CH3: DIRECT PROOF AND PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE

Lemma = is a mathematical result that is useful in verifying the truth of another result.
Theorem/ Proposition = a true mathematical statement (that are especially significant)
(Propositions are usually more important, and harder to prove than theorems.)
Corollary = is a mathematical result that is a consequence of an earlier result.

Most lemmas, theorems, propositions and corollaries are stated as an implication, or a

characterization.

3.1 Trivial and Vacuous Proofs

Most mathematical results are stated as an implication: P Q. Recall:
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Let S be a universal set, P (x) and Q(x) be two open sentences. For x S, it can be shown
that Q(x) is true regardless of the truth value of P (x). Then P (x) Q(x) is true for all
x S. In this case, P Q is true trivially. Such a proof is called a trivial proof.
Result: Let x R. If x > 0, then x2 + 5 > 0.
Proof: Since x2 0, for all x R, it follows that

x2 + 5 > x2 0.

Hence x2 + 5 0.
Note that we didnt use the fact that x > 0, since it holds for all x R.

Now, if it can be shown that P (x) is false for all x S (regardless of the truth value of
Q(x)), then P (x) Q(x) is true for all values of x S. That is P Q is true vacuously.
Such a proof is called a vacuous proof.
Result: Let x R. If x2 + 1 < 0, then x5 4.
Proof Observe that x2 + 1 > x2 0. Thus x2 + 1 < 0 is false for all x S, and so the
implication is true. .

3.2 Direct Proofs

Direct Proof of P Q: Assume that P (x) is true for an arbitrary x S, and show that
Q(x) is true for this x. In order to illustrate this type of proof we assume that we know:

1. The negative of an integer is an integer

2. The sum/difference/product of two integers is an integer

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 3. An integer n is even if n = 2k, k Z

4. An integer n is odd if n = 2k + 1, k Z.

Result: If n is an odd integer, then 5n + 3 is an even integer.

Proof Assume that n is an odd integer. Then n = 2k + 1 for some k Z. Thus 5n + 3 =
5(2k + 1) + 3 = 10k + 8 = 2(5k + 4). Since 5k + 4 is an integer, it follows that 5n + 3 is odd.

Result: If n is an odd integer, then 4n3 + 2n 1 is odd.

Proof Assume that n is odd. So n = 2k + 1, for some integer k. Thus

4n3 + 2n 1 = 4(2k + 1)3 + 2(2k + 1) 1

= 4(4k 3 + 12k 2 + 6k + 1) + 4k + 2 1
= 16k 3 + 48k 2 + 28k + 5
= 2(8k 3 + 24k 2 + 14k + 2) + 1.

Since 8k 3 + 24k 2 + 14k + 2 is an integer (as k Z), it follows that 4n3 + 2n 1 is odd.

Result: If n is an even integer, then 3n5 + 2 is odd.

Proof Assume that n is an even integer. Then n = 2k, for some k Z. Thus

3n5 + 2 = 3(2k)5 + 2 = 25 3 k 5 + 2
3 3
= 2(24 3k 5 + ) + 1 = 2(48k 5 + ) + 1.
2 2
Since 48k 5 + 32 Z, it follows that 3n5 + 2 is odd.
Whats wrong with the proof? Be careful with what you claim to be an integer!! The result
is false, but it can be fixed: If n is an even integer, then 3n5 + 2 is even.

When writing a proof:

1. Write a proof so that somebody else can read it.

2. Write complete sentences, starting with Proof and ending with .

3. When introducing a new variable/symbol explain what the symbol is, and what set
the variable belongs to.

4. If your equation wraps arund, then the equal sign goes at the end of the line, and
not before the new line nor both within the text. Or you may choose to center it.

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 For example, within the text you should use it like this ab = 4k` + 2k + 2` + 1 =
2(2k` + k + `) + 1.

or

ab = 4k` + 2k + 2` + 1
= 2(2k` + k + `) + 1.

3.3 Proof by Contrapositive

The contrapositive of an implication P Q is the implication Q P.

Ex: Let P (x) : x = 2, and let Q(x) : x2 = 4.

P Q : If x = 2, then x2 = 4. (T)
Q P : If x2 6= 4, then x 6= 2. (T)

The implication P Q and Q P are logically equivalent:

P Q P Q Q P Q P
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

A proof by contrapositive of P Q is a direct proof of Q P.

Result: Let x Z. If 3x 15 is even, then x is odd.

Proof Assume that x is even. Then x = 2a, for some integer a. Then
3x 15 = 3(2a) 15 = 6a 15
= 2(?) + 1 = 2(3a 8) + 1.
Since 3a 8 Z, 3x 15 is odd.
We can also prove it using a direct proof (use x = (3x 15) (2x 15)):

Result: Let x Z. If 3x 15 is even, then x is odd.

Proof Assume that 3x 15 is even. Then 3x 15 = 2a, for some integer a. Then
x = (3x 15) (2x 15) = 2a 2x + 15
= 2(?) + 1 = 2(a x + 7) + 1.

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Since a x + 7 Z, x is odd.

Result: Let x Z. Then 5x + 3 is even if and only if x is odd.

Proof Assume that x is even. Then x = 2k, k Z. Thus

5x + 3 = 5(2k) + 3 = 10k + 3 = 2(5k + 1) + 1.

Since 5k + 1 Z, it follows that 5x + 3 is even.

For the converse, let x be odd. So x = 2k + 1, k Z. Hence,

5x + 3 = 5(2k + 1) + 3 = 10k + 8 = 2(5k + 4).

There are two implications to prove here:

(1) If 5x + 3 is even, then x is odd.
(2) If x is odd, then 5x + 3.
The next result is useful to use, so we refer to it as a theorem.

Theorem: Let x Z. Then x2 is even if and only x is even.

Proof: Assume that x is odd. Thus x = 2k + 1, for some k Z. Therefore
x2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1. Since 2k 2 + 2k is an integer, x2 is odd.
For the converse, assume that x is even. Then x = 2k, for some k an integer. Thus
x2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 = 2(2k 2 ).

Recall that the contrapositive of P Q is Q P . The contrapositive of the Theorem

above gives us another theorem:

Theorem: Let x Z. Then x2 is odd if and only x is odd.

3.4 Proof by Cases

Result: Let n Z. Then n2 + 3n + 5 is an odd integer.

Proof We proceed by cases, according to whether n is even or odd.

1. Case 1. n is even. Then n = 2x, x Z. So

n2 + 3n + 5 = 4x2 + 6x + 5 = 2(2x2 + 3x + 2) + 1.

2. Case 2.n is odd. Then n = 2x + 1, x Z. So

n2 + 3n + 5 = 4x2 + 4x + 1 + 6x + 3 + 5 = 2(2x2 + 5x + 4) + 1.

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Thus n2 + 3n + 5 is an odd integer.
Note: The result must be true for all the cases. If it fails for one case, then the result is
false.

What are the typical cases?

Ex1: Case 1. n is even
Case 2. n is odd
Ex2: Case 1. n > 0
Case 2. n = 0
Case 3. n < 0
Ex3: We can have a combination of x and y
Case 1. xy < 0
Subcase 1.1. x > 0 and y > 0
Subcase 1.2. x < 0 and y < 0
Case 2. xy = 0
Then x = 0 or y = 0. Case 3. xy > 0
Subcase 3.1. x > 0 and y < 0
Subcase 3.2. x < 0 and y > 0

Two integers x and y are of the same parity if x and y are both even or both odd. Two
integers x and y are of opposite parity if x is even and y is odd, or x is odd and y is even.

Result: Let x, y Z. Then 3x + 3y is an odd integer if and only iff x and y are of opposite
parity.
Proof Assume that x and y are of the same parity. We consider two cases.
1. Case 1. x and y are both even. Then x = 2k, y = 2`, k, ` Z. So
3x + 3y = 6k + 6` = 2(3k + 3`). Since 3k + 3` is an integer, 3x + 3y is even.
2. Case 2. x and y are both odd. Then x = 2k + 1, y = 2` + 1, k, ` Z. So
3x + 3y = 6k + 3 + 6` + 3 = 2(3k + 3` + 3). Since 3k + 3` + 3 is an integer, 3x + 3y is
even.
Thus 3x + 3y is an even integer.
We now verify the converse. Assume that x and y are of opposite parity. We consider two
cases.
1. Case 1. x is even and y is odd. Then x = 2k, y = 2` + 1, k, ` Z. So

3x + 3y = 6k + 6` + 3 = 2(3k + 3` + 1) + 1.
Since 3k + 3` + 1 is an integer, 3x + 3y is odd.
2. Case 2. x is odd and y is even. Then x = 2k + 1, y = 2`, k, ` Z. So

3x + 3y = 6k + 3 + 6` = 2(3k + 1 + 3`) + 1.

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 Since 3k + 3` + 1 is an integer, 3x + 3y is odd.

Thus 3x + 3y is an odd integer.

Note: In this particular theorem, we could have said: Without loss of generality (WLOG)
assume that x is even and y is odd (and this would also cover the case of x is odd and y is
even.) However, this is not always possible: if you would have to show that 3x + y is either
even or odd, you cannot use WLOG since this s not a symmetric expression.

Result: Let a and b be integers. Then ab is even iff a is even or b is even.

Proof: Assume that a is odd and b is odd. Then a = 2k + 1, b = 2` + 1, k, ` Z. So

ab = 4k` + 2k + 2` + 1 = 2(2k` + k + `) + 1.
Since 2k` + k + ` is an integer, ab is odd.
For the converse, assume that a is even or b is even. Without loss of generality say that a
is even. Then a = 2k, k Z. So

ab = (2k)b = 2(kb).
Since kb is an integer, ab is even.

Result: Let x, y Z. Prove that if xy and x + y are even, then both x and y are even.
Proof: Assume that x is odd or y is odd, WLOG say x is odd. We wish to show that xy
or x + y is odd. Then x = 2k + 1. So y could be even or y could be odd. We consider two
cases.

1. Case 1. y is odd. Then y = 2` + 1, ` Z. So

xy = (2k + 1)(2` + 1) = 4k` + 2k + 2` + 1 = 2(2k` + k + `) + 1.

Since 2k` + k + ` is an integer, xy is odd.

2. Case 2. y is even. Then y = 2`, ` Z. So

x + y = (2k + 1) + 2` = 2(k + `) + 1.
Since k + ` is an integer, x + y is odd.

Read Proof evaluations: gives you good hints on what not to do in terms of mistakes.