Introduction to the Finite Element Method

This section presents the general steps included in the finite element method.
Typically, for the structural stress analysis, it is required to determine the stresses and
deformation (strains) throughout the structure which is in equilibrium and is subjected to
applied loads.

The finite element method involves modeling of the structure using small units
(finite elements). A displacement function is associated with each finite element. The
followings are the steps used in finite element method. This will be followed by
illustration of the application of these steps on springs and plane stress cases.

STEPS IN FEA

Step 1. Discretize and Select Element Types

Divide the structure into an equivalent system of finite elements with associated nodes.
The simplest line elements, Fig.1.a has two nodes, one at each end. The basic two-
dimensional elements, Fig. 1.b are loaded by forces in their own plane (plane stress).
They are triangular or quadrilateral elements. The common three dimensional elements,
Fig.1.c, are tetrahedral and hexahedral (brick) elements. They are used to perform three
dimensional stress analysis in 3-D solid bodies.

Step 2. Select a Displacement Function

Choose a displacement function within each element using the nodal values of the
element. Linear, quadratic, and polynomials are frequently used functions.

Step 3. Define the Stress/Strain Relationships

= du/dx
= E

Step 4. Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

The stiffness matrix and element equations relating nodal forces and displacements are
obtained using force equilibrium conditions or the principle of minimum potential energy.

Step 5. Assemble the Element Equations to obtain the Global Equations

Step 6. Solve for the Unknown Displacements

Step 7. Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses

Step 8. Interpret the Results

The final goal is to interpret and analyze the results for use in the design process.
Common Element Types Used in FEA

4-Noded Shell 10-Noded Tetrahedral 20-Noded Hexahedral

Each element is comprised of 2 or more nodes which help define its shape as well as to
convey physical reactions from one element to the next. The finite in FEA comes from
the fact that there
are a known number of elements in a finite element model. The solver adds up the
individual behaviors of each element to predict the behavior of the entire physical system.
 Coordinate system in FEA
Local Coordinates
A local coordinates system whose origin is located within the element in order to simplify
the algebraic manipulations in the derivation of the element matrix.
The use of natural coordinates in expressing approximate functions is
advantageous because special integration formulas can often be applied to evaluate the
integrals in the element matrix.
Natural coordinates also play a crucial role in the development of elements with
carved boundaries.
Natural Coordinates
It is a local coordinate system that permits the specification of a point within the element
by a dimensionless parameter whose absolute magnitude never exceeds unity.
It is dimension less.
They are defined with respect to the element rather than with reference to the
global coordinates.
Global Coordinates
Global coordinates are convenient for specifying the location of each node, the
orientation of each element, the boundary conditions and the loads for the entire domain.

Stiffness (Displacement) Method in Finite Element Analysis

The linear spring is introduced to provide a simple yet generally instructive tool to
illustrate the basic concepts of stiffness method.
The principle of minimum potential energy is introduced and applied derive the spring
element equations, and use it to solve a spring assemblage problem. This principle will be
illustrated using the simplest of elements (those with small numbers of degrees of
freedom) so that it will become a more easily understood concept when necessarily
applied to elements with large numbers of degrees of freedom in subsequent discussions.

Derivation of the Stiffness Matrix for a Spring Element

The symbol k is called the spring constant or stiffness of the spring.
Analogies to actual spring constants arise in numerous engineering problems.A prismatic
uniaxial bar has a spring constant k = AE/L, where A represents the cross-sectional area of
the bar, E is the modulus of elasticity, and L is the bar length. Similarly, a prismatic
circular-cross-section bar in torsion has a spring constant k=JG/L, where J is the polar
moment of inertia and G is the shear modulus of the material. For one-dimensional heat
conduction, k=AKxx/L, where Kxx is the thermal conductivity of the material and one-
dimensional fluid flow through a porous media, k=AKxx /L, where Kxx is the permeability
coefficient of the material.
Consider the linear spring element shown in Figure1. The reference points 1&2 are called
the nodes of the spring element. The local nodal forces are d1x and d2x for the spring
element. These nodal displacements are called the degrees of freedom at each node.

k
1 2
x

f1x , d1x f2x , d2x

L

Figure 1 Linear spring element with positive nodal

displacement and force conventions
 A relationship between nodal forces and nodal displacements for a spring element need
to be developed. This relationship is the stiffness matrix. The nodal force matrix is related
to the nodal displacement matrix as follows:
f 1x k11 k12 d1x
(1)
f 2 x k 21 k 22 d 2 x
Where the elements kij of the matrix in Eq. (1) are to be determined.

Step 1 Select Element Type

Consider the linear spring (Fig.2) subjected to resulting nodal tensile forces T. The
original distance between nodes before deformation is denoted by L.

Step 2 Select a Displacement Function

A displacement function u is assumed. Here a linear displacement variation along
the x axis of the spring is assumed. Therefore

k 2
1 T
x
d1x d2x
L
Figure 2 Linear spring subjected to tensile forces
u a1 a 2 x (2) x
In general, the
1 total number of coefficients
2 a is equal to the total number of
degrees of freedom associated with the element. Here the total number of degrees of
freedom is two an axial displacement at each of the two nodes of the element. In matrix
form, Eq. (2) becomes
a
u 1 x 1 (3)
a 2
Evaluating u at each node and solving for a1 and a 2 from Eq.(2) as follows:
u (0) d 1x a1 (4)
u ( L) d 2 x a 2 L d1x (5)
Or, solving Eq. (5) for a 2 ,
d d1x
a2 2 x (6)
L
On substituting Eqs.(4)and (6) into Eq. (2), we have
d d1x
u ( 2x ) x d 1x (7)
L
In matrix form, we express Eq. (7) as
x x d 1x
[1 ] (8)
L L d 2 x
d
or u [ N1 N 2 ] 1x (9)
d 2 x
x x
Here N1 1 and N2 (1)
L L

,
are called the shape functions because the N i s express the shape of assumed
displacement function over the domain of element when the ith element degree of freedom
has unit value and all other degrees of freedom are zero.
In addition, they are often called interpolation functions because we are interpolating to
find the value of a function between given nodal values.

Step 3 Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain Relationships

The tensile forces T produces a total elongation (deformation) of the spring. For
the linear spring, T and are related through Hookes law by
T k (11)
where is the deformation of the spring,
d 2 x d1 x (12)
Step 4 Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
Nodal forces are
f 1x T f 2 x T (13)
Using Eqs. (11), (12), and (13), we have
T f1 x k (d 2 x d 1x )
(14)
T f1 x k (d 2 x d 1x )
f 1x k ( d 2 x d 1x )
(15)
f 2 x k (d 2 x d1x )
Now expressing Eqs.(15) in a single matrix equation yields
f 1 x k k d1 x
(16)
f 2 x k k d 2 x
k k
Stiffness Matrix is k
k
(17)
k

Step 5 Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global Equations and
Introduce Boundary Conditions
N N
K [K ] k F [F ] f
(e) (e)
and (18)
e 1 e 1
 Where k and f are now element stiffness and force matrices expresses in global
reference frame.
Step 6 Solve for the Nodal Displacements
The displacements are then determined by imposing boundary conditions and
solving a system of equations, F K d simultaneously.
Step 7 Solve for the Element Forces
Finally, the element forces are determined by back-substitution, applied to each
element.

shape function
shape function is the function which interpolates the solution between the discrete
values obtained at the mesh nodes. Therefore, appropriate functions have to be used and,
as already mentioned, low order polynomials are typically chosen as shape functions.

Figure: Tetrahedral finite element. (a) Original coordinate system. (b) Transformed
coordinate system.
The shape function is the function which interpolates the solution between the discrete
values obtained at the mesh nodes. Therefore, appropriate functions have to be used and,
as already mentioned, low order polynomials are typically chosen as shape functions. In
this work linear shape functions are used.
For three-dimensional finite element simulations it is convenient to discretize the
simulation domain using tetrahedrons, as depicted in Figure 4.1. Thus, linear shape
functions must be defined for each tetrahedron of the mesh, in order to apply the Galerkin
method
The calculations can be significantly simplified by carring out a coordinate
transformation. A tetrahedron in a transformed coordinate system is shown in

Figure 4.2(b). Each point of the tetrahedron in the original coordinate system

can be mapped to a corresponding point in the transformed coordinate

system [155]

(4.17)

which in matrix form leads to the Jacobian matrix

(4.18)

In this way, the nodal basis functions for the tetrahedron in the transformed coordinate
system are given by [155]

These shape functions are rather simple, so that the derivatives and integrals required for
the finite element formulation can be readily evaluated in the transformed coordinate

system. Given a function , the gradient in the transformed coordinates is of the form

(4.20)

where the derivatives are calculated via the chain rule by

These equations can be expressed in matrix notation as

(4.22)

or
(4.23)

where is the transpose of the Jacobian matrix. Thus, the gradient in the original
coordinate system can be calculated using the transformed coordinate gradient by

(4.24)

where .
Performing such a coordinate transformation significantly simplifies the practical
implementation of the FEM. The nodal shape functions in the transformed coordinates are
fixed and known in advance, thus, it is not necessary to solve the system of equations
formed by (4.15) and (4.16) for each element of the mesh. Only the Jacobian matrix has to
be determined, and the required calculations for the finite element formulation can be
easily evaluate