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Chapter 2: Uniform Plane Wave Equation and Power Balance

6. Electromagnetic Waves :
6.1 Introduction:
In this chapter we are not going to deal how waves are generated but we shall see how the
wave travels from the source into surrounding media. This media can be roughly divided into
two types:
Lossless media.
Lossy media.
These media are further classified as shown in figure 6.1. Here each notation has the usual
meaning, where

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Classification of media

6.2 Wave Propagation in Lossless media:

Lossless media is either perfect dielectric with the property,
, ,
or free space with the property
, ,
We will obtain the results for perfect dielectric and then putting and in the
results, we get results for free space.
The term represents loss. For , means no loss, so energy of the wave when propagates
remain constant. We will prove it mathematically. This requires wave equations to be derived.

6.2.1 Wave Equations for Lossless Media:

Though propagation of a wave is a physical phenomenon it is explained after deriving
certain mathematical expressions called wave equations. These are derived in this section.
Before we derive complex wave equation for general case, let us derive simple wave equation
for dielectric media containing no charges and no conduction currents. To derive wave equation
in dielectric we start with Maxwells equations for dielectric, which are:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
Also we know that, for free space,
for free space,
for free space,
The constants are independent of time. Single differentiation and double
differentiation of both sides of above equation gives
and
(v)
and
(vi)

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and
(vii)
We have,
Differentiating both sides partially w.r.t. time we get

(double dot is double differentiation partially w.r.t. time)

i.e.
or
(viii)
Similarly from,
We get,
(ix)
There are two types of wave equations,
Wave equation for electric field
Wave equation for magnetic field
(i) Wave equations for electric field: To derive wave equation for electric field we start with
equation (i).
(ii)Wave equations for magnetic field: To derive wave equation for magnetic field we start with
equation (ii).
Both electric and magnetic wave equations are in similar forms.
Wave equation for electric field:
Starting with equation (i):
Taking curl of both sides,
from (vi)
=
from (viii)

(A)
Using vector identity:
(x)
but,
then equation (x) reduces to,
(B)
Comparing equation (A) and (B),
i.e.

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or
(6.2.1)
This is called as wave equation for electric field for lossless media.
(B) Wave equation for magnetic field:
Starting with equation (ii):
Taking curl of both sides we get,

from(v)
=
from(ix)

(C)
Using vector identity,
(xi)
But
from(iv)
Then equation (ix) reduces to,
(D)
Comparing Equations (C) and (D) we get

(6.2.2)
Equation (6.2.2) is expression for wave equation for magnetic field, for lossless media.

Noticing the difference in properties of dielectric and free space, just by replacing and
by and wave equations for free space can be obtained.

Equations for lossless media

Dielectric Free space

Using this equations we can study propagation field, for lossless media.
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Why uniform plane waves?

A simple and very useful type of wave that serves a building block in the study of
electromagnetic waves consists of electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each
other and to the direction of propagation of wave. Also they are uniform in amplitudes
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. These waves are nothing but uniform plane
waves.
Further more the principle of guiding of electromagnetic waves along transmission lines
and waveguides and principles of many other wave phenomena can be studied basically in term
of uniform plane waves. Hence it is very important that we understand the principles of uniform
plane wave propagation.

6.2.4 Intrinsic Impedance or Characteristic Impedance of Lossless Medium:

We have the unit of electric and magnetic field as (V/m) and (A/m) respectively. If we
take the ratio,
which is a unit of impedance.
At some point on the circuit board, having the knowledge of voltage and current at that
point, the impedance at that point can be determined simply by taking the ratio of them, this
idea can be extended further.
The wave in a media is associated with the electric and magnetic field with it. At some
point in the media, by taking the ratio of E and H, the impedance of media at that point can be
obtained. This impedance is called as intrinsic impedance denoted by ( ). It is defined as,
Intrinsic impedance:
It is the ratio of the magnitudes of E and H for a plane (TEM) wave in an unbounded medium.
Mathematically,

or
(6.2.6)
As E is measured in Volts/m and H is measured in Amp/m, then the unit of will be volts/Amp
i.e. and it is called as intrinsic impedance of the media.
By putting and we get intrinsic impedance of free
space

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6.2.6 Helmholtz Equations using Maxwells Equations:

Helmholtz Equation for electric field
Helmholtz Equation for magnetic field

We have Maxwells Equations for harmonically varying fields in lossless media ( and
) as follows:
( ) (i)
( ) (ii)
i.e. (iii)
i.e. (iv)
Helmholtz equation for electric field:
Taking curl of Eqn. (i),
Putting value of from eqn. (ii),

i.e. (v)
From vector identity we have,

But from eqn. (iii), then above eqn. reduces to,

(vi)
Comparing eqns. (v) and (vi),

i.e. (6.2.7)

This is the Helmholtz Equation for electric field.

Helmholtz equation for magnetic field:
Taking curl of eqn. (ii),

Putting value of from eqn. (i),

( )=
i.e.
(vii)
Comparing Equation (vii) with Equation (viii),
= =

i.e. =
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(6.2.8)

This is the Helmholtz equation for magnetic field.

Significance of Helmholtz equations is discussed in the next section.

6.2.7 Solution of Helmholtz Equations for Lossless Media:

Showing propagation of plane wave in x-direction

A) Velocity of wave:
Need definition of phase velocity

(6.2.9)
This velocity of some point in the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase velocity.
Putting value of as we get,

(6.2.11)

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B) Phase constant and wavelength:

The constant is called the phase shift constant and is a measure of the phase shift in radians
per unit length. Another important quantity observed with a wave is wavelength ,
defined as the distance over which the sinusoidal waveform passes through a full cycle of 2
radians. Thus, we can write

or
(6.2.11)
using the value of from equation (6.2.9) and , we get

or
(6.2.12)

In general we can conclude that for the sinusoidal.

Example 1: Give solution to the wave equation in perfect dielectric for a wave travelling in z-
direction, which has only
x-component of E- field.
Solution: Since wave is travelling in z- direction and has Ex component of field.

The wave equation

reduces to
(A)
Also for a wave in z-direction, .

Now equation (A) becomes

The solution of this equation will be

(B)
where, V0 =
Equation (B) is the required solution.
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_____________________

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Example 2: A uniform plane wave propagates in a medium with r = 4, , . The

field has only x-component which is sinusoidal with a frequency of 100 MHz and has
maximum value of 0.1 mV/m at t = 0, z = 1/8. Find instantaneous expression for E(z, t). Also
find the location where Ex is positive maximum at t =10 ns.
Solution:
given: r = 4, ,
f = 100 MHz rad/m

If we consider expression for E as

(i)
At t = 0
=
It is given that E has Maximum value of 0.1 mV/m at z = 1/8. That is at z = 1/8 must be
. Putting the value of z,

Thus equation (i) requires modification. Let

We find by using the fact that for to be maximum cosine function should have 1 value.
For this the bracketed term must be zero or etc.

Putting the values of t = 0, ,

0

so the expression for E is

for a wave in z-direction e and H are related using

or
6
to find the position where is positive maximum at t = 10 ns, set the cosine term equal to 1.

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i.e.

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________

6.4 Wave Propagation in Lossy Media:

This media is characterized by ( 0, 0 r, 0 r ). In sections 9.2 and 9.3 we
have studied wave propagation in lossless media. Due to zero loss ( ), the amplitude of
these waves remain constant (does not decrease). Than it is very obvious that when wave travels
in lossy media ( the energy of the wave should continuously decrease, causing
amplitude of the wave decrease continuously. Except the amplitude, all other properties of the
wave, namely v, are same as that for lossless media. To obtain the results mathematically
first obtain wave equations for this media.
6.4.1 Wave Equations for Lossy Media:
Starting with Maxwells equations,
(i)

=
(ii)
= 0 i.e. = 0
(iii)
= 0 i.e. = 0
(iv)

also = =
(v)
= =
(vi)
= =
(vii)

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(A) Wave equation for electric field.
(B) Wave equation for magnetic field.

(A) Wave equation for electric field:

We have, =
Taking curl of both sides we get,
= = = ) = ( ) = ( )
= ( )
(a)
Using vector identity:
but

Then vector identity reduces to

(b)
Comparing eqn. (a) and eqn. (b) we get,
( )
(6.4.1)
This is called as general wave equation for electric field in lossy media.

(B) Wave equation for magnetic field:

We have
Taking curl of both sides

= (from (v)
and (vii))
= +
= (from
(vi))
= (c)
Using vector identity:
but
Then vector identity reduces to:
(d)
Comparing eqn. (c) with eqn. (d) we get,
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(6.4.2)
This is called as general wave equation for magnetic field in lossy media.

6.4.2 Helmholtz Equations for Lossy Media:

For the sinusoidal time varying fields the wave equation for the conducting media can be
written by replacing dot(.) by j as

i.e.
(6.4.3)
Similarly, we get,
(6.4.4)
Let

This term is a complex number and under root of it is also complex.

i.e. complex number =
The significance of and , will be seen in the next section. Then Eqns. (6.4.3) and (6.4.4) are
rewritten as,

(6.4.5)

Eqn. (6.4.5) is expression for Helmholtz equations for lossy dielectric.

Letting the term = 0, the above eqns. Reduce

to
and
Which are Helmholtz equations for lossless media.
6.4.3 Expressions for and for Lossy Media:

but
( )2 = = j
expanding square bracket + 2j = j (i)
Equating real and imaginary parts we get,
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(ii)
and 2 = (iii)
Now, = / (2) (iv)
Putting eqn. (iv) in eqn. (ii), we get
42 =0
Solving the quadratic equation for we get,

Taking only positive root,

i.e. = (6.4.6)

Similarly, we can obtain expression for as

i.e. = (6.4.7)

6.4.4 Intrinsic Impedance for Lossy Media:

For the sinusoidal time varying field the intrinsic impedance of media is given by,

(6.4.9)
6.4.5 Behaviour of a Wave in Lossy Media:

Wave propagation in lossy dielectric

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The rate of attenuation is decided by a constant as attenuation constant and is called

as phase shift constant. Because attenuation and phase shift is associated with propagation, the
term , (which consists of and ) is called propagation constant.
Except the attenuation the other wave properties remain the same as for the pure
dielectric media.
i.e. =2 and v = f =

6.4.6 The Terms and :

Propagation constant ( ):

Significance of propagation constant:

In general signifies that when the wave propagates it gets attenuated in

amplitude and the phase angle of the wave changes.
Significance of attenuation constant:
The non zero value of in a lossy media signifies that the amplitude of wave decreases
continuously as the wave propagates.
Significance of phase constant:
When the wave is propagating its phase is continuously changing indicated by .

6.5 Mathematical Definition of the Dielectric Media and Conducting Media:

For good conductor:

For good dielectric:

and is considered as dividing line between conductor and dielectric.

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6.6 Wave Propagation in Good Dielectric:

6.6.1 Modification of and for Good Dielectric:

Using the definition given in Eqn. (6.5.1), and can be modified as given below. As for
good dielectric (/ ) 1, we can use the approximation as

=
(6.6.1)

=
(6.6.2)
6.6.2 Velocity in Good Dielectric:
Now the velocity of wave, v = / =

v =
i.e. v = v0
(6.6.3)
6.6.3 in Good Dielectric:
(6.6.4)
whenever a small amount of loss is present in the intrinsic impedance a small reactive
component gets added.

6.7 Wave Propagation in Good Conductor:

For good dielectrics we have, ( )

6.7.1 To find and for Good Conductor:

(b)
= (6.7.2)

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and =
(6.7.3)

6.7.2 Velocity of Propagation for Good Conductor:

v =

or v =
(6.7.4)

6.7.3 Intrinsic Impedance for Good Conductor:

because 1 can be neglected.

6.8 Depth of Penetration (Skin Depth):

In a good conductor where is very large,

both and are also large. Thus, as the wave
progresses through a medium which has
conductivity, the wave is attenuated because of
losses. In a good conductor at radio frequencies
the rate of attenuation is very great and the wave
may penetrate only a very short distance before
being reduced to a negligibly small percentage of its original strength.

6.8.1 Definition of Depth of Penetration:

The term depth of penetration is defined as that depth in which the wave has been attenuated to 1/e i.e. approximately
37% of its original value. The depth of penetration is also called as skin depth.

Consider a wave that is transmitted into

the conducting medium. Let x = 0 is the boundary
of conducting medium with x increasing positively
into the conducting medium as shown in fig.

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We have,
i.e.

Showing attn. of a wave

in lossy medium

It gives variation of Ey in both magnitude and phase as a function of x. The term indicates
attenuation. Thus, when
x = 0,
and at x = x1 = 1/
i.e. We can say that at x1 = 1, the wave amplitude is 1/e times its value at x = 0.Thus, by
definition, x1 is the depth of penetration, denoted by .
i.e. or
Thus, the general expression for depth of penetration using eqn. (6.4.7) is

(6.8.1)
For good conductor, using the modified expression of

(6.8.2)

6.8.2 Solved Examples on Depth of Penetration:

Important Formulae

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________

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Example 1: A medium has the following parameters:

y = 10, r = 2.5, = 10-4 mho/m
Determine , , , for 1 GHz.

Solution: Consider,

So at the given frequency the medium is not a good conductor, so use exact expressions.
We have propagation constant

=
=

but = 0.0366(Np/m) and = 104.80(rad/m)

Now, (m) v= (m/s)

=
Ans
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____________________
Example 2: Calculate intrinsic impedance , the propagation constant , the wave velocity v
for conducting medium in
which = 60 Ms/m, r = 1, at a frequency f = 200 MHz.

Solution: It is given that the medium is a conductor.

So the given media is a good conductor. Using approximate relations,

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= (m-1)

The calculated can be written as,

Equating with we get, (Np/m),(rad/m)
The velocity is given by, v= (m/s)
Ans
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_____________________
Example 3: Find the skin depth at frequency of 1.6 MHz in aluminium whose
MS/m and r = 1. Also find
propagation constant and wave velocity propagating in this medium. (Assume
).

Solution: We have skin depth,

(Np/m)

The propagation constant is

For good conductor,
Thus, propagation constant,
We have the expression for wave velocity as,
v= (m/s)
Ans
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_____________________

7. Poynting Theorem

7.1 Introduction:

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In the transmitter the wave is generated by a source, then it travels to a distant

receiving point. Whenever a wave travels from one point to other, transfer of energy
takes place. There is a simple and direct relation between the rate of the energy transfer
and the amplitudes of electric and magnetic intensites associated with a travelling
electromagnetic wave. This relation is known as Poynting vector after I.H. Poynting.
Many of us think of the Poynting vector as a Pointing vector. This homonym, while
accidental, is correct.

7.2 Poynting Theorem:

7.2.1 Statement of Poynting Theorem:
Vector product of electric intensity and magnetic intensity at any point is a measure of the rate of energy flow
per unit area at that point.

7.2.2 Mathematical Expression of Poynting Theorem:

Mathematically the theorem can be expressed as
=
The direction of flow is perpendicular to and in the direction of the vector . The
relation can be obtained from Maxwells equations as follows. The magnetomotive force
equation is,
= +
(1)
or =
In order to convert from the dimension of current density to power per unit volume, multiply
both side of the above expression by we have,
= (
(i)
We have vector identity =
where, and are any vector functions. Replacing by and by ,
=
Putting the value of from above equation in Eqn. (i),

using the second Maxwells eqn.

in the expression for we get
Now, = and =

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So that
Integrating over a volume v,
(ii)
Using the divergence theorem the last term can be changed from volume integral to surface
integral,
=
Then eqn. (ii) becomes

Equation (7.2.1)

Eqn. (7.2.1) shows that the instantaneous power flow contains stored energy and the total
power flowing in the volume.

7.2.3 A physical interpretation of Poynting Vector:

A physical interpretation of the above equation leads to some interesting conclusions:

The term dv on the left hand side represents the (instantaneous) power
dissipated in the volume v. This result is obtained as a generalization of Joules law. A
conductor of cross sectional area A, carrying a current I and having a voltage drop E per
unit length (V/m) will have a power loss of EI watt per unit length. The power dissipated
per unit volume will be EI/A= EJ watt per unit volume. In this case V and are in the
same direction. In general where this may not be true, the power dissipated per unit
volume would still be given by the product of and the component of or . The
total power dissipated in the volume v would be
. ) dv (iii)
when E in this expression represents the electric intensity required to produce the current
density in the conducting medium, the Equation (iii) represents power dissipated as ohmic
(I2R) loss. However, if is an electric intensity due to a source of power, e.g., due to a battery,
then the power represented by Equation (iii) would be used up in driving the current against the
battery voltage and hence charging the battery. If the direction of were opposite to that the
dissipated power represented by Equation (iii) would be negative. In this case, the battery would
be generating electric power.
(ii) The first term - H2 + E2 ) dv on the right hand side of Equation
(7.2.1) without the negative time derivative represents the stored (electric and magnetic) energy
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in the volume. The negative time derivative of this quantity then represents the rate at which
the stored energy in the volume is decreasing.
(iii) The interpretation of the remaining term ). d follows from the
application of the law of conversation of energy. The rate of energy dissipation in the volume
v must equal the rate at which the stored energy in v is decreasing plus the rate at which
energy is entering the volume v from outside. The term
- ).d
therefore represents the rate of flow of energy inward through the surface of the
volume. Then this expression without the negative sign, i.e.,
.d
represents the rate of flow of energy outward through the surface enclosing the volume.
Thus, the integral of over any surface gives the rate of energy flow through that surface.
It is seen that the vector

(7.2.2)

has the dimensions of watt / sq.m. Equation (7.2.2) is the expression Poynting
vector of .

7.2.4 Significance of Poynting Vector:

In Poynting theorem the vector product at any point is a measure of the rate
of energy flow per unit area at that point. The direction of flow is perpendicular to and in
the direction of the vector .The direction of the vector indicates the direction of the
instantaneous power flow at that point, and many of us think of the Poynting vector as a
Pointing vector. This homonym, while accidental, is correct.

Note: Poynting vector physically denotes the power density leaving the given volume in time varying field.

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Fig: Power Balance for EM fields

The energy stored in the system is represented by energy storing elements like capacitor and
inductor. The power dissipated is accounted by resistor. The diagrammatic representation is
shown in the figure above.
From the physical interpretation now it is clear that the Poynting theorem relates, the
incoming energy , outgoing energy, energy stored and dissipated in the system. In other words
the Poynting theorem gives the energy balance in the system or it proves law of
conversation of energy.

7.3 Power Flow for a Plane Wave:

We know that energy density due to electric and magnetic fields is given by

When a wave is travelling it travels with a velocity v0 =

For a wave moving with a velocity v0 the rate of flow of energy per unit area would be
P = v0
The electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) for a plane wave are related by
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=
Using this equation, the equation previous to it can be written as
P = v0 = =
This gives us flow for a plane wave.

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