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Language of Jesus

It is generally agreed that Jesus and his disciples primarily understand the elements of the Greek lan-
spoke Aramaic, the common language of Judea in the rst guage, although I have so long accustomed
century AD, most likely a Galilean dialect distinguish- myself to speak our own tongue, that I cannot
able from that of Jerusalem.[1] The towns of Nazareth pronounce Greek with sucient exactness;
and Capernaum in Galilee, where Jesus spent most of his for our nation does not encourage those that
time, were Aramaic-speaking communities.[2] learn the languages of many nations, and so
adorn their discourses with the smoothness
of their periods; because they look upon this
1 Cultural and linguistic back- sort of accomplishment as common, not only
to all sorts of free-men, but to as many of the
ground servants as please to learn them. But they give
him the testimony of being a wise man who
See also: Cultural and historical background of Jesus is fully acquainted with our laws, and is able
to interpret their meaning; on which account,
as there have been many who have done their
Aramaic was the common language of the Eastern
endeavors with great patience to obtain this
Mediterranean during and after the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-
learning, there have yet hardly been so many
Babylonian, and Achaemenid Empires (722330 BC)
as two or three that have succeeded therein,
and remained a common language of the region in the
who were immediately well rewarded for their
rst century AD. In spite of the increasing importance
pains.
of Greek, the use of Aramaic was also expanding, and
Antiquities of Jews XX, XI
it would eventually be dominant among Jews both in the
Holy Land and elsewhere in the Middle East around 200
AD[3] and would remain so until the Islamic conquests in His testimony agrees with Yadin, who points out that Ara-
the seventh century.[4][5] maic was the lingua franca at the time.[9]
According to Dead Sea Scrolls archaeologist Yigael In the rst century AD, the Aramaic language was
Yadin, Aramaic was the language of Hebrews until Simon widespread throughout the Middle East, as is supported
Bar Kokhbas revolt (132 AD to 135 AD). Yadin noticed by the testimony of Josephuss The Jewish War.[10]
the shift from Aramaic to Hebrew in the documents he
studied, which had been written during the time of the Josephus points out how people from what are now Iran,
Bar Kokhba revolt. In his book, Bar Kokhba: The re- Iraq and remote parts of the Arabian Peninsula knew all
discovery of the legendary hero of the last Jewish Revolt about the war of the Jews against the Romans because
Against Imperial Rome, Yigael Yadin notes, It is inter- of the books he wrote in the language of our country,
esting that the earlier documents are written in Aramaic books he then translated into Greek for the benet of the
while the later ones are in Hebrew. Possibly the change Greeks and Romans:
was made by a special decree of Bar Kokhba who wanted
to restore Hebrew as the ocial language of the state.[6] I have proposed to myself, for the sake
of such as live under the government of the
In another book by Sigalit Ben-Zion, Yadin said: it Romans, to translate those books into the
seems that this change came as a result of the order that Greek tongue, which I formerly composed
was given by Bar Kokhba, who wanted to revive the He- in the language of our country, and sent to
brew language and make it the ocial language of the the Upper Barbarians; Joseph, the son of
state.[7] Matthias, by birth a Hebrew, a priest also, and
According to Hebrew historian Josephus, Greek was not one who at rst fought against the Romans
spoken in rst century Palestine. Josephus also points out myself, and was forced to be present at what
the extreme rarity of a Jew knowing Greek. [8] was done afterwards, [am the author of this
work].
Josephus wrote:
Jewish Wars (Book 1, Preface, Paragraph 1)

I have also taken a great deal of pains


to obtain the learning of the Greeks, and I thought it therefore an absurd thing to

1
2 2 ARAMAIC PHRASES IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

see the truth falsied in aairs of such great is called in the Hebrew Golgotha. The last word is, in
consequence, and to take no notice of it; but fact, Aramaic. The word Golgotha is a transliteration
to suer those Greeks and Romans that were of an Aramaic word, because -tha in Golgotha is the Ara-
not in the wars to be ignorant of these things, maic denite article on a feminine noun in an emphatic
and to read either atteries or ctions, while state.[15]
the Parthians, and the Babylonians, and the
remotest Arabians, and those of our nation
beyond Euphrates, with the Adiabeni, by my 2 Aramaic phrases in the Greek
means, knew accurately both whence the war
begun, what miseries it brought upon us, and New Testament
after what manner it ended.
Jewish Wars (Book 1 Preface, Paragraph Main article: Language of the New Testament
2)
The Greek New Testament transliterates a few Semitic
words.[16] When the text itself refers to the lan-
H. St. J. Thackeray (who translated Josephus Jewish guage of such Semitic glosses, it uses words meaning
Wars from Greek into English) also points out, We learn Hebrew"/"Jewish,[17] but this term is often applied to
from the proem that the Greek text was not the rst draft unmistakably Aramaic words and phrases;[18][19] for this
of the work. It had been preceded by a narrative writ- reason, it is often interpreted as meaning the (Aramaic)
ten in Aramaic and addressed to the barbarians in the vernacular of the Jews in recent translations.[20] The
interior, who are more precisely dened lower down as Semitisms are mainly words attributed to Jesus by the
the natives of Parthia, Babylonia, and Arabia, the Jewish Gospel of Mark, and perhaps had a special signicance
dispersion in Mesopotamia, and the inhabitants of Adia- because of this.
bene, a principality of which the reigning house, as was A very small minority believe that most or all of the New
proudly remembered, were converts to Judaism (B. i, 3, Testament was originally written in Aramaic.[21][22] How-
6). Of this Aramaic work the Greek is described as a ever, such theories are rejected by mainstream Biblical
version made for the benet of the subjects of the Ro- scholarship. Traditionally, parts of the Church of the East
man Empire, i.e. the Graeco-Roman world at large.[11] (Nestorian church) have also claimed originality for the
In Acts 1:19, the Field of Blood was known to all Aramaic New Testament, but it is considered by scholars
the inhabitants of Jerusalem in their own language as to be a translation from Greek. Instead, the consensus
Akeldama, which is the transliteration of the Aramaic among mainstream academia is that although it is possible
words Haqal Dama.[12] that there may be Aramaic source materials that under-
pin some portions of the New Testament, the New Testa-
Josephus dierentiated Hebrew from his language and
ment was compiled and redacted in the Greek language.
that of rst-century Israel. Josephus refers to Hebrew
Scholars are also in agreement that there was at one time
words as belonging to the Hebrew tongue but refers to
an early Aramaic/Hebrew version of a Jewish-Christian
Aramaic words as belonging to our tongue or our lan-
gospel, but its relation to the Greek gospels is not com-
guage or the language of our country.
pletely clear because of a lack of sources.
Josephus refers to a Hebrew word with the phrase the
Hebrew tongue": But the aairs of the Canaanites were
at this time in a ourishing condition, and they expected 2.1 Talitha kum ( [])
the Israelites with a great army at the city Bezek, having
put the government into the hands of Adonibezek, which See also: Daughter of Jairus
name denotes the Lord of Bezek, for Adoni in the Hebrew
tongue signies Lord.[13] Mark 5:41
In this example, Josephus refers to an Aramaic word as
belonging to our language": This new-built part of the And taking the hand of the child, he said to her,
city was called 'Bezetha,' in our language, which, if inter- Talitha kum, which translates as, Little girl, I
preted in the Grecian language, may be called 'the New say to you, get up.
City.'"[14]
Unlike Josephus and other Hebrew priests at Jerusalem, This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, attributed to Jesus
the people of rst-century Israel had no knowledge of He- bringing the girl back to life, with a transliteration into
brew, as is conrmed throughout the New Testament. On Greek, as .
several occasions in the New Testament, Aramaic words A few Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus)
are called Hebrew. For example, in John 19:17 (KJV), of Marks Gospel have this form of the text, but oth-
the gospel-writer narrates that Jesus, bearing his cross[,] ers (Codex Alexandrinus, the text-type known as the
went forth into a place called the place of a skull, which Majority Text, and the Latin Vulgate) write
2.4 Raca () 3

(koumi)/cumi instead. The latter is in the Textus Recep- The phrase Abba, Father is repeated in Romans 8:15 and
tus and is the version that appears in the KJV. Galatians 4:6. In Aramaic, it would be .
The Aramaic is lth qm. The word lth is the femi- Note, the name Barabbas is a Hellenization of the Ara-
nine form of the word l, meaning young. Qm is the maic Bar Abba () , literally Son of the Father.
Aramaic verb 'to rise, stand, get up'. In the feminine sin-
gular imperative, it was originally qm. However, there
is evidence that in speech, the nal - was dropped so 2.4 Raca ()
the imperative did not distinguish between masculine and
feminine genders. The older manuscripts, therefore, used See also: Matthew 5:22
a Greek spelling that reected pronunciation whereas the
addition of an '' was perhaps due to a bookish copyist. Matthew 5:22
In square script Aramaic, it could be or
. But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry
with his brother [without a cause] shall be in
danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall
2.2 Ephphatha () say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of
the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool,
See also: Healing the deaf mute of Decapolis shall be in danger of hell re.

Mark 7:34 (The bracketed text does not appear in all recensions and
is absent in the Latin Vulgate.)
And looking up to heaven, he sighed and said to Raca, or Raka, in the Aramaic and Hebrew of the
him, Ephphatha, which is 'be opened'. Talmud, means empty one, fool, empty head.
In Aramaic, it could be or .
Once again, the Aramaic word is given with the transliter-
ation, only this time, the word to be transliterated is more
complicated. In Greek, the Aramaic is written . 2.5 Mammon ()
This could be from the Aramaic ethptha, the passive im-
perative of the verb ptha, 'to open', since the th could Main article: Mammon
assimilate in western Aramaic. The guttural was of- See also: Matthew 6:24
ten omitted in Greek transcriptions in the Septuagint
(Greek Old Testament) and was also softened in Galilean
speech.[23] Gospel of Matthew 6:24

In Aramaic, it could be or . This word was


No one can serve two masters: for either they
adopted as the ocial motto of Gallaudet University, the
will hate the one, and love the other; or else they
United States' most prominent school for the deaf.
will hold to the one, and despise the other. You
cannot serve God and mammon.
2.3 Abba ([])
Luke 16:913
See also: Agony in the Garden
And I say unto you, Make to yourselves friends
Mark 14:36 of the mammon of unrighteousness; that, when
ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting
habitations. He that is faithful in that which is
Abba, Father, he said, everything is possible least is faithful also in much: and he that is un-
for you. Take this cup from me. Yet not what I just in the least is unjust also in much. If there-
will, but what you will. fore ye have not been faithful in the unrighteous
mammon, who will commit to your trust the true
Abba, an originally Aramaic form borrowed into the riches? And if ye have not been faithful in that
Greek Old Testament as a name (2Chr 29:1) [though a which is another mans, who shall give you that
feminine one, standing for the Hebrew Abijah (]), which is your own? No servant can serve two
common in Mishnaic Hebrew and still used in Modern masters: for either he will hate the one, and love
Hebrew[24] (written [] in Greek, and abb in Ara- the other; or else he will hold to the one, and de-
maic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent spise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mam-
() with no explicit mention of it being a translation. mon.
4 2 ARAMAIC PHRASES IN THE GREEK NEW TESTAMENT

2 Clement 6 Let grace come, and let this world pass away.
Hosanna to the God (Son) of David! If any
one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so,
Now the Lord declares, No servant can serve
let him repent. Maranatha. Amen. (Roberts-
two masters. If we desire, then, to serve both
Donaldson)
God and mammon, it will be unprotable for
us. For what will it prot if a man gain the
whole world, and lose his own soul?" This world 1 Corinthians 16:22
and the next are two enemies. The one urges to
adultery and corruption, avarice and deceit; the If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let
other bids farewell to these things. We cannot, him be Anathema Maranatha.
therefore, be the friends of both; and it behoves
us, by renouncing the one, to make sure of the Depending on how one selects to split the single Greek
other. Let us reckon that it is better to hate the expression of the early manuscripts into Aramaic, it could
things present, since they are triing, and tran- be either ( marana tha, Lord, come!") or
sient, and corruptible; and to love those [who ( maran atha, Our Lord has come).
are to come,] as being good and incorruptible.
For if we do the will of Christ, we shall nd rest;
otherwise, nothing shall deliver us from eternal 2.8 Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani (, ,
punishment, if we disobey His commandments. )
(Roberts-Donaldson)
Main article: Sayings of Jesus on the cross
In Aramaic, it could be ( or, in the typical Aramaic
emphatic state suggested by the Greek ending, ). Matthew 27:46
This is usually considered to be an originally Aramaic
word borrowed into Rabbinic Hebrew,[25] but its occur- Around the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a
rence in late Biblical Hebrew and, reportedly, in 4th cen- loud voice, saying Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?"
tury Punic may indicate that it had a more general com- which is, My God, my God, why have you for-
mon Semitic background.[26] saken me?"
In the New Testament, the word Mammon, is
declined like a Greek word whereas many of the other Mark 15:34
Aramaic and Hebrew words are treated as indeclinable
foreign words. And at the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud
voice, Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" which is
translated, My God, my God, for what have
2.6 Rabbuni () you forsaken me?"

See also: Noli me tangere This phrase, among the Sayings of Jesus on the cross,
is given in these two versions. The Matthean version
John 20:16 of the phrase is transliterated in Greek as , ,
. The Markan version is , ,
(eli rather than li and supposedly lama
Jesus saith unto her, Mary. She turned herself,
rather than lema).
and saith unto him, Rabboni; which is to say,
Master. (KJV) Overall, both versions appear to be Aramaic rather than
Hebrew because of the verb ( bq) abandon, which
is originally Aramaic.[24][27] The pure Biblical Hebrew
Also in Mark 10:51. Hebrew form rabbi used as title of
counterpart to this word, ( zb) is seen in the rst line
Jesus in Matthew 26:25,49; Mark 9:5, 11:21, 14:45; John
of Psalm 22, which the saying appears to quote. Thus,
1:38, 1:49, 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, 11:8.
Jesus is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version (l
In Aramaic, it would have been . l lm azabtn ) attributed in some Jewish interpreta-
tions to King David cited as Jesus ancestor in Matthews
Genealogy of Jesus if the Eli, Eli version of Jesus outcry
2.7 Maranatha () is taken; he may be quoting the version given in an Ara-
maic Targum (surviving Aramaic Targums do use bq in
Main article: Maranatha their translations of the Psalm 22 [28] ).
The Markan word for my god, , denitely corre-
Didache 10 (Prayer after Communion) sponds to the Aramaic form , elh. The Matthean
2.11 Sikera () 5

one, , ts in better with the of the original Hebrew found in Mark 7:11 and the Septuagint (in Greek translit-
Psalm, as has been pointed out in the literature; however, eration), meaning religious gift or oering.
it may also be Aramaic because this form is attested abun- The Greek is declined as a Greek noun, much
dantly in Aramaic as well.[27][29] like other examples.
In the next verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus
cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah (ly
in Aramaic). 2.11 Sikera ()
Almost all ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of try-
See also: Zechariah (priest)
ing to normalize this text. For instance, the peculiar
Codex Bezae renders both versions with
(li li lama zaphthani). The Alexandrian, Luke 1:15
Western and Caesarean textual families all reect harmo-
nization of the texts between Matthew and Mark. Only for he will be great in the sight of the Lord. He
the Byzantine textual tradition preserves a distinction. must never drink wine or strong drink; even
The Aramaic word form aqtan is based on the verb before his birth he will be lled with the Holy
aq/aq, 'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to for- Spirit.
sake', with the perfect tense ending -t (2nd person singu-
lar: 'you'), and the object sux -an (1st person singular:
'me').
2.12 Hosanna ()
In Aramaic, it could be . See also: Triumphal entry into Jerusalem

2.9 Jot and tittle ( ) Mark 11:9

See also: Matthew 5:18 Then those who went ahead and those who fol-
lowed were shouting, Hosanna! Blessed is the
one who comes in the name of the Lord!
Matthew 5:18

This word is derived from . It is generally con-


For assuredly, I say to you, till heaven and earth
sidered to be a quote from Psalms 118:25 O Lord, save
pass away, one jot or one tittle will by no means
(us)", but the original Biblical Hebrew form was
pass from the Law (that is, the Torah) till all is
. The shortened form could be either Aramaic or
fullled.
Hebrew.[30][31]

The quotation uses them as an example of extremely mi-


nor details. In the Greek text translated as English jot
and tittle is found iota and keraia. Iota is the smallest let-
3 Aramaic personal names in the
ter of the Greek alphabet (), but since only capitals were New Testament
used at the time the Greek New Testament was written
() and because the Torah was written in Hebrew, it prob- Personal names in the New Testament come from a num-
ably represents the Hebrew yodh ( )which is the smallest ber of languages; Hebrew and Greek are most common.
letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Keraia is a hook or serif. However, there are a few Aramaic names as well. The
most prominent feature in Aramaic names is bar (Greek
transliteration , Aramaic bar), meaning 'son of', a
2.10 Korban () common patronym prex. Its Hebrew equivalent, ben,
is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are:
See also: Judas Iscariot Death
Matthew 10:3 Bartholomew ( from
Matthew 27:6 bar-Tlmay, perhaps son of furrows or plough-
man).
But the chief priests, taking the pieces of silver,
said, It is not lawful to put them into the trea- Matthew 16:17 Simon bar-Jona (
sury, since they are blood money. from imn bar-Yn, Simon son
of Jonah).

In Aramaic ( )it refers to the treasury in the Temple John 1:42 Simon bar-Jochanan (Simon son of
in Jerusalem, derived from the Hebrew Korban (), John).
6 3 ARAMAIC PERSONAL NAMES IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

Matthew 27:16 Barabbas ( from bar- 3.2 Cephas ()


Abb, son of the father).
John 1:42
Mark 10:46 Bartimaeus ( possibly
from combination of Aramaic bar and Greek He brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him
timaeus meaning honorable or highly prized, and said, You are Simon son of John, you shall
perhaps honorable son). be called Cephas, which is translated 'Peter'.
(New International Version)
Acts 1:23 Barsabbas ( from bar-
abb, son of the Sabbath"). 1 Corinthians 1:12
Acts 4:36 Joseph who is called Barnabas
But I say that each of you says I am of Paul,
( from bar-Nav meaning son of
or I am of Apollos, or I am of Cephas, or I
prophecy, the prophet, but given the Greek
am of Christ.
translation ; usually translated
as son of consolation/encouragement, the Greek
could mean invocation as well). Galatians 1:18 NRSV

Acts 13:6 Bar-Jesus ( from bar-Io, Then after three years I did go up to Jerusalem
son of Jesus/Joshua). to visit Cephas and stayed with him for fteen
days;

3.1 Boanerges () In these passages, 'Cephas is given as the nickname of the


apostle better known as Simon Peter. The Greek word is
Mark 3:17 transliterated (Kphs).
The apostles given name appears to be Simon, and he
And James, the son of Zebedee, and John, the is given the Aramaic nickname, kp, meaning 'rock' or
brother of James, and he gave them the name 'stone'. The nal sigma () is added in Greek to make the
Boanerges, which is Sons of Thunder. name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning
of the name was more important than the name itself is
evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek trans-
Jesus surnames the brothers James and John to reect lation, (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses
their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Si-
(Boanrges). mon Peter when he writes to the churches in Galatia and
There has been much speculation about this name. Given Corinth.[34] He may have been writing at a time before
the Greek translation that comes with it ('Sons of Thun- Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter. According
der'), it seems that the rst element of the name is bn, to Clement of Alexandria, there were two people named
'sons of' (the plural of 'bar'), Aramaic (). This is rep-Cephas: one was Apostle Simon Peter, and the other was
resented by (boan), giving two vowels in the rst one of Jesus Seventy Apostles.[35] Clement goes further
syllable where one would be sucient. It could be in- to say it was Cephas of the Seventy who was condemned
ferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not by Paul in Galatians 2 for not eating with the Gentiles,
be a good one. The second part of the name is often though this is perhaps Clements way of deecting the
reckoned to be ra ('tumult') Aramaic (), or raz condemnation from Simon Peter. In any case the rela-
('anger') Aramaic (). Maurice Casey, however, argues tionship of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism (which this in-
that it is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, volves) is still disputed.
ram (due to the similarity of s to the nal m). This is In Aramaic, it could be .
supported by one Syriac translation of the name as bnay
ram. The Peshitta reads bnay rey, which would t
with a later composition for it, based on a Byzantine read- 3.3 Thomas ()
ing of the original Greek.
The New Testament scholar Dennis MacDonald identies John 11:16
Castor and Pollux as basis characters for the appearance
of James son of Zebedee and his brother John who appear Then Thomas, who was called Didymus, said
in the narrative by Mark the Evangelist.[32] MacDonald to his co-disciples, Now let us go that we might
dates the origin of this identication to 1913 when J. Ren- die with him!"
del Harris published his work Boanerges,[33] a Greek term
for Thunder, the epithet of Zeus father of Pollux in what Thomas () is listed among the disciples of Jesus in
MacDonald calls a form of early Christian Dioscurism. all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it
4.2 Golgotha () 7

is only in Johns Gospel that more information is given. In press though; and shemanei is the Hebrew word she-
three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2), he is given the manim meaning oils, the plural form of the word
name Didymus (), the Greek word for a twin. In shemen , the primary Hebrew word for oil, just in an
fact, the Twin is not just a surname, it is a translation of Aramaic plural form (-ei instead of the Hebrew plural
Thomas. The Greek Thmscomes from sux -im). The word in Aramaic for oil is more prop-
the Aramaic tm, twin. Therefore, rather than two erly mia (), as also attested in Jewish writings in
personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nick- Aramaic from the Galilee (see Caspar Levias, A Gram-
name, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the per- mar of Galilean Aramaic, Jewish Theological Seminary
sonal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to of America, 1986).
distinguish him from others of the same name.
In Aramaic, it could be .
4.2 Golgotha ()

3.4 Tabitha () Mark 15:22

Acts 9:36 And they took him up to the place Golgotha,


which is translated Place of the Skull.
In Joppa, there was a disciple named Tabitha,
which is translated Dorcas. John 19:17

The disciples name is given both in Aramaic ()


And carrying his cross by himself, he went out to
and Greek (). The Aramaic name is a translitera-
the so-called Place of the Skull, which is called
tion of th, the female form of ( ay).[36] Both
in 'Hebrew' Golgotha.
names mean 'gazelle'.
It may be just coincidence that Peter's words to her in
Gaglt Aramaic, means 'skull'. The name appears in all
verse 40, Tabitha, get up!" ( ), are sim-
of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply
ilar to the "[[#Talitha kum ( [])|talitha
Kranion () 'the Skull' in Greek, with no Semitic
kum]]" phrase used by Jesus.
counterpart. The name 'Calvary' is taken from the Latin
In Aramaic, it could be . Vulgate translation, Calvaria.
In Aramaic, it could be . Though this word has
the Aramaic nal form -ta / -tha, it is otherwise also closer
4 Aramaic place names in the New to the Hebrew word for skull, gulgolet , than to the
Testament Aramaic form.

4.1 Gethsemane () 4.3 Gabbatha ()


Matthew 26:36 John 19:13

Then Jesus went with them to a place called When Pilate heard these words, he brought Je-
Gethsemane. sus outside and sat on the judges bench at a
place called The Stone Pavement, or in Hebrew,
Mark 14:32 Gabbatha.

And they went to a place that has the name The place name appears to be Aramaic. According to
Gethsemane. Josephus, War, V.ii.1, #51, the word Gabath means high
place, or elevated place, so perhaps a raised at area near
The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before the temple. The nal " "could then represent the em-
his arrest is given the Greek transliteration phatic state of the noun.
(Gethsman). It represents the Aramaic Gath-mn, In Aramaic, it could be .
meaning 'the oil press or 'oil vat' (referring to olive oil).
In Aramaic, it could be . This place name is
more properly an Aramaized version of an original He- 4.4 Akeldama ()
brew place name. Gath is a normal word for press
in Hebrew, generally used for a wine press not an olive Acts 1:19
8 6 NOTES

And this became known to all the inhabitants of [2] Aramaic language - Encyclopedia Britannica
Jerusalem, so that eld was called, in their own
[3] Senz-Badillos, ngel; Elwolde, John (1996), A history of
dialect, Akeldama, that is Field of Blood. the Hebrew language, pp. 17071, There is general agree-
ment that two main periods of RH (Rabbinical Hebrew)
The place of Judas Iscariot's death is clearly named Field can be distinguished. The rst, which lasted until the close
of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition of the Tannaitic era (around 200 CE), is characterized
gives a number of dierent spellings of the Aramaic. by RH as a spoken language gradually developing into a
The Majority Text reads (Akeldama); other literary medium in which the Mishnah, Tosefta, baraitot
manuscript versions give (Acheldamach), and Tannaitic midrashim would be composed. The sec-
(Hakeldama), (Hacheldama) and ond stage begins with the Amoraim, and sees RH being
(Hakeldamach). Despite these variant replaced by Aramaic as the spoken vernacular, surviving
spellings the Aramaic is most probably ql dm, 'eld only as a literary language. Then it continued to be used
in later rabbinic writings until the tenth century in, for ex-
of blood'. While the seemingly gratuitous Greek sound
ample, the Hebrew portions of the two Talmuds and in
of kh [x] at the end of the word is dicult to explain, midrashic and haggadic literature
the Septuagint similarly adds this sound to the end of the
Semitic name Ben Sira to form the Greek name for the [4] Frederick E. Greenspahn. An Introduction to Aramaic -
Book of Sirakh (Latin: Sirach). The sound may be a di- Second Edition, 2003. ISBN 1-58983-059-8.
alectic feature of either the Greek speakers or the original [5] Aramaic Language: The Language of Christ. Mountle-
Semitic language speakers. banon.org. Retrieved on 2014-05-28.
In Aramaic, it could be . [6] Yadin, Yigael (1971). Bar-Kokhba; the rediscovery of the
legendary hero of the second Jewish revolt against Rome.
New York: Random House. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-297-
4.5 Pool of Bethesda () 00345-8.

John 5:2 [7] Zion, Sigalit (2009). A roadmap to the heavens an an-
thropological study of hegemony among priests, sages, and
laymen. Boston: Academic Studies Press. p. 155. ISBN
Now there is in Jerusalem near the Sheep Gate 978-1-934843-14-7.
a pool, which in Aramaic is called Bethesda
and which is surrounded by ve covered colon- [8] The Antiquities of the Jews, by Flavius Josephus. Guten-
nades. berg.org. Retrieved on 2014-05-28.
[9] Book Bar Kokhba: The rediscovery of the legendary
Bethesda was originally the name of a pool in Jerusalem, hero of the last Jewish Revolt Against Imperial Rome p.
on the path of the Beth Zeta Valley, and is also known 234
as the Sheep Pool. Its name in Aramaic means House of
[10] Josephus: Jewish War, Book 1 (a) - translation. At-
Grace. It is associated with healing. In John 5, Jesus was
talus.org. Retrieved on 2014-05-28.
reported healing a man at the pool.
[11] Josephus with an English Translation by H. St. J. Thack-
(For other Aramaic place names in the New Testa- eray, M.A., in Nine Volumes, II the Jewish War, Books
ment beginning with beth (house of), see: Bethabara, I-III, Introduction, page ix
Bethany, Bethphage, Bethsaida)
[12] Book What do Jewish People think about Jesus?" by Dr.
In Aramaic, it could be . Michael Brown, Page 39
[13] Josephus Antiquities Book 5. Chapter 2. Paragraph 2
5 See also [14] Wars Book 5, Chapter 4, Paragraph 2
[15] Book Introduction to Syriac by Wheeler Thackston,
Semitic languages Page 44
Aramaic primacy [16] For a complete list of all transliterated words in the
Synoptic Gospels, see Joshua N. Tilton and David N.
Bivin, Greek Transliterations of Hebrew, Aramaic and
6 Notes Hebrew/Aramaic Words in the Synoptic Gospels at
jerusalemperspective.com
[1] Allen C. Myers, ed. (1987). Aramaic. The Eerdmans [17] E.g.Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14: ti hebradi dialkti, lit.'in
Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerd- the Hebrew dialect/language.' On the meaning of this
mans. p. 72. ISBN 0-8028-2402-1. It is generally agreed phrase, see Randall Buth and Chad Pierce, "Hebraisti in
that Aramaic was the common language of Palestine in the Ancient texts: Does Ever Mean 'Aramaic'?" in
rst century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean Randall Buth and R. Steven Notley (eds.) The Language
dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem Environment of First Century Judaea, Brill, Leiden, 2014,
(Matt. 26:73) p. 64-109.
9

[18] Fitzmyer, Joseph A. A Wandering Armenian: Collected [35] Eusebius, Church History, Book 1, Chapter 12, Paragraph
Aramaic Essays. P.43: The adverb (and its re- 2
lated expressions) seems to mean 'in Hebrew', and it has
often been argued that it means this and nothing more. [36] The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon Entry for "by"
As is well known, it is used at times with words and ex-
pressions that are clearly Aramaic. Thus in John 19:13,
is given as an explanation of the
Lithostrotos, and is a Grecized form of the Ara-
maic word gabbt, 'raised place.'"

[19] The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-


Rabbinic period. 2006. P.460: Thus in certain sources
Aramaic words are termed Hebrew, ... For exam-
ple: Ancient Greek:
which is called in the Hebrew tongue Bethesda (John
5.2). This is not a Hebrew name but rather an Aramaic
one: , the house of Hisda.

[20] E.g. Georey W.Bromley (ed.)The International Stan-


dard Bible Encyclopedia, W.B.Eeerdmans, Grand Rapids,
Michigan 1979, 4 vols. vol.1 sub.'Aramaic' p.233: 'in the
Aramaic vernacular of Palestine

[21] Matthew Black. An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels


and Acts. Hendrickson Publishers Marketing, LLC, 1998.
ISBN 1565630866.

[22] Glenn David Bauscher. 2007. The Original Aramaic New


Testament in Plain English. ISBN 978-1-4357-1289-8.

[23] Kutscher, E.Y.. (1976). Studies in Galilean Aramaic.

[24] Greenspahn, Frederick E. 2003. An introduction to Ara-


maic. P.25

[25] Fernndez, Miguel Prez and John Elwolde. 1999. An


Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew. P.5

[26] Fitzmyer, Joseph A. 1979. A Wandering Aramean: Col-


lected Aramaic Essays. P.12

[27] Davies, William D. and Dale C. Allison. 1997. Critical


and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to
Saint Matthew. Volume III. P.624

[28] The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon

Targum Psalms 22 Hebrew Union College - Jewish


Institute of Religion

[29] Williams P.J. 2004. The linguistic background to Jesus


Dereliction Cry. The New Testament in its rst century
setting (ed. Williams P.J., Andre D. Clarke et al.) p. 7-8.

[30] Brunson, Andrew. 2003. Psalm 118 in the Gospel of


John: An Intertextual Study on the New Exodus Pattern
in the Theology of John. P.204

[31] Balz, Horst. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament,


Volume 3. P.509

[32] Dennis MacDonald, The Homeric Epics and the Gospel of


Mark, Yale University Press, 2000, pp 24-32.

[33] J. Rendel Harris, Boanerges, Cambridge University Press,


1913, pp. 1-4.

[34] Bauers Lexicon: Gal 1:18; 2:9,11,14; 1Cor 1:12; 3:22;


9:5; 15:5; also 1Clement 47:3
10 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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