AHSS Auto Structural Metal Stampings: Crucial Role of Lubricant

Nazim Baluch1 , Norani Nordin2 , and Shahimi Mohtar3

1
School of Technology Management & Logistics, COB Universiti Utara Malaysia
2
School of Technology Management & Logistics, COB Universiti Utara Malaysia
3
School of Technology Management & Logistics, COB Universiti Utara Malaysia

Abstract

The automotive industry is focused on developing cars with higher safety levels, reduced fuel consumption and
cost efficient production methods. To improve crash worthiness and fuel economy, the automotive industry is,
increasingly, using Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). With well proven production processes requiring
minimal investments; the higher price of AHSS is quickly offset by reduced volumes; on e steel grade of AHSS
replaces several traditional steel grades. However, in recent years, stampers, particularly those serving the
automotive industry, have begun to face new challenges related to the increased use of AHSS. Stamping AHSS
can push the capability limits of some lubricants and often causes lubricant film break down and galling that
increases scrap rates and tool maintenance cost. For this reason, lubrication is vital for successful sheet metal
forming; it is essential in stamping operations to avoid metal to metal contact and provide cooling effect by
preventing heat generation and transfer during deformation. Though AHSS is most advantageous when used for
safety components, structural parts of the car body and the chassis, its increasing use puts higher demands on
tool steels and lubricants used in forming and blanking/punching operations. This paper discusses the
advantages of AHSS in auto metal stampings, highlights the new challenges faced by stampers, particularly
those serving the automotive industry and delineates the exigency of draw lubricant in producing high quality
auto stampings from AHSS.

Keywords: Auto Stampings; Advanced High Strength Steel; Draw Lubricants; Forming

Introduction

The automotive industry is focused on developing cars with higher safety levels, reduced fuel
consumption and cost efficient production methods. This will be accomplished through
smarter design and the continuous introduction of newer, lighter and stronger materials. It is
no longer enough to keep the weight of new models constant; growing awareness of the need
to reduce CO 2 emissions has become an important driving force. Using advanced high
strength steel (AHSS) offers many environmental advantages; when weight is reduced in
producing a detail, a smaller amount of raw material is used and less energy is consumed. At
the same time, less energy is needed to transport the steel. Steel is also totally
renewable.There are applications where the selection of AHSS makes it possible to exclude
tempering furnaces from the manufacturing process, and consequently the environmental
hazards involved. On the other hand, the ever increasing demand for safety in cars
necessitates higher strength material to be used in critical safety elements in the car body. The
solution to meet these objectives is to use AHSS in the car body. A higher strength work
material leads to an increased strength of the formed part and less material may be needed to
achieve the desired detail strength. To improve crash worthiness and fuel economy, the
automotive industry is, increasingly, using AHSS. Today, and in the future, automotive
manufacturers must reduce the overall weight of their cars. The most cost-efficient way to do
this is with AHSS. However, there are several parameters that decide which of the AHSS
types to be used; the most important parameters are derived from the geometrical form of the
component and the selection of forming and blanking method (Kim, 2009; SSAB, 2013).
Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS)

The term Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) is generally used for dual phase steels,
complex phase steels, TRIP steels and martensitic steels; it primarily means multi phase
steels. The high yield strength micro-alloyed steels also belong to AHSS group; conventional
high strength steels are single phase ferritic steels. AHSS is the most competitive material on
the market today. With well proven production processes requiring minimal investments; the
higher price of AHSS is quickly offset by reduced volumes. One steel grade of AHSS
replaces several traditional steel grades. The increased use of AHSS is leading the way in
crash safety; other materials are far behind. AHSS provide an excellent way to reduce weight
and improve performance. Dual phase and martensitic steels show a good combination of
strength, formability and weld ability. This, together with the cost-effectiveness of cold
forming results in very attractive solutions for body-in-white structural parts, as well as safety
parts such as door impact beams, bumper systems and seat structures. AHSS are suitable to
use with all common welding methods in the automotive industry such as electrical resistance
welding, arc welding and laser welding. In many cases, the same welding parameters as for
mild steels can even be used when joining AHSS. From a design point of view, AHSS is
generally a favoured solution. However, the high stresses and low thickness puts emphasis on
finding a solution that uses the full potential of the material. Design challenges can include
local buckling effects, loss in stiffness, robustness and fatigue issues. With the right
production process and design, it is easy to deal with these challenges (SSAB, 2013).

AHSS is most advantageous when used for safety components, structural parts of the car
body and the chassis. As a general rule, the weight reduction is about 50 percent, i.e. when
compared to mild steel the thickness is halved without sacrificing strength; as a result, AHSS
has become the material of choice for sill reinforcements, A-pillars, B-pillars, waistline
reinforcements, bumpers, side impact beams, roof bows and seats. AHSS steel has also been
introduced in all other vital areas of the car and many new cars are already composed of 30 to
40 percent AHSS. In only a few years, AHSS is predicted to make up 40 to 50 percent of the
sheet steel used in cars contributing to a 5 percent reduction in total GHG (Green House Gas)
emissions.The smooth and cost-efficient transition from mild steels, or conventional high
strength steels, to AHSS is one of the factors behind the success of AHSS within the
automotive industry. This is because AHSS can be formed and joined in much the same way
as milder steel, but with only half the thickness. The cutting and forming (stamping) of AHSS
can be done without increased force and common welding and joining techniques can be used
with only minor adjustments (UDDEHOLMS, 2013).

Metal Stamping

Stamping presses and stamping dies are tools used to produce high volume sheet metal parts.
These parts achieve their shape through the effects of the die tooling. Production stamping is
generally performed on materials .020 to .080 thick, but the process also can be applied to
foils as thin as .001 or to plate stock with thickness' approaching 1.000.
Formability is the primary attribute of sheet metal material and is defined as the materials
ability to be; bent; stretched; and drawn. The word die is a generic term used to describe the
tooling used to produce stamped parts. A die set assembly consisting of a male and female
component is the actual tool that produces the shaped stamping (Figure: 1). Male and female
components work in opposition to both form and punch holes in the stock. The upper half of
the die set, which may be either the male or female, is mounted on the press ram and delivers
the stroke action. The lower half is attached to an intermediate bolster plate which in turn is
secured to the press bed. Guide pins are used to insure alignment between the upper and
lower halves of the die set (SME, 2013).

Figure: 1 Progressive Metal Stamping Die (Source: Metal Stamping Services Chicago USA)

Progressive stamping is a metalworking method that can encompass: Blanking; Punching;

Coining; Bending; Perforating; Piercing; Notching; Lancing; Embossing; and several other
ways of modifying metal raw material, combined with an automatic feeding system. The
feeding system pushes a strip of metal (as it unrolls from a coil) through all of the stations of
a progressive stamping die. Each station performs one or more operations until a finished part
is made. The final station is a cut off operation, which separates the finished part from the
carrying web. The carrying web, along with metal that is punched away in previous
operations, is treated as scrap metal. The progressive stamping die is placed into a
reciprocating stamping press. As the press moves up, the top die moves with it, which allows
the material to feed. When the press moves down, the die closes and performs the stamping
operation. With each stroke of the press, a completed part is removed from the die. Since
additional work is done in each "station" of the die, it is important that the strip be advanced
very precisely so that it aligns within a few thousandths of an inch as it moves from station to
station. Bullet shaped or conical "pilots" enter previously pierced round holes in the strip to
assure this alignment since the feeding mechanism usually cannot provide the necessary
precision in feed length (Baluch et al., 2012).

Forming is a general term used to describe a stamped part whose shape and contour is
reproduced directly from the shape and contour of a die set. The main forming operations
accomplished with press mounted dies are: drawing; bending; flanging; hemming.
In addition, the new higher-strength steels require more energy to stamp, which introduces
heat into the process. Heat can be controlled by slowing the stamping-line speed, but
productivity suffers. Die-cooling methods may have to be introduced to combat the heat. And
of course, anything that helps to reduce friction will be a friend to manufacturers who need to
stamp parts using these new steels. As the use of AHSS continues to grow, there will be an
increasingly critical role for forming fluids and lubricants in coming years. Drawing, or draw
forming, involves forcing a blank deeply into a die cavity and shaping it into the shape and
contour of the punch face and sides. Without sufficient formability qualities, drawn blanks
are subject to wrinkling, thinning, and fracturing. The resistance of the sheet metal stock to
the forces exerted by the moving dies creates friction. For this reason, lubrication is vital for
successful sheet metal forming (Liljengren et al., 2008).

Role of Lubricant

The term lubricity brings to mind a fatty oil or grease that is derived from a natural source,
be animal or vegetable. The original lubricant used in the U.S. in the mid-1800s was oil
obtained from sperm whales. In the 1850s, production of sperm-whale oil averaged more than
100,000 barrels/day. However, the dominance of naturally derived lubricants did not last
because petroleum oil became much more readily available in 1870 and has since become the
main base stock used up to now. Fatty oils and their derivatives, whether naturally or
synthetically derived, have now moved into the role of boundary lubricity additives that
supplement petroleum oil by preventing two metal surfaces in close proximity from
contacting each other. Such a role prevents increases in wear and friction (Canter, 2009).
Beginning in the 1970s, synthetic stamping lubricants became viable options to petroleum
based products throughout North America. These water-based lubricants provided
improvements to post-process operations such as welding, reduced costs associated with parts
washing and housekeeping, and were environmentally friendly. Their popularity increased in
1989 when the Auto-Steel Partnership approved, for the first time, use of a synthetic lubricant
(Fuchs Eco Draw HVE 1) by automotive OEMs.

In recent years, stampers, particularly those serving the automotive industry, have begun to
face new challenges related to the increased use of AHSS. Stamping AHSS can push the
capability limits of some lubricants, considering, European and Asian automotive OEMs
(Original Equipment Manufacturers) often restrict or discourage the use of water-based
lubricants when stamping their components.

Lubricants range from light mineral oils to high viscosity drawing compounds. They may be
oil base, water soluble or synthetic materials. These lubricants may be applied in a variety of
ways, including; manually by roller or brush, drip, machine roller, and spraying.
Most metal forming operations use lubricants to protect the tooling and part from excessive
wear caused by scuffing, scratching, scoring, welding, and galling. Four lubricant families are
commonly used in press working, and thousands of formulations are available within
eachchemical family. The physical characteristics of the lubricant and metal forming
operation involved determine the application method to be used.
Lubricants work by forming lubricating films between two sliding surfaces in contact with
each other. When these metal surfaces are viewed under magnification, peaks and valleys
become apparent, even on finely ground surfaces (Figure: 2).The lubricating film needs to
prevent the asperities (peaks) on the two surfaces in sliding contact with each other from
damaging the mating surface. In metal stamping dies this is typically accomplished with
mixed film lubrication. Some areas of the die are in hydrodynamic or full- film lubrication;
other areas operate under boundary film conditions; and the most difficult high-pressure
stations sometimes function with chemical extreme-pressure (EP) films (Hough, 2002).The
viscosity of the lubricant has a large impact on sheet forming process. Low viscosity
lubricants (25 - 50 cSt) are used for simpler sheet forming operations, but for more
demanding stamping operations, a higher viscosity lubricant should be used;see Figure 3for
the lubricant viscosity influence (UDDEHOLMS, 2013).

Figure: 2 peaks and valleys on metal surface Figure: 3 Influence of lubricant viscosity on drawing
Max cup height using lube viscosity 500cSt (Lt cup) & 40 cSt (Rt cup)
Lubrication in sheet metal forming

Lubrication is essential in stamping to avoid metal to metal contact and provide cooling effect
by preventing heat generation and transfer during deformation. Friction and lubrication in
sheet metal forming are influenced by various parameters such as material properties, surface
finish, temperature, sliding velocity, contact pressure, and lubricant characteristics (Kim et
al., 2008; Bay et al., 2010). A good understanding of the parameters that affect friction is
essential for selecting lubricants and producing good quality sheet metal parts. The
parameters that affect friction and lubrication are shown in Figure 4.In sheet metal forming,
the magnitude and distribution of friction affect metal flow, part defects and quality, as well
as tool wear and production costs; it is one of the process variables that profoundly affect the
quality of stamping sheet materials. Using a good lubricant can significantly reduce scrap rate
and/or improve the quality of stamping.
Figure: 4 Influencing factors affecting friction and lubrication in sheet metal forming (Altan &Tekkaya, 2012)

Four lubricant chemical families, commonly, are used in stamping, and thousands of
formulations are available within each chemical family. Generally, the lubricant families can
be rated from the heaviest duty (as far as protecting tooling) to the lightest duty as:
Compounded oils (heaviest duty); Macro-emulsions (soluble oils); Chemical solutions
(synthetics); Vanishing oils (lightest duty). The order of this list becomes inverted when these
chemical families are rated for ease of use in manufacturing. Tool wear problems in standard
metal forming operations of common metals can be addressed by using a heavier-duty
product within the same chemical family or switching to a heavier-duty family, such as from
a macro-emulsion to a compounded oil.
Various types of additives are used to enhance the performance of lubricants. The extreme
pressure (EP) additives are very commonly used in heavy-duty metal stamping operations.
They are categorized in two types: first - temperature activated; and second non-temperature
activated. The temperature activated EP additives such as chlorine, phosphorus, and sulfur
react as the interface temperature increases and they generate a film by a chemical reaction
with the metal surface. This chemical film helps to prevent metal-to-metal contact in
stamping operation. EP additives have different effectiveness in particular temperature ranges
such as: Phosphorus is effective up to 205C (400F); Chlorine is effective between
205~700C (1100F); and Sulfur is effective between 700~960C (1800F) (Byers, 2006;
Lowery, 2008).

Discussion

Forming AHSS often causes lubricant film break down and galling that increases scrap rates
and tool maintenance cost. The increasing use of AHSS in new product designs puts higher
demands on tool steels and lubricants used in forming and blanking/punching operations. The
use of advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) has been steadily increasing in vehicle body
constructions to enable improved fuel economy and vehicle safety performance. However,
the high press loads required for stamping AHSS sheets causes severe chipping and adhesive
wear on stamping/blanking die materials (Wang et al., 2013). A lubricants function is to
minimize contact between the tooling and the work piece. This result in reduced tonnage
requirements, longer tooling life, and improved product quality.Lubricant properties, process
of application, and control affect tool wear in stamping operations. Most metal forming
operations use lubricants to protect the tooling and part from excessive wear caused by
scuffing, scratching, scoring, welding, and galling.

Galling is adhesive wear and is caused by macroscopic transfer of material between metallic
surfaces, during transverse motion (sliding). Galling occurs frequently whenever metal
surfaces are in contact, sliding against each other, especially with poor lubrication. Galling
often occurs in high load, low speed applications, but also occurs in high-speed applications
with very little load. Galling is distinctive from gouging or scratching in that galling involves
the visible transfer of material as it is adhesively pulled (mechanically spalled) from one
surface, leaving it stuck to the other in the form of a raised lump. Unlike other forms of wear,
galling is usually not a gradual process, but occurs quickly and spreads rapidly as the raised
lumps induce more galling. Galling is a form of surface damage arising between sliding
solids, distinguished by microscopic, usually localized, roughening and creation of
protrusions above the original surface (ASTM, 2006; Bergstrm et al., 2008).

Work Hardening and Spring Back

The work-hardening and spring-back characteristics of AHSS can require stamping

operations to boost press tonnage and increase ram dwell time. The resulting increase in
friction and associated heat can break down stamping lubricants, deplete their boundary
protection and render them ineffective. In these situations, stampers opt for lubricants with
extreme-pressure (EP) additives such as chlorine, sulphur and phosphorous. Activated by
heat, these additives react with metal to form metallic salts with low shear strength. These
salts provide an additional yet temporary coating to protect the tools and work piece. As the
tool and work piece temperatures increase during deformation, lubricants with EP additive
become thinner (low viscosity), may burn. On the other hand, the lubricants with extreme
temperature (ET) additive become thicker (high viscosity). Lubricants with ET additives stick
to the hot work piece and create a friction-reducing film barrier between the tool and the
work piece (IRMCO, 2012).

Forming AHSS requires better-performing lubricants, possibly with extreme-pressure (EP)

additives, because of the high contact pressure and temperature that occur during the process.
Plastic deformation is caused by contact pressure exceeding the compression yield stress of
the tool material. When bending AHSS steels, the spring-back effects will be more
pronounced. However, increasing the plastic deformation of the material at the bend can
compensate spring-back. This can be done by over-bending the material and reducing the
punch radius or die opening width. The spring-back may also be reduced by the introduction
of stiffeners. The right punch radius combined with the right die width is therefore
particularly important in bending AHSS steels. The spring-back effect can also be reduced by
applying an initial deep drawing step and a final stretching of the material. It is not
recommended to increase the friction during the whole process, e.g. by reducing the draw
radii and consequently preventing the material from being drawn into the die and also larger
spring-back effects such as sidewall curves.
Dimensional control is extremely important when stamping automotive parts. Newer steels
all exhibit specific stress-strain curves, resulting in unique spring-back levels and behaviours.
Spring-back, the tendency for a material to return to its pre-formed position has negative
consequences for part dimensions. In order for parts to be manufactured in large volumes,
each part must be reproducible hit after hit. Researchers must look at how to compensate for
spring-back by examining all the variables in the manufacturing process including tooling,
part shape and the machinery itself to ensure volume production repeatability. AHSS research
has resulted in the development of new steels, like DP 980 and DP 1180 grades. As new
steels with differing stress-strain curves enter the manufacturing pipeline, tooling
manufacturers need the data to plug into die-design calculations (Kren, 2011).

Boundary Lubricity Additives

Under hydrodynamic or full- film lubrication, two surfaces are completely separated by a
fluid film, with no contact between the asperities. This condition could change as speeds vary
during start and stop modes or if the pressure and temperature increase beyond the lubricant's
film strength. At this point the asperities may come into contact, so a boundary film lubricant
is required. A boundary lubricity additive is any chemical component but the base oil itself
that improves lubricating efficiency under boundary lubricant conditions that occur when the
friction is largely determined by the surfaces and surface-chemical properties of the lubricant.
Boundary lubrication is different from hydrodynamic lubrication, which occurs when two
surfaces are kept separate because of the viscosity of the lubricant.
As the name implies, boundary lubricity additives reduce friction and wear by maintaining a
physical boundary between contacting surfaces (generally in a liquid phase). In metalworking
fluids, the term lubricity additive is widely used, but the functionality is not unlike what is
commonly referred to as a friction modifier in other lubricant types. A boundary lubricity
additive functions through its ability to adhere to the metal surface. This property is achieved
because of the presence of a polar head group contained within the structure of the additive.
Boundary lubricity additives rely on hydrocarbon chains to serve as a fluid barrier between
surfaces. Polar compounds such as synthetically prepared esters or naturally occurring
triglycerides are especially effective at this function due to their ability to orient a polar head
of the molecule onto a metal surface. This polarity creates a strong affinity to the metal by
one end of the molecule and allows a non-polar hydrocarbon to extend out and provide a
barrier between surfaces. Petroleum oils, though strictly non-polar, also have some boundary
lubricity functionality; however, their effectiveness is limited because petroleum oils lack
polar affinity to metal surfaces (Canter, 2009).
Oils, aside from the level of effective EP additives that can be blended into them, provide
other benefits that prove particularly useful when forming AHSS. Along with the neo-
synthetic lubricants designed for this type of work, oils provide superior film strength. This
allows the lubricants to survive the thinning effect created by excess heat generated during
forming or tight-tolerance ironing operations. The added film strength also provides
consistent boundary protection that can reduce the need for EP additives, while allowing the
lubricant to better adhere to the work piece during forming stages. Historically, North
American stampers use water-miscible lubricants. Here, costs can be substantially reduced by
diluting these products with water. Whether the oil is derived from petroleum or plants, many
of these emulsions provide substantial anti-corrosion protection. This characteristic can be
increased by stacking parts in a manner that avoids lubricant puddling, or tight nestling
(Bosler, 2013).

Lubricant Application and Control

Even the finest lubricant will not prevent tool wear if it does not get to the tool when needed.
Lubricants can be applied by manual, spraying, immersion or roller depending on the type of
the lubricant. Applying emulsion may not be proper with roller because of a separation
problem. Spraying is more suitable for much type of lubricants, economical and easy to clean
when it needs to be applied locally.

The physical characteristics of the lubricant and metal forming operation determine the
application method to be used. Five commonly used application systems are: Roll coater;
Drip; Airless spray; Micro-metering mist; and Re-circulating flood. Tool wear can be reduced
in tough transfer press operations that use water-soluble flood systems by applying with a roll
coater or by drip method a high-viscosity, EP-type compounded oil to the stock going into the
die. The compounded oil reduces tool wear on the draw rings in the cupping stations.
An easy and effective way to increase tool life on punching and perforating equipment is to
lubricate the bottom of the strip. Punch wear occurs on the return stroke, after the punch
breaks through and the metal springs back onto the punch. Using a roll coater or spray system
to apply lubricant on the bottom of the strip allows the punch to re-lubricate itself for the
return trip.
Airless spray systems are suitable for applying lubricants onto progressive dies or transfer
tools. They can be actuated to apply lubricant to the top or bottom of the stock or onto only
the station or tool needing it. This application method helps to increase the life of extruding
punches, sizing tooling, shaving punches, and in-die taps
Boundary lubrication is commonly used in most metal forming operation because of the high
pressures and low speeds involved. The main function of a boundary lubricant in press
forming is to interpose between the work metal and the tool to minimize metallic contact. In
deep drawing, this lubricant also is of major importance in controlling friction of the work
metal against the drawing die and the blank holder or drawing ring. Because of their natural
origins, vegetable oil-derived base stocks and esters are used in environmentally sensitive
applications. These biodegradable lubricants can be used over a wide temperature range, and
their high viscosity does not vary as much with temperature as mineral oils' viscosity. This
allows them to be used in forming lubricants, total-loss lubricants such as mist lubes, and in
specialty hydraulic fluids. Vegetable oil-based chemistries are genetically modified to alter
their fatty acid distribution for enhanced high-temperature performance and oxidative
stability (Mang & Dresel, 2007; Schumann et al., 2001).
Chlorine has come under increasing scrutiny for environmental issues, and many companies
have restricted or banned its use; Sulfur also has limited use in synthetic lubricants for similar
reasons. Lubricants with phosphorus additives have good solubility characteristics and
hydrolytic stability. In addition, they contribute to corrosion inhibition and improved wetting
characteristics of most synthetic formulations. Phosphorus-based chemistries can be
formulated into true-solution and emulsion-type synthetics (Trivett, 2004).

Post metal forming operations

Most of the lubricants are applied on sheet metals before press forming. Lubricants also
affect post-metal forming operations such as welding, adhesive bonding, and painting. In
addition to their good lubricity, lubricants must be easily removable from the formed panels,
because the stamped part has to be completely oil-free for painting. Therefore, in
selection/evaluation of stamping lubricants, it is necessary to consider advantages and
disadvantages of lubricants not only for deep drawing, but also for assembly and painting
operations. Synthetic and dry film lubricants are more environmental friendly and more
compatible with post processes than the petroleum based lubricants. Therefore, nowadays
there is an increase in the usage of these lubricants in automotive industry (Bay et al., 2010).

Conclusion

Forming AHSS requires better-performing lubricants, possibly with extreme-pressure (EP)

additives, because of the high contact pressure and temperature that occur during the process.
A good understanding of the parameters that affect friction is essential for selecting lubricants
and producing good quality sheet metal parts. Lubrication is essential in stamping to avoid
metal to metal contact and provide cooling effect by preventing heat generation and transfer
during deformation. Using a good lubricant can significantly reduce scrap rate and/or
improve the quality of stamping. Because of advances in chemistries, applications, and
equipment, stamping operations now have access to better technologies for synthetic drawing
and stamping compounds. From these developments, the next generation of synthetic
stamping and drawing fluids are entering the marketplace. These oil-free and water-reducible
products have improved lubricating properties; lower solids, which are easier to clean; and
can extend the life of the cleaner bath. They also offer corrosion protection, exhibit less die
build-up, and can improve welding properties. The new generation of synthetics are
environmentally and operator-friendly, reduce heat on work pieces, and help produce parts
that come off the press cool to the touch. In spite of the rising cost of specialized additives,
overall lubricant economies can be realized through higher production rates, improved
surface quality, and reduced downstream problems such as waste treatment costs.

References

Altan, T. and Tekkaya, E., 2012, Sheet Metal Forming: Fundamentals, Volume I, ASM International, Chapter
7, published in 2012
ASTM standard G40 (2006)
Baluch, N., Abdullah, C. S., and Mohtar, S. (2012). Managing innovation - an automotive plant
experience.Asian Business Seminar Circuit (ABSC) Conference, 3-4 October 2012, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
Bay, N., Azushima, A., Groche, P., Ishibashi, I., Merklein, M., Morishita, M., Nakamura, T., Scmid, S.,
Yoshida, M., 2012, Environmentally Benign Tribo-systems for Metal Forming, CIRP Annals, Vol. 59,
Issue 2, 2010
Bergstrm,J., Krakhmalev, P., Grd, A., and Lindvall, F., 2008, "Galling in Sheet Metal Forming," in proceedings
of the IDDRG 2008.
Bosler, P., 2013, NEW STAMPING LUBRICANTS MEET NEW CHALLENGES, MetalForming Magazine
June 2013 issue, retrieved on 14 January 2014 from:
http://www.metalforming magazine.co m/ magazine/archives/issue.asp?i=2013 -6
Byers, J. P., 2006, Metalworking Fluids Second Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 104-114
Canter, N., 2009, Boundary Lubricity Additives and How do they function, Tribology & Lubrication
Technology, September 2009, Retrieved on 10 Jan 2014 from:
www.elevance.com/documents/200909_techbeat.pdf
Hough, J., 2002, Tooling lube it or lose it, Fabricator 2002, retrieved on 14 January 2014 from:
http://www.thefabricator.com/article/toolanddie/tooling-lube-it-or-lose-it
IRMCO, 2012, IRMCO lubricants, IL, USA, info retrieved on 14 January 2014 from:
http://www.irmco.com/lib/Media/irmco_2012_brochure.pdfsite
Kim, H., 2009, Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS): Evaluation of lubricants, tool materials and coatings for
reducing galling, LAP Lambert Academic Publishing (August 14, 2009), ISBN-10: 3838305906
Kim, H., Palaniswamy, H., and Altan, T., 2006, Investigation of tribological conditions in forming uncoated
and galvanized advanced/ultra high strength steels, CPF, 2.3/06/01, 2006.
Kren, L., 2011, Hurdles to Stamping Giga Pascal Strength Steels AHSS, Metalform, retrieved on 10 January
2014 from: http://www.metalformingfacts.com/hurdles -stamping-gigapascal-strength-steels.html
Lowery, S., 2008, Green Lubes under Microscope, The Fabricator, October 2008
Liljengren M., Kjellsson,K., Johansson,T., and Asnafi,N., 2008, "Die Materials, Hardening Methods and
Surface Coatings for Forming of High, Extra High & Ultra High Strength Steel Sheets
(HSS/EHSS/UHSS), in proceedings of the IDDRG 2008.
Mang, T. and Dresel, W., 2007, Lubricants and Lubrication, Wiley -VCH Verlag GmbH & Co., pp. 645, 2007
Schumann et al., 2001 Schumann, M. L. and Simoes, D., Choosing a Lubricant for Deep Drawing, The
Fabricator, February 2001
SME (2013), Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Sheet metal die stamping dies and forming practices,
Retrieved on 10 January 2014 from: www.sme.org/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=73769
SSAB, 2013, Tooling solutions for advanced high s trength steels selection guidelines SSAB Swedish Steel
Brochure, retrieved on 14 January 2014 from: http://www.uddeholm.com/files/Tooling_solutions.pdf
Trivett, B., 2004, Next generation synthetic forming fluids: Advanced -technology lubricants can improve
productivity, STAMPING JOURNAL APRIL 2004, Retrieved on 14 January 2014 from:
http://www.thefabricator.com/article/toolanddie/next-generation-synthetic-forming-fluids
UDDEHOLM S, 2013, TOOLING SOLUTIONS FOR ADVANCED HIGH STRENGTH STEELS, retrieved on
14 January 2014 from: http://www.uddeholm.com/files/SB-tooling-solution-ahss-uddeholm.pdf
Wang, C., Chen, J., Xia, Z. C., and Ren, F. 2013. Die wear prediction by defining three-stage coefficient K for
AHSS sheet metal forming process. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology.
October 2013, Volume 69, Issue 1-4, pp 797-803