK" P# "\
H~îQ xq`_< _. l< ~[H rq`x <Q ^ Q ql OK=K. Jq
1. 1906-1920- D HO l< HH, *f"k. ^ " H "k.
2. 1920-1928 - D HO HOQ ^~" < HH" kQ, " H "kQ< L<_.
3. 1928-1937 - D HO l< =~ =zOk. 1906 U~_ =O bQ ^Q~
"~@ "^x =iOK_O ~OaOK_.
4. 1937-47 - D HO =ObQ u~Qx <__. k*u Ô`x
181
H\ O K_. =`<k , ` H =O ~[OQ H<# kOK_. H< P##
''Y^ W J[" Q Hi ~ .
() 2 =~
1. 1930 a\+ ## q=i QOnr K# H@
# Uq\?
["|:- ''a\+ # ~`^ x <u HOQ, uHOQ, O $uHOQ, PiHO Q, PûHOQ ~ <#O
KO k. D # =# e@ O. D `x <# <#O K êK#. ~[^x <# =ÒQ
ZOK<#. =#"=ih KO=^. D ^+i## JOÒ K _O =# ^~ O
2. Ò` ~`^ O qâ=$kH =< J|H O P*^ K# H$+x q=iOKO_?
["|:- Ò` ~`^ "@" ^\ q^Y =Ou =< J|H O P*^. < <`$ Òx
`èH Ò# =< q^=OuQ x K~. =< ^ qâ=$kH q+H $ + K_.
qq^ =^qH q^ Hq+### xqOK_. Jd ~` OHuH q^ O#
#~ =HiOK_. x=i\ QO\ Hq+<, OQ~x WO_< W<@\ P <,
Y~Q ~x SS\# U~@ K_.
(_) 1 =~
1. Ò` ~`^ è ~f Q=~~ [#~ Z=~?
["|- KH=i ~[QKi
2. 1931 H~p HOQ ="O U=x H\ O zOk?
["|-1931 H~p HOQ ="O ^q H , *f PiH H~H= f~< K~.
PiH Ò`x ~[H Ò` Z*O_ O^~x H\ O K~.
3. [=~ < ~zOz# Hq?
["|- _ =s P WO_ , k yO P =~ s, P\ |Q
4. -- #Q Z=~?
["|- Ju"^ <` # [u~, QOQ^~ uH, a< KO^ # OH O Q -
- J<"~.
5. QOnr Ki` Uk?
["|- " ZHi"O\ q` @` (My experiments with truth)
182
65 Ò`#O`~ ~`Ô
WO` =O^ g~ ~`^ O , ÒÒ H~ K# J^` ~\x Qi K^= @O =yOK~.
^^ 200O=`~ @ [iy# ^_ ` =# =# Ô Jx ~OQ J}Q^H|_
Ja=$k kOK_O "#H|_Ok. H|\ ÒÒ kOz# g^@, Ò` ~@ =O
HQ# |"# ~[H <^, i}u KOk# PiH == =i P^ xH =lH ==
Hey# P^ xH ~`^ x~}O XH #"Q =iO^<k += ~Ok. H`Q K"=
# Ô , J<H `, H+# Hi ` ~H K~ Ok. D ~O =#O XH *=
Q}Ò` q^#O U~@, ~ #~=H ~ } ^~ ~` *f ` x~}O [iy# f~#
<~ OÔ. WOH =#O, ~`^ = [iy# =lH, PiH #x~}O, q^jq^#O, z=~Q =#
~Q ^` Q O|O^# QiOz _ ÒÔ.
"~ =^# (8 =~)
1. ~` ~*OQ "t H ^ iH (preamble) U=Ok? q=iOKO_?
["|:- ~` ~*OQ "t H ^ iH (preamble of the constritution) W LO@Ok.
''~`^ ["# "= ~`^ x ~ `H (~=), ="^, HH, *=,
Q}Ò` ~[OQ xiOKH=_xH ~OîH =lH, PiH, ~[H <x, PK#, =H@ #,
qO, ^~ O, P~^# Ò`x, ^#, J=H# =#`x K ~@, "~Oî
=H Q~"x, *f " H `# O~H , `$`x OOkOK_xH 1949 #=O|~ 26# =#
~*OQ i+` (~*OQ x~} ) ZOH K x (P"kOKx) #OQ ~OkOK# D
~*OQx = "" WKO@<O
~= Ô - ~`^ O JO`~` O Q, OQ i K# He LOk. U H
^ U ^" < ~`^ O xO`}, JkH~O K~OK^ .
HH Ô - U =`x ÒK_ . Jx =` =#"
*= Ô - `= F@ # qxyOKx [ `= `~ # x~
f<
ux^ # Z#O\~.
183
Q}Ò` ~[O - ^^ _x Z#O\~. J#=OtHOQ P ^q x O^_O ^ O
H^.
D qÔ Q ~*OQO H P`# "t H ~*OQ x~` Pq+iOK~.
2. H` ~ U~@ H # q=iOKO_?
["|:- ~` ~*OQO Ô H` ~ U~@ HO XH +" # q^<x ~OkOzOk. P
q^#O H~O ~*OQOx 2= JkH~ } K@O ^~ H` ~ U~@ JkH~x ~" O\
HeOzOk. 3= JkH~ } H~O ''K@O ^~ ~" O@ (Z) U ~RO #OK< XH Qx "~ K
H` ~x U~@ K =K ^ U ~ROx U QxH< , =~ ~ROx U O`< < H=K.
(a) U ~R Q< < OK=K
() U ~R Q<< `yOK=K
(_) U ~R i^ << =~=K
(W) U ~RO ~<< =~=K.
J~` D =~ K_xH ~Ru ~ =`" a `~ K, ~"O@
" \e. q` ~ # Jae iQ}#H fH"e. J~` J\ Ja
~Ru H@|_ LO_#=~O ^. ~"O@ H=O ^~} "*i\` P a# P"k Jk
~Ru P"Ô J#O`~O K@~ O Ô k. J#O`~O # ~# =~# J= K K.
3. ~`^ O }oH ~K# H, }oH K~< q^<x q=iOKO_?
["|:- 1950 ^ #=Ou J^ _Q }oH O O U~>Ok. ~` ^ ^= ^ x O_\
< ^xH ^= J^ _. ~*OQO H\ O z# =lH, PiH H# kOK H O` }oH
O O U~_Ok. }oH ~K# ^ #OQ <Q H# x~iOK~. Jq
1) Ja=$k ^ PiH ~Q^:- ==O, iqH, = ~OQ ~Qu kOK_O
^~ *f^x OOkOKx D Hx kOK=K.
2) O =$k:- ^# ~O, =~ O, P~`` ~O q^ P^~_ \ x
`yOKx, H=OQ "\H OQ Lù K< ~H K~_x O =$k
JO\~.
3) =lH <O:- ^"iH, =[O J}Qi# =~ H~ JOkOz
"iH L#` ~ HeOK_x OQ =lH <O JO\~. }VH ~K#
H Wk _ XH\ .
184
4) O~ Lk H#:- Ô x x~^Q =` , W`~ =~ L^Q, Lk J=H
HeOz "i =HQ ` Ja=$kH, `^~ =*a=$kH `__\x }oH ~K# XH H OQ
U~~Ok.
~`^ O }oH O O }oH ~K< OÒQO J`#` JOQO. *f OK=~
}oH ~OkOK_O , ~` PiH == qq^ ~OQ #"^ K# Ja=$k ~ # ijeOK_O ,
`^# Q}OQ x"kH ~OkOz, }oH H# U~~_O }oH O O ^ # qk. nx
^ #=Ou 8 =Ok O\~. "i HO^~ H O^ =OÒ\~. }oH O xH
*f Ja=$k =O_e (National Development Council) _ O k. D =O_e ~, H O^
e` O` ux^ Q LO\~. g~ `= ~ J=~#, H# }oH O
, =O_ex W`~ q=i~ . *f ~ }oH ~K# ~R }oH O
(State planning board) `= H~O JOk~. }oH ~K# * ux^ , JkH~` @
qq^ =lH O ux^ , OHuH x} O\~.
4. ~`^ qÔQ q^#Ox Jb# q^#O QiOz q=iOKO_?
["|:- ~`^ qÔQ q^#O =Y ` 'Jb# q^#O XH\ . "~ ^` Z@=O\ `
~[H , x H XO^# Hey LO_x XH Ò` qÔQ q^#OQ nxx q=iOK=K. JO`Hx
JQ ~*Q ~Ok# J"iH, ~ =# ^~O LO_@O H^. ` `@ q^#O
_ H^. q^j ==~ <<# sA " x x~ O f< " @# HeOK
K ` qÔQ q^#OQ Jb# q^<x Ja=iOK=K. Jb# L^=xH ~` ^ x [=~
<, Dl J^ _ <~, Qq J^ _ \\ 1950 ^|O z=~ NH~O K\~ .
1955 WO_< x _OQ ="Ô ~\xH }oH ~OkOKO^ 29 P-
P ^ U~@ K # ="O Jb# q^# ~H # [iyO^x q~ . ''QÒ ~ O_
O K ^ H~}==_" HO_, q +` =~ OH~" # s q< H~}O HQ
Pk` ~[H @= g# O` ^~OQ LO_#k =# L^ O J# < =@ ~`^
Jb# q^# ix q=i~.
<, <~, \\ K~=` 1961 Qq x y_ Jb# ^" "^\ ="O
[iyOk. 1 ~, 25 P-P ^ # D ="O 27 =MO f~< KO k.
D Pb<^=O =["Ô, *u q=H, = "^ =u~HOQ K\ # L^==x WO^ +O
K~. 7= Jb<^= tY~Q ="O 1983 _b [iyOk. nxH ^ x WOk~QOn J^ H`
=OK~. J~` JO`~fOQ =~`# i` <^ O ` O Jb# q^#O HO Ke#
q^#=x ij q< ~. JO`~f ~OQO JQ~* =Y` `y ~, qq^ ^
@= ^#`# OìOKO@# ` i` Jb# q^<x gHOKH"x "~
H~`<~.
185
5. ~Q ^` ~` Z^~O@# =# q=iOKO_?
["|:- ~` ^#OQ K<, H<, |OQ^ J< =_ ~Q ^` =#
Z^~O\Ok.
K<`:- K<` \\ ==~O#, i^ JOO# ~` q^<~. \\ ~`,
K< i^ =`H OÒ. "^\ Wk K< O#O. J#O`~O 1937 \@ # =e <_#
^ = \\ Ò` uux H\ O K_. P `~ "` ~ O_ O K Ô K< \\ # ^^
PHqOKOk. 1950 K< \\ # iQ PHqOKx, `= QOQ H\ O KOk. nxx
~` YO_Oz#\H, P `~` Jk "i JO`~` ==~OQ qOz =ke"O k.
1964 ~` ^x <, K< ^ x K-Z<- =^ ki# XOÔ H~O \\ #
K< JO`~QO Q ~` QiOzOk. J~` `^# O`~ i}= \\ =` <_ ^ =
W`~ \\ Ò`^=H~ ~` P O W=_x K< =u~HOzOk. K< ` L# =~ q"Ô
i^ =. 1914 POQ , K< JkH~e OkOz "H" < ~ Y# ~`, K< i^
~ YQ ~OkOK~. J~` WC_ K< ^xx QiOK_O ^ . "H" < ~ Y# ^@x ~`
Q# PHqOKO\Ok. W\H J~}K^ x J`kH OÒ `=^#x "kOk.
H<` :- H<` ~` # ^ # = Hj~. W^ JOO 1947-48 H<` Ô
[iyOk. P O^~OQ H< Hj~ Q HxO\x JH=OQ PHqOKOk. H<
=`HOQ JÒ` ^ #"# OÒ H=_O = Hj~ ~` JO`~QO Q LO_@O H<
W+O ^ . Hj~# Ò` ~[OQ<, H H< QOQ< K x H< Ò. JO^=
Hj~ "~@"^xH P[O Ok. 1965 #, 1971 # H` ~` ^ Ke
=zOk.
|OQ^ `:- ~` H~O` H< #Oz q_~ 1971 Ò` Ô Q U~_# |OQ^
"^\ ~`` ` O|O^< H#yOzOk. 1975 `~` +H =r `#O`~O |OQ^ ==~
e =~ =zOk. `, =O ^ ^Q~, ~` ^~O HyOk. |OQ^` U~_
=iHx q"^. ~` H |OQ ^j K~@, HOkj, QOQ[ q"Ô. 1971 ^
HO, `^#O`~O |OQ^ #Oz ~`H "tOz# K~@ ^~, HOkj ~` PiH
==# uOQ qÒ K Q~. JO`HH JO OÒ "~ Ou ^` =#
$+ < ~. HH` <H O <H ~HH HO J=~" # 40" h\ HO ~`
QOQ #k ~ H P#H@# xiOzOk. P P#H@ OQ^ x ^ #k (|OQ^ QOQ#kx ^ #k
JO\~) [ =~xH J_ _ O k. Ô` |OQ^ 15" h~ =`" ", ==,
`Qh\, J=~ i=_O ^ . Ô` |OQ^ ~` K~ # x~ Ok.
186
(a) " =^# (4 =~)
1. ~`^ =Y ==# q=iOKO_?
["|:- ~` ~*OQO ~`^x ~ x<Q H\ OzOk. Ô ~O_ ~H
|Ò\~. XH\ H O^ Ò, ~ O_ f ~ROx ~R Ò. <# ~OkOK
JkH~O D ~ O_ ` LO@Ok. J~` H O^ Ò Z= JkH~# Hey LO@Ok.
JO^= ~`^ O UH H O^ H}
# =Y ~[O. < ~OkOK JkH~O H H O^
*a` Z= JO<~. JO`HO_ H O^, ~R K\ =^ ^ a = H O^ K@"
^#` He LO@Ok. ~RuH Q J`=~ JkH~ _ HO^x XH |"# ==Q
~OkOK~.
2. ~`^ O ^j O< qb#O Z [iyOk?
["|:- ~~ =~ > HO^ =Ou=~O K~Q< ^j O<# ~`Ô qb#O
K e# `H} =~x QiOK_. JO^ }oH ~OkOK_. ^ H , *f" Hey#
~A# ~`^ O qb#O H=x H~_. "~ #OQ OkOK~. J 3 O< `
^^ Jx ^j O< ~`^ O qb#=~. qb#O H=_xH JOwHiOKx =_ ~*
(1) Hj~ (2) A<Q_ (3) ^~^.
`= QOH KK=# H< K~@^~# ìqH@_xH Hi ~`
qb#==`=x Hj~ ~A ~* iOQ ukOK_. A#Q_ ~A H< iQ, P O`
[ ~ ~ O_O ^~ ~`^ O qb#O H=_xH JOwHiOK~. =~" x H K~ ^~ ^~^#
qb#O K <~.
3. Ò`#O`~O OH = O H OQ ~OkOz# K\q ?
["|:- Ò`xH ~" *f < H$+ e ÒQ a\+ Ò =[O iu x
kQ*i# u, q" =O\ ^~K~# x+kOzOk. qÒ` #i" K@| ^` HeOzOk.
Ò`#O`~O O^ "~` K@O "^\ iQ "i è^ O _ P "\ HeOzOk.
=~H@ x+Ô , JH= ~"}# x~kOK@ K\ K |_~. q"# x+k
K# K\< '~^ K@O JO\~. `*Q Q$O x~^ K@O _ OH = xH L^t Oz#^.
4. ~`^ qÔQ q^#Ox ^ <Oq\?
["|:- ~`^ O `# qÔQ q^#O ^ #OQ S^ `# J#iOzOk. nx< 'OKjQ
~O\~. Jq
187
1. QoH i^, ~ =`# ~ ~O Q~qOKH#@
2. ~ ~ ^_ [~ O_ LO_@
3. W`~ ^ JO`~` ==~ HQ* HH =_O
4. =#Ò, ~ ~ H~O
5. Ou` r=#O
q"^# OuÒQ i+iOKH=_O, Jb<^= `# \OK_O , O K Ou
H~ x~nH~ }
# K~O, " K _O J< q^<# ~`^ O J#iO k.
5. |OQ^ U~@ ~`^ ` Uq\?
["|:- Ki`HO Q |OQ^ ~`^ O XH QO. D QO =O JkH OY x= O _@O
=# nxx 1947 ^ q[ # O^~ O Q H< H|_Ok. ^x `~ H<Q eK"~.
QoHOQ ~`^ O H<# ~ O_ J~ QQ J#Q `~, t= H< Q ql OzOk.
D ~ O_ O` =^ ~`^ xH KOk# 1200 " QO LOk. D QoH q[ # H~}OQ P
~ O_ Q "~ ^ U~_~. `~ H< Ò` uu HO L^=O ~O" O k.
P L^=x =O^ f`# 'J=qbQ s 1970-71 H< ZxH q[O kOzOk.
Hh M< <HÒx xH Ò JkH~ |kbH JOwHiOK^. J=qbQ #,
<` # x~OkOK~. 1971 =i x H `~ H< ^_ K~. c`= i`
U~_@O` P OÒ #Oz JOMHOQ [ ~` H "t OK~. D i}=O ~` PiH
== ~OQ i}qOzOk. Ô` ~` H<` OkO uOzOk. Jk O
H^ . J#O`~O `~ H< [~Q`# Ò` ~\xH O~ =^` H\ ~`
~" O@ XH f~#O KO k. `~ H< [ PiH, ~[H, uH H~O JOkOzOk. Ô`
`= JO`~O yH ==~ *HO K O\O^x H< ~` x 9 "# =~ 1971
_O|~ 3# ^_ KO k. `~ H< `~ # ~` _ Ô H kyOk. 13 ~A @
Ô [iy# `~ "` H< F@qx JOwHiOzOk. Ô` 1971 _O|~ 16# ~`^ O Ò`
|OQ^ # QiOzOk.
() 2 =~
1. 1947 JqH ~`^ O Zx ~<~? Jq Uq?
["|:- 1947 JqH ~`Ô 11 ~<~. Jq (1) JO (2) OQ (3) c~
(4) Xi (5) O~ (6) =^ (7) <> _ q< (8) O@ q< (9) O* (10)
"= i^ O` ~R= (11) O^. g\` @ _b , Jr~, =~~, a\+ z< H O^
188
` Pn#O L<~.
2. 1956 U~># ~q ?
["|:- 1956 14 ~ U~@~. Jq:
(1) PO^^ (2) JO (3) c~ (4) O~ (5) [=, Hj~ (6) H~ (7) =^ ^
(8) =^ (9) " ~ (10) Xi (11) O* (12) ~[< (13) L`~ ^ (14) t= OQ
Wq HO_ (1) JO_=<, xH~ n= (2) _b (3) =K^ (4) =} ~ (5) u~ (6)
Hn =, qxH, JqOkq n= H O^ e` ~Q U~_~.
(_) 1 =~
1. 1960 O~ ~RO U ~Q ql O|_Ok?
["|:- =~R, Q[~`
2. =lH i}=O JO> Uq\?
["|:- =*xH KOk# qa# =#, JO H" } Hh, JH`Q Hh =i` ^ ~O`~O
KOk` ^x< =lH i}=O (Social Transformation) JO\~.
3. =lH K#O JO> Uq\?
["|:- x= Q =|_ [< PiHOQ, ~[HOQ Zky L#`"# =lH ~x
K~ H=_x =lH K#O JO\~.
4. *f " H ` JO> Uq\?
["|:- Ô x [O` "i "i =`, +, "~ < `=O` XH> J< =## He LO_\x
*f " H ` JO\~.
189
"_ `=
Ki`
HO: 3 QOII "Ò =~: 100
qQ=-Z
K # ::D HOk "~ 5 =^#O "O_. 5840 =.
7= ` xiQ "e.
1) ~ "iH q^` Q =~H "}[ O|O^# Qi "O_.
2) Q ~ ` H~OQ *# = Z\k?
3) NH$+ ^=~ q[#Q~ ~A UqÔ Q Q"_?
4) +~ ~ " \# O~}q?
5) =^ QO [iy# à=$kx q=iO=.
6) Ò` =~# + KO^ =Oz# ` Uq?
7) gHz# @O JH KH=i =[Ox D @}
# QiOKO_.
Z) @bÒ a) L[ h ) HoOQ _) Oz
(^)
JLn< db =[Ox D @}
# QiOKO_.
Z) _b a) ^=yi ) z`~ _ _) =~OQ
qQ= - a
II. D HOk"x U"x `qk " =^#O "O_. 9436 =.
8) *# ^ Ô`=# =.
9) Q H= GOHuH ~a=$k Qi "O_.
10) ~f O $u q= O $u Jx Z K Q=?
11) < ~[^~ =O.
12) ==^ `QH ~[^x =i_ H~H=x ZO^ *> # ?
190
13) n<-W-
14) =~+ q[$O} Q H~} "O_.
15) H~ ^ H~} "O_.
16) ~[OH=} ÔÒ "O_.
17) 1857 u~Q@ e ` Uq\?
18) H\ WO_ L^== Qi "O_.
19) k=*# =[O Qi KiOKO_.
qQ= -
III. D HOk "xH ~ O_ "H =^#= "O_. 8216 =.
20) ~ O_ Lx+` QO^ ~ "=.
21) "^" VO K |_# ^~ "q?
22) U = ~[`$x =|_K<~?
23) ~} ` OQ
24) èH@ Ô
25) H L^==
26) = >
27) QOn Ô`
qQ= - _
IV. D HOk "xH XH "HO (^ XH^ O ) =^#O "O_. 818 =.
28) ~ [ qÒQ qOz# U =$HO <\ H h P~kO|_K#k?
29) WO_ J< ^= .................... J< w ^= #O_ Pq~q Oz#k?
30) ''ìM-W-~ * ~zOz#k Z=~?
31) +~ O z# ''~~# ` O U ~` < ~?
32) 'i H@ x~` Z=~?
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