3.

10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic

LG
D. S. KAYSER (1982) B. G. LIPTK (1969, 1995) D. S. NYCE (2003)

Flow Sheet Symbol

Types (A) tubular, (B) circular or bulls-eye, (C) transparent, (D) reflex, (E) magnetic, (F)
magnetostrictive transducer, and (G) gauge glass.

Design Pressure
Maximum pressures for tubular glass gauges range from 1 to 20 bars (0.1 to 2.0
MPa), but caution is needed for applications above 1 bar; circular gauges, 200 bars,
with bulls-eye units up to 690 bars; transparent flat glass gauges, 200 bars; reflex
gauges, 250 bars; armored gauges, 400 bars; and magnetic level gauges, 300 bars.
Maximum operating pressure depends on maximum temperature. (Note: 1 bar = 0.1
MPa = 14.5 PSI.)

Design Temperature
Maximum operating temperature for tubular glass gauges is 80 to 200C (176 to
400F); circular gauges, 250C (480F); transparent flat glass gauges, 300C (570F);
reflex gauges, 300C (570F); armored gauges, 350C (660F). Magnetic level gauges
can handle process temperatures ranging from 196 to 400C (320 to 750F). For
all types with gauge glass, maximum operating temperature depends on maximum
pressure and gauge length.

Materials of Construction Transparent elements are of prestressed borosilicate glass, aluminosilicate glass, or

quartz; other components may be carbon steel, stainless steel, K-monel , Hastelloy C ,

PVDF (Kynar ), PTFE (Teflon ), PVC, and others for special applications.

Range Tubular glass gauges are usually limited to 1 m maximum indicated length. The
length per section for a flat glass transparent gauge (multiple sections can be arranged
for a larger combined length) ranges from 100 to 500 mm; reflex, 100 to 500 mm;
armored gauge, 250 to 500 mm; magnetic, 250 mm to 3 m.

Inaccuracy Gauge error is usually a factor of the resolution of graduations on the scale, if
provided. The readability can be degraded by foaming, boiling, and other effects that
alter density or reduce visibility. The resolution of magnetic flag indicators is con-
trolled by the spacing of the individual flags, typically about 6 mm. Magnetic gauges
fitted with magnetostrictive sensor-based indicators can resolve the float position to
0.1 mm or less.

Cost Excluding pipe stands, fittings, accessories, and so on, the cost per 300 mm (1 ft)
of various gauge types is as follows: tubular glass gauge, $100; transparent glass
gauge, $400; reflex, $300; armored, $450; magnetic, $1500. A circular (welding pad)
gauge costs about $100 to $500.

Suppliers Barksdale GmbH (www.barksdale.de) (E)

Clark Reliance Corp./Jerguson (www.clark-reliance.com) (A, B, C, D, E, F)
Essex Brass Co. (www.essexbrass.com) (A)
Gems Sensors Inc. (www.gemssensors.com) (E)
Jogler (www.jogler.com) (AEF)
John C. Ernst Co. (www.johnernst.com) (A, B, E)
Klinger (www.klinger.com.au) (A, C, D, E)
Kobold Instruments Inc. (www.koboldusa.com) (E, F)
K-Tek Corp. (www.ktekcorp.com) (E, F)
L.J. Star Inc. (www.ljstar.com) (B)

486
2003 by Bla Liptk
 3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 487

Magnetrol International (www.magnetrol.com) (E)

MTS Systems Corporation (www.levelplus.com) (F)
Oil-Rite Corp. (www.oilrite.com) (A, B, G)
Penberthy (www.penberthy-online.com) (A, B, C, D, E, F)
Schott Auer GmbH (www.schott.com) (G)
Spectraglass Ltd. (www.spectraglass.co.uk) (G)
Wooil Industries (www.wooilind.com) (C, D, G)

INTRODUCTION magnetic coupling as shown in Figure 3.10b. Local indica-

Many types of devices are called level gauges, including
various transducers, sensors, transmitters, and indicators.
The detection methods depend on properties such as head
pressure, differential head pressure, conductivity, and
capacitance, and they employ optical, microwave, RF, radi-
ation, magnetostriction, ultrasonic, and other principles.
This section of the handbook, however, deals with liquid
level gauges that operate by connecting a measuring cham-
ber in parallel to the vessel being monitored so as to directly
indicate the level visually or by the use of a magnetic indi-
cator or transducer. The configurations of glass-type gauges
comprise tubular glass, flat glass-transparent (circular and
long-form), reflex, armored, and magnetic gauges. The level
in the gauge follows the level in the vessel, as illustrated in
Figure 3.10a.
The process level is directly visible in a glass gauge.
Conversely, in a magnetic level gauge, the measuring chamber
can be opaque and is typically constructed fully of metal.
A float within the measuring chamber of a magnetic gauge
floats on the liquid and incorporates a permanent magnet.
The float magnet drives an indicator or transducer through
tion from the magnetic level gauge can be implemented
through the use of a magnetic follower, magnet operated
flags, or with magnetic switches or a magnetostrictive
transducer.
Level gauges are often used in process vessels as well
as storage vessels. In level gauges providing direct visual
indication, the accuracy is limited by the readability of the
meniscus of the liquid in the indicating area of the gauge.
The readability can be reduced when monitoring foaming,
boiling, or inhomogeneous liquids. On visible glass lengths
in excess of 300 mm, multiple gauge covers are stacked
along the length of the measuring chamber. If a single
chamber is used with multiple covers as described, there
are small spaces over which the view of the level is blocked
by the top and bottom edges of the individual gauge covers.
In magnetic gauges with a magnetostrictive transducer,

Vessel

High Level

Long-Form
Gauge

Circular
Level Gauges

Low Level

FIG. 3.10a
A level gauge (on right) is mounted in parallel to the vessel, extend-
ing over the range of level to be indicated. A circular gauge is
mounted at the level of interest (left).
FIG. 3.10b
A magnetic gauge is shown mounted to a process vessel. A float
within the measuring chamber floats on the liquid. A magnet within
the float operates the magnetic flags to indicate the level. (With
permission from Clarke-Reliance.)

2003 by Bla Liptk

488 Level Measurement
FIG. 3.10c
The traditional tubular glass level gauge is not recommended for
most industrial applications.
improved accuracy is possible because of the high resolu-
tion that can be provided by a magnetostrictive transducer,
and continuous indication is available through the entire
range.
TUBULAR GLASS GAUGE
A simple tubular glass gauge (Figure 3.10c) comprises a
transparent glass tube, seals, end blocks, and guard rods to
protect the glass. It is positioned parallel to the vessel along
the elevation over which the level is to be indicated and
mounted with suitable fittings to retain the pressure as well
as to seal the ends of the sight tube. This construction,
however, is not well suited for use with dangerous process
fluids.
An important consideration in gauge selection is that of
maintaining the safety of personnel and associated equip-
ment. The difficulty is evident when the process vessel, stor-
age tank, pipeline, and so on are used with high-temperature,
high-pressure, corrosive, or other dangerous fluids or steam.
If a sight glass tube sustains a fracture of the glass or a leak
at the seals, the dangerous fluid can escape and create the
potential for a hazardous condition. The single tube design
is not recommended for use with toxic materials, pressures
above 1 bar (0.1 MPa or 14.5 PSIG), or temperatures above
100C. Some tubular glass gauge designs have extra protec-
tion against breakage, an improvement on the simple guard
rods of standard designs.
The protection elements may include an outer tube that
contains the fluid if the inner tube is fractured, sheet metal
protectors, and a wire glass protector surrounding the gauge
glass. Even considering these improvements, it is recom-
mended that flat glass, reflex, armored, and magnetic gauges
be specified when the process includes hazardous materials,
high temperatures, or high pressures.
2003 by Bla Liptk
Stud
Glass
Nut
Cover
Cushion
Gasket
Shield
(Optional)
Body
FIG. 3.10d
Construction of a circular gauge. Cutaway view (left) and side view
(right).
CIRCULAR TRANSPARENT GAUGE
Circular level gauges (some small versions are also called
bulls-eye gauges) are mounted next to the monitored vessel
at the elevation of interest for level indication, as shown in
Figure 3.10a. The circular gauge has a limited range and is
used when the level variation that must be indicated is small.
This type of gauge is typically constructed as shown in
Figure 3.10d. The body, glass, and gasket are wetted by the
process. A shield can be added to protect the glass from the
process fluid if required.
Since circular gauges are used to indicate liquid level
over a relatively short range, two or more can be used to
show high and low levels, and other gauges can be used at
selected locations in between. They can also be used to show
fluid in motion and fluid color or contamination.
TRANSPARENT GAUGE (LONG FORM)
When monitoring levels over a wider range than is practical
with a circular gauge, a long-form flat glass transparent
gauge can be used. Typically, if a flat glass gauge is not
specified as being circular, it is assumed to be long-form,
and the term long-form is not added. The construction of a
transparent gauge is shown in Figure 3.10e. The measuring
chamber retains the fluid and accepts the glass and covers,
which are secured with bolts. One or more vision slots are
machined into the chamber to allow viewing of the level.
Tie bars are areas that may be left (i.e., not machined out)
in the vision slot so as to provide higher strength. Gasket
material is compressed between the chamber and the glass
to prevent direct contact and to provide a seal. Cushions
are placed between the glass and the covers to prevent direct
glass-to-metal contact. The chamber, glass, and gaskets are
wetted by the process. Shields can be optionally installed
to protect the glass from the process fluid and/or from the
ambient environment (e.g., windblown sand).
The gauge is called transparent because there are glass
panels both in front of and behind the measuring chamber,
with respect to the observer who is reading the gauge.
Accordingly, the liquid level indication is illuminated by light
coming from behind. This configuration is useful to allow
 3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 489

U - Bolt
Total Visible Glass Cover
A Length
Nut Chamber Housing
Cushion
Gasket
Shield (Optional) Chamber
Visible Glass
=A+B Gasket Bore
Bolt Chamber
Bore Chamber Housing
Glass
B Tie Bar (Optional)

Cushion

Cover

FIG. 3.10e
Nut
Transparent level gauge construction, front view (left), and cutaway
view (right). The front view shows two covers attached to one
chamber, and shows the distinction between visible length and vis- FIG. 3.10f
ible glass. Construction of a reflex glass level gauge.

Front View
visual inspection of the liquid for color and presence of Top View (Gas)
particles, for example, in addition to indicating the level. One
Prismatic
drawback is that it requires the availability of some light from Gas or Vapor
Area
Glass
behind. Lighting panels (called illuminators) are available
for providing this illumination when it is not available from Reflex
Gauge Glass
the ambient lighting. Because of the process fluid viewing
capability, transparent gauges can be used in applications that
Ray of Light Reflected Prismatic
require the indication of the interface between two liquids. Area
As indicated in Figure 3.10e, the total visible length is
the distance between the uppermost and lowermost possible
Top View (Liquid)
reading positions. There may be some unreadable areas
included, resulting from tie bars and top and bottom edges Liquid
of covers. The visible glass is the sum of the lengths of
unobstructed glass available for viewing.

REFLEX GAUGE Ray of Light Refracted

Greater visibility of the transition between the liquid level
and the gas or vapor above it is provided by the reflex-type
glass gauge. The construction, shown in Figure 3.10f,
incorporates a glass element in front of the measuring
chamber housing, but not behind it. Illumination is only
from the front, and level visibility is aided through the use
of grooves in the glass where it contacts the liquid being
monitored.
The gauge glass is smooth on the outside (the side
toward the observer). The grooved surface is called the
prismatic area. The face of each groove is at a right angle
to the faces of adjacent grooves. When the prismatic area
is not in contact with a liquid, the groove faces reflect the
incoming light. The light is reflected due to the large dif-
ference in the index of refraction between the glass and the
gas or vapor above the liquid. The incoming light strikes
one groove face, is reflected across to the adjacent groove
FIG. 3.10g
Light is directed back toward the observer in the gas or vapor space
above the liquid in a reflex gauge (top, left). Where liquid touches
the glass (bottom, left), light is not reflected. The figure on the right
shows a gauge glass with grooves forming the prismatic area.
face, and then is reflected back to the observer in front of
the gauge (see Figure 3.10g).
When the prismatic area is in contact with a liquid, there
is little difference in the index of refraction between the glass
and the liquid, so the light passes through the prismatic area
at a slight angle (it is refracted) without being reflected back
toward the observer. The combination of these two effects
provides an improved visibility of the liquid and an increase
in the distance over which the level indication can be viewed.
When viewing a transparent or semi-transparent liquid
in a reflex gauge, the liquid will appear black or dark because

2003 by Bla Liptk

490 Level Measurement
the light is not reflected back to the viewer from the prism
area. The column above the liquid will appear silvery,
because the light is reflected back from the glass-to-gas inter-
face at the prism area (e.g., there will be a dark column below
the indicated level and a silvery column above the indicated
level). An opaque liquid will show its color in the liquid
column area (e.g., milk will show a white column below the
indicated level, with a silvery column above the indicated
level). Because of the reflection of light back to the viewer,
reflex gauges are well suited to viewing with a flashlight in
low-light areas.
Because of the front illumination and the prismatic glass,
reflex gauges are recommended for use only with clean, clear,
process fluids and when there is no liquidliquid interface to
be viewed. Because of its irregular shape, shields cannot be
installed against the prismatic glass, so corrosive fluid service
is limited to those with little or no effect on the glass.
Armored Gauges
Since a gauge of standard construction provides for clamping
of the glass between the cover and the measuring chamber,
the edges of the glass may be exposed. In an armored gauge,
a lip is formed into the cover, and it wraps around and covers
the sides of the gauge glass. So, between the chamber and
the cover, the edge of the gauge glass is completely covered.
The purpose is to protect the glass from possible damage
resulting from, for example, accidental impact from a
wrench. The front of the cover is also made thick enough to
prevent contact with the glass if the same wrench were to hit
the front of the cover.
Armored gauges are also often made for extreme duty
(e.g., vibration, high temperature, or high pressure). They
utilize thicker glass and measuring chamber walls and higher-
performance gaskets, and they may have shorter spans of
visible glass separated by tie bars in the measuring chamber.
They are often used in pressure vessels and where no elec-
trical power is available to operate electronic level indicators.
Many manufacturers supply only armored-style gauges.
Gauge Glass Materials
Borosilicate glass is the most common type of gauge glass.
It has good chemical resistance up to about 300C. In addi-
tion, transparent shields can be mounted between the glass
and the process fluid to protect the glass from corrosive media
in transparent level gauges (e.g., the shields can be made of
mica or PCTFE).
Borosilicate glass is usually tempered to improve its resis-
tance to thermal shock. The tempering process comprises the
heating of the glass to the glassy transition point, followed
by rapid cooling. This is done during manufacture of the
glass to induce mechanical compressive stress in the outer
layer, resulting in an increase in the ultimate tensile strength
(UTS). The tensile strength is increased, because the com-
pressive stresses must be offset by tensile stresses before
2003 by Bla Liptk
cracks can propagate (cracking is required before breakage of
the material).
Aluminosilicate glass has a lower coefficient of linear
thermal expansion (also called t/c) than borosilicate glass,
but it can be used at higher process temperatures of up to
6
425C. While borosilicate glass has a t/c of 4.5 10 /C,
6
aluminosilicate glass has a coefficient of only 2.0 10 /C.
6
For comparison, the t/c of carbon steel is 23 10 /C, and
6
type 316 stainless steel (SS) is 17 10 /C.
Quartz glass has the highest temperature rating (up to
6
530C) and also has the lowest t/c (0.5 10 /C). It can be
used in transparent gauges but is not available in reflex
gauges, because it would be difficult to form the grooves.
The materials of construction other than quartz determine the
maximum operating temperature of a quartz gauge assembly.
Extremely flat gasket and cushion seating surfaces are
required when using quartz glass to avoid bending and tor-
sional or point stress. Belleville spring washers are used to
control the clamping forces between the glass and its seating
area.
Fused natural quartz is made by melting naturally occur-
ring crystalline silica. Synthetic fused quartz (or synthetically
fused silica) is made by melting man-made silicon dioxide.
Design Features
It is typical for all glass level gauges to have a reduction in
pressure rating as the temperature increases. Manufacturers list
representative charts for general guidance in selecting the type
of construction and components to meet the application require-
ments. Once the complete gauge model has been specified,
including chamber model, glass type, shields, and so forth, it
is important to verify with the manufacturer the resulting tem-
perature vs. pressure curve for that particular configuration.
Transparent and reflex gauges are normally limited to a
maximum single-gauge length of up to 1.5 m. If a greater
total visible length is required, multiple gauges will have to
be installed. Overlapping is suggested to allow viewing of
levels that would otherwise be blocked by the top and bottom
edges of the covers.
To reduce problems from boiling or foaming process
fluids, a larger-diameter measuring chamber (approximately
50 mm) can be used as shown in the top row of gauge cross
sections illustrated in Figure 3.10h.
In cryogenic service, the view of the level in standard
glass gauges may be blocked by ice accumulation. A non-
frosting lens can be added that consists of a T-shaped
plastic lens held against the glass by the cover and extend-
ing out in front of the glass. The plastic lens has a relatively
low thermal conductivity and is not as cold on the front
viewing surface as the face of the gauge glass, which
reduces frosting.
Heating or cooling of the gauge may be required to keep
it at approximately the same temperature as the process fluid
in the vessel. The appropriate device may be added externally
or mounted in the bore of the chamber.
 3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 491

ACCESSORIES
2"

LG Gauge support brackets are used with long gauges, where

Over
6-7 ft the distance between supports is about 1.5 m or longer, to
Large Chamber reduce the load placed on nipples and valves. Steel brackets
LG Non-Frosting
Reflex Gauge
Extension are welded directly to the measuring chamber and then
Multiple bolted to a support plate on the vessel. On a reflex gauge,
Circular
Gauge the bracket can be welded to the back of the chamber
Installation (between sections to avoid interference with cover bolts).
Reflex On a transparent gauge, suitable welding locations include
Nipple the right or left side of the chamber, between sections. The
Light LG
Liquid
to brackets are normally welded on at the factory according to
Valve Stuffing customer specifications.
Heavy Box
Liquid
Valves and fittings are also needed, of course, for the
Standard Heating
Transparent Tube installation of level gauges. Fittings can be any of several
Interface Welding Pad Externally Internally
types, including spherical union, flanged, socket weld, solid
Installation Gauges Heated Heated shank, or NPT union. Spherical unions allow correction of
(or Cooled) (or Cooled) misalignment but may be difficult to seal if they are con-
Gauges Gauges nected more than once.
FIG. 3.10h Valves are normally factory assembled to the gauge. The
Special level gauge designs and cross sections. fitting of unions to the vessel side of the gauge valve will
facilitate the initial connection of the gauge. The gauge can
be removed without depressurizing the vessel if valves are
included on both the gauge and vessel sides of the unions.
GAUGING INACCURACIES
Gauge valves are normally supplied with ball checks to min-
imize venting to the atmosphere in case of breakage of a
Gauge error usually depends on the resolution of graduations
section of the gauge.
on the scale, if provided. Readability can be degraded by
Teflon coating is a common requirement in the chemical
foaming, boiling, and other effects that alter density or
processing industry. The Teflon can be applied by electro-
reduce visibility. The indicated level can be affected by a
static spray or by wet spray. It often includes a base coat of
difference between the temperature of the gauge and the
PTFE followed by a top coat of PFA, with a minimum total
vessel. If the gauge is cooler than the vessel, the liquid within
thickness of 0.25 mm. Maximum service temperatures are
the gauge may be more dense and therefore indicate low.
up to 230C. The user should specify whether the Teflon
This can be eliminated by using a heater on the gauge and
coating is required only for the wetted parts or for the com-
controlling the gauge temperature to match the vessel tem-
plete gauge.
perature. Conversely, the gauge temperature can be reduced,
An illuminator can be used with transparent gauges to
if needed, by adding a cooler in a similar manner. Gauge
increase visibility in lower-light areas. A lamp is used with
heating/cooling configurations are shown in Figure 3.10h.
a diffuser to illuminate the entire visible glass area. Explo-
In a gauge with a magnetic follower, some error is due
sion-proof versions are available for use in hazardous areas.
to the strong magnetic attraction required between the float
Scales can be engraved or etched in the desired units and
magnet and the follower magnet, which induces friction on
are attached to the gauge cover. If the installed scale does
the walls between them. The resolution of magnetic flag
not accurately indicate the actual level in the vessel, a cali-
indicators is controlled by the spacing of the individual
bration can be undertaken. The calibration data can be used
indicator flags, typically about 6 mm. Magnetostrictive
to derive a conversion factor between the indicated reading
transducer-based indicators can resolve the float position to
and the actual vessel volume.
0.1 mm or less and do not have a detectable magnetic attrac-
tion between the transducer and the float magnet.
Foaming or boiling can show false high readings because
of an apparent lower specific gravity (SG) of the fluid in the APPLICATION-SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS
gauge compared to the fluid in the vessel (if the vessel fluid
has less foaming or boiling). This can be reduced by using Low-temperature applications require specific attention to
a gauge with a larger chamber diameter, as was shown in gauge materials. Some materials, particularly ferritic steels,
Figure 3.10h. change from their normally tough property to a more brittle
Internal condensation can cause readings to become behavior with a decrease in temperature. The transition tem-
blurred. To prevent this, a heater can be added inside or peratures and toughness vary with different materials. When
outside the chamber. materials are used under conditions in which brittle behavior

2003 by Bla Liptk

492 Level Measurement

may occur, there is a potential that minor internal flaws, which 1 " or 2" Vessel
would not present a problem if the material were sufficiently Nozzle
Nozzle Size
tough, may propagate to failure (see ASTM A352 supple- (Top View)
1 Block Valve
ments for more information).
" Vent
Boiler and steam/water gauges must be reliable to (When Used)
ensure the safety of personnel and equipment. High pres- Vent " Or "
sures and temperatures require attention to the specification Tee or Gate Valve
and application of all parts and materials of the gauge, 1" or Larger Automatic
Nozzles and Gage Cock
valves, and fittings. Saturated steam tables should be con- " Automatic
Block Valves
sulted to ensure that the operating pressure and temperature Gage Cocks or
for the application are within the range shown in the tables " Blocks Valves
and Tees Gage
provided by the gauge manufacturer. Standard glass level Column
gauges may not be suitable for use with steam. Check with Gage

" SCH 160 Nipples

the manufacturer of the gauge to find out which models are Column Overlap Drain
specifically suited for use with steam at the vessel design " Gate

Vessel
pressure/temperature ranges. Shields (usually mica) should Gage Valve
be used to protect against etching of the glass (the etching Column Standpipe
Elbow to 1 " or 2"
is also called frosting, but this is different from frosting due Eliminate Pipe
to accumulation of ice in cryogenic systems). Transparent Pockets
All Nipples
gauges are used because shields cannot be applied to the Stand-
" SCH 160
prismatic surface of reflex glass. For more information on pipe
boiler equipment installation requirements, consult the Alternate
Drain Drain
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, as well as codes
" Gate Valve " or " Gate Valve
that are specific to the locality in which the equipment will
A B
be installed. Two or More
Single Gage
Hydrofluoric acid applications require special materials Column Gage Columns
to prevent attack of the gauge glass by the acid. Hydrogen
fluoride (HF) is an extremely corrosive gas that becomes FIG. 3.10i
hydrofluoric acid in solution with water. Like many acids, it A gauge column (left) may incorporate several gauge glass and
vigorously attacks most metals but also attacks glass and covers on one chamber. A standpipe (right) allows more flexibility.
other silica-containing materials. Some fluorinated polymers
are designed to protect against hydrofluoric acid, including

PCTFE (Kel-F ), ETFE (Tefzel ), and PECTFE (Halar ).
light phase is below the upper connection (bottom-left area
Metals used with HF can be Hastelloy C up to 90C or K-
of Figure 3.10h).
Monel .
An expansion loop can be added to gauges that will
operate over a wide temperature range to allow for differ-
ences in the coefficient of thermal expansion between the
INSTALLATION gauge and the vessel (see Figure 3.10j). An expansion loop
is also particularly useful in cases where the gauge can be
The level gauge(s) should be installed so that the full oper- valved off and allowed to cool, while the vessel is still hot.
ating range can be observed, including levels found during
warm-up and cool-down, and as indicated by switches, dis-
placers, and so on. For multiple gauges, overlap their eleva-
tions so the complete range of levels can be seen without MAGNETIC LEVEL GAUGES
the view being blocked by the top and bottom edges of the
covers. As shown in Figure 3.10i, this can be done by install- Because the magnetic level gauge does not require direct
ing single section gauges on a standpipe. Using a standpipe viewing of the level (i.e., there is no need for glass), the mea-
also can reduce the number of vessel connections and suring chamber can be opaque, and welded metal construc-
increase the flexibility in the mounting and positioning of the tion is normally used. This substantially widens the operating
gauges. temperature range and increases the ruggedness as compared
To obtain the lowest error when viewing a liquidliquid to chambers using gauge glass. The wide temperature range
interface, add a central connection to the vessel in the area is possible, because the measuring chamber can have approx-
of the lighter liquid phase, in addition to the top and bottom imately the same coefficient of thermal expansion as the
connections. This will prevent errors due to an excessive vessel, and there is no glass (which would have a lower t/c)
column height of the light phase when the top level of the to interface with the metal chamber.

2003 by Bla Liptk


FIG. 3.10j
Installing an expansion loop improves reliability over a wide tem-
perature range.
To allow the magnetic system to operate properly, the
chamber metal must be of a nonmagnetic typeusually an
austenitic stainless steel such as AISI 316 SS.
Because the float in the chamber of a magnetic gauge
incorporates a permanent magnet, any reliable method of
detecting the location of a magnetic field can be used to show
the location of the float and, thus, the level. Three common
methods of indicating the float position are the magnetic fol-
lower, magnet-operated flags, and magnetostrictive linear posi-
tion transducers (also called magnetostrictive transducers).
Magnetically operated reed switches may require main-
tenance and lack the long-term reliability needed for many
industrial applications. Therefore, they are not presented here.
One limitation in magnetic gauges is that the float must
have a comparatively thick wall to operate at higher pres-
sures. Due to the related weight, it is more difficult to measure
process fluids of low SG (e.g., less than 0.45) when the pres-
sure is high (e.g., over 200 bars/20 MPa).
2003 by Bla Liptk
3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 493
FIG. 3.10k
This magnetic follower can be mounted alongside the measuring
chamber of a magnetic level gauge to indicate the float position.
(With permission from Clarke-Reliance.)
Magnetic Followers and Indicators
Magnetic followers and magnetic flag indicators are mounted
alongside the measuring chamber of a magnetic gauge. A
magnetic follower is shown in Figure 3.10k. A magnetic flag
indicator was shown in Figure 3.10b. A permanent magnet
inside of the float (within the measuring chamber) lines up
with the follower or adjacent flag as the float slides up or
down the measuring chamber. In the case of the follower, the
position of the follower is read against a scale. Friction of
the follower against the adjacent wall is substantial because
of the magnetic attraction between the magnet in the follower
and the magnet in the float. This causes an additional limi-
tation on resolution, which is observable as a discontinuous
motion of the follower in response to level changes.
With magnet-operated flags, the magnet in each flag
causes it to flip one way as the float passes while moving
upward and flip the other way as the float passes while
moving downward. The flags can be colored red and white,
for example, to show a red line from the bottom of the
indicator up to the indicated level and a white line above that.
Red, orange, and yellow are often used, because they are
highly visible. Fluorescent colors are good, because they are
more easily read when using a flashlight.
Some limitations include an occasional flag flipping the
wrong way and coarse resolution of 6 mm. An incorrect
flag position is sometimes caused by the float bobbing up
and down or by rapid movement of the level. The flag position
can be corrected by passing a magnet along it externally. If
the actual float position is in question, it can be found by
using a compass and watching the needle movement.
494 Level Measurement

The resolution of the flag indicators is limited by the Waveguide

spacing of the magnetic flags and somewhat by the friction
of the float against the measuring chamber wall resulting
Outer Pipe
from the attraction between the magnets in the flags and the
magnet in the float.

Magnetostrictive Transducers

Magnetostrictive transducers and associated indicators rep- Float

resent an improvement in the state of the art in level gauges.
They can increase the effectiveness of installed magnetic
gauges having followers or flags, or they can stand alone in
new installations for accurate level gauging without the asso-
ciated limitations of using glass gauges. The original loop-
powered magnetostrictive transducer was invented and devel-
2 from Float Magnet
oped in 1990 by the author. Magnetostrictive transducers are
now available from several manufacturers.
A magnetostrictive transducer is a linear device that can
detect the location of a magnetic field (provided by the posi-
tion magnet) that moves along in parallel to the sensing probe
of the transducer (see Figure 3.10l). When used with a mag-
netic level gauge, the magnet within the float acts as the
position magnet. A magnetostrictive transducer can be added
to a follower or flag-type gauge, but it exhibits the highest
performance when used with a simple nonmagnetic metal
tube (such as type 316 stainless steel) that contains a float/
magnet assembly.
The primary component inside of a magnetostrictive
transducer is called the waveguide (see Figure 3.10m). When
a current pulse (called the interrogation pulse) is applied to
the waveguide circuit, a torsional force is induced into the
waveguide at the location of the position magnet. This phe-
nomenon is called the Wiedemann effect. Also, a timer circuit
is initiated when the interrogation pulse is applied.
The torsional force causes formation of a strain wave that
travels at the speed of sound in the waveguide material
(2850 m/sec). When the strain wave arrives at the pickup,
it is detected, and the timer is stopped. The elapsed time
measured by the timer indicates the location of the position
magnet. The time is converted into the desired output signal,
usually 4 to 20 mA or a digital communication protocol.
Because the diameter of the waveguide is small (less than
0.5 mm), there is no detectable attraction between it and the
magnet within the float, and hence there is no float friction
due to magnetic attraction against the chamber wall. This is
one reason why the resolution and accuracy can be better
FIG. 3.10l
A magnetostrictive transducer measures the location of a magnet,
called the position magnet. (Courtesy MTS Systems Corporation.)
(Moves as Level Changes)
Float Magnet
Magnetic Field
Waveguide Twist
(at Intersection of
Magnetic Fields)
Magnetic Field from
Interrogation Pulse
FIG. 3.10m
A torsional strain wave (waveguide twist) travels along the
waveguide of a magnetostrictive transducer. The wave starts at the
location of the float magnet, and its travel time to one end of the
waveguide is measured.
than indicated by a follower or flag indicator. The other
reason is that a magnetostrictive transducer can resolve as
small a position difference as a few microns, but indication
resolution is limited by the float system to about 0.1 mm.
Figure 3.10n shows the application of a magnetostrictive
transducer to a magnetic level gauge. The transducer output
can be indicated locally or remotely, on a stand-alone indi-
cator, or as an input to a computer or data acquisition system
or other device.
REMOTE READING GAUGES
Several schemes for remote reading gauges have been
employed for high-pressure and high-temperature applica-
tions of up to 3000 PSIG (20 MPa) and 371C. Remote
reading gauges are often needed to meet the requirements of
steam boiler codes. Differential pressure, conductivity probe,
and circular gauge glass configurations have been used in the
past. However, since the mid-1990s, the remote reading capa-
bility of a magnetic gauge with magnetostrictive transducer
has become a preferred method to consider when power is
available for operation of the transducer.

2003 by Bla Liptk

 3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 495

head between the level in the chamber and the level in the
overflow tube, the latter being equal to the level in the steam
drum. The legs are connected to a manometer assembly filled
with a colored liquid that is insoluble in water. A transparent
gauge is used as a portion of the manometer and located so
that the colored liquid in the gauge will rise as the level in
the steam drum rises. For accurate level indication, it is
important to keep both legs of the system at the same tem-
perature. Also, when specifying this type of gauge, it is
important to specify the pressure of the steam drum, because
the water in the steam drum may contain bubbles of steam
and thus have a significantly lower specific gravity than that
in the gauge. This arrangement is useful in applications where
power is not available.

Conductivity

A conductivity probe configuration was sometimes used in

FIG. 3.10n boiler systems and composed of a metal chamber with a series
A magnetostrictive transducer is shown mounted to the right side of conductivity probes. As the water rose in the chamber,
of a magnetic level gauge with a flag indicator. (With permission successive probes energized their associated switches and
from Clarke-Reliance.)
relays. This arrangement had the safety advantage of not
requiring a gauge glass, but its complexity was a disadvantage,
and its long-term reliability was not as high as that of mag-
Steam Drum
Condensing
netostrictive transducers now available. It also required power
Chamber for operation of the conductivity switches, relays, and indica-
tor lights. The electrodes of the conductivity probes were
Overflow subject to corrosion and routine replacement, and resolution
Tube was limited by the spacing of the conductivity sensing elec-
trodes. This method is not recommended for new installations.

Circular Gauges

Circular gauges and closed-circuit television monitoring

have also been used for remote indication; but again, the
complexity, coarse resolution, and long-term reliability have no
advantage over the currently preferred magnetic gauge with
magnetostrictive transducer for remote reading. These meth-
ods also required power for operation of the light sources and
video monitor.
Colored Remote
Liquid Level
Gauge Magnetostrictive Transducers

Magnetostrictive transducers used with magnetic gauges

FIG. 3.10o
A differential pressure type of remote reading level gauge is useful
when there is no power available.
Differential Pressure
A differential-pressure remote reading gauge is shown in
Figure 3.10o. The maximum level is fixed by the elevation
of the overflow tube in the condensing chamber. The actual
level is obtained by measuring the difference in hydraulic
now constitute a preferred method of remote indication in
applications where power is available for operation of the
transmitter (see Figure 3.10n). The measuring chamber is
normally a metal tube containing a float that rides on the
liquid level so that the center of the float is even with the level.
If there is a liquidliquid interface, a float can be weighted
to sink through the lighter liquid and float so that its center
is at the interface level. It is also possible to use two floats,
the first one riding at a liquidliquid interface (indicating the
level of the heavier phase) and the second one floating on
and indicating the level of the lighter phase.

2003 by Bla Liptk


Although power must be provided to operate the mag-
netostrictive transducer, the advantages of this arrange-
ment over other remote indicator types include increased
safety (because no gauge glass is needed), a lack of parts
that need recalibration or replacement, and obtainable res-
olution of better than 1 mm. A wide range of electronic
remote indicators are available. The electronic output sig-
nal can be directly read by current-loop-compatible indi-
cators and other equipment or fed to data acquisition sys-
tems or computers.
CONCLUSION
The various types of glass level gauges provide a means to view
the liquid level as well as the color and possible contamination
of the liquid. For accurate level indication, foaming and boiling
must be minimized. The process fluid in the gauge should be
at the same temperature (and density) as that in the vessel.
Tubular glass gauges are not recommended for hazardous appli-
cations such as toxic liquids, high temperature, and high pres-
sure. Magnetic level gauges can provide a higher safety margin
when direct viewing of the liquid is not required. Magnetic
level gauges with magnetostrictive transmitters yield the lowest
errors, where power is available, at a higher cost. They also
2003 by Bla Liptk
3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 496
provide easy means for remote indication and communication
interface to data acquisition systems and computers.
References
1. Penberthy application report 2780, November 2000.
2. U.S. patent number 5,070,485, 1991.
Bibliography
API Recommended Practice 550, Manual on Installation of Refinery Instru-
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Cho, C. H., Measurement and Control of Liquid Level, ISA, Research
Triangle Park, NC, 1982.
Green, C. R., Tank sight glasses, Chemical Eng., September 25, 1978.
Lerner, J., Continuous level measurement: an introduction to 16 basic types,
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Level measurement and control, Meas. Control, April 1991.
Nyce, D. S., Tank gauging advances, Fuel Technol. Manage., January 1997.
Nyce, D. S., Magnetostrictive linear position sensors, Fluid Power J., April
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