SWE2002

COMPUTER
NETWORKS

Dr. G.Usha Devi

Associate Professor
School of Information Technology and Engineering
VIT University, Vellore
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Networks Topologies

Logical or physical layout of a network

Two or more links form a topology
Four Basic Topologies:
Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring

Ethernet Token-ring
Hub
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A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

From Figure 1.5 of Data Communications and Networking by

Forouzan, 4th
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Mesh Topology

Each device has a point-to-point link to every

other device.
Advantages
Guarantee the connection
Robustness
Privacy or security
Easy fault identification and fault isolation
Disadvantages
Installation and reconnection
Hardware cost
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Question

State how many links we require to construct a Local

network based on mesh topology with Eight nodes
that could communicate using

1. simplex mode of data flow

2. Duplex mode of dataflow
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Solution
The Physical link required is n (n-1) for unidirectional links
n (n-1) = 8(8-1)
= 56 links
The Physical link required is n (n-1)/2 for bidirectional
links
n(n-1)/2 = 8(8-1)/2= 56/2
= 28 links only
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A star topology connecting four stations

From Figure 1.6 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Star Topology

Each device has a point-to-point link only to a central

controller
Controller acts as an exchange
Advantages
Easy to install and reconfigure
Less cabling
Robustness
Disadvantages
Dependency on one single point
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A bus topology connecting three stations

From Figure 1.7 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Bus Topology

One long cable links all nodes.

Nodes are connected to bus cable by drop lines and taps.
Advantages
Ease of installation
Less cabling
Disadvantages
Reconnection and fault isolation
Robustness
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A ring topology connecting six stations

From Figure 1.8 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Ring Topology

Dedicated point-to-point connection with immediate

neighbors
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction
Advantages
Ease of installation and reconfiguration
Fault isolation
Disadvantages
Unidirectional traffic
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A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three

bus networks

From Figure 1.9 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Identify the topology used here

Hub
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Switching
Switched Network
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Taxonomy of switched network

From Figure 8.2 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Circuit-switched Networks
Consists of a set of switches connected by physical links.
A connection between two stations is a dedicated path
made of one or more links.
Each connection uses only one dedicated channel on
each link.
Each link is divided into n channels by using FDM or
TDM.
Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.
The resources need to be reserved during the setup
phase.
The resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of
data transfer until the teardown phase.
Data are not packetized.
No addressing involved
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Circuit-switched Networks
Three phases
Setup phase
Establish a dedicated circuit.
An acknowledgement is sent from the destination
system.
Data transfer phase
Teardown phase
A signal is sent to each switch to release the resources.
Not resource efficient
Low delay
Switching at the physical layer in the traditional telephone
network uses the circuit-switching approach
Public Circuit Switched Network
Circuit Establishment
Blocking or Non-blocking
blocking network
may be unable to connect stations because all paths are in use
used on voice systems
non-blocking network
permits all stations to connect at once
used for some data connections
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Delay in a circuit-switched network

From Figure 8.6 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

Packet Switching
circuit switching was designed for voice
packet switching was designed for data
transmitted in small packets
packets contains user data and control info
user data may be part of a larger message
control info includes routing (addressing) info
packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and
past on to the next node
Packet Switching
Advantages
line efficiency
single link shared by many packets over time
packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
data rate conversion
stations connects to local node at own speed
nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates
packets accepted even when network is busy
priorities can be used
Packet Switching Techniques
station breaks long message into packets
packets sent one at a time to the network
packets can be handled in two ways
datagram
virtual circuit
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Datagram Networks
In packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation.
Resource are allocated on demand.
Datagram switching at the network layer.
Packets belonging to same message may travel different paths
Connectionless transmission
Every packet carries a header that contains the destination
address.
The destination address remains the same during the
transmission.
Better efficiency than circuit-switched network.
Greater delay than virtual-circuit network.
Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach
to packet switching at the network layer.
Datagram
Diagram
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A datagram network with four switches (routers)

From Figure 8.7 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Routing table in a datagram network

A switch in a
datagram network
uses a routing table
that is based on the
destination address.

From Figure 8.8 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Delay in a datagram network

Total delay = 3T + 3 + w1+ w2
T transmission time propagation delay

From Figure 8.9 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Virtual-Circuit Networks
There are setup, teardown phases, and data
transfer phase.
Resources can be allocated during the setup
phase or on demand.
Data are packetized and each packet carries
an address in the header.
All packets follow the same path.
Normally implemented in the data link layer.
Virtual
Circuit
Diagram
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Virtual-Circuit Networks
Addressing
Global addressing create virtual-circuit identifier
Virtual-circuit Identifier used by a frame between
2 switches
Virtual-circuit identifier

From Figure 8.11 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Virtual-Circuit Networks
Three phases
Data transfer phase
To transfer a frame, all switches need a table entry
for this virtual circuit.
Each table has four columns
Incoming port, VCI
Outgoing port, VCI
Each switch changes the VCI of an outgoing frame
and routes the frame.
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Virtual-Circuit Networks
Setup Phase
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual
circuit.
Two steps are required
The setup request
The acknowledgement

Teardown Phase
Source sends teardown request frame
Destination responds with a teardown confirmation frame
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Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

From Figure 8.12 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

From Figure 8.13 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

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Virtual-Circuit Networks
Efficiency:
Resource reservation can be made during the setup or can
be on demand during the data transfer phase.
All packets belonging to the same source and destination
travel the same path.
The packets may arrive at the destination with different delay
if resource allocation is on demand.
Delay
One time setup delay and teardown delay.
If resource are allocated during the setup phase, there is no
waiting time for packets.
Switching at the data link layer in a switched WAN is
normally implemented by using virtual-circuit
techniques.
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Delay in a virtual-circuit network

Total delay = 3T + 3 + setup delay + teardown delay

From Figure 8.16 of Data Communications and Networking by Forouzan, 4th

Virtual Circuits v Datagram
virtual circuits
network can provide sequencing and error control
packets are forwarded more quickly
less reliable
datagram
no call setup phase
more flexible
more reliable
Circuit v Packet Switching
performance depends on various delays
propagation delay
transmission time
node delay
range of other characteristics, including:
transparency
amount of overhead
X.25
ITU-T standard for interface between host and packet
switched network
almost universal on packet switched networks and packet
switching in ISDN
defines three layers
Physical
Link
Packet
X.25 - Physical
interface between station node link
two ends are distinct
Data Terminal Equipment DTE (user equipment)
Data Circuit-terminating Equipment DCE (node)
physical layer specification is X.21
can substitute alternative such as EIA-232
X.25 - Link
Link Access Protocol Balanced (LAPB)
Subset of HDLC
see chapter 7
provides reliable transfer of data over link
sending as a sequence of frames
X.25 - Packet
provides a logical connections (virtual circuit) between
subscribers
all data in this connection form a single stream between
the end stations
established on demand
termed external virtual circuits
X.25 Use of Virtual Circuits
User Data and X.25 Protocol Control
Information
Issues with X.25
key features include:
call control packets, in band signaling
multiplexing of virtual circuits at layer 3
layers 2 and 3 include flow and error control
hence have considerable overhead
not appropriate for modern digital systems with high
reliability
Frame Relay
designed to eliminate most X.25 overhead
has large installed base
key differences:
call control carried in separate logical connection
multiplexing and switching at layer 2
no hop by hop error or flow control
hence end to end flow and error control (if used) are
done by higher layer
a single user data frame is sent from source to
destination and higher layer ACK sent back
Advantages and Disadvantages
lost link by link error and flow control
increased reliability means less an issue
streamlined communications process
lower delay
higher throughput
frame relay can be used for access speeds up to and over
2Mbps
Protocol Architecture
LAPF Functionality
LAPF (Link Access Procedure for Frame Mode
Bearer Services) defined in Q.922
only core functionality used:
frame delimiting, alignment and transparency
frame mux and demux using addressing field
ensure frame is integral number of octets
ensure frame is neither too long nor short
detection of transmission errors
congestion control functions
form sub-layer of data link layer
data transfer between subscribers only
Frame Relay Data Link Connections
logical connection between subscribers
data transferred over them
not protected by flow or error control
uses separate connection for call control
overall results in significantly less work in network
User Data Transfer
only have one frame type which
carries user data
no control frames means
no inband signaling
no sequence numbers
flag and FCS function as in HDLC
address field carries DLCI
DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier) has local
significance only
ATM
a streamlined packet transfer interface
similarities to packet switching
transfers data in discrete chunks
supports multiple logical connections over a single physical
interface
ATM uses fixed sized packets called cells
with minimal error and flow control
data rates of 25.6Mbps to 622.08Mbps
Protocol Architecture
Reference Model Planes
user plane
provides for user information transfer
control plane
call and connection control
management plane
plane management
whole system functions
layer management
Resources and parameters in protocol entities
ATM Logical Connections
virtual channel connections (VCC)
analogous to virtual circuit in X.25
basic unit of switching between two end users
full duplex
fixed size cells
also for
user-network exchange (control)
network-network exchange (network mgmt & routing)
ATM Virtual Path Connection

virtual path connection (VPC)

bundle of VCC with same end points
Virtual Channel Terminology
Virtual Path Terminology

VPI
VP/VC Switching -1
VPI 1 VPI 3
VCI 1 VCI 1
VCI 2 VCI 2
VCI 3 VCI 3

VPI 2 VPI 4
VCI 1 VCI 1
VCI 2 VCI 2
VCI 3 VCI 3

VPI 3
VCI 3
VPI 1 VCI 4
VCI 1
VCI 2 VPI 4
VCI 3 VCI 1
VCI 4 VCI 2
VCI 3
VPI 2
VCI 1 VPI 5
VCI 2 VCI 1
VCI 3 VCI 2
VP/VC Switching -2
Advantages of Virtual Paths
simplified network architecture
increased network performance and reliability
reduced processing
short connection setup time
enhanced network services
Virtual Channel Connection Uses
between end users
end to end user data
control signals
VPC provides overall capacity
VCC organization done by users

between end user and network

control signaling
between network entities
network traffic management
routing for the exchange of network management information
VP/VC Characteristics
quality of service: cell loss ratio, cell delay
variation
switched and semi-permanent channel connections
call sequence integrity
traffic parameter negotiation and usage monitoring

VPC only
virtual channel identifier restriction within VPC
Control Signaling - VCC
to establish or release VCCs & VPCs
uses a separate connection
methods are:
1. semi-permanent VCC
2. meta-signaling channel
3. user to network signaling virtual channel
4. user to user signaling virtual channel
Control Signaling - VPC
methods for control signalling for VPCs:
1. Semi-permanent
2. Customer controlled
3. Network controlled
ATM Cells
ATM Header Fields
generic flow control
Virtual path identifier
Virtual channel identifier
payload type
cell loss priority
header error control
Generic Flow Control (GFC)
control traffic flow at user to network interface
(UNI) to alleviate short term overload
two sets of procedures
uncontrolled transmission
controlled transmission
every connection subject to flow control or not
if subject to flow control
may be one group (A) default
may be two groups (A and B)
flow control is from subscriber to network
Payload Type (PT) Coding
Header Error Control
ATM Service Categories
Real time - limit amount/variation of delay
Constant bit rate (CBR)
Real time variable bit rate (rt-VBR)
Non-real time - for bursty traffic
Non-real time variable bit rate (nrt-VBR)
Available bit rate (ABR)
Unspecified bit rate (UBR)
Guaranteed frame rate (GFR)
Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
fixed data rate continuously available
tight upper bound on delay
uncompressed audio and video
video conferencing
interactive audio
A/V distribution and retrieval
Real-Time Variable Bit Rate
(rt-VBR)
for time sensitive applications
tightly constrained delay and delay variation
rt-VBR applications transmit data at a rate that
varies with time
e.g. compressed video
produces varying sized image frames
original (uncompressed) frame rate constant
so compressed data rate varies
hence can statistically multiplex connections
Non-Real-Time Variable Bit Rate (nrt-VBR)
if can characterize expected bursty traffic flow
e.g. airline reservations, banking transactions
ATM net allocates resources based on this
to meet critical response-time requirements
giving improved QoS in loss and delay
end system specifies:
peak cell rate
sustainable or average rate
measure of how bursty traffic is
Available Bit Rate (ABR)
application specifies peak cell rate (PCR) and minimum
cell rate (MCR)
resources allocated to give at least MCR
spare capacity shared among all ABR sources
e.g. LAN interconnection
Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)
may be additional capacity over and above that
used by CBR and VBR traffic
not all resources dedicated to CBR/VBR traffic
unused cells due to bursty nature of VBR
for application that can tolerate some cell loss or
variable delays
e.g. TCP based traffic
cells forwarded on FIFO basis
best effort service
ATM Bit Rate Services
Summary of ATM
3-plane high-speed cell switching
Virtual Circuit in ATM layer
2-layered VC: VPI + VCI

Controls left in ATM

Generic Flow Control (User-Network Interface)
Congestion Control

Concept of Quality-of-Service (QoS)

QoS parameters + Traffic parameters
Summary of ATM Services
QoS part Traffic part

CBR Tight delay bound Fixed data rate

Tightly constrained Peak/Avg. cell rate,

rt-VBR delay & delay variation traffic burstiness

nrt-VBR Improved QoS in loss Peak/Avg. cell rate,

and delay traffic burstiness
Spare capacity shared
ABR among all ABR sources Peak/Min. cell rate

Tolerate some cell loss

UBR Unspecified
or variable delays, BE