FIRE LIFE SAFETY MANAGEMENT IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the various aspects of Fire Safety Management are presented and discussed in
detail. Besides this, several other systems that are commonly used to enhance fire safety in
high-rise buildings are also briefly presented.

4.2 Fire Safety Management in High-Rise Buildings

In the world of high-rise buildings construction, security and life safety systems and equipment
have become an important element that must be taken into consideration. However, achieving
the appropriate level of protection is not possible with just implementing one simple procedure.
Rather, it is the synergistic effect of all building systems and features working together
harmoniously that ensure the safety in the building (Craighead, 1995). Therefore, it is essential
that the high-rise security and fire life safety systems be well planned, managed and executed.
Hence, the human interface has become the complementary factor that supplements these
sophisticated systems.

In general, high-rise buildings must have an effective fire life safety management plan that
includes training and education for tenants and staff in order to reduce the chances of fire
outbreaks from occurring. A person who is not properly trained and lacks awareness may not
only be responsible for causing a fire but also help it spread through ignorance and panic
resulting in loss of life and damage to property. Fire life safety management needs to be
considered from two major aspects, which are Preventive Management and Emergency
Response Management (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

4.3 Preventive Management

According to the Webster Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913), preventive management is

defined as an agent or device intended to prevent conception. Preventive management includes
education and training, electrical inspection, renovation inspection, pest control programme
and good housekeeping practice, signage, operation and maintenance of fire equipment and
fire drill procedures (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

4.3.1 Education and Training

4.3.1.1 Occupant Training

When a fire occurs, the occupants who discover the fire should know how to protect themselves,
how to notify others who may be at risk, how to confine the fire, and how to notify those who
will be the ones responding to the fire. Thus, all high-rise building occupants including every
new occupant should receive regular training in fire prevention practices. They are taught by
qualified personnel how to react in the event of a fire emergency, about legal fire life safety
requirements, the usage of the buildings emergency systems, first aid practices and equipment,
and other relevant emergency procedures (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Audio-visual aids and handout
materials are extremely helpful in the training programme. Documentation of this instruction
needs to be maintained by the Fire Safety Director and be available for inspection by the
authorities. All the occupants are required to participate in the building fire life safety
programme every once in while (Craighead, 1995).

Besides training sessions, booklets, brochures, pamphlets or leaflets that contain the correct
procedures to be followed in the event of any emergency occurring within the building are
often provided to occupants. Many of these brochures include floor evacuation plans that
indicate the building core, perimeter, stairwells, elevators, exit routes to the appropriate
stairwells, symbols depicting the location of firefighting equipment and manual fire alarm
devices; floor number; fire department and building emergency telephone numbers; stairwells
that have roof access and what the fire alarm looks and sound like (Craighead, 1995).

4.3.1.2 Floor Warden Training

A qualified person should conduct a floor warden training class at least once in every 3 to 6
months. The class should include legal fire life safety requirements and emergency systems
and equipment, outline of floor wardens duties and responsibilities in training occupants under
their supervision and a description of the emergency procedures addressed in the Floor Warden
Manual (Craighead, 1995).

4.3.1.3 Building Emergency Staff Training

Building emergency staff procedures and each members duties and responsibilities must be
clearly stated. All emergency staff and personnel must be properly trained to carry out their
duties in the event of a fire (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

Technical staff should be tailored with more comprehensive training programmes as compared
to the occupants training programme and they should be aware of the fire resistance capabilities
of the building structure, materials, fire dampers, fire rated ducting, the principles of fire spread
and harmful products, smoke control measures, principles behind effective evacuation
procedures, and the maintenance of built-in and installed fire safety features. Special training
is also required for personnel in control rooms and receptionists in communication so that they
can convey important information correctly and be able to alert the relevant people during an
emergency (Craighead, 1995).

4.3.2 Inspection of Electrical Installation

Electrical equipment should be installed safely and inspected regularly to ensure and safe
functioning (Tan and Hiew, 2004). This is to ensure that there is no malfunctioning of
equipment that could pose a fire hazard to the building and ultimately prevent loss of life.

4.3.3 Renovation Precaution and Inspection

Renovation plans include drawings, floor plans, partition plans, plumbing works

and types of signage to be submitted to the management and/or FRDM for approval

during pre-renovation. Then, the contractors have to apply for a work permit from the

office of the Building Manager (Abdullah, 2001). The work permit should spell out

clearly the location where the work will be carried out and the duration in terms of

permissible time intervals and number of days as well as fire safety precautions. Before

the works commence, the Fire Control Room is notified so that the operator can pay

special attention towards the affected area. When work is in progress, all the renovation

works are controlled and monitored. Besides that, temporary fire fighting equipment

such as portable fire extinguishers are placed in the affected areas where the sprinkler

system has been shut off to facilitate the works. After the renovation, post-renovation

checking should be carried out. The fire detection and fire fighting systems are retested

and any damaged fire seals are replaced. If the works are extensive, it will be necessary

to invite FRDM for a post-completion inspection prior to the issuance of certificate of

fitness for occupational by the local authorities (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

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4.3.4 Pest Control Programme and Good Housekeeping Practices

A proper pest control programme must be available as vermins can cause

damage by biting on wires and destroying the protective insulation, causing shortcircuits.

Besides that, good housekeeping practices should ensure that building areas

are kept clean and as neat as possible. Areas within spaces, storage areas, and public

corridors should be free of obstructions and fire hazards (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

4.3.5 Signage

The law requires evacuation signs to be posted in high-rise buildings

(Craighead, 1995). Proper and visible signage should be made available to show

locations of exit points and fire equipment. This can help guide people out of the

building safely in the event of an emergency (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

4.3.6 Inspection, Operation and Maintenance of Fire Safety Equipment

All personnel in the maintenance unit must play their roles and conduct simple

inspections of ongoing daily activities to ensure that all equipments are in good

condition (Abdullah, 2001). Sometimes, the support team of a licensed life safety

system maintenance contractor who is hired by the building owner does the

maintenance of equipments such as lifts. The management staff can also play a major

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role by informing the maintenance personnel of any faults occurring in the building. All

fire rated doors should remain closed at all times. Besides that, all fire fighting sensors
and accessories should be tested at least once a month. The test should be conducted

after office hours to check and ensure that the above equipment respond as they should

(Tan and Hiew, 2004). Apart from that, proper inventory of all equipments installed is

needed to ensure proper record of maintenance history. All maintenance and operation

manuals of the equipments including hired system maintenance should be kept properly

and a checklist of each system should be developed to ensure all aspects are covered

thoroughly

4.3.7 Fire and Evacuation Drill Procedures

Fire and evacuation drills are an invaluable tool to train, instruct, reinforce, and

test the effectiveness of the emergency staff, occupants, and floor wardens response to

a fire emergency (Craighead, 1995). Fire and evacuation drills for high-rise buildings

should be done at least once every 12 months (Abdullah, 2001). The main objective of

the drill is to familiarize the building occupants with the escape routes available and the

sound of the fire alarm bells. This will speed up the actual evacuation process (Tan and

Hiew, 2004). To be successful, fire drills should be planned ahead of time and should

be documented. On completion of drills, a brief report about the goal statement,

description of how the drills were conducted, overall review of how building fire life

safety systems performed, how floor wardens, occupants, and building emergency staff

performed and lastly recommendations on training improvements should be produced

by the Fire Safety Director. This documentation is used to analyze the training

readiness of all persons involved and to prove that the building manager has taken steps

to ensure the safety of occupants (Craighead, 1995).

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4.4 Emergency Response Management

It is necessary to plan ahead for a manager or building owner to effectively

respond to a fire emergency. The Building Owners and Managers Association

International (BOMA) defines an emergency plan as a set of actions intended to reduce

the threat from emergencies that may affect a facility. The objective of an emergency

plan is to allow those responsible for the facility during an emergency to focus on the

solution of major problems and not to immediately attempt to bring order out of chaos

(Tan and Hiew, 2004). If all the predictable and foreseeable items are considered in the

plan, those responsible for actions during an emergency will be able to deal with the

unpredictable or unusual situations that may develop (Craighead, 1995). Emergency

response management can be classified into four aspects, i.e. Building Emergency

Procedure Manual, Emergency Response Team, Fire Identification and Notification,

and Emergency Evacuation.

4.4.1 Building Emergency Procedure Manual

This manual is a written document that describes actions formulated to reduce

the threat to life safety from emergencies that are most likely to occur in a specific

building. The authority having jurisdiction, such as the local fire department, often will

develop written criteria and guidelines on which plans may be based. This manual

should also consult with other authorities having jurisdiction, including local officials,

for precise criteria and guidelines on which their plans should base. Generally, this

manual consists of legal requirements; emergency telephone numbers; organization of

building emergency response staff and their responsibilities; evacuation and relocation
procedure; building emergency systems and equipments including the way systems and

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equipments operate in relation to each other and building drawings and plans detailing

site plans, floor layouts, evacuation routes, stairwell and elevator configurations;

emergency operation center; drills; documentation and record-keeping for all activities

and training conducted under the emergency plan as well as handling of the media. All

the changes of information in this manual have to be amended and updated (Craighead,

1995).

4.4.2 Emergency Response Team

In the event of an emergency, the responsibilities of the Emergency Response

Team are to ensure that the fire department has been notified immediately, all occupants

have been informed, any necessary evacuation or relocation procedures for affected

occupants have begun, building fire life safety systems are operating under emergency

conditions, and any investigation or initial suppression of the fire is carried out. The

Emergency Response Team includes the fire safety director; incident supervisor; fire

control officer; fire control squad members; rescue team; communication officer;

technical team; security at the control room; roll-call supervisor; floor warden; and

traffic controller who have their own responsibilities or duties as outlined in the

Building Emergency Procedure Plan (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Sometimes, the support

team of a licensed life safety system maintenance contractor who is hired by the

building owner will assist the emergency response team in rescue work (Craighead,

1995).

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4.4.3 Fire Identification and Notification

In the event that anyone smells smoke or sees fire or even smoke smoldering,

the fire alarm should be activated immediately to evacuate the building, even if the fire

is known to be small. The fire could grow rapidly, endangering other building

occupants. All building occupants should be familiar with the firebreak glass locations

(Tan and Hiew, 2004). After activating the fire alarm, the person discovering the fire or

smoke should immediately call the fire department from a safe location and provide the

necessary information. After the alarm has been sounded and the fire department has

been informed, an attempt should be made to put out the fire, if it is small and can be

extinguished without exposing oneself to injury. Portable fire extinguishers and

standpipe hose reels should be readily available for use. Otherwise, he or she should

evacuate with the other occupants in an orderly manner.

4.4.4 Emergency Evacuation and Relocation

The size of high-rise buildings and the high number of people often contained in

them makes it impractical to immediately and completely evacuate during a fire

emergency (Craighead, 1995). Evacuation or relocation is the movement of people

during an emergency to a location, inside or outside the building that considered a safe

refuge area. Evacuation involves leaving the building, whereas relocation involves

moving to an area of relative safety within the building and it takes place when the fire

is controllable. Relocation is based on the Rule of 5 where two floors above the fire

are relocated for safety and two floors below is utilized as a base for the FRDM to stage

operations (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Occupants will be relocated at three floors from the

fire floor. Evacuation is complicated by the tendency most people have to leave
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buildings by the same route they use to enter. To evacuate a floor, occupants should

proceed immediately to the nearest safe stairwell and go down at least three floors to reenter

the building. If the fire floor is at six or less floors from the ground level, the

occupants are required to evacuate the building entirely. While evacuating, the

occupants should never use elevators. Once the occupants of the involved floors have

been relocated, the decision to evacuate them further using stairwell or elevators, or

whether additional floors need to be evacuated will be determined by the building

manager or the Fire Safety Department.

Evacuation plans must account for a range of events and be robust enough to

take all types of occupants into consideration (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Plans should

include floor search to make sure that every person on a floor is aware of an emergency

evacuation. The orderly movement of persons requires the utmost coordination of

assigned emergency evacuation floor teams and central evacuation control. They must

be encompassing, amenable to change, and applicable to a range of occupants with

disabilities. For example, floor plans with considerable detail reveal the number of

people who work in a specific office and whether or not that office has someone with

special needs. Such floor plans that are available to on-scene commanders of the fire

department would be an extraordinarily valuable tool for firefighters.

The primary concern in the event of a fire is to evacuate everyone from the

building as soon as possible (Craighead, 1995). Evacuation planning should take into

consideration how people will realistically react in an emergency situation. In order to

accomplish this, occupants must be prepared in advance for quick and orderly

evacuation. Lives are often lost through the irrational behavior of evacuees triggered by
panic. Successful evacuation is partly dependent on physical ability of individuals and

other physical values, such as distance to travel, proportions of exits and density of

smoke and partly on psychological values, such as communication processes,

perception, conceptualization, understanding, evaluation and decision. Because of this,

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proper education of occupants on abiding to evacuation procedures and escape routes

hopes to eliminate panic when people are ignorant during an emergency evacuation.

Periodic meetings should also be held with all personnel to explain evacuation

procedures in detail.

For evacuation of those individuals with disabilities, they should obtain

assistance from other individuals who are familiar with their disability and able to assist

them. If no one is able to assist them down the stairs, they have to proceed to the

stairwell or designated area of refuge and inform other evacuees to seek immediate

rescue. Staircases and other designated areas of refuge are designated to provide

protection from smoke and fire for least the first 60 minutes. However, if anyone is

unable to make their way to the staircases or refuge areas, they should try to activate the

fire alarm on that particular floor. This will alert the fire rescue team by illuminating

the light on the fire-fighting panel for the particular floor and will initiate a direct

response to that floor (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

Lastly, it is the building managements responsibility and duty of care to ensure

that the building evacuation plans can evacuate as many occupants including the less

fortunate prior to the arrival of the fire department. If the system fails, the firefighters

will then have to come to do a search and rescue for those left behind. From time to

time, an evacuation plan shall be reviewed and updated as required by the authority
having jurisdiction (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

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4.5 Systems to Enhance Fire Safety

The following systems are likely to enhance the levels of fire life safety within a highrise

building (Craighead, 1995).

a) Stair Pressurization The purpose of stair pressurization is to limit smoke

migration into the main egress route. By adopting a phased evacuation strategy,

the stair pressurization system is less likely to be compromised, as the limited

number of occupants entering the stairs should ensure that it performs as

designed with the required number of doors open (Craighead, 1995).

b) Lobby Pressurization The advantage of having lobby pressurization is that it

provides a relatively safe area of refuge for occupants on the floor of fire origin.

When considering the use of stairs or use of lifts for evacuation, lobby

pressurization is an advantage where it is designed, installed and maintained

accordingly (Craighead, 1995).

c) Lobby Extraction Depending on the building characteristics and system

configuration proposed, lobby extraction or smoke spill systems may be

considered within the design of a safe refuge.

d) Sprinkler System In buildings greater than 25 metres in effective height, the

BCA requires a sprinkler system to be installed appropriate to the relevant

standard. There are many advantages to having a sprinkler system installed;

where a sprinkler system is omitted, the likelihood of smoke and fire spread is

greater (Abdullah, 2001). Main egress routes may experience smoke

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contamination at an earlier time and evacuation may not be possible, depending

on the time of notification and occupant response. Where a sprinkler system is

not installed, occupants must understand that the risk to life could be higher. If

evacuation does not occur in the initial stages of a fire, then the fire may escalate

to a point where evacuation may not be possible.

e) Alarm Sequence The designed alarm sequence in high-rise commercial and

residential buildings is crucial. This sequence of alarm notification determines

the method of evacuation adopted. For example, in a phased evacuation, the

alarm sounds the floor of fire origin, one/two floors above, and one/two floors

below. However, in a full building evacuation, the evacuation alarm may sound

the entire building regardless of fire location. This alarm may be connected to

the fire brigade through an approved monitoring agency, depending on the type

of occupancy. The earlier the fire brigade can attend the fire scene, the quicker

the situation is under control. If the building has fully trained wardens, control

should be achieved relatively quickly after alarm initiation. The alarm system

should also consider persons with language problems (non-English speaking

persons), and people with visual and hearing impairments. The alarm should

incorporate both fire detection and occupant warning and be designed to suit the

environment and ensure false alarms are minimized (Craighead, 1995).

f) Signage It is important that the signage within stairs, hallways and other

building elements is simple to understand (Tan and Hiew, 2004). This is due to

the fact that occupants could be from non-English speaking families or they may

have a disability and therefore necessitates the installation of illustrative and

written type instructions. It is important to note that within smoke filled

enclosures, a visual aide may not be as effective.

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g) Public Address System and Occupant Intercommunication Previous studies

have shown that occupants who do not have clear instructions will automatically

leave the building through the same route they entered (Craighead, 1995).

Therefore, the public address system, i.e. inter-communication, PA system,

occupant/emergency warning system, etc. should function in accordance with

the intended evacuation strategy. This in effect relies on an alarm system, but

also on the occupants that are provided with the information during an incident.

An appropriate system should be designed to ensure reliability and function to

the particular building requirements. Further, inter-communication where a

warden type system exists is an advantage to ensure clear direction is given to

occupants from those trained to do so.

h) Emergency Power A full emergency power supply should be available to the

lifts and essential services systems such as emergency lighting and an occupant

warning system to assist with building evacuation (Craighead, 1995). Where

lifts are incorporated into an evacuation strategy, an appropriate emergency

power supply should be provided.

i) Refuge Options All buildings that intend to use the phased evacuation strategy

should have protected refuge areas (Craighead, 1995). These should be

compartments of fire and smoke resistive construction, stairways large enough

to accommodate wheelchair access without obstructing people, means of

communication with building occupant warning system and fire brigade

communications. In super tall high-rise buildings, these refuge areas could

consist of an entire floor for every 20-50 levels.

j) Adequate Exits In high-rise developments it is expected there will be a large

amount of occupants (Tan and Hiew, 2004). Therefore, a sufficient number of

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exits must be available to accommodate this. Reliable means of re-entry should

be made available under normal and emergency conditions. Discharge of exit

stairs may be to outside or into a tenable area of the building.

k) Smoke Control Issues Buildings over 25 metres in effective height, regardless

of the intended use, must consider smoke control issues and smoke hazard

management (Craighead, 1995). Smoke can be controlled in many ways, and it

is essential that the exit routes and safe refuge areas are smoke free, to enable

occupants to evacuate without hindrance that may cause delay or possible injury.

l) Compartmentation Consideration should be made to incorporate door

smoke/fire seals and automatic closers to all doors opening into lobby or main

evacuation route to stairs. Ensuring sufficient fire resistive construction to

compartments is deemed necessary.

m) House Keeping Maintain relatively sterile main evacuation routes, lobbies,

corridors, stairs and safe refuge areas and practice separation of combustible fuel

loads from ignition sources where practical (Tan and Hiew, 2004).

4.6 Summary

In this chapter, the various aspects of Fire Safety Management were discussed in

detail. Under preventive management, the aspects that were determined from the

literature review are conducting education and training programmes; inspection of

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electrical installations; taking renovation precautions and inspections; implementing

pest control programmes; implementing good housekeeping practices; providing clear

signage; inspection, operation and maintenance of fire safety equipment; and

implementing fire and evacuation drill procedures. Besides this, several other systems

that are commonly used to enhance fire safety in high-rise buildings were also briefly

discussed.