Functional Planning

Bearing-wall system: The walls are load-bearing walls. Some of the bearing walls may be shear
walls. The system is designed for gravity as well as for lateral loads. Under lateral loads the walls act
like cantilevers. The shear distribution is proportional to the moments of inertia of the cross-sections
of the walls. The relative displacements of the floors result from bending deformation of the walls.
Moment-resisting frames: These are the frames in which the bea'n_Is, columns, and joints resist
earthquake forces, primarily by flexure.These frames, when subjected to lateral forces, exhibit zero
moments at mid- height of the columns, shear distribution proportional to the moments of inertia of the
columns, and relative displacements ( or inter-story drifts) proportional to the shear forces. This is the
reason why sometimes these frames are referred to as shear systems. The continuinuity of the frame
also assists in resisting gravity loading more efficiently by reducing positive moments in the centre
span of girders.These are preferred because of least obstruction to access. However, this system is
recommended only up to thirty-storeys due to a limitation on the drift.
Dual systems: These consist of moment-resisting frames either braced or with shear walls. The
coupling of the above two systems completely alters the moment and shear diagrams of both the
walls and the frame. The characteristic of this combination is that in the lower floors the wall retains
the frame, while in the upper floors the frame inhibits the large displacements of the wall. As a result,
the frame exhibits a small variation in story wall. As a result, the frame exhibits a small variation in
story shear between the first and the last floors. The two systems may be designed to resist the total
design force in proportion to their lateral stiffness.
Tube systems :It is a fully three-dimensional system that utilizes the entire building perimeter to resist
lateral loads. For taller buildings,the relatively recent framed-tube,trussed-tube,tube-in-tube, and
bundled-tube systems are used.

4.2 Continuous Load Path

One of the most fundamental considerations in earthquake-resistant design is a continuous load path.
At least one (preferably more) continuous load path with adequate strength and stiffness should be
provided from the origin of initial load manifestation to the final lateral load resisting elements. It has
been observed that proper selection of the load-carrying system is essential to good performance
under any loading. A properly selected structural system tends to be relatively forgiving of oversights
in analysis, proportion, detail, and construction. Buildings are generally composed ofhorizontal and
vertical structural elements.The horizontal elements are usually diaphragms, such as floor slab, and
horizontal bracing in special floors; and the vertical elements are the shear walls, braced frame, and
moment-resisting frames. Horizontal forces produced by seismic motion are directly proportional to
the masses of building elements and are considered to act at the centers of the mass of these
elements. The earthquake forces developed at different floor levels in a building are brought down
along the height to the ground through the shortest path. The general path for load transfer, in a
conceptual sense, is opposite to the direction in which seismic loads are delivered to the structural
elements. Thus the path for load transfer is as follows-inertia forces generated in an element, such as
a segment of exterior curtain wall, are delivered through structural 'connections to a horizontal
diaphragm; the diaphragm distributes these forces to vertical components; and finally the vertical
elements transfer the forces into the foundations and eventually to the ground.
A deviation or discontinuity in this load-transfer path results in poor performance of the building.
Failure to provide adequate strength and toughness of individual elements in the system or failure to
tie individual elements together can result in distress or complete collapse of the system. One of the
earliest lessons from earthquakes was the realization that structural and non-structural elements must
be adequately tied to the structural system. Concrete diaphragms, with appropriate struts, ties, and
boundary elements, should be provided with adequate reinforcement to transmit the seismic forces.

4.3 Overall Form

A structure is conceived and designed to transfer the seismic forces to the ground safely. However
well the structure may have been designed, it is said to be acceptable only if it meets all the
established configuration-related requirements from the observed failures during past earthquakes.
Buildings having simple, regular, and compact layouts, incorporating a continuous and redundant
lateral force-resisting system, tend to perform well during earthquakes and, thus, are desirable. While
planning a particular structure, the guiding principles to be borne in mind are as follows. The structure
should (a) be simple and symmetrical (b) not be too elongated in plan or elevation, i.e., the size
should be moderate( c) have uniform and continuous distribution of strength, mass, and stiffness ( d)
have horizontal members which form hinges before the vertical members( e) have sufficient ductility
(f) have stiffness related to the sub-soil properties
4.4 Simplicity and Symmetry
. A simple and symmetrical structure, e.g., a square or circular shape, will have the greatest chance
of survival for the following reasons: (a) The ability to understand the overall earthquake behaviour of
a structure is markedly greater for a simple one than it is for a complex one. (b) The ability to
understand structural details is considerably greater for simple structures than it is for complicated
ones. Buildings regular in plan and elevation, without re-entrant comers or discontinuities in
transferring the vertical loads to the ground, display good seismic behaviour. It is important that the
plan of a structure is symmetrical in both directions. In general, buildings with simple geometry in plan
(b) perform well during earthquakes. Buildings with re-entrant comers, such as U, V, T, and+ shapes
in plan may sustain significant damage during earthquakes and should be avoided. H-shapes,
although symmetrical, should not be encouraged either. The probable reason for the damage is the
lack of proper detailing at the comers, which is complex. To check the bad effects of these interior
comers in the plan, the building can be broken into parts using a separation joint at the junction. There
must be such cases of elongated, L-shaped and H-shaped buildings A building may have a simple
plan, but a lack of symmetry in the columns or walls, or an irregularity in the elevation (Fig. 4.5),
produces torsional effects, which are difficult to assess properly and can be destructive. External lifts
and stairwells provide similar dangers; they tend to act on their own in earthquakes, making it difficult
to predict force concentrations, torsions, and out-of-balance forces. To avoid torsional deformation,
the centre of stiffness of a building should coincide with the centre of mass. It is desirable to have
symmetry both in the building configuration, as well as in the structure, in order to satisfy this
condition. The torsions of unsymmetrical structures can lead to a failure of comer columns
and walls at the perimeter of the building.

4.5 Elongated Shapes

Buildings of great length or plan area may not respond to earthquakes in the way calculated. Analysis
customarily assumes that the ground moves as a rigid mass over the base of the building, but this is a
reasonable assumption only for a small area. Also, the ground is assumed to be elastic and the
propagation of seismic. waves is not instantaneous. If different parts of the building are being shaken
out of step with each other, additional, incalculable, stresses are being imposed, and this effect
increases with size. Thus, buildings that are too long in plan may be subjected to different earthquake
movements simultaneously at the two ends, leading to disastrous results. As an alternative, such
buildings can be broken into a number of separate square buildings as shown in Fig. 4.3(b ). Buildings
such as warehouses, having large plan areas will, in addition, be subjected to excessive horizontal
seismic forces that will have to be earned by the columns and walls. In tall buildings with large height-
to-base ratio (slenderness ratio >4), the horizontal movement of the floors during ground shaking is
large. For buildings with slenderness ratio less than 4, the movement is reasonable. Themore slender
a building, the worse the overturning effects of an earthquake. The axial column force due to the
overturning moment in such buildings tends to become unmanageably large. Also, the compressive
and pull out forces acting on the foundation increase tremendously.

4.6 Stiffness and Strength

Strength is the property of an element to resist force. Stiffness is the property of an element to resist
displacement. When two elements of different stiffnesses are forced to deflect the same amount, the
stiffer element will carry more of the total force because it takes more force to deflect it. Stiffness
greatly affects the structure's uptake of earthquake-generated forces. On the basis of stiffness, the
structure may be classified as brittle or ductile. A brittle structure, having greater stiffness, proves to
be less durable during an earthquake, while a ductile structure performs well in earthquakes. Sudden
changes in stiffness and strength between adjacent storeys are very common. Such changes are
associated with setbacks (in penthouses and other small appendages), changes over the height of a
structural system (e.g. discontinuous shear walls), changes in storey height, changes in materials,
and unanticipated participation of non-structural components. A common problem with such
discontinuities is that inelastic deformations tend to concentrate in or around the discontinuity. These
sudden changes in stiffness, strength, or mass in either vertical or horizontal planes of a building can
result in distribution oflateral loads and deformations different from those that are anticipated for a
uniform structure. A sudden change of lateral stiffness up a building is not advised for the following
reasons: (a) Even with most sophisticated and expensive computerized analysis, the earthquake
stress cannot be determined adequately. (b) The structural detailing poses practical problems. Drastic
changes in the vertical configuration cause changes in stiffness and strength between adjacent
stories of a building and should be avoided. Such discontinuity in the vertical configuration of a
building, are not recommended. Failures due to discontinuity of vertical elements of the lateral
load-resisting system have been among the most notable and spectacular. Buildings with vertical
setback as shown in cause a sudden jump of earthquake forces at the level of discontinuity. A large
vibrational motion takes place in some portions and a large diaphragm action is required at the border
to transmit forces from the top to the base. The effects of set backs cannot be predicted by normal
code equivalent static analysis. Buildings that have fewer columns or walls in a particular storey, or
that have. an unusually tall storey are prone to damage or collapse. One of the most common forms
of discontinuity of vertical elements occurs when shear walls that are present in upper floors are
discontinued in the lower floors. The result is frequent formation of'a soft storey that concentrates
damage. Shows a building having shear walls (RCC walls for carrying earthquake forces) that do not
go all the way to the ground, but terminate at an intermediate storey level. It is advocated that the
stiffness of the lower storey, the so-called soft storey, be reduced, so that a reduced dynamic force is
transmitted to the superstructure. However, this argument is based on simple elastic analysis. When
realistic inelastic and geometrical non-linear effects are taken into account, the plastic deformations
tend to concentrate in the soft storey, and may cause the entire building to collapse. The unequal
height of the columns causes twisting and damage to the short columns of the building. It is because
shear force is concentrated in the relatively stiff short columns which fail before the long columns. In
a structural frame, long columns can be turned into short columns by the introduction of spandrels.
Buildings with columns that hang or float on beams at an intermediate storey have discontinuities in
the load transfer path. A building will have a maximum chance of survival if it conforms to the
followings: (a) The load bearing elements should be uniformly distributed. This checks the
torsion in the building. (b) The columns and walls should be continuous and without offsets from the
roof to the foundation. ( c) The beams should be free of offsets. (d) Columns and beams should be
coaxial. ( e) Beams and columns should be of equal widths. This promotes good detailing and aids
the transfer of moments and shear through the junction of the members concerned. (f) To avoid stress
concentration, there should not be sudden change of cross- section of any member. (g) The structure
should be as continuous (redundant) and monolithic as possible. The earthquake resistance of an
economically designed structure depends on its capacity to absorb apparently excessive energy
input, mainly by repeated plastic deformation of its members. Hence, the more continuous and
monolithic the building is, the more plastic hinges and shear and thrust routes are available for energy
absorption. This requires the structure to be highly redundant.

4.7 Horizontal and Vertical Members

In a framed structure, horizontal members, i.e., beams and slabs should fail prior to the vertical
members, i.e., columns. Beams and slabs generally do not fall down even after severe damage at
plastic hinge positions, whereas columns will rapidly collapse under the vertical loading once sufficient
spalling has taken place. Hence, continuous beams on light columns [Fig. 4.6(a)] are not appropriate
in earthquake-prone regions, and weak-beam-strong-column [Fig. 4.6(b)] arrange- ment should be the
choice. It is very important in that it postpones complete collapse of a structure. Following are the
reasons for having strong columns and . allowing prior yielding of the beams in flexure: (a) Failure ofa
column means the collapse of the entire building. (b) In a weak-column structure, plastic deformation
is concentrated in a particular storey, as shown in Fig. 4.6( c ), and a relatively large ductility factor is
required. ( c) In both shear and flexural failures of columns, degradations are greater than those in the
yielding of beams

4.8 Twisting of Buildings

Torsional forces from ground motion are not usually of great concern unless the building has an
inherently low torsional strength. Twist in buildings causes different portions at the same floor level to
move horizontally by different amounts. Irregularities of mass, stiffness, and strength in a building can
result in significant torsional response. However, torsion arises from eccentricity in the building layout-
when the centre of mass of the building does not coincide with its centre of rigidity. If there is torsion,
the building will rotate about its centre of rigidity, due to the torsional moment about the centre of
structural resistance. The recommended plan configurations of buildings to avoid torsional moments
due to distribution of mass and stiffness of elements is illustrated in Fig. 4. 7. This additional torsion
will have to be dealt alongwith the torsional component of ground motion. This may cause a large
increase in the lateral forces acting on bracing elements and on other parts of the structure, in
proportion to their distances from the centre of rotation. Torsion in buildings during earthquakes can
be most simply explained by analogy with a rope swing. Consider a wooden cradle tied with coir
ropes to a sturdy branch of a tree. Buildings behave like this swing, except that they are anchored at
the bottom rather than at the top. That is to say that buildings are essentially inverted swings. The
walls and columns are like ropes, the ground is like the branch of tree to which the ropes are tied, and
the upper floors or storeys are like the wooden cradle. In a single-storey building, the roof acts as the
wooden cradle [Fig. 4.8(a)] of a swing and in multi-storey buildings, the upper floors act" as a stack of
wooden cradles suspended by the ropes at regular intervals

4. 9 Ductility
Ductility is the capacity of building materials, systems, structures, or members to undergo large
inelastic deformations without significant loss of strength or stiffness. It is an essential attribute of a
structure that must respond to strong ground motions. It serves as the shock absorber in a building, for
it reduces the transmitted force to a sustainable magnitude. The resultant sustainable force is
traditionally used to design a hypothetically elastic representation of the building. Therefore, the
survivability of a structure under strong seismic action relies on the capacity to deform beyond the
elastic range, and dissipate seismic energy through plastic deformation. Formally, ductility refers to the
ratio of the displacement just prior to ultimate displacement or collapse, to the displacement at first
damage or yield. This is a very important characteristic of a building since it greatly reduces the effect
or to response that is produced in the structure by an earthquake. This is because the building is set in
vibration by the energy of an earthquake. This vibration, as well as the accompanying deflection, is
reduced by the energy that is absorbed by the large inelastic deflections of a ductile structure. Some
materials, such as steel and wood, are inherently ductile, while others, such as masonry and concrete,
are brittle and fail suddenly. Building elements constructed with ductile materials have a reserve
capacity to resist earthquake overloads. Therefore, buildings constructed of ductile elements, such as
steel and adequately reinforced concrete, tend to withstand earthquakes much better than those
constructed of brittle materials such as unreinforcedmasonry,One way of achieving ductility in
structural members is by designing elements with known limits, which deform in a ductile manner. For
example, in RCC members, the amount and location of steel should be such that the failure of the
member occurs by steel reaching its strength in tension before concrete reaches its strength in
compression. This is referred to as ductile failure. In RCC buildings the seismic inertia forces
generated at floor levels are transferred through the various beams and columns to the ground. The
correct building components need to be made ductile. The failure of a beam causes localized effects.
However, the failure of a column can affect the stability of the whole building. Therefore, it is better to
make beams ductile rather than columns. Such a design method is known as strong-column, weak-
beam design method. Ductility can also be achieved by avoiding any possibility of brittle failure
As an example, a tension bolt in a steel beam-column connection should be at a safe stress level
when the beam has reached its ultimate moment. For the entire structural system to be ductile, the
following requirements must be met: (a) Any mode offailure should involve the maximum possible
redundancy. (b) Brittle-type failure modes, such as overturning, should be adequately safeguarded so
that ductile failure occurs first.
Ductility is often measured by hysteretic behaviour of critical components, such as a column-beam
assembly of a moment frame. The hysteretic behaviour is usually examined by. observing the cyclic
moment-rotation ( or force-deflection) behaviour of the assembly. The slopes of the curves represent
the stiffness of the structure, and the enclosed areas are sometimes full and flat, or they may be lean
and pinched. Structural assemblies with curves enclosing a large area representing large dissipated
energy are regarded as superior systems for resisting seismic loading.

4.10 Flexible Building

Whether a structure should be stiff or flexible has always been a point of discussion. The ground
shaking during an earthquake contains a group of many sinusoidal waves of different frequencies
having periods in the range of 0.03 to 33 s. The base of the building swings back and forth when the
ground shakes. The building oscillates back and forth horizontally and after some time comes back to
the original position. The time taken (in seconds) for one complete back and forth motion is called the
fundamental natural period, T, of the building; the higher the flexibility, the greater the value of T.
The fundamental time periods of some structures are given in Table 4.3. Depending upon the value
ofTfor the building and the characteristics of earthquake ground motion, some buildings are shaken
more than the others. In a stiff (rigid) building, every part moves by the same amount as the ground;
for a flexible building, different parts move by different amounts.
Advantages Flexible structures 1. Especially suitable for short period sites, and for buildings with long
periods. 2. Ductility arguably easier'achieve.3 More amenable to analysis.
Stiff structures 1. Suitability for long period sites. 2. Easier to reinforce stiff reinforced concrete (i.e.,
shear walls). 3. Non-structure easier to detail.
4.11 Framing Systems
The load-bearing wall system is the most common building system for low-rise structures. However,
this system is inherently weak in resisting lateral loads, and is seldom recommended for multi-storey
buildings. The framework of a multi- storey building consists of a number of beams and columns built
monolithically, forming a network. The ability of a multi-storey building to resist the lateral forces
depends on the rigidity of the connections between the beams and the columns. When the
connections are fully rigid, the structure as a whole is capable of resisting the lateral forces. The
moment-resisting frame is thus the fundamental structural system. However, if the strength and
stiffness of a frame are not adequate, the frame may be strengthened by incorporating load-bearing
walls, shear walls, and/or bracings (Fig. 4.12). Shear walls and bracings are also useful in preventing
the failure of non-structural components by reducing drift. Shear walls are walls

situated in advantageous positions in a building that can effectively resist lateral loads originating from
earthquakes or winds. These may be made ofRCC, steel, composite, and masonry. RCC shear walls
are most commonly used in multi- storey structures and are described in detail in. For buildings taller
than about forty storeys, the effect oflateral forces becomes increasingly intense, and tube systems
become economical. Tube systems may be classified as.framed-tube, trussed-tube, tube-in-tube, and
bundled-tube systems. In the framed-tube system [Fig. 4.13(a)], closely spaced columns are tied at
each floor level by deep spandrel beams, thereby creating the effect of a hollow tube, perforated by
openings for windows. This system represents a logical evolution of the conventional framed
structure, possessing the necessary lateral stiffness with excellent torsional qualities, while retaining
the flexibility of planning. The trussed-tube system shown in Fig. 4.13(b) is an advancement over the
framed- tube system. The framed-tube system combines the behaviour of a true cantilever, such as a
shear wall, with that of a beam-column frame. Overturning under the lateral load is resisted by the
tube form, causing compression and tension in the columns. The shear from the lateral load is
resisted by bending in columns and beams, primarily in the two sides of the building parallel to the
direction of the lateral load.
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