1

1 INTRDUCTION:-
Infrastructure building and construction is a key driver for the Indian economy. Increased
spending in this sector has a multiplier effect on overall economic growth as it
necessitates industrial growth and manufacturing. This in turn boosts aggregate demand
by improving living conditions. India is on a path of emerging as a developed nation in
this sector over the last decade and has seen a multiple fold growth with a phenomenal
progress in the field of civil engineering with an emphasis on planning, design and
construction of massive size.
Creative Projects & Contracts Pvt Ltd. is engaged
in execution of civil engineering projects with specialization in commercial, residential,
industrial and institutional assets and is a shining testimony of a vision synergizing with
achievements. Having pioneered a true proposition since the inception, CPC today
commands an unexcelled expertise in infrastructure building, entwined with rich technical
prowess in the construction of projects.

1.1 Mission

To deliver high-quality, cost-effective projects on schedule by employing and supporting

motivated, flexible, and focused teams. We value the importance of our relationships and
will continue to remain fair and true in our dealings with all employees, clients, vendors,
and partners. Our clients count on our dependability, our drive, and our integrity. We take
great pride in our accomplishments and build on them every day.
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1.2 OBJECTIVE

The Summer Training Program has mainly two objectives viz. Learning New Things
and Gaining Practical Experience. The Internship helps to get exposure to the
environment of the industry wherein we are to be placed.
These 7 weeks of training also enhances our soft skills and
meeting so many engineers and learning from them makes us a confident professional.

It also teaches us the sense of responsibility, taking initiatives, projecting the innovative
ideas and most important, management of work.

1.3 PRJECT DETAILS:-

Scope:- Construction of a multistoried building including 3 basements, ground floor +
11 upper floor , Basement parking.

Fig1.1:- Plan of the Upper floors of building

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PROJECT NAME THE LEGND

TYPE OF BUILDING

TYPE OF BUILDING RESIDENTIAL

CLIENT Bardiya Group

CONTRACTOR CPC Pvt. LTD.

COST 40 Cr.

AREA 5,00,000 Sq. Ft

ARCHITECT Ar. Hafeez Contractor

LOCATION Jaipur

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD 24 months

DESCRIPTION It's a120 Luxurious Apartment, Work

Consists of RCC Structure,
Masonry And Plaster Works
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2. Types of Drawings prepared by Structural Engineers:-There are four

different types of drawing:-
2.1 Structural Drawings:-
Structural Drawings are used to progress the Architects concept by
specifying the shape and position of all parts of the structure thus enabling the
construction of that structure on site. Structural Drawings are also used for the preparation
of the reinforcement drawings.
Structural Drawings would typically include the following information:
North Point
Setting out dimensions for the concrete structure on site.
Plans, sections and elevations showing layout, dimensions and levels of all concrete
members within the structure.
Location of all holes, chases, pockets, fixings and other items affecting the concreting
work.
Notes on specifications, finishes and all cross-references affecting the construction.
Provide the detailer with the layout and sectional information required to specify the length,
shape and number of each type of reinforcing bar.
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Fig2.1:- Structural Drawing

2.2 Reinforcement Drawings:-

Reinforcement drawings (or details), fully describe and locate all reinforcement in
relation to the finished surface of the concrete and to any holes or fixings. They are
primarily for the use of the steel fixers and it is preferable that they are kept separate from
the general arrangement drawing.
As a general rule, circular holes up to 150mm diameter and rectangular holes up
to (150 x 150)mm in slabs and walls need not to be shown on the reinforcement drawings.
For larger isolated holes with sides 500mm or less, either (i) displace affected bars
either side of the hole, or (ii) cut or slide back affected bars a cover distance from face of
the hole. Compensating trimming bars of equal area should be provided to trim all sides.
These trimmers should extend a minimum 45? (Nominal anchorage length) beyond the
hole. Holes in this category should be shown on the reinforcement drawings.

Fig2.2:- Reinforcement Details

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2.3 Standard Details:-

The detailer will often find that certain details occur regularly on a variety of jobs
and some economy in detailing time may be effected by keeping a library of Standard
Details for use whenever possible. Standard details might include:-

1) Standard Notes

2) Column bases and pile caps

3) Concrete box culverts

4) Expansion/Construction joint details, etc.

Fig2.3:- Standard Details

2.4 Record Drawings

It is common, in the course of construction, for modifications to be made to the
original drawings to cater for unforeseen difficulties that inevitably occur on site.
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Once the construction of a reinforced concrete structure is complete, the original

drawings should be amended to show any changes in detail that were made during the
construction process. Compared to manually produced drawings, amending drawings
produced by computer is relatively easy.

A revision letter (suffix) must be added to the drawing number to indicate the drawing is
a record drawing, and all amendments must be described in writing using this revision
reference. A register of drawings should be kept listing reference numbers, titles and
recipient of drawings.

3. FLOOR LAYOUT
Before Shuttering there is need to make or check the layout of the floor is right or not. So for
checking layout of a floor there are few steps we are given below:-

1. First, take a column of lower floor as a reference and after a fixed distance hang a tensioned
thread from one nearest side of the edge of the floor of which we have to check layout.

2. After that check that the column which is coming from the lower floor is far away from a
tensioned thread from that fixed distance. If both distances are same than the layout of the
column is right.

3. After that draw a line up to column and draw dimension of the column which was given in
drawing of the column or in the plan of the floor.

4. After that check that all the distances given in plan or drawing are right from that column is
right or not and draw straight lines of the distances from column.

5. Also, draw the dimension the each wall column on the floor.

6. Columns or wall or edge which is far away from that column their layout can be checked
from another column which layout has been checked and it is right.

7. We should have to check diagonal distances between the columns should be right.

8. After checking as a reference from one end, for assurance, we should have to check from
the edge of the floor.
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Fig3.1:- Checking the layout of the column of the floor

4. FORMWORK
Formwork is a mould or open box, like container into which fresh concrete is poured and
compacted. When the concrete is set, the formwork is removed and a solid mass is produced in
the shape of the inner face of the formwork. The top of the formwork is normally left open.
Falsework is the necessary support system that holds the formwork in the correct position.

Formwork is a classic temporary structure in the sense that it is erected quickly, highly loaded
for a few hours during the concrete placement, and within a few days disassembled for future
reuse. Also classic in their temporary nature are the connections, braces, tie anchorages, and
adjustment devices which form need. Forms mould the concrete to desired size and shape and
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control its position and alignment. But formwork is more than a mould; it is a temporary
structure that supports its own weight, plus the freshly placed concrete, plus construction live
loads.

4.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF FORMWORK

1) Formwork constitutes 30% of the cost and 60% of the time in concrete construction.

2) Quality of concrete finish and soundness of concrete depends very much on the
formwork system

3) Desired shape of concrete is not possible if formwork not done properly.

4) Formwork should be properly designed, fabricated and erected to receive concrete.

5) Accidents happen because of the faulty formwork and scaffolding or staging.

4.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

When designing formwork, consider the following:

Strength: Forms and shutters have to be designed to support dead weight, live load and
hydrostatic pressure. Sheathing must be rigid enough to resist bulging. Formwork for
vertical concrete elements i.e. columns and walls are subject to pressures on the form
face. This is caused by the fluid action of the fresh concrete. The pressure of the fluid
concrete on the vertical faces increases proportionately with the depth of concrete. The
maximum pressure being at the bottom of the form. This maximum pressure for the full
depth fluid concrete is the hydrostatic pressure for concrete and usually occurs when the
concrete is placed very quickly.

Speedy erection and dismantling: The formwork design and the methods of assembly
must be as simple as possible to reduce time spent in erection and dismantling. The
formwork should be simple to remove without causing damage to the concrete.

Tightness of joints: The liquid retaining properties of the formwork must be adequate to
prevent leakage of cement and fine aggregate from the concrete.
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Rigidity: Brace formwork and support to ensure no movement may take place under
wind pressure, or when the concrete is being placed and vibrated. The shutters must be
rigid enough to keep the concrete member within the allowable tolerances.

Reuse: Design for unit construction, if possible, so that you can strike and reuse as soon
as possible.

Ease of handling: Forms and shutters must be of a size and weight that can be handled
by the labour and plant available on site.

Fig4.1:- Adjusting the form of column after a movement in it

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Fig4.2:- Arrangement for checking Formwork Movement

4.3 FORMWORK TYPES (BY SHAPE):- Considering shapes, formwork types can be
classified as:
4.3.1 Column Formwork:-
Column formwork is made usually with either timber or metal panels. The principle
is to create an enclosed box with frames at the exact size of the column and fix it tightly
on the kicker left from base or at the last stage of column concreting. The box is held in
position by steel column clamps or bolted yokes and supported by timber studs or props.
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Fig4.3;- Wooden Formwork for Column

4.3.2 Beam formwork:-
Beam formwork consists of open through section and because it is not closed at the
top requires more supporting framework to restrain the sides. The supports need to be
maintained to the soffit and also provide lateral support to the sides. In timber this is done
by the use of a head tree across the top of a vertical member. Metal panels are used with
corner pieces, but timber head tress are needed for vertical support.
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Fig4.4:- Wooden Formwork For Beam

4.3.3 Slab Formwork:-

Floors require a large area of formwork to be provided usually from
beam to beam. Metal floor formwork consists of Metal sheets supported on a framework
and resting on a series of timber joists. Again timber and metal props can be used for
vertical supports. Metal panels can be used and bolted or clipped together and held in
place by a system of metal beams or a tabular scaffold system. Adjustable props need for
leveling purposes.
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Fig4.5;- Metal Formwork For Slab

Fig4.6:- Metal Sheet For Slab Formwork

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5. Foundation:-
Foundation is that part of building which ensure that the structural loads are transmitted to
the subsoil safely, economically and without any unacceptable movement during the
construction period and throughout the anticipated life of the building or structure.

5.1 Requirements of foundation:- The major requirements of the design of foundation

structures are the two as given below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456):-
Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and
induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within
the tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential
settlement of supports causes additional moments in statically indeterminate structures.
Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is considered as more important than
maintaining uniform overall settlement of the structure.

5.2 Purpose of foundation:-

To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring the intensity
of load within the safe bearing capacity of soil.

To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate to avoid differential settlement.

To prevent the lateral movement of supporting material.

To attain a level and firm bed for building operations.

To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

The design of foundation structures is somewhat different from the design of other
elements of superstructure (Slab, Beam, Column and walls) due to the reasons given
below. Therefore, foundation structures need special attention of the designers.

Foundation structures undergo soil-structure interaction. Therefore, the behaviour of

foundation structures depends on the properties of structural materials and soil.

Accurate estimations of all types of loads, moments and forces are needed for the present
as well as for future expansion, if applicable. It is very important because it is very
difficult to strengthen and repairing foundation structure in future.
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Foundation structures are in direct contact with the soil and may be affected due to
harmful chemicals and minerals present in the soil and fluctuations of water table when it
is very near to the foundation.

Foundation structures, while constructing, may affect the adjoining structure forming
cracks to total collapse, particularly during the driving of piles etc.

Foundation structures have to be housed within the property line which may cause
additional forces and moments due to the eccentricity of foundation.

There is very little architectural aesthetics involved in design of foundation structure.

5.3 Factor affecting design of foundation:-

Soil types and ground water table conditions.

Structural requirements and foundations.

Construction requirements.

Site condition and environmental factor.

Economy.

Load of the structure which is to transmit to soil.

Safe Bearing Capacity of soil.

5.4 Type of foundation:-

Foundations are mainly of two types: (1). shallow and (2). deep foundations. The two
different types are explained below:-

5.4.1 Shallow foundations:-

Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short depth
below the ground level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads to the
base soil. These heavy loads are sustained by the reinforced concrete columns or walls
(either of bricks or reinforced concrete) of much less areas of cross-section due to high
strength of bricks or reinforced concrete when compared to that of soil. For shallow
foundation depth of foundation is less than width of foundation. In this foundation
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underneath soil have suitable soil bearing capacity to possess all loads which are to be
transferred by foundation on soil.

There are different types of shallow foundation or footing which are discussed below:-

A. Isolated footings:-
This type of footing is used to support individual columns. They can be
either of stepped type or have projections in the concrete base. In case of heavy loaded
columns, steel reinforcement is provided in both the direction in concrete bed. Generally,
15 cm offset is provided on all sides of concrete bed. In case of brick masonry columns,
an offset of 5cm is provided o all the four sides in regular layers. The footing of concrete
columns may be a slab, stepped or sloped type.

Fig5.1: uniform and rectangular footing

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Fig5.2: Stepped and rectangular footing

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Fig5.3: reinforcement in isolated rectangular footing

B. Combined footing:-
A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row> The
combined footing can be rectangular i shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or can
be trapezoidal if these are space limitations and they carry unequal loads. Generally, they
are constructed of reinforced concrete. In the design of footings, the footing is assumed to
be rigid and resting on a homogeneous soil. The location of centre of gravity of column
loads and the centroid of the footing should coincide. The maximum bending moment is
taken as the design value for the reinforced concrete footing and should be checked for
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maximum shear and bound, etc.

Fig5.4: combined footing without central beam

C. Inverted Arch Footing:-

This type of construction is used o soft soils to reduce the depth of
foundation. Loads above an opening are transmitted from supporting walls through
inverted arches to the soil. In this type of footing the end columns must be stable enough
to resist the outward pressure caused by the action.

D. Continuous footing:-
In this type of footing a single continuous R.C. slab is provided as
foundation of two or three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is suitable at
locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents differential settlement in the
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structure. In order to have better stability a deeper beam is constructed in between the
columns.

E. Strip or Wall footing:-

These are in long strips especially for load bearing masonry walls or reinforced
concrete walls. However, for load bearing masonry walls, it is common to have stepped
masonry foundations. The strip footings distribute the loads from the wall to a wider area
and usually bend in transverse direction. Accordingly, they are reinforced in the
transverse direction mainly, while nominal distribution steel is provided along the
longitudinal direction.

Fig5.5: Strip or Wall footing

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F. Raft Foundation:-
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the
structure loads are very heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than half of
the building area, and it may prove more economical to use raft-foundation. They are also
used where the soil mass contains compressible lenses so that the differential settlement
would be difficult to control. Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement above
highly compressible soils by making the weight of structure and raft approximately equal
to the weight of soil excavated. Usually when hard soil is not available within 1.5 to 2.5
m, a raft foundation is adopted.

Fig5.6: Raft Footing

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Fig5.7:- Reinforcement in Raft foundation

5.4.2 Deep foundation:-

These foundations carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soil or
fills on the stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth. These foundations are
in general general used as basements, buoyancy rafts, caissons, cylinders, shaft and piles.

A. Pile foundation:-
The pile foundation is a construction supported on piles. A pile is an element of
construction composed of timber, concrete or steel or a combination of them. Pile
foundation may be defined as a column supported type of foundation which may be
defined as cast-in situ or precast. The piles may be placed separately or they may be
placed in form of a cluster throughout the length of the structure. This type of
construction adopted when the loose soil extends to a great depth. The load of the
structure is transmitted by the piles to the hard stratum below or it is resisted by the
friction developed on the sides of piles.
I. Classification of Piles:- Piles are classified on these two following criteria
a) Classification Based on the function:-
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i. Bearing pile
ii. Friction Pile
iii. Screw Pile
iv. Compaction Pile
v. Uplift pile
vi. Batter pile
vii. Sheet pile

b) Classification based on material and composition:-

i. Cement concrete pile:-
They can be divided in two groups:-
1) Precast concrete piles
2) Cast in-situ concrete piles:-
In this type of pile, a bore is dug into ground by inserting a casing. This
bore is than filled with cement concrete after placing reinforcement, if any. They may be
either cased cast in-situ concrete piles or uncased cast in-situ concrete piles depending
upon casing is kept in position or withdrawn afterwards.

Cast in-situ concrete piles are easy to handle and to drive in the ground. They do not
require any extra reinforcement to resist the stresses developed during handling or driving
operations. There is no wastage of material as the pile of required length is constructed.

Fig5.8:- reinforcement for pile

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Fig5.9: - concrete pile with Waler beam

ii. Timber pile

iii. Steel pile
iv. Sand pile
v. Composite pile

5.5 Safe bearing capacity of soil: -

Gross and net bearing capacities are the two terms used in the design. Gross
bearing capacity is the total safe bearing pressure just below the footing due to the load of
the superstructure, self weight of the footing and the weight of earth lying over the
footing. On the other hand, net bearing capacity is the net pressure in excess of the
existing overburden pressure. Thus, we can write

Net bearing capacity = Gross bearing capacity - Pressure due to overburden soil ------
------(1)

While calculating the maximum soil pressure q, we should consider all the loads of
superstructure along with the weight of foundation and the weight of the backfill. During
preliminary calculations, however, the weight of the foundation and backfill may be taken
as 10 to 15 per cent of the total axial load on the footing, subjected to verification
afterwards. While calculating loads we should consider partial safety factor for all type of
loads which is given in Table 18 (IS 456).
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TABLE 1:- Values of Partial Safety Factor

The safe bearing capacity qc of soil is the permissible soil pressure considering safety
factors in the range of 2 to 6 depending on the type of soil.

5.6 Depth of the foundation:-

All types of foundation should have a minimum depth of 50 cm as per IS 1080-

1962. This minimum depth is required to ensure the availability of soil having the safe
bearing capacity assumed in the design. Moreover, the foundation should be placed well
below the level which will not be affected by seasonal change of weather to cause
swelling and shrinking of the soil. Further, frost also may endanger the foundation if
placed at a very shallow depth.
Rankine formula gives a preliminary
estimate of the minimum depth of foundation and is expressed as

d = (qc/) {(1 - sin)/ (1 + sin)} 2 ----------- (2)

Where

d = minimum depth of foundation

qc = gross bearing capacity of soil
= density of soil
= angle of repose of soil
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5.7 IS 456 design considerations for Foundation:-

a) Minimum nominal cover (cl. 26.4.2.2 of IS 456):-

The minimum nominal cover for the footings should be
more than that of other structural elements of the superstructure as the footings are in
direct contact with the soil. Clause 26.4.2.2 of IS 456 prescribes a minimum cover of 50
mm for footings. However, the actual cover may be even more depending on the presence
of harmful chemicals or minerals, water table etc.

b) Thickness at the edge of footings (cls. 34.1.2 and 34.1.3 of IS 456) :-

The minimum thickness at the
edge of reinforced and plain concrete footings shall be at least 150 mm for footings on
soils and at least 300 mm above the top of piles for footings on piles, as per the
stipulation in cl.34.1.2 of IS 456. For plain concrete pedestals, the angle between the
plane passing through the bottom edge of the pedestal and the corresponding junction
edge of the column with pedestal and the horizontal plane shall be determined from the
following expression

tan() 0.9*{(100 *qa/fck) + 1}1/2

Where
qa = calculated maximum bearing pressure at the base of pedestal in N/mm2 , and
fck = characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days in N/mm2 .

Fig5.10:- angle

c) Bending moments (cl. 34.2 of IS 456)

It may be necessary to compute the bending moment at several sections of the footing
depending on the type of footing, nature of loads and the distribution of pressure at the
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base of the footing. However, bending moment at any section shall be determined taking
all forces acting over the entire area on one side of the section of the footing, which is
obtained by passing a vertical plane at that section extending across the footing
(cl.34.2.3.1 of IS 456).

The critical section of maximum bending moment for the purpose of designing an
isolated concrete footing which supports a column, pedestal or wall shall be:

(i) At the face of the column, pedestal or wall for footing supporting a concrete column,
pedestal or reinforced concrete wall
(ii) Halfway between the centre-line and the edge of the wall, for footing under masonry
wall. This is stipulated in cl.34.2.3.2 of IS 456.

For round or octagonal concrete column or pedestal, the face of the column or pedestal
shall be taken as the side of a square inscribed within the perimeter of the round or
octagonal column or pedestal for computing stress in footing.

Fig5.11:- Equivalent square columns

d) Shear force (cl. 31.6 and 34.2.4 of IS 456):-

Footing slabs shall be checked in one-way or two-
way shears depending on the nature of bending. If the slab bends primarily in one-way,
the footing slab shall be checked in one-way vertical shear. On the other hand, when the
bending is primarily two-way, the footing slab shall be checked in two-way shear or
punching shear. The respective critical sections and design shear strengths are given
below:
a. One-way shear (cl. 34.2.4 of IS 456):- One-way shear has to be checked across the full
width of the base slab on a vertical section located from the face of the column, pedestal
or wall at a distance equal to
i. Effective depth of the footing slab in case of footing slab on soil
ii. Half the effective depth of the footing slab if the footing slab is on piles. The design shear
strength of concrete without shear reinforcement is given in Table 19 of cl.40.2 of IS 456.
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TABLE 2:- Design Shear Strength of concrete

b. Two-way or punching shear (cls.31.6 and 34.2.4) :-

Two-way or punching shear shall be checked
around the column on a perimeter half the effective depth of the footing slab away from
the face of the column or pedestal. The permissible shear stress, when shear
reinforcement is not provided, shall not exceed ks* c , where ks = (0.5 + c ), but not
greater than one, c being the ratio of short side to long side of the column, and c =
0.25(fck) 1/2 in limit state method of design, as stipulated in cl.31.6.3 of IS 456.
Normally, the thickness of the base slab is governed by shear. Hence, the necessary
thickness of the slab has to be provided to avoid shear reinforcement.

e) Tensile reinforcement (cl.34.3 of IS 456):-

In one-way reinforced footing slabs like wall footings, the reinforcement shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing i.e., perpendicular to the
direction of wall.
In two-way reinforced square footing slabs, the reinforcement extending in each direction
shall be distributed uniformly across the full width/length of the footing.
In two-way reinforced rectangular footing slabs, the reinforcement in the long direction
shall be distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing slab. In the short
direction, a central band equal to the width of the footing shall be marked along the length
of the footing, where the portion of the reinforcement shall be determined as given in the
equation below. This portion of the reinforcement shall be distributed across the central
band.
Reinforcement in the central band = {2/( +1)} (Total reinforcement in the short
direction)
Where is the ratio of longer dimension to shorter dimension of the footing slab.
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Fig5.12:- Bands for reinforcement in a rectangular footing

The remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in the outer Nominal
portion of the footings

f) reinforcement (cl. 34.5 of IS 456):-

1. The minimum reinforcement and spacing of the bars in footing slabs as per the
requirements of solid slab.
2. The nominal reinforcement for concrete sections of thickness greater than 1 m shall be
360 mm2 sper metre length in each direction on each face. This provision does not
supersede the requirement of minimum tensile reinforcement based on the depth of
section.

6 BEAM:-
Beams are generally horizontal or curved structural members which transfer loads
horizontally along their length to the supports (Columns, Abutment & piles etc.) where
the loads are usually resolved into vertical forces. Beams are used for resisting vertical
loads, shear forces and bending moments.
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6.1 CLASIIFICATION OF BEAM:-

Different types of beams can be classified based on the type of
support, reinforcement condition and shape.

6.1.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SUPPORT CONDITION:-The four different types

of beams are based on support condition:

1. Simply Supported Beam

A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end and
roller support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing
and bending. It is the one of the simplest structural elements in existence.

Fig6.1:- Simply Supported beam

2. Fixed Beam:-
As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.
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Fig6.2:- Fixed beam

3. Cantilever Beam:-
A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.

Fig6.3:- Cantilever Beam

4. Continuously Supported Beam:-

A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout
its length.
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Fig6.4:- Continuously supported beam

5. Overhanging beam:-
A overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending
beyond its supports. It may have any number of supports. If viewed in a different
perspective, it appears as if it is has the features of simply supported beam and cantilever
beam.

Fig6.5: - Overhanging beam

6.1.2 Other miscellaneous types of beam-

1. Hidden beam:-
When a beam depth is equal to the depth of the adjacent slabs, the beam is
called a hidden beam. In hidden beams only the reinforcement details differ with the
adjacent slab reinforcement details. Hidden beam is part of the flat slab. They cant be
seen after fulfilling it with concrete. They are hidden in slab. If the cantilever beam is
34

with a HIDDEN beam it cannot act as a pure beam and will only distribute the loads
over the slab area and it cannot be considered as simply supported one. The concept of
hidden (concealed) beam originated from flat slab concept.

Fig6.6: - Reinforcement in Hidden beam

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2. Waler beam:-

A horizontal reinforcement utilized to keep newly poured concrete forms from bulging outward.
Theses beam also used to anchored piles.

Fig6.7:- Waler beam

3. Deep beam:-
Deep beam is a beam having large depth/thickness ratio and shear span depth ratio less
than 2.5 for concentrated load and less than 5.0 for distributed load. Because of the geometry of
deep beams, their behaviour is different with slender beam or intermediate beam.
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Fig6.8: - Reinforcement in Deep Beam

4. Lintel beam:-
Lintel is a horizontal building component that lies across an opening and
holds the weight of the structure above it. It is generally placed between two vertical
supports.

Fig6.9:- Lintel

Lintel can be a loads-bearing, a decorative architectural element, or a combined

ornamented structural item. In many buildings Lintel acts as a structural member.
However in some applications it is used merely for aesthetics. It is often found over
portals, doors, windows, openings and fireplaces.
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6.1.3 Types of R.C.C. Beam by reinforcement position:-

1. Singly Reinforced Beam:-

When you provide reinforcement only in tension zone of the beam cross
section then that beam are considered as a singly reinforced beam.

Fig6.10:- Reinforcement in Singly reinforced Beam

2. Doubly Reinforced Beam:-

When you provide reinforcement both in tension zone as well as compression
zone then that beam is considered as doubly reinforced beam. Doubly reinforced
beams, therefore, have moment of resistance more than the singly reinforced beams of
the same depth for particular grades of steel and concrete. In many practical situations,
architectural or functional requirements may restrict the overall depth of the beams.
However, other than in doubly reinforced beams compression steel reinforcement
is provided when:

Some sections of a continuous beam with moving loads undergo change of sign of the
bending moment which makes compression zone as tension zone or vice versa.

The ductility requirement has to be followed.

The reduction of long term deflection is needed.

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Fig6.11:- Reinforcement in Doubly Reinforced Beam

6.2 Design Consideration:-

1. Bending Design:-

The moment capacity of the beam is affected by:

a) The effective depth, d
b) Amount of reinforcement,
c) Strength of steel bars
d) Strength of concrete

For safety of beam from bending moment capacity of the section should be greater
than Maximum moment on beam which can be obtained by increasing depth or
amount of reinforcement or strength of steel bars or strength of concrete.
39

2. Shear design:-

Two principal shear failure modes:

(a) Diagonal tension inclined crack develops and splits the beam into two pieces. Shear
link should be provide to prevent this failure.
(b) Diagonal compression crushing of concrete.

If shear stress on section exceed than 0.5shear resistance of section than shear
reinforcement should be provided by providing Vertical shear link or a combination
of vertical and inclined bars.

3. Deflection:-
For rectangular beam,
A. The final deflection should not exceed span/250
B. Deflection after construction of finishes and partitions should not exceed span/500 or
20mm, whichever is the lesser, for spans up to 10 m.

TABLE 3:- SPAN/DEPTH RATIO FOR RANCTANGULAR BEAM

4. Minimum and maximum reinforcement area:-

For rectangular beam with b (width) and h (depth), the area of tensile
reinforcement, as should lie:-
0.24% bh As 4% bh For Fy= 250 N/mm2
0.13% bh As 4% bh For Fy= 500N/mm2

5. Spacing of reinforcement:-
For singly reinforcement simply supported beam the clear horizontal distance between
tension bars should follow:
hagg + 5 mm or bar size sb 300 mm or 3d minimum fy = 250 N/mm2
hagg + 5 mm or bar size sb 155 mm fy = 500 N/mm2 (hagg is the maximum aggregate
size)
40

6. Anchorage:-
At the end support, to achieve proper anchorage the tensile bar must extend a length
equal to one of the following:
A. 12 times the bar size beyond the centre line of the support
B. 12 times the bar size plus d/2 from the face of support
C. In case of space limitation, hooks or bends in the reinforcement can be use in
anchorage. If the bends started after the centre of support, the anchorage length is at
least 4 but not greater than 12 . If the hook started before d/2 from the face of
support, the anchorage length is at 8r but not greater than 24 .

Fig6.12:- Bend Anchorage in Beam

 41

7 SLAB
Slabs, used in floors and roofs of buildings mostly integrated with the supporting beams, carry the
distributed loads primarily by bending. A part of the integrated slab is considered as flange of T- or
L-beams because of monolithic construction. However, the remaining part of the slab needs design
considerations. These slabs are either single span or continuous having different support conditions
like fixed, hinged or free along the edges. Though normally these slabs are horizontal, inclined slabs
are also used in ramps, stair cases and inclined roofs. While square or rectangular plan forms are
normally used, triangular, circular and other plan forms are also needed for different functional
requirements. On the basis of length to width ratio or support condition or loads reinforcement in
slab is provided in one direction or both direction.

7.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SLAB:-

The slabs are presented in two groups:

1. One-way slabs:-
The one-way slabs are identified as follows.
1) When a rectangular slab is supported only on two opposite edges, it is a one-way slab spanning in the
direction perpendicular to the edges.

2) When a rectangular slab is supported on all the four edges and the length-to-breadth (L / B) ratio is
equal to or greater than two, the slab is considered to be a one-way slab. The slab spans
predominantly in the direction parallel to the shorter edge.

Fig7
.1:-
Plan
s of
One
-
Way
slab
s
42

Fig7.2:- Deflection in One- Way slab

Fig7.3:- Reinforcement in One-Way Slab (point 1)

43

Fig7.4:- Reinforcement in One-Way Slab (point 2)

2. Two-way slabs:-
If a rectangular slab is supported on all the four sides and the length-to-breadth ratio is
less than two, then it is a two-way slab. If a slab is supported on three edges or two adjacent edges,
then also it is a two-way slab. A slab in a framed building can be a two-way slab depending upon its
length-to-breadth ratio. A two-way slab is designed for both the orthogonal directions.

Fig7.5:- Deflection in Two-way Slab

 44

Fig7.6:- reinforcement in two way slab

7.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATION:-

1. Nominal cover (cl.26.4 of IS 456)
The nominal cover to be provided depends upon durability and fire resistance
requirements.
45

TABLE 4:- Table for nominal cover

Appropriate value of the nominal cover is to be provided from these tables for the particular
requirement of the structure.

2. Minimum reinforcement (cl.26.5.2.1 of IS 456)

Both for one and two-way slabs, the amount of minimum reinforcement in either
direction shall not be less than 0.15 and 0.12 per cents of the total cross-sectional area for mild steel
(Fe 250) and high strength deformed bars (Fe 415 and Fe 500)/welded wire fabric, respectively.

3. Maximum diameter of reinforcing bars (cl.26.5.2.2)

The maximum diameter of reinforcing bars of one and two-way slabs shall
not exceed one-eighth of the total depth of the slab.

4. Maximum distance between bars (cl.26.3.3 of IS 456)

The maximum horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcing bars
shall be the lesser of (i) three times the effective depth, or (ii) 300 mm. However, the same for
secondary/distribution bars for temperature, shrinkage etc. shall be the lesser of (i) five times the
effective depth, or (ii) 450 mm.

5. Effective span to effective depth ratio (cls.23.2.1a-e of IS 456)

The deflection of the slab can be kept under control if the ratios of
effective span to effective depth of one-way slabs are taken up from
 46

Basic values of span to effective depth ratios

A) For spans up to 10 m:

Cantilever 7

Simply supported 20

Continuous 26

B) For spans above 10 m, the values in (a) may be multiplied by lo/span in meters, except for
cantilever in which case deflection calculations should be made. These stipulations are for the
beams and are also applicable for one-way slabs as they are designed considering them as beam of
unit width.

6. Development length:-
Development length for Hogging bar is 0.3 Time the length of the slab. Bending of
bars or curtailment of bars (hogging bars) Starts from length from L/5 for long span and for Short
Span the length is L/7.

7.3 Other miscellaneous types of slabs:-

7.3.1 Flat Slabs:-
Common practice of design and construction is to support the slabs by beams and support the
beams by columns. This may be called as beam-slab construction. The beams reduce the available
net clear ceiling height. Hence in warehouses, offices and public halls sometimes beams are avoided
and slabs are directly supported by columns. This type of construction is aesthetically appealing
also. These slabs which are directly supported by columns are called Flat Slabs.

Benefits of Flat Slabs:-

Flat slabs without drops(thickened areas of slab around the columns to resist punching shear) can be
built faster because formwork is simplified and minimised, and rapid turn-around can be achieved
using a combination of early striking2 and flying systems.
Flat slab construction places no restrictions on the positioning of horizontal services and partitions
and can minimize floor-to-floor heights when there is no requirement for a deep false ceiling.
Flat slab construction offers considerable flexibility to the occupier who can easily alter internal
layouts to accommodate changes in the use of the structure.
47

Due to low slab thickness it has low height. Lower storey height will reduce building weight due to
lower partitions and cladding to faade, approx. saves 10% in vertical members, reduce foundation
load.
Long Span

DIVISION OF PANELS

The panels are divided into column strips and middle strips in both direction.

Fig7.7:- Middle Strip or Column strip in Flat Slabs

 48

MOMENT DIVISION:-

TABLE 5:- Moment in Flat Slab

Note : For slab with drops where the width of the middle strip exceeds L/2, the distribution of
moment in the middle strip should be increased in proportion to its increased width and the
moment resisted by the column strip should be adjusted accordingly.

Design Consideration:- In flat Slab other design consideration remains same we discussed in both
One-way or Two-Way slab.

a. DEFLECTION CHECK
necessary to include checking of the slab deflection for all load cases both for short and
long term basis

In general, under full service load, < L/250 or 40 mm whichever is smaller

b. FLOOR OPENINGS:-
No opening should encroach upon a column head or drop

Sufficient reinforcement must be provided to take care of stress concentration.

c. PUNCHING SHEAR:-
always a critical consideration in flat plate design around the columns
 49

instead of using thicker section, shear reinforcement in the form of shear heads, shear studs or
stirrup cages may be embedded in the slab to enhance shear capacity at the edges of walls and
columns. It is consider that punching shear is applied upto d/2 length from face of column without
drop or face of drop panel.

7.3.2 Sunken Slabs:-

It is depressed slab for sanitary and drainage pipes, after plumbing work it is filled with
light weighted materials like cinder, brick bats etc. These types of slab are used in
bathrooms, toilets, washing places or at water closets.

The purpose of having sunk slabs to place the sanitation pipes

below the floor and cares as to be taken against the leakage of water from sanitation pipe.
To construct sunk slabs the concert should be mixed with waterproofing material to get a
denser, watertight concrete.

The reinforcement requirements of sunken slab is computed in a similar way what we use for
normal slab. We have to mentioned the boundary condition of the slab and provide reinforcement in
the same primary steel and secondary steel. The only aspect which i think should be taken care of its
anchoring at end supports. It should be taken care that longitudinal steel should rest on its periphery
beam so that it can efficiently transfer the load to beams.

Fig7.8:- Anchoring of Sunken Slab

 50

8 COLUMN
A column is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the
structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression
member. Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone, brick,
block, concrete, timber, steel and so on which have good compressive strength.

8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMN:-

Columns are classified into the following two types based on the slenderness ratios:

(i) Short columns :-

A compression member may be considered as short when both the slenderness
ratios lex/D and ley/b are less than 12 where lex = effective length in respect of the major axis, D
= depth in respect of the major axis, ley = effective length in respect of the minor axis, and b =
width of the member.

Fig8.1:- Short Column

 51

(ii) Slender or long columns:-

A compression member may be considered as Slender or long
when both the slenderness ratios lex/D and ley/b are greater than 12.

8.2 Design Consideration of Column:-

1. Longitudinal Reinforcement:-

The longitudinal reinforcing bars carry the compressive loads along with the concrete. The
following are the salient points regarding the minimum and maximum amount, number of bars,
minimum diameter of bars, spacing of bars etc.:

a) The minimum amount of steel should be at least 0.8 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of
the column required if for any reason the provided area is more than the required area.
b) The maximum amount of steel should be 4 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of the
column so that it does not exceed 6 per cent when bars from column below have to be lapped
with those in the column under consideration.

c) Four and six are the minimum number of longitudinal bars in rectangular and circular columns,
respectively.
d) The diameter of the longitudinal bars should be at least 12 mm.

e) Columns having helical reinforcement shall have at least six longitudinal bars within and in
contact with the helical reinforcement. The bars shall be placed equidistant around its inner
circumference.

f) The bars shall be spaced not exceeding 300 mm along the periphery of the column.
 52

Fig8.2:- Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement in compression member

2. Transverse Reinforcement:-

Transverse reinforcing bars are provided in forms of circular rings, polygonal

links (lateral ties) with internal angles not exceeding 135o or helical reinforcement. The
transverse reinforcing bars are provided to ensure that every longitudinal bar nearest to the
compression face has effective lateral support against buckling.

Fig8.3:- Hooks with Some internal angle

The salient points are for the guidelines of the arrangement of transverse reinforcement:

(a) Transverse reinforcement shall only go round corner and alternate bars if the longitudinal bars
are not spaced more than 75 mm on either side.

(b) Longitudinal bars spaced at a maximum distance of 48 times the diameter of the tie shall be tied
by single tie and additional open ties for in between longitudinal bars.
53

3. Pitch and Diameter of Lateral Ties :-

(a) Pitch: The maximum pitch of transverse reinforcement shall be the least of the following:

(i) the least lateral dimension of the compression members; (ii) sixteen times the smallest
diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied; and

(iii) 300 mm.

(b) Diameter: The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall be not less than one-fourth
of the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 6 mm.

Fig8.4:- Lateral Ties

4. Helical Reinforcement:-

(a) Pitch: Helical reinforcement shall be of regular formation with the turns of the helix spaced
evenly and its ends shall be anchored properly by providing one and a half extra turns of the
spiral bar. For all cases except where an increased load on the column is allowed for on the
strength of the helical reinforcement. In such cases only, the maximum pitch shall be the lesser
of 75 mm and one-sixth of the core diameter of the column, and the minimum pitch shall be the
lesser of 25 mm and three times the diameter of the steel bar forming the helix.

(b) Diameter: The diameter of the helical reinforcement shall be not less than one-fourth of the
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 6 mm.
54

5. Lap length:-

The Indian bible (IS456) says that the development length Ld of any bar shall be given by
the following relation

where
= nominal diameter of the bar,
s= stress in bar at the section considered at design load, and
bd= design bond stress
For bars in compression (typically the ones in columns) use the 'Ld' from the above
relation. Except that in compression, our bond stress can be increased by 25% so,
effectively, take Ld in compression as Ld/1.25. You may use the following values for M30
grade of concrete for varying grades of steel in flexural tension:

Fe250 -28D
Fe415 - 30D
Fe500 - 35D

Fig8.5:- Lapping of bars in Column (But eccentric)

 55

6. Minimum Eccentricity:-
All columns shall Abe designed for minimum eccentricity, equal to the
unsupported length of column/ 500 plus lateral dimensions/30, subject to a minimum of 20 mm.
Where bi-axial bending is considered, it is sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the
minimum about one axis at a time.

9. WALL:-
A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter or security. There
are many kinds of walls: Defensive walls in fortification. Walls in buildings that form a
fundamental part of the superstructure or separate interior sections, sometimes for fire safety. It
is a structure that serves to hold back pressure (as of water or sliding earth).

9.1 TYPES OF WALL:-

There are two type of Wall:-

1. Load Bearing wall

2. Non Load bearing wall or partition wall

A load bearing wall is a wall that bears some of the buildings weight in addition to its own
weight. A non-load bearing wall is a wall that does not support any gravity loads from the
building, hence doesnt bear any weight besides its own. Both, load bearing and non-load
bearing walls may see lateral loading such as wind loads and seismic loads. Also, both load
bearing and non-load bearing walls can serve as shear walls to brace the building in lateral
and/or longitudinal directions.
56

Fig9.1:- Load Bearing Wall

Fig9.2:- Non Load Bearing Walls

 57

9.2 General requirements:-

If bonds in brick work are not arranged properly, then a continuous vertical joint will result.
This is called an unbounded wall having little strength and stability

In alternate courses, the center line of header should coincide with the center line of the
stretcher, in the course below or above it. The vertical joints in the alternate courses should be
along the same vertical axis.

Fig9.3 :- vertical joints in the alternate courses

Reinforcement can be providing to provide stability against wind load. It can be horizontal or
vertical or both.
58

Fig9.4:- Horizontal reinforcement in wall

In site in every three layer two horizontal reinforcement bar were used for to provide
extra strength to wall against wind load. Horizontal coping at 0.9 to 1.2 mtr height &
Vertical coping in centre if wall length is more than 3 mtr, with 2nos 8mm reinforcement.

Horizontal bands can be provided in masonry buildings to improve their earthquake

performance. These bands include plinth band, lintel band and roof band. Even if horizontal
bands are provided, masonry buildings are weakened by the openings in their walls.
59

Fig9.5 :- Concrete Band In wall

Masonry used in wall should have compressive strength greater than requirement for overcome
Wind load or Earthquake load + Self weight + Imposed load.

The blocks shall be embedded with a mortar, the strength of which is relatively lower than that
of the mix used for making blocks in order to avoid the formation of cracks. A 1:6 cement
sand mortar may be used.

Mortar thickness:- Keep it limited to 10 to 12 mm in cement sand mortar.

Plaster thickness required Internal:10 to 12mm, External:15 to 17mm.

 60

9.3 AAC BLOCK

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete is a lightweight, load-bearing, high-insulating, durable

building product, which is produced in a wide range of sizes and strength.AAC offers
incredible opportunities to increase building quality and at the same time reduces costs at
the construction site.
AAC is produced out of a mix of pulverized fly ash (PFA), lime,
cement, gypsum, water and aluminum and is hardened by steam curing in autoclaves. As
a result of its excellent properties, AAC is used in many building constructions, for
example in residential homes, commercial and industrial buildings, schools, hospitals,
hotels and many other applications. The construction material AAC contains 60% to 85%
air by volume.
These blocks need not be wetted before or during the laying in the walls; in case the
climatic condition so required, the top and the sides of the blocks may be slightly
moistened.

Fig9.6:- AAC Blocks

 61

10. STAIRCASE:-
Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors and
roof of the building. It consists of a flight of steps (stairs) and one or more intermediate
landing slabs between the floor levels. Different types of staircases can be made by
arranging stairs and landing slabs. Staircase, thus, is a structure enclosing a stair.

10.1 TERMINOLOGY-

1. Flight:-A series of steps between

different levels or storeys of a
building called a flight.

2. Tread:- The horizontal top portion of

a step where foot rests is known as
tread.

3. Nosing: In some cases the tread is

projected outward to increase the
space. This projection is designated as
nosing.

4. Riser: The vertical distance between

two successive steps is termed as
riser.

5. Waist: The thickness of the waist-

slab on which steps are made is
known as waist. The depth (thickness)
of the waist is the minimum thickness
perpendicular to the soffit of the
staircase (cl. 33.3 of IS 456). The
steps of the staircase resting on waist-
slab can be made of bricks or
concrete.

6. Going: Going is the horizontal

projection between the first and the last
riser of an inclined flight.

Fig10.1: STAIRCASE
 62

7. handrail: A rail fixed parallel above the pitch line at the sides of a stair.

10.2 Suitable Dimensions For Staircases:-

A. Riser and tread:-
in a flight of stairs all steps should have the same riser and same tread.
Relationship between riser and tread can be shown as 2R+T=63cm
Convention centers, cinema,Theaters: R=16cm
Schools, hospitals, Office buildings R= 17cm
Residential Buildings R=18cm
Steepness of stairs; Regular pitch: 25-36

B. Tread Dimensions:-
Min. Tread width (no side walls) =60cm
One side wall = 70cm
Two side walls = 80cm

C. Handrails:-
Handrails height should be between 86.5- 96.5 cm.
Handrails may project a max. of 9cm into the required width.

D. Headroom:-
The minimum vertical headroom above any step should be 2 m.

FIG10.2:- STANDARD DRAWING OF STAIRCASE (PLAN)

 63

FIG10.3:- STANDARD DRAWING OF STAIRCASE ELEVATION

10.3 GENERAL GUIDELINCE:-

The following are some of the general guidelines to be considered while planning a
staircase:
The respective dimensions of tread and riser for all the parallel steps should be the same
in consecutive floor of a building.
The minimum vertical headroom above any step should be 2 m.

Generally, the number of risers in a flight should be restricted to twelve.

The minimum width of stair should be 850 mm, though it is desirable to have the width
between 1.1 to 1.6 m. In public building, cinema halls etc., large widths of the stair should
be provided.

10.4 Types of Staircases (Plan types):-

1. Straight run
2. 180 degree return
I. Open well Staircase:- These are like normal doglegged but the only difference is that after
reaching the landing the stairs ends up with a railing instead of wall. In this staircase
Space between the lower and upper flights causes half space landing to be longer.
64

Fig10.4:- Open Well Staircase

II. Dog Legged:- A dog-leg is a configuration of stairs between two floors of a building,
often a domestic building, in which a flight of stairs ascends to a half-landing before
turning at a right angle and continuing upwards.[1] The flights do not have to be equal, and
frequently are not.
Structurally, the flights of a dog-leg stair are usually supported by the
half-landing, which spans the adjoining flank walls.
From the design point of view, the main advantages of a dog-leg stair are:

To allow an arrangement that occupies a shorter, though wider, floor area than a
straight flight, and so is more compact. Even though the landings consume total floor
space, there is no large single dimension.
The upper floor is not directly visible from the bottom of the stairs, thereby providing
more privacy.
 65

Fig10.5:- Dog-Legged staircase

3. L shaped
4. Spiral
5. Winder staircase
6. Landing Type Staircase.

The slab component of the stair spans either in the direction of going i.e., longitudinally or
in the direction of the steps, i.e., transversely. The systems are discussed below:

(A) Stair slab spanning longitudinally:-

Here, one or more supports are provided parallel to the riser for
the slab bending longitudinally. Cantilevered landing and intermediate supports are
helpful to induce negative moments near the supports which reduce the positive moment
and thereby the depth of slab becomes economic.
 66

Fig10.6:- Staircase (Spanning longitudinally) and Landing

(B) Stair slab spanning transversely:-

Transversely supported stairs include:
Simply supported steps supported by two walls or beams or a combination of both.
Steps cantilevering from a wall or a beam.
Stairs cantilevering from a central spine beam

Fig10.7:- Stair slab spanning transversely

10.5 Design Consideration:-

The design of the main components of a staircase-stair, landing slabs and supporting
beams or wall are design like Slab or beam are designed.
 67

Fig10.8:- Reinforcement in Staircase

A. Effective Span of Stairs :-

. Three different cases are given to determine the effective span of stairs without stringer
beams.
(i) The horizontal centre-to-centre distance of beams should be considered as the effective
span when the slab is supported at top and bottom risers by beams spanning parallel with
the risers.
(ii) The horizontal distance equal to the going of the stairs plus at each end either half the
width of the landing or one meter, whichever is smaller when the stair slab is spanning on
to the edge of a landing slab which spans parallel with the risers.
 68

(iii)

TABLE 6:- TABLE FOR EFFECTIVE SPAN OF STAIRCASE

B. Distribution of load on Staircase:-

The load in such stairs on areas common to any two such spans
should be taken as fifty per cent in each direction. Moreover, one 150 mm strip may be
deducted from the loaded area and the effective breadth of the section is increased by 75
mm for the design where flights or landings are embedded into walls for a length of at
least 110 mm and are designed to span in the direction of the flight.

Fig10.9 :- Loading On open-well Staircase

 69

11 Concreting:-
11.1. Objective of Placing Concrete
The main objective in placing is to deposit the concrete as close as possible to its final position
as quickly and efficiently as we can, so that segregation is avoided and it can be fully
compacted.

Figure 11.1. Actual site photograph of placing of concrete in-between exhaust pipes

Concrete can be transported by a variety of different methods ranging from wheelbarrows,

dumpers and ready-mix trucks to skips and pumps, and though it is obviously desirable to place
the concrete directly into position this is not always possible.
 70

Figure 11.2. Concrete is pumped using pumping maching. Also observe slump test conducted
simulataneously.

11.2. Points to remember while Concreting_ Quality control

Grout loss is an indication that joints were not tight or some movements has occurred during
placing.
The vibrations transmitted to the formwork can loosen wedges and fixings so a close watch on
all fastenings is necessary to avoid loosening. Similarly, wedges should be regularly checked
and tightened.
All split concrete or grout leakage should be cleaned or diluted with spray water immediately
after concreting to make striking and cleaning easier especially with steel formwork.
Remove timber spreaders which were used to hold formwork apart as concreting proceeds.
Check cracking, excessive deflection, level and plumb, and any movement.
Concrete should be deposited at, or as near as possible to, its final position.
71

The concrete should be placed in uniform layers. Avoid placing it in large heaps or sloping
layers because there is always a danger of segregation, especially with mixes tending to be
uncohesive.
In walls and columns no layer should be more than about 450 mm thick. With layers thicker
than 450 mm, the weight of concrete on top makes it almost impossible-even with vibration-to
get the air out from the bottom of the layer.
In thin slabs compacted by a vibrating beam, restrict the layers to 150-200 mm. With greater
thickness, vibrators have to be used.
Place the concrete as quickly as possible. But not faster than the compacting method and
equipment can cope with.
Where a good finish is required on columns and walls, fill the forms at a rate greater than 2
metres height per hour. Also avoid delays and interruptions because these will cause colour
variations on the surface.
Make sure that each layer of concrete has been fully compacted before placing the next one, and
that each new layer is placed while the underlying layer is still responsive to vibration. This will
make the layers "knits" together.
In columns and walls, the placing must be done in such a way that the concrete does not strike
the face of the formwork; similarly, avoid heavy impact against reinforcement, as the force
could displace it.
Always make sure that the concrete can be seen as it is being deposited.
Settlement of shuttering should be controlled properly by providing proper support underneath.

Figure 10.3. Presence of blowholes due to absence of proper vibration.

 72

Figure 11.4. Fault during concreting. Level pad wasnt used during settling of concrete and
improper vibration.

11.3 Compacting Concrete: Theory

After concrete has been mixed, transported and placed, it contains entrapped air in the form or
voids. The object of compaction is to get rid of as much as possible for this unwanted entrapped
air; down to less than 1% is usually the aim.

The amount of entrapped air is related to the workability: concrete with a 75 mm slump
contains about 5 % air, while concrete of 25 mm slump contains about 20 %. This is why a low-
slump concrete requires more compactive effort-either a longer time or more vibrators
compared with a concrete with a higher slump.
 73

Figure 11.5. Compaction of concrete in process. It is very essential to remove air voids in-
between the placed wet concrete mix.

11.4 Reasons for Removing Air

Voids reduce the strength of the concrete. For every 1 % of entrapped air, the strength falls by
about 5 to 6 %. So a concrete with, say, 3 % voids will be about 15-20 % weaker than it should
be.

Voids increase the permeability, which in turn reduces the durability. If the concrete is not
dense and impermeable, it will not be watertight, it will be less able to withstand mildly
aggressive liquids, and any exposed surfaces will weather badly; in addition, moisture and air
are more likely to get to reinforcement and cause it to rust.

Voids reduce the contact between the concrete and the reinforcement and other embedded
metals; the required bond will then not be achieved and the reinforced member will not be as
strong as it should be.

Voids produce visual blemishes such as blowholes and honeycombing on stuck surfaces.

Fully compacted concrete will be dense, strong, durable and impermeable. Badly compacted
concrete will be weak, non-durable, honeycombed and porous. The air must be removed.
 74

12. CURING:-
Concrete develops its full potential only when it is efficiently cured and protected from
premature drying. Well cured concrete is stronger, more resistant to chemical attack and more
watertight. It is also less prone to damage by frost and abrasion.

12.1 METHOD OF CURING:-

There are two principal ways of curing concrete:-

1. Keep the concrete surface wet by ponding, mist spraying or covering with damp sand/damp
hessian. Although there may be practical difficulties, these are most effective methods. Ponding
of water onto a concrete slab that has lost its initial sheen of bleed water is perhaps the best
method of curing as all the concrete is covered with water. This has practically disadvantages of
being suitable only for slabs.

Fig12.1:- Ponding of Slab

2. Use polythene sheeting, spray curing membranes or leave the formwork in place (not applicable
for Slabs) to prevent the loss of moisture from the concrete. Whilst not as effective as the first
method. These generally give satisfactory result.
 75

Fig12.2:- Curing of Column

13. Conclusion

Working in the organization Projects &Contracts Pvt. Ltd. (THE LEGEND project) had
been a rewarding one. I feel lucky to have the best people as my mentors and my colleagues.
As far as what I have learned, not only the things related to civil engineering, but I have also
learned the way a one has to represent himself, the office culture, and yes, a lot of practical
things and concepts which our course books fail to deliver.
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