Voltage, Current, Power & Energy : Definitions :: Electronic Measurements
html
Home Home (dutch)
In this article:
Instantaneous values
Average values
RMS values
Terms
Dit artikel in het Nederlands
Articles
Measuring fluresent
lamp and starter
Theory & Definitions
Measurement Errors
Measure temperature
Oscilloscope probes
Dutch Articles
The original articles are
written in Dutch and are
currently being
translated into English.
Look here for the Dutch
articles
Electric Power
Meters
Pulse Output Watt-Hour
Meter Accurate, Easy
Install, UL Listed
www.ccontrolsys.com
Test Instruments
Large Selection of
Stocked Instruments at
Great Prices.
www.dwyer-inst.com
Mixed Signal
Oscilloscope
1 GHz and up MSOs, hi
performance, Starting at
$899 - Compare & Save!
www.Rigolna.com
Battery Charger
Circuit
Search Thousands of
Catalogs for Battery
Charger Circuit
www.globalspec.com
Inspection
Checklists
Mobile & Web-Based
Solution for Safety
Managers. Watch a
Demo!
www.fieldid.com
1 de 6
http://meettechniek.info/measurement/theory-definitions.
Contact
Sitemap
Search
Links
Updates
The o r y & D ef init io ns
Last Modification: 29 September 2009
To determine the correct parameter only a good connection to the measuring instrument is not enough.
Very important is the question: For what purpose do I measure?
A current measurement to find out the heat development in a wire requires a different parameter than a
current measurement to determinate the charge status of a capacitor.
Parameters can be expressed as an average, RMS, instantaneous or peak value. Not only the kind of load
is important, but also whether this is an AC or DC source, and what the voltage and current shape looks
like.
The closely related interaction between voltage and current, and power and energy on the other hand will
be discussed on this page.
Instantaneous values
The instantaneous voltage u, current i and power p has a value that corresponds to a specific time t. A
certain waveform has a infinity number of instantaneous values. Such a waveform is described as the
parameter as a function of time. In the case of a voltage will be written as u(t).
In the example below, the situation of a series circuit of a resistor and a coil connected to a sinusoidal
voltage with a peak voltage of 3 V and a frequency f of 50 Hz.
The sinusoidal voltage as a function of
the time is written as:
[equ. 1]
The current has a top value of 2 A and
is shifted 60 in relation to the
voltage.
[equ.
2]
The power as function of time is the
product of the corresponding
instantaneous values of voltage and
current: Fig. 1: Voltage, current and power as function of time.
[equ. 3]
The graph shows a example of the instantaneous voltage u, current i and power p at a time t. At the time
t = 4,2 ms belong the following instantaneous values:
u(4,2 ms) = 2,906 V
i(4,2 ms) = 0,538 A
p(4,2 ms) = 1,563 W
The instantaneous voltage and current may always be multiplied to calculate the instantaneous power.
Average values
The average value is a very important parameter in the electronics. Universal meters in the DC-range
measuring this average voltage or current. Also the average value of an AC voltage or current is
determined in this input coupling. In case of a symmetrical AC voltage the meter will indicate 0 V, what is
correct.
Voltage and current
The average value is essentially nothing more than the sum of all products of the instantaneous values x
and the infinitely small time dt divided by the period T where is measured. This summation with infinitely
small time steps are called integrate. In general written as:
[equ. 4]
x for example can represent the voltage or current. Filled in for voltage:
[equ. 5]
Universal meter
A multimeters in the DC-range measures the average value of the voltage or current. In digital meters,
this average established by means of an RC-filter. This is the input signal continuously averaged over the
RC-time. In formula form:
19/10/2012 08:39 p.m.
Voltage, Current, Power & Energy : Definitions :: Electronic Measurements http://meettechniek.info/measurement/theory-definitions.html

[equ. 6]
Fig. 2: A RC-filter average the
voltage.

Energy and power

Equation 3 showed that the product of the aneous voltage and current produce the instantaneous power.
If these instantaneous powers p(t) multiplied by the infinitely small time dt are continuously summed, it
will return the energy in the system since t = 0 s:

[equ. 7]

Indeed, energy is the power times the time: E = Pt. And energy packets may always be added together.

Below are the signals showed again from the coil-resistant series example circuit as discussed in
"Instantaneous values". In this figure represents the black line the energy development in time as
calculated with equation 7.

As a result of the AC voltage and

current the power curve has also a
periodic changing character with
twice the frequency. Because energy
in the resistance is dissipated, the
gray colored positive area under the
power curve is greater than the
negative area.
The value of the black energy line at
any given time is equal to the
previous area under the power
curve. It is clear to see that the
energy line periodically rise more
than falls as a result of the
asymmetry of the power curve
around the zero line.
Figure 3 is the time period T Fig. 3: Energy as function of time.
indicated. The energy at this time
(0...T s) that is put in the system is indicated by Eper and will be calculated as follows:

[equ. 8]

The power over a certain time period is equal to the total amount of energy divided by time in where this
is measured:

[equ. 9]

If this division by the time is inserted in equ. 8, the average power can be calculated for any waveform:

[equ. 10]

This equation is consistent with the general equation for calculating the average (equ. 4). The active
power is always the average power.

This equation to calculate the average dissipated power is always valid because the calculation is based on
instantaneous values. It does not matter whether this is the direct or alternating current, what the
voltage and current shape looks like, or whether there a phase shift between voltage and current exists.

The equation above to calculate the average power is the method by which the operation of a power
meter is based on. An energy meters like an kilowatt-hour meter at houses and industries operates
according to comparison 8. Or otherwise wrote:

[equ. 11]

The upper limit T of the integral is the time when the energy meter is read.

RMS values
The RMS or effective value is a value for a voltage or current that an equally great power in a resistance
dissipates as a DC voltage or current with the same value.
An alternating voltage with an effective value of 230 V developed a same amount of heat in a resistor as
a pure DC voltage of 230 V. The RMS value concerns only to the heat development in a resistive load. As
an example: The RMS current is useful to monitor the load stress of a cable (= resistive), but not to
measure the charging current from a battery or capacitor (= electron flow).

2 de 6 19/10/2012 08:39 p.m.

Voltage, Current, Power & Energy : Definitions :: Electronic Measurements http://meettechniek.info/measurement/theory-definitions.html

Root Mean Square

RMS stands for Root Mean Square. The voltage or current as a function of time will undergo successively
three mathematical operations: quadrate, resources and square root, to calculate the RMS value. Why
these operations take place is explained below:

What power a voltage dissipate in a resistor is calculated with:

[equ. 12]

For the instantaneous power of any voltage shape can this also be calculated:

[equ. 13]

How to calculate the average power as function of time was shown in equation 10. p(t) can be filled in
equation 13 above:

[equ. 14]

Because the resistance R is a constant, it can be brought forward:

[equ. 15]

When moving the voltage from equation 12 to the left side of the equal sign, the voltage can be
calculated from the average power and resistance:
[equ. 16]

When filled in the average calculation from equ. 15 in the equation above:

[equ. 17]

Both resistors R in the dividend and divisor may be left out against each other. This creates the equation
that calculates the RMS value from a random voltage as a function of time:

[equ. 18]

It is clear to see that the equation consists of three parts: quadrate u(t)2, average, and square root.

This example is given with voltages. For currents same story is true. The RMS current is calculated as:

[equ. 19]

Most multimeters can not calculate the RMS value

from the measured voltage. To know the RMS value
usually a special instrument is needed.
The circuit in figure 4 shows how a RMS-meter the
measured voltage computes. A RMS meter in
practice follows a slightly different method of
operation whereby just one multiplier is needed. It
is particular the multiplier who needs a low
temperature and offset drift that makes these
instruments expensive.
Most digital oscilloscopes can also calculate the
RMS value, they do this whole calculation by
Fig. 4: Principal circuit for a analog RMS calculation.
software.

Pseudo RMS
Most multimeters measure in the AC mode not the RMS value. Yet they give the actually value for a
sinusoidal AC waveform.
A simple universal meter rectifies the measured signal first. Then a following RC low-pass filter distilled
the average value. This mean value for sinusoidal signals is a factor of 1,11 lower than the actual value.
This multimeter in the AC-range calculated the indication by averaging the absolute values of the
instantaneous voltage and multiplied it by a factor 1,11:

[equ. 20]

The indication of a simple multimeter in the AC range is only valid for sinusoidal signals. Other signal
shapes will course an error because they have a different form factor.

RMS power?
Especially in audio communities there is a lavish use of the term "RMS power" or PRMS. This is by

3 de 6 19/10/2012 08:39 p.m.

Voltage, Current, Power & Energy : Definitions :: Electronic Measurements http://meettechniek.info/measurement/theory-definitions.html

definition an erroneous term.

As in the chapter "Mean values" under the heading "Energy and power" is to see that the working power
is calculated from the total amount of energy divided by the time this energy is measured (equ. 9). The
total energy is defined by summation of all instantaneous energy packets u(t)i(t)dt (equ. 11). This is the
only correct way to calculate the active power.

As previously explained the RMS value is equivalent to a DC voltage or current which developed a same
power in the same resistance. This is calculated by the square root from the average of the instantaneous
voltage (or current) in quadrate. There is no reason to think why these three mathematical operations
should be applied on the instantaneous power. This would be a nonsensical value.

[equ. 21]

To illustrate a calculation on the basis

of a sinusoidal voltage with an
amplitude of 2 V and a frequency of
1 kHz.
Above the chart are the definitions:
The load resistor R is 4 . As a
function of time are calculated: the
sinusoidal voltage u(t), the current
i(t) and the power p(t).

In the graph the voltage and current

are displayed.

The first is the RMS voltage calculated

on the basis of the voltage as a
function of time u(t). The result is
equal to the well-known equation:

The second equation calculates the

RMS current with the current as a
function of time i(t). This is equal to:

Then, on the basis of the RMS voltage

and current values with three
methods the Active Power is
calculated: URMSIRMS,
URMS2/IRMS2R. To control with a
fourth calculation the average power
determined on the basis of the power
as a function of time p(t). All these
calculations provide the same value
for the active power.
On the bottom is the calculation for
the RMS power. The outcome of these
(0,153 W) differs significantly from
the four above calculations (0,125 W). Fig. 5: Calculate the power.
The above example is carried out using a sinusoidal voltage and current. But the shapes of the voltage
and current as well as the kind of load and possible phase shift are of secondary importance.
The active power is always the average power. RMS Power is a nonsense number.

Terms
In complex waveforms, it is often insufficient to mention only the effective or average value. Here, on the
basis of examples commonly used terms are explained.

Square wave
As a first example a square wave. In the figure below shows a not ideal square wave with the definitions
in the time and amplitude domain.
On the right side of the square wave the histogram is shown. This graph shows how often a certain value
appears. The histogram consists of a number of containers (bins) that the amplitude levels represent.
From the voltage to analysis at a regular time interval samples are taken. The level of the sample is
measured and the value of the corresponding bin is increased. The two "bins" that have the greatest
values are defined as the top and base.

4 de 6 19/10/2012 08:39 p.m.

Voltage, Current, Power & Energy : Definitions :: Electronic Measurements http://meettechniek.info/measurement/theory-definitions.html

Fig. 6: Square wave with histogram.

Below are some common definitions for a square wave-shaped voltage. (Where voltage also can be read
as current.)

Base (line): The lower of the most common levels.

Top (line): The higher of the most common levels.
Base line offset: The base line level in relation to the reference (for example 0 V).
Amplitude: The difference between the base and top.
pkpk (peak to peak): The difference between the highest and lowest occurring levels.
Minimum: The lowest occurring value in relation to the reference (for example 0 V).
Maximum: The highest occurring value in relation to the reference (for example 0 V).
Rise time: The time to rise between two specified values. The specified values are the 10% en 90%
values between base en top. The specification 20% and 80% is also been used.
Fall time: The time to fall between two specified values. The specified values are the 90% en 10%
values between base en top. The specification 80% and 20% is also been used.
Width: The time between the 50% levels of the rising and falling edge.
Period: The time of a single period. Defined as the time between the pass of the 50% levels from the
rising edge.
Frequency: The number of periods in a second.
(Sag of) droop: The drop (of rise) of the horizontal parts of an square wave.
Overshoot: The shoot through of the voltage above the top line after the rising edge. Defined as the
highest level of the rising edge above the top line. Or the shoot through of the falling edge below the
base line. In that case specified as the lowest level of the falling edge in relation to the base line.
Preshoot: Voltage peak prior the rising or falling edge. The value is in relation of the base or top line.
Ringing: A damped oscillation after the rising or falling edge. Defined as the peak to peak value of the
oscillation.
Settling time: The time needed to damp the ringing till a predefined amplitude of the start value.
The above definitions can also be applied to other waveforms.

Amplitude
The term amplitude, which is used in measuring and monitoring, differs from the official definition as
usual in maths and physics: The amplitude is the maximum value of a harmonic vibration relative to its
resting state.

Manufacturers of measuring instruments used mostly as a definition of the amplitude the peak to peak
value of a signal, the value of the output of function generators is identified as: "... Amplitude Vpkpk."
The term amplitude is also used in general to indicate the value: "Amplitude accuracy: ...%."

In practice, the official definition is of little significance because pure harmonic waveforms are very rare.
For example, on this site the general definition is used: The peak yo peak value of a clean signal.

Histogram
A number of measuring instruments, such as digital oscilloscopes, uses the histogram to determinate the
base and top. The amplitude is the different between the top and base level. Caution should be taken, not
all signals has an easy identifiable base and top as shown below.

Sinewave and noise influence

On the right a graph with a clean sinewave (red) and a sinewave with noise (blue) including a histogram
with corresponding colours to the two waveforms.
The histogram shows that in case of a clean sinewave the most common values are at the peaks. The
histogram has a sharp boundary at the ends. The two peaks in the histogram correspond to the peaks of
the sinewave.
The sinus with noise has a less sharp boundaries in the histogram. Also, it is noticeable that the peaks in
the histogram something more to the centre located.
On these histograms is evident that a signal with noise measures a lower amplitude compared with the
signal without noise.

5 de 6 19/10/2012 08:39 p.m.

Voltage, Current, Power & Energy : Definitions :: Electronic Measurements http://meettechniek.info/measurement/theory-definitions.html

This situation can be avoided by

removing the noise prior the
measuring by using a low-pass
filter. The real amplitude is equal
for both signals (both with and
without noise).

Fig. 7: Sine wave with and without noise and the corresonding histograms.

Rectified sine
In the following example a doubble sided
rectified sinewave. The histogram shows now
only see one peak. The top level is well
defined, but the base is not recognisable by
the absence of a peak in the low part of the
histogram. A good instrument will therefore
also use other methods to find the base and
top.
The figure is also shown that by doubble sided
Fig. 8: Doubble sided recified sinewave with histogram.
rectifying the same period creates a signal
that has two equal periods. The frequency
doubled.

Saw and triangular shape

As a final example, a saw or triangle waveform. In
this shape, all voltages are equally common. The
histogram is completely flat. Again, a good
instrument will choose a different method to
define the top and base. Often, the base and top
will be made equal to the edges of the histogram.
This has the disadvantage that the top and base
are not well defined with a signal that's containing
noise. Again noise will first be removed for a
reliable measurement.
Another note about the definitions in the time
domain: The rise and fall are precisely defined.
The instrument made the measurement between
Fig. 9: Triangle voltage with histogram.
the 10...90% or 20...80% boundaries. The
measured time will therefore be smaller.

What is measured?
The above examples show already that measured values depend on the measurement methode and signal
conditions. Check always the method the instrument uses.

Insulation Tester Wide Range Test Voltage up to 5KV Data Storage and USB Interface www.hiokiusa.com

HIPOT Test Equipment Save 10% for a Limited Time AC/DC, IR, GB - Get Promo Code quadtech.com/sentry_promo_10%

Probe Master -USA Mfg Full Line of Oscilloscope Probes. Online Ordering & Same Day Shipping www.probemaster.com

All texts and images on this site, except those on the news & opinion pages are the intellectual property of Freddy Alferink. || Changes of items listed on the updatepage. ||
For questions or comments: use the form on the contactpage.

6 de 6 19/10/2012 08:39 p.m.