Академический Документы
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Культура Документы
BY
S.THAHIRA BANU.,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this course is to make the student aware of the various construction
techniques, practices and the equipment needed for different types of construction activities.
At the end of this course the student shall have a reasonable knowledge about the various
construction procedures for sub to super structure and also the equipment needed for
construction of various types of structures from foundation to super structure.
TEXT BOOKS
1. Peurifoy, R.L., Ledbetter, W.B. and Schexnayder, C., "Construction Planning,
Equipment and Methods", 5th Edition, McGraw Hill, Singapore, 1995.
2. Arora S.P. and Bindra S.P., Building Construction, Planning Techniques and Method of
Construction, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, 1997.
3. Varghese , P.C. Building construction, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi,
2007.
4. Sheety, M.S, Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice, S. Chand and Company Ltd,
New Delhi, 2005.
REFERENCES
1. Jha J and Sinha S.K., Construction and Foundation Engineering, Khanna Publishers,
1993.
2. Sharma S.C. Construction Equipment and Management, Khanna Publishers New
Delhi, 1988.
3. Deodhar, S.V. Construction Equipment and Job Planning, Khanna Publishers, New
Delhi, 1988.
4. Dr. Mahesh Varma, Construction Equipment and its Planning and Application,
Metropolitan Book Company, New Delhi-, 1983.
5. Gambhir, M.L, Concrete Technology, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd,
New Delhi, 2004
UNIT I
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
TYPES OF CEMENT
Colored cement
White cement
Hydrophobic cement
Masonry cement
expansive cement
1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at the same
workability as an admixture free mix.
2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so as to reduce
the heat of hydration in mass concrete.
3. To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations
4. Water reduction more than 5% but less than 12%
Actions involved:
1. Dispersion:
Surface active agents alter the physic chemical forces at the interface. They are adsorbed on
the cement particles, giving them a negative charge which leads to repulsion between the
particles. Electrostatic forces are developed causing disintegration and the free water
become available for workability.
2. Lubrication:
As these agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate the mix reducing the friction and
increasing the workability.
3. Retardation:
A thin layer is formed over the cement particles protecting them from hydration and
increasing the setting time. Most normal plasticizers give some retardation, 3090 minutes
Super Plasticizers:
These are more recent and more effective type of water reducing admixtures also
known as high range water reducer
Give 1625%+ water reduction. SMF gives little or no retardation, which makes them very
effective at low temperatures or where early strength is most critical.
However, at higher temperatures, they lose workability relatively quickly. SMF generally
give a good finish and are colorless, giving no staining in white concrete.
Typically give 1625%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the entrapment of larger,
unstable air bubbles. This can improve cohesion but may lead to more surface defects.
Retardation is more than with SMF but will still not normally exceed 90 minutes. SNF is a
very cost-effective.
Typically give 2035%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per liter but are
very powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is normally used.
In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water reducers, and
the possible undesirable side effects are reduced because they do not markedly lower the
surface tension of the water.
Accelerators:
An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate of
hydration of hydraulic cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the rate of
hardening or strength development.
Accelerating admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and
application:
Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened state.
Set accelerators have relatively limited use, mainly to produce an early set.
2. Hardening Accelerators,
Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20C and at 5C by at least
130% at 48 hours. Hardening accelerators find use where early stripping of shuttering or
very early access to pavements is required.
They are often used in combination with a high range water reducer, especially in cold
conditions.
Set Retarders:
The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and helpful in
placing the concrete at high temperatures.
When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration reaction, after which
there is little formation of further hydrates for typically 23 hours.
The exact time depends mainly on the cement type and the temperature. This is called the
dormant period when the concrete is plastic and can be placed.
At the end of the dormant period, the hydration rate increases and a lot of calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium hydroxide is formed relatively quickly. This corresponds to the setting
time of the concrete.
Retarding admixtures delay the end of the dormant period and the start of setting and
hardening. This is useful when used with plasticizers to give workability retention. Used on
their own, retarders allow later vibration of the concrete to prevent the formation of cold
joints between layers of concrete placed with a significant delay between them.
The mechanism of set retards is based on absorption. The large admixture anions and
molecules are absorbed on the surface of cement particles, which hinders further reactions
between cement and water i.e. retards setting.
An addition for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes air,
usually in small quantity, to be incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in the concrete or
mortar during mixing, usually to increase its workability and frost resistance.
Air-entraining admixtures are surfactants that change the surface tension of the water.
Traditionally, they were based on fatty acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely been
replaced by synthetic surfactants or blends of surfactants to give improved stability and void
characteristics to the entrained air.
Air entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened
concrete. These include:
Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
Calcareous
Argillaceous
Cement rock
Lime stone
Marl
Chalk
Marine shell
Clay
shale
slate
blast furnace slag
Dry process
Wet process
Dry process
General
Adopted when the raw materials are quite hard
Process
Lime stone and clay are ground to fine powder separately and are mixed together
The paste format are dried and off charged into a rotary kiln
The clinker I obtained as a result of incipient fusion and sintering at a temp about 1400c to
1500 c
The clinker is cooled to preserve the meta stable compounds and there solid solutions
Dispersion of one solid with another solid which made the clinker again heated
Clinker is again cooled and grounded in tube mills where 2-3% gypsum is added
The purpose of adding gypsum is to coat the cement particle by interfering the process of
hydration of cement particles
Mixing
Burning
Grinding
Process
The crushed raw materials are fed in to a ball mill and a little water is added
The steel balls in the ball mill pulverized the raw material which form a slurry with water
The slurry is passed through storage tanks where the proportioning of compound is adjusted
to ensure desired chemical composition
The corrected slurry having moisture about 40%,is then fed into rotary kiln
Where it loses moisture and form on to lumps
It becomes clinker at this stage, the clinker is cooled and then grounded in tube mills
While grinding the clinker 3% gypsum I added this is stored in silos and packed
Concrete Mix Design concept
Definition:
Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain
minimum strength and durability as economically as possible.
One of the ultimate aims of studying the various properties of the materials of concrete,
plastic concrete and hardened concrete is to enable a concrete technologist to design a
concrete mix for a particular strength and durability.
The design of concrete mix is not a simple task on account of the widely varying properties
of the constituent materials, the conditions that prevail at the site of work, in particular the
exposure condition, and the conditions that are demanded for a particular work for which
the mix is designed.
Design of concrete mix requires complete knowledge of the various properties of these
constituent materials, these make the task of mix design more complex and difficult.
Design of concrete mix needs not only the knowledge of material properties and properties
of concrete in plastic condition; it also needs wider knowledge and experience of concreting.
Even then the proportion of the materials of concrete found out at the laboratory requires
modification and re adjustments to suit the field conditions.
With better understanding of the properties, the concrete is becoming more and more an
exact material than in the past.
The structural designer specifies certain minimum strength; and the concrete technologist
designs the concrete mix with the knowledge of the materials, site exposure conditions and
standard of supervision available at the site of work to achieve this minimum strength and
durability.
Further, the site engineer is required to make the concrete at site, closely following the
parameters suggested by the mix designer to achieve the minimum strength specified by the
structural engineer.
In some cases the site engineer may be required to slightly modify the mix proportions
given by the mix designer.
He also makes cubes or cylinders sufficient in numbers and tests them to confirm the
achievements with respect to the minimum specified strength. Mix designer, earlier, may
have made trial cubes with representative materials to arrive at the value of standard
deviation or coefficient of variation to be used in the mix design.
American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design 11.3 (ACI Concrete Mix Design)
This method of proportioning was first published in 1944 by ACI committee 613. In 1954
the method was revised to include, among other modifications, the use of entrained air. In
1970, the method of ACI mix design became the responsibility of ACI committee 211. We
shall now deal with the latest ACI Committee 211.1 method.
Manufacturing of concrete
Introduction
Production of concrete requires meticulous care at every stage
The ingredients of good and bad concrete are same but good rules are not
Observed it may become bad
Batching
o The gauge boxes are made with comparatively deeper with narrow surface
o Some times bottomless gauge boxes are used but it should be avoided
Volume batching is not a good practice because of the difficulties it offers to granular
material.
Some of the sand in loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry
compacted soil.
For un important concrete or any small job concrete may be batched by volume.
Weigh batching
The different types of weigh batching are there, they are used based on the different
situation.
In small works the weighing arrangement consist of two weighing buckets connected to
the levers of spring loaded dials which indicates the load,
The weighing buckets are mounted on a central spindle about which they rotate
On large works the weigh bucket type of weighing equipment used ,the materials are fed
from the over head storage hopper and it discharges by gravity.
Mixing
The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous uniform in color and
consistency.
Types of mixing
Hand mixing
Machine mixing
Hand mixing
Hand mixing should be done over a impervious concrete or brick floor sufficiently large
size take one bag of cement .
Spread out and measure d out fine aggregates and course aggregate in alternative layers.
Pour he cement on the top of it and mix them dry by showel, turning the mixture over
and over again until the uniformity of color is achieved.
The water is taken and sprinkled over the mixture and simultaneously turned over
The operation is continued till such time a good uniform homogeneous concrete is
obtained
Machine mixing
Machine mixing is not only efficient it is also economical when quantity of concrete to
be produced is large
Batch mixer
Continuous mixer
Batch mixer
Drum types are further classified into tilting ,non tilting and forced action type
For proper mixing it is seen that about 25to 30 revolutions are required in a well
designed mixer
It is important that a mixer should not stop in between concreting operations for this
requirement concrete mixer must be kept maintained
Transporting of concrete
Mortar pan
]
Wheel barrow
Belt conveyors
Chute
Transit mixer
Helicopter
Mortar pan
This method exposes greater surface area of concrete for drying conditions
Mortar pan must be wetted to start with and must be kept clean
Wheel barrow
This method is employed for hauling concrete in longer distance in case of concrete road
construction.
If the distance is long or ground is rough it is likely that the concrete get segregated due to
vibration
To avoid this, wheel barrows are provided with pneumatic wheel.
This is one of the right way for transporting concrete above the ground level
Crane can handle concrete in high rise construction project and are becoming familiar sites
in big cities
For large concrete works particularly for concrete to be placed at ground level
These are ordinary open steel tipping lorries
Chutes
Provided for transporting concrete from ground to lower level
The surface should have same slope not flatter than 1 vertical to 2 and a1/2 horizontal
Skip and hoist
Mortar pan with staging and human ladder is used for transporting concrete
Transit mixer
This is the equipment for transporting concrete over a big distance particularky ready mix
concrete
They are truck mounted having a capacity of 4 to 7 m3
A small concrete pump is also mounted on the truck carrying transit mixer
Pumps and pipe lines
Starts with the suction stroke for suck the concrete inside the pipe
It has a piston which moves forward and backward to have suction and delivery of concrete
Number of bends
Slump of concrete
Placing of concrete
Placing concrete with large earth mould or timber plank form work
Placing concrete with large earth mould or timber plank form work
For construction of road slabs,air field slabs and ground floor slabs in building conc os
placed in this method
The ground surface must be free from loose earth pool of water ,grass or roots or leaves
Poly ethylene film is used in between conc ground to avoid absorption of moisture
Method of compaction
Size of vibrator
Frequency of vibrator used
It is good for laying 15 to 30 cm thick layer of concrete ,for mass concrete it may varie from
35 to 45 cm
Its better to leave the top of the layer rough so that succeeding layer can have the good bond
Placing concrete with in usual form work
The concrete must be placed very care fully a small quantity at a time so that they will not
block the entry of subsequent concrete
Concrete is often required to be placed under water or I a trench filled with slurry
In such a cases use of bottom slurry buckets or termic pipes are used
In the bottom bucket concrete is taken through water in a water tight box or bucket reaching
final place of deposition
The bottom is made to open by some mechanism and the whole concrete is dumped slowly.
Compaction of concrete
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from the
concrete
Method for compacting concrete
Hand compaction
Compaction by vibrator
Hand compaction
It consist of
Roding
Ramming
Tamping
Roding
Poking the concrete with about 2m long 16 mm dia rod to poke the concrete reinforcement
Ramming
Tamping
Compaction by vibrators
The use of vibrators may be essential for the production of good concrete
Type of vibrators
Internal vibrator
Formwork vibrator
Table vibrator
Platform vibrator
Surface vibrator
Vibratory rollers
Often used for compacting hollow block ,cavity blocks concrete blocks
With the combined action of the three the stiff conc gets compacted to an dense form to give
good strength and volume
Compaction by spinning
The plastic concrete when at every high speed get well compacted by centrifugal force
Vibratory rollers
Tests on concrete
The measured slump must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability.
It can also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its
workability.
1. Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm
high)
2. Small scoop
3. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
4. Rule
5. Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate
should be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform
the slum test
Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and
out of the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a
definite pattern, working from outside into the middle.
Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the
footpieces.
Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another
must be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
Compression Test
The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect
conditions.
The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should
always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete
cylinder for the compression test.
The compressive strength is a measure of the concretes ability to resist loads which tend to
crush it.
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The
small cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
1. Small scoop
2. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
3. Steel float
4. Steel plate
Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean,
level and firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.
Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times.
Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up
the mould till overflowing.
Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and
crushed to test compressive strength
UNIT II
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
Planning
Sequence of operation
For prepare progress of construction each stage may be constructed under separate
contraction
It should be carried out in the proper method and arrangement
Before starting to construct the structure we must go for the sequence of operation in the
project it is better way o arrange the labour material and equipment
Following are the sequence of operation in a highway project
Site clearance
Setting out is the process of laying down the excavation lines and centre lines on the ground
before excavation is started after the foundation design is done
For setting out the foundation of a small building the centre line of the longest outer wall of
the building is first marked on the ground by stretching a string between wooden or mild
steel pegs driven at the ends
Two pegs one on either from the central peg are driven at the each end of the line
Each peg is equidistant from the central peg and the distance between the outer pegs
corresponds to the width of foundation trench to be excavated
Each peg may be projected about 25 to 50 mm above ground level may be driven at a
distance of 2m from the edge of excavation
When the string is stretched joining the corresponding pegs at the two extremities of the
line the boundary of the trench to be excavated can be marked on the ground with dry lime
powders
The centre line of the other wall which is perpendicular to the long wall can be marked by
setting out right angles
All the specifications are made by tape or prismatic compass may be used for setting out
right angles
Similarly outer lines of the foundation trench of each cross wall can be set out
For big project reference pillars of masonry is constructed first, these pillars may be about
20cm thick and 15cm wider than the width of the foundation
EXCAVATION
Excavation of foundation can be done by manually or with the help of special mechanical
equipments
Spade
Phawrah
Pick axe
Crowbar
Rammer
Wedge
Boning rod
Sledge hammer
Basket
Iron pan
line and pins
FOUNDATION
The foundation is he lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level,
which transmit the load of super structure to sub soil
Functions of foundation
Types of foundation
Shallow foundation
Deep foundation
Shallow foundation
If the depth of foundation is less than or equal to width of foundation it is called as shallow
foundation
Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap footing
Mat foundation
Spread footing
Spread footing is those which spread the super imposed load to of a wall or column over the
large area
Single footing
Stepped footing
Sloped footing
Wall footing with out step
Grillage foundation
Combined footing
A spread footing which supports two are more columnsis termed as combined footing
Trapezoidal footing
If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam it is called as strap
footing
A strap footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that a
combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow
The strap beam does not remains in contact with soil and thus does not transfer any pressure
to the soil
Mat foundation
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire beneath a structure
And supports all walls and columns
It is used when the allowable soil pressure is low are the building loads are heavy
Deep foundation
If the depth of foundation is equal to or more than the width of the foundation is called deep
foundation
Types
Pile foundation
Whenever the depth of strip footing is more than the width it is called as deep strip footing
Pile foundation
it is a type of deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by means of
vertical members which may be timber or concrete or steel
Friction pile
End bearing piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing
stratum
Multi storied buildings are invariably founded on end bearing piles, so that the settlements
are minimized
Friction piles
Friction piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load carrying material by
means of skin friction along the length of the pile
These piles mostly used in granular soil
These are the piles which transfer the super imposed load both through side friction as well
as end bearing
Such piles are more common, especially the end bearing piles are passed through granular
soil
Compaction piles
These piles are used o compact loose soil thus increasing there bearing capacity
The pile tube driven to compact the soil is gradually taken out and sand is filled in its place
thus forming the sand pile
Pier foundation
A pier foundation consist of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support transfer large
super imposed loads to the firm strata below
o Masonry
o concrete pier
Drilled caissons
Well foundation or caissons are box like structures circular or rectangular which are sunk
from the surface of either land or water to the desired depth
Large water front structures such as pump houses, subjected to heavy vertical and horizontal
loads
Well foundations are caissons are hollow from inside, which may filled withstand and are
plugged at the bottom, the load is transferred to the perimeter wall called as steining
Stone Masonry
Definition:
The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone masonry.
Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two types:
1. Rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar Masonry
1. Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a suitable
mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform thickness.
Squared rubble masonry:The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared
on all joints and beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual
laying, is called squared rubble masonry.
2. Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using
any mortar is called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is
an ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of height not more
than 6m. In case the height is more, three adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble
masonry mortar at 3m intervals.
2. Ashlar masonry:
The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is
known as ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the
joints are regular, thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it
requires dressing of stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers
and abutments of bridges.
Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is
type of masonry is very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole
thickness of the wall, except in works of great importance and strength. For
economy the facing are built in ashlars and the rest in rubble.
Brick masonry
Brick
Mortar
Types of mortar
Cement mortar
Lime mortar
Cement-lime mortar
Lime surkhi mortar
Mud mortar
Types of bricks
Traditional bricks
Modular bricks
Traditional bricks
It has not been standardize in size
Thickness varies from varies from cm to 7.5cm,widthvaries from 10to13 cm and length
varies from 20to25 cm
Modular brick
Any brick which is the same uniform size as laid down by bis
Classes of brick
First class brick
Second class brick
Third class brick
Stretcher bond
Header bond
English bond
Flemish bond
Facing bond
English crossing bond
Brick on edge bond
Dutch bond
Racking bond
Zigzag bond
Garden wall bond
Stretcher bond
The length of the brick its along with the face of the wall\
This pattern is used only for those wall which have thickness of half brick
Header bond
The width of the bricks are thus along the direction of the wall
This pattern is used only when the thickness of the wall is equal to one brick
English bond
Every alternative header come centrally over the joint between two stretchers in corse in
below
Since the number of vertical joint in the header course twice the number of vertical
joints in stretcher course ,the joints in the header course are made thinner than the joints
in the stretcher course
Flemish bond
The facing and backing of the wall in each course have the same appearance
Single Flemish bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing an English bond
backing and hearting in each course
Facing bond
This bond is used where the bricks of different thickness are to be used in the facing and
backing of the wall
The nominal thickness of facing brick is 10 cm and that of backing bricks is 9 cm the
header course tis provided at a vertical interval of 90 cm
1. It should be impervious.
2. It should be strong and durable, and should be capable of withstanding both dead as
well as live loads without damage.
3. It should be dimensionally stable.
4. It should be free from deliquescent salts like sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
The materials commonly used to check dampness can be divided into the following
three categories:
1. Flexible Materials: Materials like bitumen felts (which may be hessian based or
fibre/glass fibre based), plastic sheeting (polythene sheets) etc.
2. Semi-rigid Materials: Materials like mastic, asphalt, or combination of materials or
layers.
3. Rigid Materials: Materials like first class bricks, stones, slate, cement concrete etc.
The choice of material to function as an effective damp proof course requires a judicious
selection. It depends upon the climate and atmospheric conditions, nature of structure and
the situation where DPC is to be provided. The points to be kept in view while making
selection of DPC materials are briefly discussed below:
1. DPC above ground level: For DPC above ground level with wall thickness
generally not exceeding 40cm, any one of the type of materials mentioned above
may be used. Cement concrete is however commonly adopted material for DPC at
plinth level, 38 to 50mm thick layer of cement concrete M15 (1:2:4 mix) serves the
purpose under normal conditions.
In case of damp and humid atmosphere, richer mix of concrete should be used. The concrete
is further made dense by adding water proofing materials like Pudlo, Impermo, Waterlock
etc in its ingredients during the process of mixing. It is used to apply two coats of hot
bitumen over the third surface of the concrete DPC.
1. DPC Material for floors, roofs etc: For greater wall thickness or where DPC is to
be laid over large areas such as floors, roofs, etc, the choice is limited to flexible
materials which provide lesser number of joints like mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts,
plastic sheets etc.
The felts when used should be properly bonded to the surface with bitumen and laid with
joints properly lapped and sealed.
The purpose of floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of the
building, furniture, equipment and some time interior wall
Sound proof
Damp resistance
Thermal insulations
Components of a floor
Initial cost
Appearance
Cleanliness
Durability
Damp resistance
Sound insulation
Thermal insulation
Fire resistance
Smoothness
Hardness
Maintenance
Types of flooring
It has good thermal insulation property due to which it remains cool in summer and warm in
winter
Over a well prepared ground 25 cm thick selected moist earth is spread and it rammed well
to compacted thickness of 15cm
To construct such a floor a 15 cm thick layer muram is laid over prepared sub grade over it
2.5 cm thick powder layer of muram is spread and rammed
Brick flooring
The sub grade is compacted properly, to the desired leveland 7.5 cm thick layer is spread
Such flooring is used in cheap construction, especially where good bricks are available
Flag stone is laminated sand stone available in 2cm to 4cm thickness in the form of stone
slab of 30X30 cm or 45X45cm and 60X60 cm
Base concrete
Terrazzo flooring
Terrazzo flooring is another type of floor finish that is laid in thin layer over concrete
topping
Terrazzo is a specially prepare concrete surface containing cement and marble chips in the
proportion to 1:1 1/4 to 1:2
When the surface has set the chips are exposed by grinding operation
Mosaic flooring
Mosaic flooring Is made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of cement or of
marble arranged in different pattern
a concrete base is prepare as in the case of concrete flooring over that 5to8 thick lime surkhi
mortar is spread over an area, over this 3mm thick cementing paste is layered and is left to
dry about 4 hours,
,there after small pieces of broken tiles or marble pieces of different colors arranged definite
pattern and hammered in different layers
Tiled flooring
Tiledflooring is constructed from square ,hexagonal or other shapes made up of clay cement
concrete and terrazzo
These are available In various thickness
Thes are commonly used in residential houses ,schools,hospitals and other public buildings
Over the concrete base a 25 to 30 mm thick layr of lime mortar 1:3 to serve as a bedding
The bedding mortar is allowed to harden for 12 to 24 hours
Neat cement slurry is spread over it and the tiles are laid flat over it
Marble flooring
It is the superior type of flooring used in bathrooms and kitchens of residential building
and hospitals ,sanitorium ,temples etc
After the preparation of base concrete 20 mm thick bed layer of 1:4 cement mix spread
under the area of each individual slabs.
The marble layer is then laid over it and pressed with wooden mallet and leveled
Timber flooring
But hilly area where wood is available and temperature drops very low timber flooring is
quite common
SCAFFOLDING
These temporary structures constructed very close to the wall is in the form of imber o steel
frame work commonly called as scaffoldings
Components of scaffoldings
Ledgers
Braces
Put logs
Transoms
Boarding
Guard rail
Toe board
Single scaffoldings
This consists of a single frame work of standards, legers, put logs etc
Constructed parallel to the wall at a distance of about 1.2 meters
Ledger connected with the standards, and are provided at a vertical distance of 1.2to 1.5 m
Put logs or connected with one end on the ledgers and other end at the holes of the wall at an
interval of1.2 to 1.5 m interval
The first row placed 20 to 30 cm away from the wall the other frame will 1m distance from
the first one
Put logs are the supported on both the supports, rakers and cross braces are provided to
make the scaffolding more strong
It also called as independent scaffoldings
Cantilever or needle scaffolding
It ha s two types
Single Frame
Te standards are supported on series of needle taken out through opening or through holes
Double frame
The needles are projecting beams are strutted inside the floors
Suspended scaffolding
It is the light weight scaffolding used for repair works such as pointing, painting etc
The working platforms are suspended from roofs by means of wire ropes or chains etc
Trestle scaffolding
Such type of scaffoldings are used for painting and repairing work inside the room up to a
height of 5m
The working platform is supported over the top of movable contrivances such as tripods
ladders etc
Steel scaffolding
Steel scaffolding is practically similar to the timber scaffolding, here wooden members are
replaced by steel couplets are fittings
Patented scaffolding
TRUSSES
Trusses are the frame formed by number of straight members connected in the form of
triangles
The embers are made by steel angles and they are joined by rivet or welding, these joints are
called nodes
It is assumed that the external loads act at the nodes only and the members are subjected to
only tension or compression
The compression members are called as struts and the tension members are called as ties
Here t he
common rafters are supported by wooden frame work called truss under required interval
The frame work consist of a king post, two struts two principal rafters and tie beam
The truss rest on stone bed blocks at either end
The common rafters rest on wooden purlins which in turn are fixed to the principal rafters of
the truss
The king post connect the ridge post and the middle of the tie beam
The struts are connected to the king post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the top
The roofing material is fixed to the common rafters king post truss is used for spans of 5m
to 9m
The struts are connected to the queen post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the top
North light or saw tooth roof truss is special type of roof trusses suitable for factories
engaging in manufacturing work
Actual lighting is taken an advantage during day time by using the north light roof trusses
In this type of trusses vertical drops are provided this drops are covered with glasses so as to
permit light in to the interior
Shuttering is the temporary ancillary construction used as a mould for the structures
In which the concrete is placed and allowed to hardened
These are classified as steel wooden plywood combined woods steel, reinforced concrete
and plain concrete
Requirements of shuttering
The material should be cheap and should be suitable for re use several times
It should be practically water proof so that it should not observe water from concrete
The slab is supported on 2.5 cm thick sheeting laid parallel to the main beam
form work for stairs
Shuttering of walls
The boards are fixed to 5cmX10cm posts known as struts are soldiers
ROOF FINISHING
Roof finishing accessories include all types of accessory materials that are used to finish a
roof. Flashing, drip edge, and roof drains are all examples of roofing accessories.
Roof finishing accessories are widely available for a range of applications and may be
chosen for functional, aesthetic, or budgetary reasons.
Roofing accessories are largely made from aluminum, steel, copper, or PVC vinyl. They
include a range of products including
Rain gutters and Drains and guards
Flashing or weatherproofing materials
Roof caps
Drip edges
Ridges and shingles
Chimney caps
Leader boxes
Finials and turrets
Weathervanes.
Rain gutters and Drains and guards
Rain gutters, drains and guards are roof finishing accessories that collect and divert
rainwater away from the roof and building foundation.
These types of roof finishing accessories may also reduce erosion, prevent leaks in the
foundation or basement, reduce water exposure on painted surfaces, and collect water for
additional use.
Rain gutter, drain and guard roof finishing accessories may be available with screens,
louvers, or hoods for additional protection.
Flashing or weatherproofing materials
Roof finishing accessories also include flashing, also known as weatherproofing.
Flashing refers to installing a thin, continuous piece of sheet material to prevent the passage
of water into the structure from a joint or angle.
Flashing roof finishing accessories are commonly used around protruding objects in the
roof, such as chimneys or pipes, to prevent water from reaching seams or joints.
Roof caps, drip edges, ridges and shingles, and chimney caps
Roof caps, drip edges, ridges and shingles, and chimney caps are also common, functional
roof finishing accessories
. Roof caps provide ventilation via the rooftop. They are commonly made from copper or
galvanized steel, and often include an insect screen.
Drip edge roof finishing accessories are useful in stopping water from seeping under a roof
deck, which can prevent frame rot.
Roof ridge caps and shingles are also used as finishing accessories. Roof shingles are
individual, overlapping elements used for water-resistance.
At the roof ridge, there is typically a copper, lead, or plastic cap to ensure water protection.
Ridge vents are also commonly used as roof finishing accessories to provide ventilation to
attic or upper crawlspaces.
ACOUSTICS
Acoustics is the science of sound ,which deals with origin ,propagation and auditory
sensation of sound and also with design and construction of different building units to set
optimum condition for producing and listenig speech musi etc
FIRE PROTECION
A wider interpretation of the fire safety may be deemed to cover the following aspects
Fire prevention and reduction of number of out breaks of fire
Safe existence of any and all occupants in the event of an out breaks of fire
Fire load
Fire load is the amount of heat in kilocalories which is liberated per square meter of floor
area of any combustible parts of the building itself
The fire load is determined by multiplying the weight of all combustible materials by their
calorific value and dividing the floor area under consideration
The exist shall be so placed that they are always immediately accessible and each is capable
of taking all the persons on that floor a s alternative escape route
Escape route shall be well ventilated as persons using the escapes are likely to over come
from smoke
Fire proof door shall conform rigidly to the fire safety requirements
Electrical and mechanical lifts while reliable undr normal condition may not always be
relied on escape purpose
Lift shafts and stairways invariably serve as flues are tunnels thus increasing the fire by
increased draught
Floors are required to withstand the effect of fire for full period stated for the particular
grading
Roofs of the various fire grades of the building shall be designed and constructed to
withstand the effect of fire for the maximum period
UNIT III
Techniques of Box jacking Pipe Jacking -under water construction of diaphragm walls and
basement-Tunneling techniques Piling techniques - well and caisson - sinking cofferdam
cable anchoring and grouting-driving diaphragm walls, sheet piles - shoring for deep cutting
well points -Dewatering and stand by Plant equipment for underground open excavation.
When the increasing demands for various forms of transport infra structure to be constructed
in congested locations or below existing facilities the need to be able to install large
structures without destruction is a growing need.
The jacking of large boxes to create an underpass below a railway track or road without
destruction
For around 30 years this box jacking techniques has found wide use Europe and India
Box jacking
Arch jacking
Pipe jacking
OPERATONS
The box shaped tunnel structures are pre fabricated units which are pushed into soil by
hydraulic jack
Excavation ahead of the cutting is avoided the cutting head is moved forward in small
increments to avoid any having of the road or rail track
In addition to that, without stabilizing the soil, the box technique would cause the super
structure to settle the threatening structure failure so the ground ahead of tunnel boxes
needed to be frozen
PIPE JACKING
In tunnels of damages above 2m men and machines worked the tunnel phase exacting and
providing soil support to the excavator soil by erecting the lining. The tunnel diameter
becomes small it becomes difficult for workers to carry out soil excavation of in erect the
tunnel lining system with in the tunnel shield
For diameter in the range of 0.5m to 1.5m it is more efficient to excavate the soil by drilling
systems controlled from a shaft or a pit to push the tunnel lining segment from the shaft or
pit these techniques are often referred to us pipe jacking or micro tunneling techniques and
equipments
Pipe jacking refers to a technique in which a man in a sitting or crouch position, users epic
and shovels to excavate tunnel face and the pipe is jacked forward from a shaft using
hydraulic jacking system
INSTALATION
The pipe sections are moved forward by hydraulic jacking and the miniature TBM derive its
reaction from these section
Pipe segments of length 1 to 3 diameters 0.5 to 2m can be jacked into the soil using reaction
from the concrete wall erected at the rior of jacking pit.
DIAPHRAGM WALL
. These lateral loads are usually wind and earthquake loads, but other lateral loads such as
lateral earth pressure or hydrostatic pressure can also be resisted by diaphragm action.
The diaphragm of a structure often does double duty as the floor system or roof system in a
building or the deck of abridge, which simultaneously supports gravity loads.
Metal deck or composite metal deck in steel construction; or concrete slab in concrete
construction.
The two primary types of diaphragm are flexible and rigid. Flexible diaphragms resist lateral
forces depending on the tributary area, irrespective of the flexibility of the members that
they are transferring force to
. On the other hand, rigid diaphragms transfer load to frames or shear walls depending on
their flexibility and their location in the structure.
TUNNELING
Process of making tunnels in order to reduce distance of travel or traffic congestion for
highway and railway is called tunneling
Poly centric
Horse shoe
It depends upon the number of track and the width and length of the mountain
Alignment of tunneling
o Identify the shortest route
o Height of mountain should be less
o Mark the points on the mountain
o Transfer the tunnel inside the mountain by making of required depth
o Checking the tunnel cross section whether equal every where
Methods of tunneling
Shaft tunneling
Pilot tunneling
Shaft tunnels
Vertical passages are created along the line o the tunnel then the tunnels can be excavated
by the passage of having distance half of the distance between adjacent passage openings
are available to take the excavated material ,shafts can also be used to pump out the water
Pilot tunneling
If the height of the mountain is more then we can exercise this method of tunneling but uf he
horizontal length is more, shaft tunneling is done
PILE DRIVING
It is a process by way of which a pile is forced in to the ground with out excavating the soil
Using hammering
Hammering
Drop hammer
Single acting hammer
Double acting hammer
Diesel hammer and
Vibrating hammer
Drop hammer
Hammer is lifted by stream and dropped then it will fell down in the top of the pile by
gravitational force
It is the same as that of single acting but here both the lifting and dropping is done by steam
engine
Diesel hammer
Vibrators
If the soil condition is loose ,then using some vibrators the pile is inserted
SHEET PILES
The thickness of the pile is very less when compared to the length and width of the pile
To prevent the entry water in construction the sheet piles are used, this is also used to
separate the vertical member of the building
The piles are inserted by some machine the depth of the piles can be increased by proper
joints in successive installment
Functions
To prevent seepage below the dams or hydraulic structures to construct coastal defense
work
Reinforced precast unit having the width of 50 to 60 cm and thickness 2to 6cm and the
depth can be increased by further installment
it is used only for temporary works ,the width of the pile varies from 225to 280 cm the
thickness shall not be less than 50mm
DEWATERING
DEFINITION
When water table exists at a shallow depth below ground surface, it is essential to lower the
water so as to carry out construction of foundation, basement, and metro tunnels etc.This is
achieved by pumping out water from multiple wells installed at the site. The process is
called as dewatering.
Allowing water to reap into excavation area, collecting it in sumps and pumping it out.
Before that adequate steps have to be taken to support the soil on sides of the excavated
area, to prevent washing away of fines and have sufficient space for the work area.
Making the soil around excavated zone impermeable by technique such as grouting are
freezing so that inflow of water is stop are minimized.
INSTALATION TECHNIQUE
Sufficient size and capacity of dewatering system is necessary to lower and maintain ground
water table and to allow material to be excavated in a reasonable dry condition.
Excavation slopes to be stabilized where sheeting is not required
Dewatering system is to be operated continuously until backfill work has been completed.
The complete stand by have to be available for immediate operation as may be required, to
adequately maintain dewatering on continuous basis and in the event that all or any other
part of the system may become inadequate or fail
The water removed from the excavation to be disposed in such a manner as will not
endanger portions of work under construction or completed.
For dewatering purpose, well points deep well, caissons and tunnels are used.
WELL POINTS
DEWATERING
When construction operation have to be excited below the ground water table level.
Dewatering of soil can be done by the following methods
Installing well points small or deep wells and pumping out ground water
Using special technique in fine grained soils such as vaccum dewatering and electro-
osmosis
WELL POINTS
To pump out the ground water small sized wells called well points are used for a more dry
working area the two methods used most often for lowering water table below the
excavation level are the well point method and the deep well method.
When a series of wells are placed close to each other, the overall effect is lowering of the
water table level.
Well points, being smaller, are easy to install.
Well points, can lower the water table by only 6.7m because the pump, is located at the
ground surface and connected to group of well points through a pipe, cannot lift water from
greater depth.
Beyond 7m, multistage well points are used.
This method is useful for lowering the water table by more than 15m.
Deep wells have larger diameter more depth and greater spacing.
The pump is located at the bottom of well and hence can pump out water from greater depth.
Launching girders, bridge decks, off shore platforms special forms for shells - techniques
for
heavy decks in-situ pre-stressing in high rise structures, Material handling - erecting light
weight components on tall structures - Support structure for heavy Equipment and
conveyors Erection of articulated structures, braced domes and space decks.
BRIDGE DECKS
The principal function of a bridge deck is to provide support to local vertical loads (from
highway traffic, railway or pedestrians) and transmit these loads to the primary
superstructure of the bridge, Figure 1(1). As a result of its function, the deck will be
continuous along the bridge span and (apart from some railway bridges) continuous across
the span. As a result of this continuity, it will act as a plate (isotropic or orthotropic
depending on construction) to support cal patch
Continuity ensures that whether or not it has been designed to do so, it will participate in the
overall structural action of the superstructure.
Contributing to the top flange of cross girders at supports and, where present in twin
girder and cross girder structures, throughout the span, Figure 1(3).
Stabilising longitudinal and cross girders, Figure 1(4).
It may be necessary to take account of these combined actions when verifying the design of
the deck. This is most likely to be the case when there are significant stresses from the
overall structural actions in the same direction as the maximum bending moments from
local deck actions, e.g. in structures with cross girders where the direction of maximum
moment is along the bridge.
The passage of each wheel load causes a complete cycle of local bending stresses. The
number of significant stress cycles is, therefore, very much higher for the deck than for the
remainder of the superstructure. In addition, some of the actions of the deck arising from its
participation in the overall behaviour are subject to full reversal;
an example is the transverse distribution of vertical load between girders. For both these
reasons, fatigue is more likely to govern the design of the bridge deck than the remainder of
the superstructure.
SHELL STRUCTURES
Shells are 3d structures constructed on storage tanks or roof for large column area such as
indoor stadiums, exhibition halls, theatres, complex churches etc
Classification
Singly curved
Doubl curved
Cylindrical shells
Singly curved
It can be used for rectangular shape buildings, shells represents the roof of the building
Dome storage tank for water and petroleum is example for single curved
Doubly curved
For doubly curved structures the super structure should be in hexagonal or circular shape
Cylindrical shape
These ae just modification of pitched roof and frequently emloyed in modern age
construction
Off shore platforms are self contained platforms with adequate facilities for drilling, derrick,
drilling mud electric power, pumping equipment for the offshore construction these are
artificial facilities above the elevation of off shore platforms
Selection of environment
Tidal conditions
Before analysis and design of foundation it is necessary to determine the soil characters of
the sea shore. Capacities of the available crains will influence the operational activities of
platform constructions.
Besides high raise buildings the usage of steel element is also popular with construction of
hospital and commercial complexes
Instead of concrete beams and columns more than 6100 tonnes of steel have been used to
build the main frames
Light weight blocks are used for patricians to reduce the dead load building
The usage of permanent concrete form works and structural steel elements will be the main
constituter for erecting light weight components on tall structures results rapid speed of
constructions.
Hence the erection of steel beams and columns as well as the installation of concrete form
work consumes only less time
Self drilling tapping screws are the most prevalent fasteners. Steel to steel connections can
be carried out to connect struts or joist and track together
Entire can be erected manually with out the use of heavy equipment
All these structures require few battery powered screw gunes and some ropes and pulleys
No scaffoldings is require for assembly and disc assembly of the structures because the
structure itself provides the scaffoldings as it goes up or comes down
Almost any number of column sections can be added to make it any height we desire
During the construction of tall structures the following equipments areused for the aerial
transporting and handling
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
Selection of equipment for earth work - earth moving operations - types of earthwork
equipment - tractors, motor graders, scrapers, front end waders, earth movers Equipment
for foundation and pile driving. Equipment for compaction, batching and mixing and
concreting - Equipment for material handling and erection of structures - Equipment for
dredging, trenching, tunneling,
Construction equipments
Types of earth moving equipment
Production equipment
Service equipment
Tractors
Tractors are machine which change the engine energy into tractive energy
These are primarily used for pull or push the loads
They are also used for different purposes by mounting many types of accessories
Types of tractor
Size of the dozer for given job the type expected from the track to dozer
Bulldozers
Dozers are machine designed primarily for cutting and pushing the material over short
distance
They consist with a front mounted blade controlled by hydraulic cylinder to vary the
depth of cut and rate of leveling depending on the material and application
a dozer is frame mounted unit with a blade, curved in its section, extending in front of
the tractor
Bulldozer is most versatile and most important equipment on construction project
Basically its pushing unit but its widely used as multipurpose equipment and can
perform large number of operations with minor changes
Scrapers
Scrapers are the devices to scrap the ground and load it simultaneously, transport it for
the required distance and dump it and then spread it for the required area
towed type
conventional type
Towed type
The towed type scrapers are provided with either cable or hydraulic control
It can be operated in extremely adverse condition
Conventional scrapers
Bowl
Cutting edge
Apron
Tail gate or ejector
Following or three major operations of scrapers
Loading or digging
Transporting
Unloading
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
Proper selection of construction equipment place a vital role in the speedy and
economical completion of the construction
Following are the main points which should be considered while selection off the
construction equipments
If the equipment selected for larger size it will remain idle inmost of the time
Standardization
It is better to have same type and size of equipment in a construction then it is easy to
have spare parts, and to understand its operations
Availability of equipment
The equipments selected should be satisfactorily handled by the available operators and
machine
Operating requirements
Past performance
EXCAVATORS
A super structure with operators cabin mounted on either a sloe ring to traverse through
360or on a rigid frame
Types of excavators
Compactors
Compaction is the process where by material particles are constrained to pack more
closely together througha reduction of air void content generally by mechanical means
Types of compactors
Smooth rolls where the first type of rolling compaction equipment used
These where pulled by men or horses and were first used by Romans to smoothen there
roads
When compacting the earth the feet penetrate deep in to th e loose material during the
first passes and compact the soil from bottom up
These have three rolls a small usually split steering role in the front
Two large drive rolls mounted on rear axle at both the end
Tandem rolls have two equal sized rolls and are centered in line tandem
These are used for the compaction of bituminous layer as they leave a smooth surface
Concrete mixers
For small jobs conc. mixers are used to mix the ingredients of the concrete
Following type of concrete mixers are used in the construction
These are smaller capacity mixers ,aggregate cement and water fed in to the drum by
hand
These are fixed with the loading hopper operating by the wired rope for loading
Tunneling equipment
Selection of equipment
Selection of equipment for tunneling depends upon quantum of work involved
Muck loading
Mucking is the operation of loading the broken rock or earth for removal from tunnel
Mucking process can be done by the following equipments
Power shovels
Tractor loader
Mucking machines
Working principle of tunneling these machines perform the bring operation through the
rotation of the front head against the rock face
The mole has circular cutter head in the front provided with fixed cutters of desired shapes
The cutter head while rotating is pressed against the rock to cut or pulverize it
These machine are allowed to access change in bore hole diameter and this can be done
without any change of machines
Question Bank