Circuit Analysis in the Time-Domain: Operational
Approach to Form the System-Matrix Exponential
and to Obtain the Circuit Natural Response
Therefrom
I. R. Rao
(Member, IEEE)
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK)
Srinivasnagar, Mangalore 575025, Karnataka, India
Email: irrao@ieee.org
AbstractA time-domain operational method for the dynamic
analysis of force-free Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) lumped-
parameter electrical systems is presented. Starting from the
state model of the system, a purely time-domain technique
for obtaining the matrix exponential (state-transition matrix)
has been developed. This approach preserves the time-domain
identity of all the network variables (unlike the transformational
approaches) and facilitates analytical, closed-form solutions for
number-imposed system parameters (unlike numerical tech-
niques). Furthermore, it provides the algebrization-advantage in
the time-domain itself, in which the system variables are directly
observable. This obviates the need for any artificial and cumber-
some transformations (both direct and inverse). This approach
has been here employed to formulate the solution process of the
natural (force-free) response of a generic LTI lumped-parameter
electrical network of any given order, starting from the vectorized
set of time-domain differential equations that collectively govern
the behaviour of the said network. Some crucial aspects regarding
system modeling have been highlighted. The proposed method is
illustrated by examples which demonstrate the ease with which
the natural response of an LTI system could be obtained, for
specified initial conditions.
I. I NTRODUCTION
The development and honing of circuit theory as a powerful
system analysis tool in the repertoire of the electrical engineer
is unfortunately and unreasonably hindered and thwarted by
some inordinate fixations prevalent in the curricula that com-
monly abound. There is usually a disproportionate emphasis
on the steady-state analysis corresponding to two particular
types of forcing functions, to the unfortunate exclusion of
the general dynamic system analysis. There seems to be an
illogical diffidence in placing oneself vis--vis the task of
dynamic system modeling and of the solution of the underlying
differential equations. Even when these are warily attempted,
the prevalent approach is to avoid the direct and elegant time-
domain (the parent domain in which all variables of interest
exist) in favour of an artificially construed transform domain.
The justification usually given (and implicitly accepted) is
K. N. Shubhanga
(Member, IEEE)
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK)
Srinivasnagar, Mangalore 575025 Karnataka, India
Email: knsa1234@yahoo.com
that such a process would simplify the original task by
algebrization, which would otherwise require cumbersome
convolution integrals. This paper is an attempt to demonstrate
that the algebrization advantage could be had in the time-
domain itself, and that the process of solution of a set of
ordinary linear differential equations with constant-coefficients
(which is what the model of LTI lumped-parameter models
of physical systems yield) could be very simple if the time-
domain operational technique (originally developed by Oliver
Heaviside (1850-1925)) is imbibed and gainfully employed.
II. T HE R ATIONALE BEHIND THE T IME -D OMAIN
O PERATIONAL A PPROACH
A. Preamble
The analysis of the complete response of linear-time-
invariant (LTI) lumped-parameter electrical networks when
subjected to excitations in the form of voltage- and current-
sources with mathematically defined descriptions is a process
of solution of linear ordinary differential equations (with
constant coefficients) with stipulated forcing functions, and
specified/sought initial conditions. This mathematical formu-
lation guarantees both the existence and the uniqueness of the
solution vector. This remarkable feature is well known and
permits of a large variety in the approaches to arriving at
the solution. This implies that any logical (and convenient)
approach may be employed in arriving at the solution vector
pertaining to the set of differential equations collectively
governing the system behaviour; the only issue to be mindful
of is to ensure that
1) The proposed solution satisfy the given set of differential
equations, and
2) The proposed solution satisfy the specified initial con-
ditions.
Any given function satisfying the above two conditions is the
unique solution of the given set of differential equations. The
method employed per se, to arrive at the solutions is therefore of the n initial conditions will therefore be attempted in the
rendered immaterial, from the point of view of the veracity of following manner:
the solution.
px = Ax + b ; x|t=0 = x(0) (2)
B. The Symbolic Operator p
where
To facilitate operation in the time domain, an algebraic
identity ( [1], [2]) is assigned to the differential operation (with x the n-vector of energy-indicating (or state) variables
respect to time) as A the system matrix or the state matrix
d
p (1) b the forcing-function vector
dt
This notation p is invested with both an operational meaning Since this paper covers the natural (force-free) response of a
and an algebraic significance, thus making it possible for dynamic system, the vector b will be set to zero, resulting in
the operator p to participate in an algebraic fashion (while
px = Ax ; x|t=0 = x(0) (3)
fully retaining its operational meaning) in all the mathematical
forms that ensue from the deployment of such a symbolism in which is the homogeneous part of (2). In what follows, the
describing the dynamic behaviour of the system being mod- unique solution to the initial-value problem specified in (3)
eled. This simultaneous investiture causes a straightforward, will be obtained using the time-domain operational approach
powerful, and elegant algebrization of the process of solving under two heads: first, for a first-order system; subsequently
a given set of linear differential equations. by straightforward vectorization for an nth -order system.
III. C HOICE OF THE D EPENDENT VARIABLES IV. NATURAL R ESPONSE - O PERATION ON Z ERO
A given LTI lumped-parameter system is said to be of the A. First-Order System: Solution Strategy and Structure
nth -order, or have n degrees of freedom ( [3], [4]) if The initial-value problem for the given force-free first-order
1) the system has at least n energy-storage elements (in system is written as
case of electrical networks inductors and/or capaci-
tors). px = ax ; x|t=0 = x(0) (4)
2) every one of the energy-indicating variables of these where x represents the sole energy-indicating variable, and a
n storage elements (inductor currents iL and/or capac- is a real number, which is the only coefficient of this equation.
itor voltages vC ) could independently (of one another) Treating p as an algebraic entity,
be specified in numbers, without redundancy or over-
determination. (p a)x = 0 (5)
3) no subset of the said n energy-indicating variables are 1
x= h0i (6)
sufficient to yield the complete information concerning pa
the complementary set thereof.
In (6), the notation h i is employed to signify operation on
Under such conditions, it will be necessary and sufficient the entity enclosed in angle brackets (the operand). Also, the
to specify exactly n initial (t = 0) conditions (or states) zero on the right-hand-side of (5) should be taken to mean
of energy-containment pertaining to the n storage elements the absence of excitation or removal of all forcing functions,
mentioned above, to secure a complete and unique solution of thus rendering the given system free of all constraints. Under
the state (or response) of the system for all time thereafter such conditions, the system is free to behave in its native
(t > 0). Mathematical modeling of the behaviour of this or natural manner, for as long as it could sustain the same.
nth -order system ought to therefore be attempted in arriv- This is the natural response (or force-free response) of the
ing at precisely n first-order linear differential equations system. A cogent meaning of the phrase Operation on Zero
in each of these n energy-indicating variables, than in any thereby emerges to signify this manifestation of the systems
other fashion. Moreover, every such variable possesses the natural response.
extremely useful property of being continuous in time, under Furthermore, in equations (5,6), (p a) is the character-
all non-impulsive excitation conditions, and under all freedom- istic polynomial of the first-order differential equation (4),
preserving network-switching conditions. If this complete set and consequently of this system. Equating this characteristic
of the n variables (mentioned above) is chosen as the modeling polynomial to zero as in
basis, and if a solution thereof be sought and obtained, ev-
ery/any other system variable could then be rendered express- pa=0 (7)
ible via elementary arithmetic operations on elements of the
represents the characteristic equation of (4). All roots (or
solution vector. Choice of these n energy-indicating variables
zeros) of the characteristic equation of a system represent the
in which to formulate n first order linear differential equations
natural frequencies (or eigenvalues) of the system; in this case,
that conjointly govern the system behaviour is thus not only
there is only one such root
a necessity, but also a great convenience. The modeling of
the given nth -order LTI system, along with the specifications p a = 0 p1 = a nep/s (8)
The operator p has the dimensions of inverse of time, or those The procedure followed in the case of the first-order initial-
of frequency. The quantity a, dimensionally matching with p, value-problem is to be appropriately vectorized. Proceeding
is the sole natural frequency of the system described in (4). on exactly analogous lines,
Here the term frequency is used in respect of a only because
of its dimensions, and is not meant to connote any sense px = Ax
periodicity or of cyclicity. When these natural frequencies px Ax = 0
are real (as in this first-order example), they are specifiable [pU A] x = 0 (15)
in units of nepers per second (nep/s). When these are
where U is the Unit-Matrix of size n n and 0 is the null
purely imaginary, they are quantifiable in units of radians
vector of dimension n.
per second (rad/s); when complex, these have both a neper 1
component and a radian component and are measured in units x = [pU A] h0i (16)
of s1. The null vector 0 may be written as 0(1), where 1 is an n-
The operation contained in (6) is carried out, following the vector of ones. With this,  
boldly unorthodox, yet brilliant, strategy in [1] as follows: 1
x = [pu A] h0i (1)
1
h0i = eat (9) that is
pa
or x = eAt 1 ; t>0 (17)
x = eat (1) ; t > 0 (10) where

In support of the above claim, lies the fact that eAt = [pU A]1 h0i (18)
(p a)heat i = pheat i a(eat ) is the n n State Transition Matrix of the given nth -order
at at system or more commonly known as the Matrix Exponential
= a(e ) a(e )
That is, of the system matrix A. This matrix has, amongst its numerous
remarkable properties, some very relevant ones to the present
(p a)heat i = 0 (11)
discussion, which are listed below:
at
And thus, (9) is justified. In other words, the function e on 1) eAt |t=0 = Unn .
the right-hand-side of (9) is being proposed as a solution to 2) pheAt i = AeAt = eAt A
(4). Equation (11) shows that this claim is substantiated and The close parallels along which this matrix exponential eAt
that the form proposed in (10) is indeed one solution of (4). mimics its scalar counterpart eat can be clearly observed.
However, this form needs to be modified to accommodate any Invoking these properties on the proposed form of solution
arbitrary initial condition x|t=0 = x(0). Accordingly, (9) is (17), it may readily be verified as one solution of (3). However,
modified as the initial value of x evaluates to 1. To be able to accommodate
1 any given initial condition vector x(0), the form (17) needs to
h0i = eat ()
pa be modified as
Thus the modified form of the solution for x is given by x = eAt (19)
x = eat ; t>0 (12)
which, after impressing the initial conditions, yields
where the constant (kappa) is to be evaluated by impressing
upon the modified form in (12), the specified initial condition x = eAt x(0) ; t>0 (20)
for x. This is readily achieved by setting t = 0 in (12), from The form of the solution appearing in (20) satisfies both the
which differential equation governing the system behaviour and the
= x(0) (13) specified initial condition; it is therefore the unique solution
which leads to of the nth -order initial-value problem (3).
x = eat x(0) ; t>0 (14) V. O BTAINMENT OF THE M ATRIX E XPONENTIAL eAt BY
MEANS OF T IME -D OMAIN O PERATION ON S CALAR Z ERO
The form of the solution appearing in (14) satisfies both the
differential equation governing the system behaviour and the As per (18), it is necessary to operate on scalar zero by the
1
specified initial condition; it is therefore the unique solution n n operational matrix [pU A] . This means each and
every one of the n2 elements of [pU A] is to operate on
1
of the first-order initial-value problem (4).
the scalar number zero. The meaning of operation on zero is
B. Generalization of the First-Order Solution Structure to an 1
as given in (9). Each element of [pU A] must therefore
nth -Order System via the Matrix Exponential
be recast in such a manner as to make (9) applicable. The
The nth -order initial-value problem depicted in (3) is re- 1
n n operational matrix [pU A] may be written as
produced below for convenience:
1 adjoint [pU A] adjoint [pU A]
px = Ax ; x|t=0 = x(0) [pU A] = =
|pU A| D(p)
 1
Every element of [pU A] is a proper ratio of regular TABLE II
polynomials in the operator p.(Such a ratio of polynomials E XTENSION OF THE BASIC RULE FOR R EPEATED E IGENVALUES
may be referred to as a rationic polynomial or simply as 1 1
1 h0i = eat h0i = 1
a rationic in p.) The (ij)th element of [pU A] is (pa) p
Nij (p) 1 1
of the form D(p) , where D(p) = |pU A| is the nth - (pa)2
h0i = teat p2
h0i = t
1 1
degree characteristic polynomial of the system. Formed in this (pa)3
h0i = t2 eat p3
h0i = t2
manner, D(p) is always monic, and may be expressed as 1
h0i = t(1) eat 1
h0i = t(1)
(pa) p
k=n
Y
D(p) = |pU A| = (p pk ) (21)
k=1 Let there be m repeated eigenvalues pk , k =P1, 2, m,
r=m
The n values of pk are the n natural frequencies (or eigenval- each with its own order of repetition k , such that r=1 r =
ues) of the system. These n eigenvalues are to be extracted T . In such a case, the characteristic polynomial may be
from the characteristic equation D(p) = 0. Having factorized expressed as
D(p) as shown in (21), it is possible to subject every element distinct factors
1
of [pU A] to a partial-fraction expansion(PFE). This z }| {
r=m k=n
expansion prepares the ground for the applicability of (9) for Y r
Y
operation on zero. The PFE for the (ij)th element D(p)
Nij (p)
of D(p) = (p pr ) (p pk )
1 r=1 k=T +1
[pU A] may take on two possible forms as shown below: | {z }
repeated factors
A. Distinct (Non-Repeated) Eigenvalues For all i, j = 1, 2, n,
Nij (p)
All pk , k = 1, 2, n are distinct. The PFE of D(p) for Nij (p) X l=
r=m Xr ijrl
k=n
X ijk
all i, j = 1, 2, n, is given by = +
D(p) r=1 l=1 (p pr )r l+1 k=T +1
p pk
k=n
Nij (p) X ijk From which
= (22)
D(p) (p pk )
k=1  At  X l=
r=m Xr k=n
X
e ij = ijrl tr 1 epr t + ijk epk t
where ijk are the partial-fraction residues. The basic rule of
r=1 l=1 k=T +1
operation on zero as given in (9) may then be applied to yield
Every element of eAt may be derived in this manner and the
k=n
Nij (p) X ijk natural response x be computed as per (20).
h0i = h0i
D(p) p pk
k=1
VI. E XAMPLE 1: F IRST-O RDER S YSTEM
That is
k=n
X The sample first-order system considered for exemplifi-
 
eAt ij
= ijk epk t (23) cation is shown in Fig. 1. It has one degree of freedom,
k=1 expressible through the only energy-indicating variable (or
At
Every element of e may be derived in this manner and the state variable) of the system, vC .
natural response x be computed as per (20). The extensions
to (9) required to handle complex-conjugate eigenvalues are
shown in Table I. G

TABLE I
E XTENSION OF THE BASIC RULE FOR I MAGINARY- AND
C OMPLEX -C ONJUGATE N ATURAL F REQUENCIES C
1 1
p2 + 2
h0i =
sin(t)
p
p2+ 2
h0i = cos(t) vC
1 et
(p)2 + 2
h0i = sin(t)

Fig. 1. The first-order system considered for illustration
p 

(p)2 + 2
h0i = et cos(t) +
sin(t)
p
(p)2 + 2
h0i = et cos(t)

The governing differential equation of the system in Fig. 1 is

B. Repeated Eigenvalues
CpvC + GvC = 0 (24)
To be able to extend the basic rule (9) to handle repeated
eigen values, the operational results necessary are displayed vC (0) = vC |t=0 is the only specifiable initial condition.
in Table II, which may be readily verfied. Formulating the above equation in the form px = ax results
in: Equation (28) provides the characteristic polynomial of this
G system. The equation |pU A| = 0 is the characteristic
pvC = vC equation of the sysem, which when solved, yields the two
  C
G natural frequencies of the system. When the element values
p+ vC = 0 (R, L, G, and C) are numerically specified, these eigenvalues
C
1 can be computed. Each of the elements of the operational
vC = h0i matrix [pU A]1 may then be subjected to partial fraction
p+ G C expansion, wherefrom the state-transition matrix (matrix ex-
Applying the basic rule for operation on zero, and impressing
ponential) eAt can be obtained as
the initial condition on the resulting form,
eAt = [pU A]1 h0i
G
vC = e C t vC (0) ; t > 0 (30)
The parameter values (C, G) , and the initial-condition vC (0), The natural response of the system may the be obtained as
have been left numerically unimposed. The form of the re- x = eAt x(0) ; t > 0 (31)
sponse is complete and is clearly discernible at this literal
level itself. However, any desired number-impositions on the A. Case 1: Complex Conjugate Natural Frequencies
above quantities may be performed at will. The element values for the sample system shown in Fig . (2)
are taken to be as follows: R = 1 , L = 0.1 H, G = 10 mS,
VII. E XAMPLE 2: S ECOND -O RDER S YSTEM
and C = 1 mF. With this number-imposition, the following
The sample second-order system considered for illustration hold:
is shown in Fig. 2. It has two degrees of freedom, expressible  
in the two energy-indicating variables (or state variables) iL 10 +10
A=
and vC . 1000 10
 
p + 10 10
[pU A] =
+1000 p + 10
|pU A| = p2 + 20p + 10100
iL L = (p + 10)2 + (100)2
from which the natural frequencies are
vC p1,2 = (10 j100) s1
C G
and  
1 1 p + 10 +10
R [pU A] =
(p + 10)2 + (100)2 1000 p + 10
" p+10
#
+10
1 (p+10)2 +(100)2 (p+10)2 +(100)2
[pU A] = 1000 p+10
Fig. 2. The second-order system considered for illustration (p+10)2 +(100)2 (p+10)2 +(100)2
Employing the applicable rules (Table I) for operation on
zero, the matrix exponential eAt , as given by
eAt = [pU A]
1
The state-vector is chosen as x = [iL vC ]T . The initial h0i
conditions are stipulated as x|t=0 = x(0) = [iL (0) vC (0)]T , emerges as
where iL (0) = iL |t=0 and vC (0) = vC |t=0 , are independently  
cos(100t) 0.1 sin(100t) 10t
specifiable initial conditions. Modeling of this system in the eAt = e
10 sin(100t) cos(100t)
form px = Ax results in the following formulation:
T T
For a stipulated value of x(0) = [iL (0) vC (0)] = [0 1] , the
px A x natural response of this system is computed as
z }| {
 z
 }| { z }| {      
piL RL + L1 iL iL cos(100t) 0.1 sin(100t) 10t 0
= (25) = e
pvC C1 G C
vC vC 10 sin(100t) cos(100t) 1
 R 
L + L1
| {z } | {z } |{z}
that is, A = (26) x eAt x(0)
1 G From which, the solution vector x is seen to be
 CR C 1      
p+ L L iL 0.1vC (0)e10t sin(100t) A
[pU A] = (27) x= = ; t>0
+ C1 p+ G C vC vC (0)e10t cos(100t) V
 
R G RG + 1
|pU A| = p2 + + p+ (28) The waveforms depicting iL and vC pertaining to this case
L C LC
  are plotted in Fig. 3.
1 p+ G + L1
and [pU A]1 = 1
C (29)
|pU A| C p+ R L
     
iL 10vC (0)te15t A
SecondOrder System Natural Response: Inductor Current iL x= = ; t>0
vC vC (0)(1 5t)e10t V
Inductor Current iL (A)
0.1

iL = [iL (0) cos(100t) + 0.1vC (0) sin(100t)] e 10t

0.05 The waveforms depicting iL and vC pertaining to this case
0 are plotted in Fig. 4.
0.05
iL (0) = 0 A
0.1 SecondOrder System Natural Response: Inductor Current i
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 L

Inductor Current iL (A)

0.25
Time t (s)
SecondOrder System Natural Response: Capacitor Voltage v 0.2 iL = [iL (0)(1 + 5t) + 10vC (0)t] e 15t
C
Capacitor Voltage v (V)

1
0.15
C

vC = [10iL (0) sin(100t) + vC (0) cos(100t)] e 10t

0.5 0.1

0
0.05 iL (0) = 0 A
0
0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
vC (0) = 1 V Time t (s)
1 SecondOrder System Natural Response: Capacitor Voltage v
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 C

Capacitor Voltage v (V)

Time t (s) 1

C
iL = [2.5iL (0)t + vC (0)(1 5t)] e 15t
Fig. 3. Natural response of the sample second-order system: Case 1: Natural 0.5

frequencies p1,2 = (10 j100) s1 .

0
vC (0) = 1 V
B. Case 2: Real and Equal(Repeated) Natural Frequencies 0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Time t (s)
The element values for the sample system shown in Fig .
(2) are taken to be as follows: R = 1 , L = 0.1 H, G = 8 S, Fig. 4. Natural response of the sample second-order system: Case 2: Natural
and C = 0.4 F. With this number-imposition, the following frequencies p1,2 = 15 nep/s (repeated).
hold:
 
10 +10
A=
2.5 20 VIII. C ONCLUSION
 
p + 10 10 The matrix exponential of a system matrix is indispensable
[pU A] =
+2.5 p + 20 to system analysis. It provides a facile means to vector-
|pU A| = p2 + 30p + 225 ize scalar first-order concepts into a framework capable of
= (p + 15)2 efficiently handling large-scale networks with any number
of degrees of freedom. The foregoing discussion and the
from which the natural frequencies are
subsequent examples demonstrated the ease with which this
p1,2 = 15 nep/s (repeated) matrix could be obtained in the time-domain itself by the
and   action of Operating on Zero. The natural response of the
1 p + 20 +10 1 system is thus obtained directly, regardless of the system size.
[pU A] =
(p + 15)2 2.5 p + 10 It is hoped that this time-domain operational technique would
Partial-fraction expansion of each element of [pU A]
1 play a significant role in analytically empowering the electrical
yields engineer student or professional, alike.
" #
1 5 10
1 p+15 + (p+15)2 (p+15)2 R EFERENCES
[pU A] = 1 5
p+15 (p+15)2
2.5
(p+15)2 [1] Oliver Heaviside, Electromagnetic Theory: Volumes I, II, and III, Elibron
Classics Replica ed. Adamant Media Corporation, 2005. (of the 1893,
Employing the applicable rules for operation on zero, the 1899, and 1912 editions respectively, by The Electrician Printing and
matrix exponential eAt , as given by Publishing Company Ltd., London, England.)
[2] Oliver Heaviside, Electrical Papers: Volumes I and II, Adamant Media
eAt = [pU A]
1
h0i Corporation, 2005. Providence, Rhode Island, AMS Chelsea Publishing,
emerges as 1970. (Reprint of the original 1892 Edition.)
  [3] E. A. Guillemin, Introductory Circuit Theory, 2nd ed. New York, NY:
At 1 + 5t 10t John Wiley & Sons, 1955.
e = e15t
2.5t 1 5t [4] E. A. Guillemin, Theory of Linear Physical Systems, 1st ed. New York,
NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1963.
For a stipulated value of x(0) = [iL (0) vC (0)]T = [0 1]T, the
natural response of this system is computed as
     
iL 1 + 5t 10t 0
= e15t
vC 2.5t 1 5t 1
| {z } | {z } |{z}
x eAt x(0)
From which, the solution vector x is seen to be