Welcome

Purpose: Introduction to compressor vibration

(for more detail, recommend the 2.5 day GMRC Course in May)

Focus on practical issues.

Introduction to Vibration Problems

at Compressor Stations Audience participationdemos, case studies,

questions, etc.
(We cant take you to the field, so we are bringing the field to the classroom)

Presenters introductions
Presented by:
Questions for the parking lot?
Beta Machinery Analysis

Vibration Induced Pipe Fatigue Failure Todays Topics

Compressors, Pumps, Engines, Turbines and other Rotating Machines 1. Vibration Overview
Cause Vibration Related Problems
2. Sources of Vibration
3. Pulsation Control
4. Mechanical Resonance
5. Torsional Analysis
6. Pipe Strain
7. Small Bore Piping
8. Start-up Vibration Survey
9. Summary
HIGH IMPACT FAILURES:
Significant financial costs
Safety/environmental liabilities

How Equipment Fails

Vibration is the leading cause of mechanical

problems
Equipment and piping fail due to excessive
1. Vibration Overview STRESS (fatigue failure)

Pulsation Forces Vibration Stress Failure

What is Vibration? Vibration frequency

Vibration = periodic motion about an equilibrium Number of cycles per unit of time
position CPM = cycles per minute
Vibration can be described with:
Hz = cycles per second (cps)
Amplitude and
RPM = rotations per minute
Frequency (number of cycles per
time) or
Spring-Mass For simplicity, frequency is measured in Hz
System
Period (time to complete one cycle) Convert from CPM or RPM to Hz by dividing
Period Frequency
by 60
3600 RPM 60 Hz

Amplitude

1 second

Vibration amplitude Complex Vibration

Three related units In real systems, vibration is complex

Displacement Composed of vibration from different
(m, mils) parts
Velocity Understanding this complex vibration Spring-Mass
(mm/s, in/s or requires separating out the System
ips) components
Acceleration
(mm/s2, in/s2,
gs)
Only related when
vibration is simple,
like in a spring-
mass system

Two Ways to Look at Vibration Time domain frequency domain

Time domain amplitude
typically higher

Time-domain
Units = seconds
Overall vibration
than frequency
domain amplitude

Frequency-domain
Individual vibration
Units = Hz
 Overall time-domain vibration -
Another way to visualize it terminology

Time domain and frequency domain show the

same information, just in different ways

peak
peak

Peak-to-peak
Peak-to-peak
Frequency domain breaks out the

RMS

RMS

components of the time domain

Time domain is
measured
Frequency domain
is calculated Peak (measure of deflection) is used more
often than RMS (measure of energy)
Frequency domain is either peak or RMS (not
peak-to-peak)

Vibration Directions (common terminology) Relative Vibrations

Absolute vibrations are measured but

may include unwanted vibrations
Vertical Relative vibrations = absolute
Axial: along crankshaft vibrations minus base motion Spring-Mass
System

Horizontal: direction
of piston motion

Video #1 Vibration Equation Demo #1 Scrubber Vibration

 Recip. Compressor Screening Guideline
BETA guidelines - velocity (based on ISO 10816-8)

Dashed lines
adapted from SwRI
At individual
frequencies, not
overall (time-
domain) vibration
Use 1 ips (peak or
overall) as a
screening guideline
for vessels and
small bore piping ISO guideline to be released in 2014
( 2 NPS) (formerly called EFRC guideline)
Guideline in RMS (overall), but chart in pseudoPeak (pPk)

Compressor Reliability Risks

Compressor piston assembly

Crosshead pin
Drive train
2. Sources of Vibration
Vibrations
Vibrations on
small bore
piping
Valves
Overload

Vibration Risk Areas Risk Areas and Design Considerations

Mechanical Thermal Expansion:

Pulsation Torsional Piping Layout and
(Acoustics) Supports

Off-skid Pulsations

Small Bore

Skid & Foundation (Dynamics) Interaction

Between Other Units
Risk Areas and Design Considerations Responsibility Owner

Engineering firm
Pulsations and thermal growth cross
Packager
boundaries of responsibility
Vibration consultant hired by packager Vibration consultant
may be acceptable for small gathering
Thermal Expansion; systems
Piping Layout and Supports
good specifications
and communication
System Pressure Large critical pipeline,
Drop (performance storage, or
issue, losses) offshore units -
Off-skid
recommend vibration
Pulsations
consultant hired by
owner

Dynamic force on
reciprocating compressor Forces occur at multiples of runspeed

Unbalanced Forces and Moments 1x Compressor primary forces & moments

Pulsation Shaking due to Reciprocating Motion Cylinder gas forces (rod load)
Forces in Piping Pulsation shaking forces (single-acting)
2x Compressor secondary forces & moment
Crosshead guide forces
Cylinder gas forces
Crosshead Guide Pulsation shaking forces (double-acting)
Gas Forces
Forces (Cylinder 3x Cylinder gas forces
Stretch)
Pulsation shaking forces

Pulsation Shaking Forces Can Be Very

How High Can Pulsation Forces Get? High

Cooler Nozzle Failure

Guesses as to how high force
System: could be in this run of piping?
Ariel JGK/2 compressor
6 pipe - area = 26 in2
Booster service (0.605 specific gravity)
Waukesha L7042GSI engines (700-1200
RPM)
880 - 1000 psig suction pressure, 1058 -
1270 psig discharge pressure
HEVV pockets, double acting, 1 stage

Problem: Original
The cooler nozzle cracked shortly after Bottles
start-up
Many other problems
No acoustical study had been performed
Beta Mobilized to Site
Collected vibration and pulsation data
To solve problem, Beta conducted acoustical study
and recommended new bottles
 As Found Unbalanced Forces Gas Forces Cause Cylinder Motion

Act on cylinder, bottles, scrubber and piping

Create high vibrations around compressor
11000 lbf pk-pk at 38 Hz
What speed?

Vertical 38 Hz x 60 s/min 2
Riser to = 1140 RPM
Cooler

Example:
ODS Field Data

Vibration Risk: Compressor APPLICATION Vibration Risk: Compressor CONFIGURATION

Lower Risk Vib. Risk Factors Higher Risk

Lower Risk Vib. Risk Factors Higher Risk
Sweet Gas Composition Sour, Heavy
1 # of Units Online Many 1 Step, DA Load Steps DA + SA
(>50% turndown)
Offshore or Fixed Suct./Disc. Pressure Wide range;
Convenient Location
Remote
Fixed Speed Wide Range
Critical to the
Not Unit Criticality 2 stg (4 or Compressor Stages 1 stg (many
Process
6 cylinder) cylinders)
Not
Efficiency Important CR > 1.7 Compression Ratio < 1.3
Important
http://www.betamachinery.com/guidelines-calculators-converters.aspx
< 150 HP/ Cylinder > 750
- Reciprocating Compressor Risk Rating Chart

Vibration Study Scope (API 618 5th Ed.)

Compressor Pulsation/mechanical analysis
Package Torsional vibration analysis
Options: thermal, skid analysis

Off-Skid Piping Pulsations & other units

Mechanical analysis (supports) 3. Pulsation Control
Vibration
Transient analysis
Foundation Dynamic analysis to
& Structure avoid resonance

Small Bore Design review

Piping and/or field audit
Pulsation animation Pulsations

Pulsations in non-flowing gas Pulsations are

Notice change in pressure and velocity
affected by:
Temperature

Specific
Gravity
Pressure

Compressor
Speed
Loading
Valve unloaders
Volume pockets

Video #2 - Pulsations and Other Forces Pulsation Forces In Piping System

Example: Interstage System

Cooler

Suction
Discharge
Piping
Piping

Pulsation Forces DA vs. SA

Case Study:
Compressor Vibration

Before - Vibration Problem After Modifications

 Compressors Installed Vibration Problem Vibration Problems

Customer tried to fix problem no success

Units not fully operational very expensive
called BETA for help
Unacceptable
Vibration

6 Compressors 1700 HP each

Vibration Test Points (from Client)

Other Problem Locations

Example: Piping to Cooler (Riser) (Unbalanced Forces, lbf pk-pk)
Excessive Pulsation Forces (lbf Pk-Pk)
Suction Discharge
Bottle Forces Bottle Forces

As Found:
Forces > 3 time guideline

guideline
guideline

guideline
Excessive Vibration
(forced response model)
Excessive forces in suction & discharge system
Major changes required

Recommendations Recommendations Implemented

Modify Piping and
New Bottles
Supports (including
(Suction; Discharge) BEFORE
off-skid) AFTER

Location: Piping
Riser to Cooler
 What Happens to Pulsations if
Case Summary Operating Envelope Changes?
Design Change: Increased #
Initial Operating Points
Vibration problems are expensive of Load Steps and Ps Range

Small errors during design stage are avoidable

Illustrates how vibration analysis techniques
used to solve or prevent problems (compared
to trial and error fixes)

ACCEPTABLE Bottle
Shaking Forces Bottle Shaking Forces >200% of
Guideline. High Risk of Vibration
Problem

Bottle sizing Pulsation mitigation

Risks of incorrect bottle sizes: Surge volumes

Oversized bottles: and resistive
Mechanical problems (i.e., low MNF bracing) elements (like
Expensive materials and welding orifice plates)
are simple but can
Undersized bottles: be costly (capital
Pulsations/forces not controlled secondary volumes and pressure drop)
Orifice plates pressure drop lost capacity, fuel
gas costs Acoustic filtering
offers much more
pulsation control
with some capital
cost but very little
pressure drop

Orifice Plates Factors affecting pulsation mitigation

Optimal size after which pulsations increase Difficulty Difficulty

Speed Valve
controlling controlled
range unloaders
pulsations vibration
Fixed Very low Low
Narrow Low Medium
Wide Medium High
Fixed Medium Low
Narrow High Medium
Wide Very high High
For example, fixed speed =1200rpm, narrow speed range = 900 - 1200rpm,
wide speed range = 600 - 1200rpm
Optimizing Pulsation Control Multiple compressors beat frequency
Unit A and B run at slightly different speeds

Because of this, the pulsations go in and

Unit A out of phase

Unit A

Unit B

Unit B

Total pulsation amplitude is sum

of pulsations from each unit

Beat frequency is related to the Combined Pulsations

speed differential between Unit A
and B Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Summary

Shaking forces are more important to control

than pulsations
Acoustic filters are more effective than orifice
plates for controlling pulsations 4. Mechanical Resonance
More pressure drop is required to filter
pulsations when wider speed ranges are used
or unit single-acting
The more information included in a pulsation
study improves accuracy and reduces risk

Summary Example of Mechanical Analysis Model

Mechanical Natural Frequency (MNF) Determining MNFs

Frequencies where 1. Finite Element Analysis

small forces result in (FEA) used to calculate
large vibration Mechanical Natural
response of structure Frequencies (MNFs)
Elastic Modulus

Geometry

Density

2. Measure MNFs with Bump

Test

Demo #2 Mechanical Natural Frequency Mechanical Resonance

We define resonance when force frequency is +/- 10% of MNF
At resonance, displacement can be magnified by 40 times can cause fatigue
failure
What happens at 3X? What about 4X? 6X? Potential resonance,
but insufficient force
to cause problems

MNFs

Forces

| | | | | |
1x 2x 3x 4x 5x 6x
Frequency Change design to shift
MNF away from resonance

Mechanical Analysis Design Goal Wide speed range

Frequency avoidance becomes challenging as

speed range is increased
Blocking out speeds may help avoid
resonance
Forces
Magnitude
Speed of
No room for
of Force
driver
MNF MNF to hide
| | | | 1200 rpm

1x 2x 3x 4x
API 618 Design Goal 700 rpm

MNF > 2.4 x MNF

| |
1x 2x
Frequency (orders of run speed)
MNFs of Main Components in Relation to
Compressor Harmonics Scrubbers Best Practices

2.4x 2.4x 2.4x

900 RPM 1200 RPM 1800 RPM
(36 Hz) (48 Hz) (72 Hz)

Bottle MNFs:
40-70 Hz Typ.

Cylinder MNFs:
30-50 Hz Typ.
Scrubber
MNFs: Example: Scrubber Design
15-30 Hz Typ. Move MNF to Higher Frequency
= Extra costs; design modification

20 Hz 30 Hz 40 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 70 Hz

Load Path Considerations Example: Mechanical Analysis

Poor Installation/Design: Better Design: Demonstrates MNF (Mechanical Natural

Frequency), resonance, cylinder gas loads, forced
Cylinder compressor response Analysis, LWN (Long Weld Neck) solution
and
piping for suction bottles.
Ariel KBZ-6, Gas Load of 7,500 lbs (0-pk) at 3x on
stage 3
skid
Pile

foundation

Case Study 3rd Stage MNF (API 618 Step

Case Study 3rd Stage MNF
3a)

Mechanical Natural Frequency Vs. Compressor Runspeed

Variable Speed: 750 - 1000 RPM
3SBot

6x Runspeed 75.0 100.0

Multiple of Compressor Runspeed

5x Runspeed 62.5 83.3

4x Runspeed 50.0 66.7

3x Runspeed 37.5 50.0

2x Runspeed 25.0 33.3

1x Runspeed 12.5 16.7

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

API Guideline: 2.4 times maximum run speed Frequency (Hz) Vertical lines show mechanical
(20% margin of separation at 2X). natural frequencies.
Case Study Cylinder Gas Loads at 3x? Case Study Forced Response Analysis
(API 618 Step 3b1)

TABLE L.2 - Cylinder Gas Forces (kips,0-Pk) in Horizontal direction 2.6 in/s
Unit: Ariel KBZ/6

STAGE#3 CYLINDER# 2
COND# 01X 02X 03X 04X 05X 06X 07X 08X 09X 10X
1 75.0 5.7 4.3 0.7 3.4 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.8
2 69.6 5.5 6.5 1.1 2.9 1.2 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.8
3 67.8 5.4 7.0 1.2 2.7 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
4 65.8 5.3 7.5 1.3 2.5 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.8
5 49.1 4.5 5.2 4.1 1.6 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.6
6 48.4 4.3 5.5 4.1 1.6 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5

Therefore 7500 lbs (0-pk) at 3x compressor run speed.

(Weight of large SUV fully reversing 43.5 times per second!)
Causes cylinder stretch

Case Study 3rd Stage MNF, with LWN Case Study 3rd Stage MNF, with LWN

Case Study Cylinder Gas Loads at 4x? Case Study Forced Response Analysis

1.8 in/s
TABLE L.2 - Cylinder Gas Forces (kips,0-Pk) in Horizontal direction
Unit: Ariel KBZ/6

STAGE#3 CYLINDER# 2
COND# 01X 02X 03X 04X 05X 06X 07X 08X 09X 10X
1 75.0 5.7 4.3 0.7 3.4 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.8
2 69.6 5.5 6.5 1.1 2.9 1.2 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.8
3 67.8 5.4 7.0 1.2 2.7 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
4 65.8 5.3 7.5 1.3 2.5 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.8
5 49.1 4.5 5.2 4.1 1.6 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.6
6 48.4 4.3 5.5 4.1 1.6 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5

Gas Loads are less at 4x compressor run speed than at 3x

Conflict Between Thermal and Dynamic Study Case Study: PSV

Thermal solution has large distance between PSV was braced for vibration
clamps, thermal loops, and resting supports control
Dynamic solution has short distance between Operating temperature = 134F
clamps and avoids elbows Outside temperature = -22F
Balanced solution has clamps Contraction of discharge line
and thermal loops was 0.4
API 618 recommends same Relief header was
company conduct supported to
both studies oppose thermal
growth

Torsional Vibration Crank Failures

5. Torsional Vibration

Torsional Vibration Coupling Failures Video #3 Torsional Vibration

Purpose of Torsional Analysis Torsional Vibration - Applications

A TVA should be done for:

To predict excessive vibratory stress or amplitude
problems in driveline of driver / coupling /
compressor
Potential Torsional Problems
Compressor/Engine Crankshaft failure
Motor Shaft Failures or Spider Failure (welded joints)
Coupling Failure (Disk Pack, Rubber, Other)
Damper/Coupling Heat Loads
Compressor auxiliary drive amplitudes
Engine Free End Amplitudes (Gear Problems)
Motor Free End Amplitudes (Fan)
Current Pulsation
Any new driver or compressor combination
Any change in compressor configuration (different cylinders)
Different motor (same frame rarely means same rotor inside)
Different operating conditions (than what was originally studied)
Drive trains experiencing failures
VFD applications
Critical applications
Risk Chart May help to determine if a Study is required
http://www.betamachinery.com/uploadedFiles/001_-
_Design_Services/001_-
_Reciprocating_Compressors/Recip_RISK_Chart_Vibration_Control_3.
1.xls

Thorough Checks Required

Analyze full operating map PLUS upset conditions

Include tolerance band to consider fabrication and
installation uncertainty
Motor stub shaft to be the
same diameter as the 6. Pipe Strain
compressor stub

Risk of Failure
at some
pressures and
speeds

Pipe Strain Effects

Several recent jobs where Pipe strain can:

we encountered unexplained Increase natural frequencies (like a
high frequency vibrations guitar string)
and failures Reduce damping (high frequency
Isolated the cause as pipe vibrations increase)
strain Increase mean stress in system (making
it more likely to fail due to vibrations)
Contributing Factors Flange Misalignment

Misaligned flanges ASME B31.3 offers guidance for flange

Gaps between pipe and support alignment

Solutions

Custom or modified spool pieces, orifice

plates, etc.
Shim between piping and supports, rather
than just tightening clamp bolts 7. Small Bore Piping Vibration
Post-weld heat treating (e.g., vessel nozzles)
Designing more flexibility into system

Small details are

important!

Small Bore Piping - Introduction Demo #3 Small Bore Piping

Also called Branch Connections

Generally 2 inches (50mm) or less
Instrumentation connection (taps, thermowells, gauges), vent
lines, drains, site glasses, etc.
Common on piping and vessels
near compressors, pumps, etc.
Video #4 Small Bore Piping Vibration Why is SBP a High Risk Problem?

Small bore piping is often overlooked:

May not be explicitly designed - field
installed
Not shown on compressor package GAs

Not included in typical pulsation/vibration

study
Difficult to measure properly in the field
Failure can lead to significant downtime

Field Measurements Assessment Methods

Measure Relative Vibration, Energy Institute

if required High dynamic force & poor design & poor
Steady State (Running) location = high likelihood of failure
Transient (Start-up) GMRC
Further check/investigation if Tables of lengths & weights
exceeds screening guideline FEA
Calculate allowable
vibration
before
failure

Solutions - Small Bore Recommendations Solutions - Reinforced Relief Valve Connection

Avoid small bore where

possible
Re orientate or re-configure
to avoid vibration
Replace Valves with
Monoflange assemblies
Use Studding Outlet
instead of weld-o-let &
nipple
Always check vibration
levels on small bore
attachments (at start-up
and when significant
change in operating
conditions)
 Steps for Commissioning

Note the operating condition (speed, loading,

pressure, temperature, SG)
Take vibration readings (remember units!) at
8. Start-up Vibration Survey consistent locations
When to call an expert
Solutions

Typical vibration measurement points Not all vibrations are alike

Scrubber: Top seam

Be clear what is being measured and what
Both ends of bottle (seam); sometimes guideline is being applied
Bottle:
middle
Overall vs. individual frequencies
Cylinder: Cylinder head end
Units: mm/s vs. inches/second
Compressor frame Crank height drive and Peak or RMS (or pseudo RMS)
& engine: non-drive ends
Frequency range
Pipe: Elbows, between supports Apply appropriate guidelines (time-domain
PSV: Top of valve body vs. frequency domain guidelines)
Main skid: Front and rear corners
Small Bore Piping: End of cantilever; between supports

Plus other points if vibrations at above points are suspect!

When do I call an expert? Solutions

Basic repairs/modifications do not work Vibration = Dynamic Force x Dynamic Flexibility

Try temporary bracing first

Very high vibration levels Control forces

Vibrations are high in multiple areas Pulsation control devices like orifice plates

Vibrations are high for multiple operating
conditions
Suspect pulsations are high
High vibrations away from compressor
Need help measuring or interpreting data
Moving acoustic natural frequencies
Control flexibility
Gussets, bracing, shimming
Modified or additional clamping
Moving mechanical natural frequencies
Braces Test temporary brace

9. Summary

Add wooden brace

as field test

Video #5 - Summary Summary - Vibration

Vibration = Dynamic Force x Dynamic Flexibility

Vibration cannot be eliminated, but can be
controlled through a balance between cost,
performance and reliability
The earlier vibration risk is identified, the
easier (and cheaper) it is to deal with

Required Analysis API 618 5th Edition API 618 Design Approach Summary
Absolute Discharge Pressure

Design Approach 1 Empirical Bottle Sizing

200barP<350bar
DA 3 DA 3 DA 3 Empirical Pulsation
(3000psiP>5000psi)
Suppression Device Sizing Dynamic Forces
70barP<200bar Estimate Dynamic
DA 2 DA 3 DA 3 (1000psiP<3000psi) Design Approach 2
Flexibilities
Acoustic Simulation and Lower horsepower, lower
35barP<70bar
DA 2 DA 2 DA 3 (500psiP<1000psi)
Piping Restraint Analysis operating range, non-critical
units
P<35bar Design Approach 3
DA 1 DA 2 DA 2 (P<500psi) Acoustic Simulation and Dynamic Forces
Dynamic Flexibilities
Piping Restraint Analysis
Calculation Vibrations, if
kW/cyl<55 55kW/cyl<220 220kW/cyl

(HP/cyl<75) (75HP/cyl<300) (300HP/cyl) plus Mechanical Analysis Necessary

(with Forced Mechanical High horsepower, wide
Rated Power per Cylinder Response Analysis if range, higher speed, critical
units
http://www.betamachinery.com/guidelines-calculators-converters.aspx necessary)
- Reciprocating Compressor Risk Rating Chart
GMRC High Speed Guideline Key Take-Aways

Best practices for the design, installation and
operation of large (2000 HP) high-speed
(>700 RPM) reciprocating compressor
packages for natural gas transmission and
storage applications
Final report is under review
Properly specify vibration studies (scope, etc.)
Assess vibrations on-skid and off-skid (across
operating envelope)
Thermal/Mechanical: performed by same group
Consider small bore vibration survey
Attention to details (alignment, installation, etc.)
Start vibration study early

Attend GMRCs 2.5 day course, Compressor Station

Vibration, for more training.

Key Take-Aways, Contd Questions?

Pulsations are the only force you can control, but

that doesnt mean they should take all the blame
Resonance should be avoided at all costs, but if
not possible, move natural frequency to where
dynamic forces are low
Pulsation control is a balance between reliability,
performance, and cost there is no right answer
Remember the five things that influence pulsations
and vibrations: temperature, specific gravity,
pressure, loading, and speed
Chris Harper (charper@betamachinery.com)
Gary Maxwell (gmaxwell@betamachinery.com)