G R A D U S I

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO HARMONY,

COUNTERPOINT, AND ANALYSIS
Second Edition
by L e o K r a f t
PROFESSOR E M E R I T U S OF MUSIC, T H E AARON COPLAND S C H O O L OF MUSIC,
Q U E E N S C O L L E G E O F T H E C I T Y U N I V E R S I T Y OF NEW Y O R K

W-W-Norton & Company-Inc

New York London
ESTE MATERIAL
NO SAI.F. D E
LA RIRUOTKC
 CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS x
PRELUDE T O T H E SECOND EDITION 1

PART ONE: MELODY

1 Introduction 3
2 Tonality I :T h e Major Mode 4
3 I n t e r v a l s a n d t h e M a j o r Scale 5
4 T o n a l i t y 2: T h e M i n o r M o d e 7
5 T o n a l i t y 3: O t h e r M o d e s 9
6 Melodic Elaboration 1 15
7 Melodic Structure: A n Introduction 18
8 T h e Musical Phrase 20
9 Rhythm, Meter, T e m p o 24
10 Writing Simple Melodies 28

PART T W O : NOTE-AGAINST-NOTE CONSONANCE

11 Introduction 29
12 S o m e Practical Considerations 30
13 Two-Part Counterpoint 30
14 Three-Part Counterpoint 34
15 Four-Part Counterpoint 38

PART THREE: DIATONIC DISSONANCE

16 Introduction 41
17 Passing a n d N e i g h b o r M o t i o n : T w o Parts 42
18 Suspensions: T w o Parts 43
19 Diatonic Dissonance: T h r e e Parts 45
20 M o r e o n Diatonic Dissonance 46
21 Writing a Simple Bicinium 48

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 PART FOUR: BASIC H A R M O N Y

22 Introduction 49
23 M o r e about Triads 50
24 Chords in Motion 51
5 3
25 Cadenees
5 6
26 G r o u p i n g the Chords
27 A Few Chromatic Notes 59
28 Harmonizing Simple Melodies 61
6 3
29 F i g u r e d Bass
30 S t u d y o f a P i e c e : I s a a c ' s Innsbruck \2\ 64
31 Diatonic Chord Functions: A S u m m a r y 67

INTERLUDE ONE: A L O O R A H E A D 73

PART FIVE: EXTENSIONSOF MELODY, COUNTERPOINT, A N D H A R M O N Y

32 Introduction 79
33 Melodic Elaboration 2 80
34 Two-Part Counterpoint with Elaborated Melodies 83
35 T h e Extensin o f L i n e s i n M u s i c a l S p a c e 85
36 Continuous Variations 1 92
37 Continuous Variations 2 95
38 Extensions o f C h o r d s i n Musical T i m e and Space 97
39 S o m e F r e e - F o r m Pieces 101

PART SIX: BINARY FORM

40 Introduction 107
41 M o t i o n away f r o m the T o n i c 108
42 M o d u l a t i o n to a Cadenee 109
43 Binary Form 110
44 M o r e M o d u l a t i o n s i n B i n a r y Pieces 112
45 Melodic Design in Binary F o r m 113
46 A l l e m a n d e f r o m B a c h ' s F r e n c h S u i t e N o . 3 [30] 114

P A R T SEVEN: F U R T H E RS T U D I E S I N H A R M O N Y , C O U N T E R P O I N T , A N D F O R M

47 Introduction 117
48 T h e Dominant 7th Chord 118
49 %Chords 123
50 Diatonic 7th Chords 128
51 Cadenees 2 132
52 A R e p e r t o r y o f Basic P o l y p h o n i c M o t i o n s 135
53 M o r e Extensions o f T o n i c and Dominant H a r m o n y 141
54 Secondary Tonics and Dominants 149
55 A n o t h e r L o o k at B i n a r y F o r m 158

vi
INTERLUDE T W O :A LOOK BACK 161

W h y Study Counterpoint? 165

Music and the Rules 167

MUSICIANSHIP A T T H E KEYBOARD 169

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES FOR SIGHT SINGING 173

STUDIES I N MELODY IMPROVISATION 189

MUSIC A N T H O L O G Y

H Josquin des Prez E t i n c a r n a t u s e s t f r o m t h e M a s s Pange Lingua 195

D H e i n r i c h Isaac Innsbruck, I Now Must Leave Thee 196

m Jacques Arcadelt C h a n s o n , Men All Are Such Great Lovers 198

a Pierre Certon C h a n s o n , Happy I Dar Not Be 200

m Raspar Othmayr B i c i n i u m , A Mighty Fortress Is Our God 202

Claude Gervaise Allemande for four instruments 203
Baldassare D o n a t o V i l l a n e l l a , May She Rule in Every Season 204

n Giovanni Pierluigi d a
Palestrina B e n e d i c t u s f r o m t h e M a s s Repleatur os meum laude 206

s Palestrina Veni Snete Spiritus ( e x c e r p t ) 208

C l a u d e le J e u n e Blessing Before the Meal 208
O r l a n d o d i Lasso Benedictus 210

m Lasso C h a n s o n , Good Day, My Heart 211

m Giovanni Gastoldi B a l l a t a , Love's Pursuit 213

M Michael Praetorius There Is a Rose 216

|15A| Praetorius Gaillarde 217
|15B| Praetorius T w o Sarabandes 218

\m Giralomo Frescobaldi T o c c a t a f r o m Fiori musicali 219

\m H e i n r i c h Schtz Psalm 78 220

\m Samuel Scheidt O r g a n B i c i n i u m f r o m Tabulatura Nova 221

m J o h a n n Pezel Sarabande f o r brass i n s t r u m e n t s 222
[201 Johann Pachelbel Chaconne for organ (excerpt) 223

na Pachelbel Organ Toccata in E m i n o r 225

vii
[22] Arcangelo Corelli T r i o Sonata Op. 4 ,N o . 2, Preludio 227

|23| Henry Purcell D u e t f r o m Come, Ye Sons of Art 228

|24| Francois C o u p e r i n P r e l u d e N o . 3 f r o m LArt de toucher le clavecn 230 -|

|25| Couperin L a Lgubre f o r h a r p s i c h o r d 231

|26A| Johann Caspar Ferdinand

Fischer Prelude in C f r o m Partita for Clavier 232

|26Bj Fischer P r e l u d e i n E f o r o r g a n f r o m Ariadne musicale 233

[27] Johann Mattheson Sarabande and Double 234

[28] Jean-Philippe Rameau Gavotte and Variations for harpsichord 235

[29A| Georg Philipp Telemann O d e , To Doris 240

[29B] Telemann O d e , To Sleep 241

[29C] Telemann O d e , Plain Cooking 242

[3] J o h a n n Sebastian B a c h Allemande from French Suite N o . 3 243

[3] Bach Gigue from Violin Sonata N o . 6 245

[32] Bach A i r f r o m Suite N o . 3 for orchestra 246

[33] Bach P r e l u d e N o . 1 f r o m 77i Well-Tempered Clavier, B o o k I 248

[34] George Frideric Handel Passecaille f r o m S u i t e N o . 7 250

[35] Handel Courante f r o m Suite N o . 4 253

[36] Handel " S e e , t h e c o n q u e r i n g h e r o c o m e s " f r o m Judas Maccabeus 255

[37] Handel T h r e e E n g l i s h recitatives 256

|38| D o m e n i c o Scarlatti Sonata in E 259

[39] Cari Philipp E m a n u e l Bach Sonata i n F, second m o v e m e n t 263

[40] Christoph Willibald Gluck A i r f r o m Orpheus 264

|41| J o h a n n P h i l i p p K i r n b e r g e r B o u r r e f r o m Dance Pieces 266

[42] D a n i e l G o t t l o b Trk T h r e e P i a n o Pieces 267

[43] Wolfgang Amadeus MozartPiano Sonata in A , K.331, theme 269

[44] Ludwig van Beethoven T h r e e Contradanses for orchestra 270
[45] Cari Maria von Weber When Our Dear Child Can Find No Rest 273

]46] Franz Schubert T h r e e Waltzes a n d a n Ecossaise 274

|47| Stephen Foster Gentle Annie 276

[48] H e n r y Clay W o r k Grandfather's Clock 278

|49A[ Johannes Brahms How Darkly the Water FLows f o r v o i c e a n d p i a n o 280

|49B| Brahms How Darkly the Water Flows f o r c h o r u s 282

[50[ Bla B a r t k F o u r R u m a n i a n Dances for piano 283

[51] Igor Stravinsky M a r c h f r o m Renard 288

[52[ Paul Hindemith A Swan f r o m Six Chansons 290

[53] Aaron Copland " S t o r y o f O u r T o w n " f r o m Our Town Suite 293

viii
[54] William Schuman Symphony for Strings, s e c o n d m o v e m e n t ( e x c e r p t ) 295

[55] B u r t o n Lae Od Devil Moon f r o m Finan s Rainbow - 296

o n n
[56] J Lennon and Paul

McCartney IFeelFine 298

[57[ Leonin T w o - p a r t o r g a n u m (excerpt) 300

[58] N o t r e D a m e school Conductus 301

[59] Perotin C o n d u c t u s ( o p e n i n g section) 302

[60] Guillaume de Machaut Motet 304

[61] Francesco Landini Ballata 307

[62] Guillaume Dufay Magnficat ( e x c e r p t ) 308

APPENDICES

Music Notation 310

Continuo Music 311
Cantus Firmi 313

GLOSSARY 315

WORKSHEETS 321

INDICES

S u b j e c t s a n d P r o p e r ames 417
Music 419

ix
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I t is a pleasant d u t y t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e h e l p o f
m a n y friends a n d colleagues whose suggestions
have been useful t om ei n w r i t i n g this book.
T h e d e t a i l e d c o m m e n t s o n t h e first e d i t i o n t h a t
I received f r o m Genevieve C h i n n were particularly
h e l p f u l , as w e r e h e r r e a c t i o n s t o parts o ft h e sec-
o n d . Susan Goldstein also used some o fthe n e w
m a t e r i a l i n class a n d a d d e d p r a c t i c a l a d v i c e . O t h e r
suggestions f r o m instructors i n various institutions
c o n t r i b u t e d t o m y store o fk n o w l e d g e a b o u t sub-
ject matter a n d presentations; these colleagues are
too n u m e r o u s t o m e n t i o n , b u t m y gratitude t o
t h e m is n o n e t h e less l i v e l y .
A g a i n I have t o saythat m a n y years o f contact
w i t h m u s i c i a n s s u c h a s C h a r l e s B u r k h a r t , Sal
Novack, George Perle, Cari Schachter, H e n r y
W e i n b e r g , a n d H u g o W e i s g a l l have been educa-
tional for m ei n m o r e ways t h a n I can recount.
T h e reactions o f m y students at T h e A a r o n
C o p l a n d S c h o o l o f M u s i c t o m y ideas a n d m e t h o d s ,
x
a s e m b o d i e d i n t h e first e d i t i o n o f Gradus, h a v e
helped shape the second edition. T h e y provided a
testing g r o u n d f o rm e that a l l o w e d m e t o recast
m y ideas u n t i l t h e y r e a c h e d t h e present f o r m .
I n t h e endless search f o r t h e perfect music
e x a m p l e I h a v e b e n e f i t t e d f r o m t h e ideas o f E d w a r d
Lerner, Paul Maynard, a n d M a r k Lindley. Ray-
m o n d E r i c k s o n read the section o n M e d i e v a l music
and offered m a n y constructive comments. Rosette
L a m o n t provided t h e translation o f t h e difficult
Machaut text.
I m u s t also express m y t h a n k s t o t h e m u s i c
e d i t o r o f W . W . N o r t o n , m y od f r i e n d C l a i r e
Brook. H e r understanding o f the particular nature
o f Gradus a n d h e r t i r e l e s s w o r k i n finding t h e b e s t
forms i n which t o embody itscontent have con-
t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y t o t h e success o f t h e b o o k .
Leo Kraft
 PRELUDE T O T H E
SECOND EDITION
T h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n o f Gradus r e t a i n s t h e b a s i c
principies o f the hrst, while incorporating a n u m -
ber o f n e w ideas a n d methods. T h e philosophy o f
the b o o k a n d o f the a u t h o r i s steadfastly m a i n -
tained. G r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n f e w e r topics, m o r e
focus o n h a r m o n y , considerable i m p r o v e m e n t i n
the exercises, a n d c a r e f u l r e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e pieces
in t h e A n t h o l o g y have resulted i na n edition that
is t r u l y r e v i s e d .
Gradus i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l b o o k s o n
"music t h e o r y . " I ttakes a holistic view o f W e s t e r n
music, m a k i n g little o f the t i m e w o r n distinctions
b e t w e e n h a r m o n y , c o u n t e r p o i n t , a n danalysis. R e a l
music k n o w s n osuch divisions. W h i l e at any given
m o m e n t w e m a y focus o n o n e aspect o f m u s i c o r
another, w ealso m a k e a consistent effort t o keep
that aspect w i t h i n t h e perspective o f t h e w h o l e .
Yes, w e m u s t study details, b u t w e a i m t o reach
b e y o n d those details t o the study o f phrases, groups
o f phrases, a n d c o m p l e t e pieces.
Y o u r g o a l as a s t u d e n t is t o l e a r n as m u c h as y o u
c a n a b o u t m u s i c , a n d Gradus c a n h e l p y o u t o w a r d
t h a t goal. B u t k e e p i n m i n d t h a t a n y t e x t b o o k is
s i m p l y a t o o l , a n d m u s t b e p u t t o u s e intelligeny.
T h e goal can o n l y be reached b yy o u r o w n efforts.
T o b e c o m e a m u s i c i a n m e a n s t o d e v e l o p specific
musical skills, i n c l u d i n g :
listening s k i l l s r e c o g n i z i n g t h e sounds a n d processes
t h a t y o u h e a r i n a piece;
analytic s k i l l s u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w a piece w o r k s , b o t h
f r o m h e a r i n g i t a n d f r o m s t u d y i n g the score;
w r i t i n g skillsdeveloping mastery o f the materials and
1
processes o f m u s i c t h r o u g h exercises o f m a n y kinds
a n d t h r o u g h t h e best exercise o f a l l w r i t i n g your
o w n music;
l e a r n i n g s k i l l s h o w t o l e a r n f r o m a n e x e r c i s e and a
piece o f m u s i c ;
p e r f o r m i n g skillsprojecting the aesthetic content o f a
piece i n a stylistically v a l i d p e r f o r m a n c e . A l t h o u g h
Gradus d o e s n ' t d e a l w i t h p e r f o r m a n c e d i r e c t l y , m u c h
o f w h a t y o u study here can have a direct bearing on
your performance.
I t is y o u r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as a m u s i c i a n t o acquire
those skills; i tist h e responsibility o f this book and
o f t h e instructor t o present t h e material i n the
m o s t e f f e c t i v e w a y . Y o u s h o u l d k n o w t h a t Gradus
is a p r a c t i c a l b o o k , n o t a t r e a t i s e . W r i t t e n i n a
n a r r a t i v e s t y l e f o r r e a d y c o m p r e h e n s i o n , i t is o r g a -
n i z e d i n s h o r t sections, e a c h d e v o t e d t o a single
topic. M o s t sections a r e f o l l o w e d b y Worksheets,
w h i c h o f f e r p r a c t i c e i n d e v e l o p i n g s p e c i f i c skills.
W h i l e t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f s u c h skills is necessary,
skills t h e m s e l v e s a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o m a k e a total
m u s i c i a n . F o r t h a t y o u n e e d t o m a k e m a n y connec-
tions b e t w e e n t h e skills a n d t h e k n o w l e d g e that
y o u gain. T h i s takes a certain a m o u n t o f experi-
ence. T h e m o r e y o u practice y o u r i n s t r u m e n t o r
voice, p e r f o r m , listen t o music, r e a d a b o u t it, and
talk about i t w i t h y o u r friends, t h e m o r e experi-
ence y o u a r e a c c u m u l a t i n g , a n dt h es o o n e r you'll
be o n t h e w a y t o b e c o m i n g a n a l l - r o u n d musician.
R e m e m b e r : a m u s i c s t u d e n t m u s t b e saturated
with music.
 T h r o u g h Gradus a n d t h r o u g h y o u r o w n e x p e r i -
ence you'll l e a r n that t h es t u d y o f m u s i c is m o r e
t h a n t h e g a t h e r i n g o f i s o l a t e d facts o r t h e s t u d y o f
pieces o n e a t a t i m e : i t is t h e discovery o f basic
p r i n c i p i e s w i t h w i d e applicaon. Y o u ' l l s o o n r e a l -
ize t h a t t h e r e a r e e l e m e n t s a n d techniques i n c o m -
m o n b e t w e e n m a n y pieces o f music, e v e n those
t h a t s e e m a t first t o b e q u i t e d i s p a r a t e . Gradus
points o u t these c o m m o n elements.
Gradus i n c l u d e s a l a r g e A n t h o l o g y o f m u s i c . S i n c e
the discussions i n t h e text a r e always based o n
specific pieces o f m u s i c , i t is absolutely essential
that y o u k n o w t h e m u s i c as well as y o u possibly
can. T h i s means playing the music a t the keyboard
( w h i c h m a y i n v o l v e i m p r o v i n g y o u r k e y b o a r d skills,
a g o o d idea i n itself), singing whatever c a n be
sung, a n d u s i n g records as n e e d e d . T h e better y o u
k n o w t h emusic, t h em o r e you'll benefit f r o m t h e
explanations i n t h e text. T h e m u s i c itself is w h a t
the b o o k isall about.
T h o s e interested i n t h epedagogical m e t h o d o f
this b o o k w i l l s o o n realize t h a t a c o r e o f basic ideas
is i n t r o d u c e d i n P a r t O n e , t h e n a p p l i e d t o c o n t e x t s
o f gradually increasing complexity. T h e principies
o f P a r t O n ea r e t h e s a m e p r i n c i p i e s o f t h e last
page. T h i s is t h e " s p i r a l o f l e a r n i n g , " l o n g t h e basis
o f g o o d t e a c h i n g i n a n y field. T h e r e ' s n o t m u c h
r o o m i n this approach f o r "rules" (not t o m e n t i o n
exceptions) o rironclad definitions. Rather, y o u are
encouraged t o think for yourself, putting princi-
pies i n t o practice w i t h g u i d a n c e f r o m the text.
F o r a better understanding o fthe musical a n d
pedagogical t h o u g h t t h a t lies b e h i n d this b o o k ,
read the s h o r t sections " W h y S t u d y C o u n t e r p o i n t ? "
(page 165) a n d " M u s i c a n d t h e Rules" (page 167).
These m a y be read at any time, but you'll probably
get t h e m o s t o u t o f t h e m i f y o u read t h e m n o w ,
t h e n r e r e a d t h e m a t t h e e n d o f t h e first s e m e s t e r .
T h e y a r eincluded because o f the author's convic-
t i o n t h a t a n i n t e l l i g e n t m u s i c s t u d e n t is i n t e r e s t e d
n o t o n l y i n t h e subject m a t t e r b u t also i n h o w i t is
presented.
Finally, comprehensive musicianship must include
the historical dimensions, f o rn o h u m a n activity
exists i n isolation. W h i l e t h e course isn't o r g a n i z e d
along historical lines, discussion o f historical a n d
stylistic aspects o f m u s i c is i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e text.
You'll see h o w one t h i n g led t o another, and h o w
h a r m o n y , c o u n t e r p o i n t , a n d c o m p o s i t i o n carne t o
be w h a t t h e y are. T h e d o m i n a n t 7 t h c h o r d isn't
treated like some k i n d o f musical artifact that
d r o p p e d f r o m t h e sky, b u t as t h e result o f a histor-
ical process that's n o t v e r y difficult t o trace. T h e
development o f harmony, counterpoint, and com-
p o s i t i o n , first w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t o n a l i t y ,
then gradually e m e r g i n g f r o m that f r a m e w o r k i n
o u r c e n t u r y , is a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e g r a n d s w e e p
o f m u s i c ' s h i s t o r y . Gradus d e a l s w i t h t h i s i n a s i m p l e
way, offering y o u ways o f understanding "theory"
as p a r t o f t h e l a r g e w o r l d o f m u s i c .
All this is but the beginning o f a lifelong study,
for t h ea r to f m u s i c is a n inexhaustible universe,
o f f e r i n g limitless possibilities f o r personal g r o w t h
and development.

N u m b e r s i n this book are used i n the following way:

[6] means A n t h o l o g y selection n u m b e r 6.
6 m e a n s t h e s i x t h d e g r e e o f a scale.
6 means measure n u m b e r 6 in a music example.
6th means the interval o f a sixth.
VI m e a n s t h e t r i a d b u i l t o n t h e s i x t h d e g r e e o f a scale.
6
VI m e a n s t h e first inversin o f t h a t t r i a d , a l s o k n o w n a s
the I position.

2
 PART ONE
MELODY
1
Introduction
O n e w a y t o b e g i n t h e s t u d y o f m u s i c is w i t h m e l -
ody. M a n y o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t concepts a n d
definitions i n this b o o k m a y b e s h o w n i n simplest
f o r m t h r o u g h t h e study o f m e l o d y . T h e ideas
presented i n Part O n e will be taken u p i n m o r e
advanced f o r m s i nsubsequent parts.
M e l o d y begins as a h e i g h t e n e d f o r m o f h u m a n
speech. W h e n w o r d s a r einadequate t oexpress o u r
feelings w e m a y raise o u r voices a n dshout, cry, o r
sing. W h e n w e speak emphatically, t h e exagger-
ated rise a n d fall o fo u r voices is o n t h e w a y t o
becoming a melody. A n d a whole world o f mean-
ing can b eexpressed i nm e l o d y alone.
Part O n e begins with a brief look at t h e connec-
on b e t w e e n m u s i c a n d h u m a n s p e e c h . T h e n c o m e
s o m e basic ideas a b o u t t o n a l i t y , t h e rrfain o r g a n i z -
i n g forc i n m o s t f t h e m u s i c y o u k n o w . P a r t O n e
lays t h e g r o u n d w o r k f o r t h e study o f m e l o d i c
structure, w h i c h is taken f u r t h e r i nseveral o t h e r
p a r t s . I n t h i s p a r t y o u w i l l a l s o find a n i n t r o d u c t i o n
to t h es t u d y o fr h y t h m . A tt h e e n d o f P a r t O n e
you m a y w r i t e simple melodies that p u tt ouse t h e
concepts a n d techniques o f this introductory study.
3
T h e m u s i c o n w h i c h P a r t O n e is based consists
of folk music a n d sacred chant. These melodies
are rather simple a n dstand b y themselves, requir-
ing n oaccompaniment. W o r k i n g with these melo-
dies gives y o u t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o observe i m p o r t a n t
aspects o ft o n a l i t y a n d r h y t h m i n m u s i c t h a t poses
n o great problems. A tt h esame time you'll find
that t h e melodies a r e quite beautiful a n d expres-
sive. T h e y m a y also s e r v e as t h e basis f o r l a r g e r
musical compositions.
F O L K MUSIC F o l k s o n g s a n d d a n c e s a r e t h e w o r k
o f m a n y h a n d s , a n d t h e i r o r i g i n is u s u a l l y u n k n o w n .
Such music belongs t o t h e people w h o use i t a n d
who constantly refashion i t .T h i s r e w o r k i n g pro-
cess o c c u r s n a t u r a l l y w h e n m u s i c i s h a n d e d d o w n
f r o m o n e generation t oanother b yoral tradition.
As s o o n as a m e l o d y is w r i t t e n d o w n i t b e c o m e s
fixed i n o n e versin a n d b e c o m e s p a r t o f h i s t o r y
rather than a living cultural organism.
CHANT T h o s e m e l o d i e s used i n t h e service o f
d i f f e r e n t f a i t h s a n d k n o w n as r e l i g i o u s songs o r
chants also o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e distant past, p r o b a b l y
taking o n different f o r m s a t different times. B u t
t h e t e n d e n c y o f a n instituon i s t o c o d i f y i t s m a t e -
rial into a h x e d f o r m . T h u s w e have w r i t t e n forms
o f m a n y religious chants, some o f w h i c h a r e quite
ancient.
2
Tonality 1: The Major Mode
T H E T O N I C A s y o u s i n g t h e m a r v e l o u s od W e l s h
tune below, ask yourself: does a n y o n e note stand
out f r o m t h e others?
T h e first w o r d s , " H o w l o v e l y t h e a s h g r o v e , "
f o r m a short unit, a n d so d o t h e notes that a r e
s u n g t othose w o r d s . T h e last n o t e o f t h e g r o u p is
C . T h e first t w o n o t e s , G a n d C , h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r
r h y t h m : weak beat t o strong. T h i s emphasizes C ,
t h e n o t e o n t h e s t r o n g b e a t ( o r downbeat).
W h i l e 3 a n d 4 (measures three a n d four) move
away f r o m t h e C ,that note ishighlighted again i n
5 . T a k e n a s a w h o l e , t h e first e i g h t m e a s u r e s f o r m
a m u s i c a l u n i t , aphrase. I t s e n d i n g e m p h a s i z e s C .
T h e second p h r a s e is t h e literal r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e
first. T h e t h i r d m o v e s a w a y f r o m C , b u t t h e f o u r t h
is t h e s a m e a s t h e first. T h i s p u t s C i n t h e p o s i t i o n
o f b e i n g t h e last n o t e o f t h e m e l o d y , t h e n o t e t h a t
stays w i t h u s a f t e r t h e m e l o d y is e n d e d . W e s a y
t h a t t h e last n o t e is t h eg o a l o f m o t i o n f o r t h e
entire melody.
The Ash Grove
1. H o w l o v e - l y
m # #
the_ ash grove, the breeze makes i t _ mur-mur, I hear through i t s _ branch-es the sound of
2. Yet glad-ness for-sakes me, and sor - row_ my_ heart filis, the sound of
10
'2.
soul. When I see the light through the branch-es come
20
r nr ucr
here, They whis-per and_ mur-mur, their mem-'ry_ i s _ mu-sic, The ash grove sings. soft-ly
T h e chant m o s t f a m i l i a r t oW e s t e r n ears is that
o f t h e Romn C a t h o l i c C h u r c h . K n o w n as p l a i n -
chant o rG r e g o r i a n chant, it has played a n i m p o r -
t a n t r o l e i n W e s t e r n m u s i c . T h e o f f i c i a l versin o f
p l a i n c h a n t m a y b e f o u n d i n t h e Lber Usualis, a
collection o fmelodies f o rt h e liturgical year.
Overall, C is t h e note that stands o u t f r o m t h e
others. I tis t h e center o f musical gravity; a l l t h e
o t h e r notes i n t h e m e l o d y take t h e i r places a r o u n d
i t . S u c h a c e n t r a l n o t e i s c a l l e d t h e tonic. T h i s
m e a n s t h a t t h e t o n a l i t y o rk e y o f t h e piece is based
o n that note.
T H E MAJOR S C A L E C a n w e a r r a n g e t h e p i t c h e s
o f The Ash Grove i n a n y k i n d o f o r d e r ? I f w e s t a r t
w i t h t h e t o n i c n o t e , w e c a n list t h e pitches i n
ascending order until t h e tonic is reached again.
B u t w h a t shall w e d o about Fq a n dF f , both o f
which appear i nt h e melody? W h i c h o n e goes o n
o u r list? L o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h e t u n e , y o u s e e t h a t
F)t i s h e a r d b u t o n c e , w h i l e F q a p p e a r s f r e q u e n t l y
t h r o u g h o u t t h e melody. W e therefore choose Fq
f o r t h e list, s e t t i n g aside Fjt f o r l a t e r a t t e n t i o n . A t
t h e t o p o f t h e p a g e , y o u w i l l find t h e p i t c h e s o f The
Ash Grove a r r a n g e d i n a s c e n d i n g o r d e r , s t a r t i n g
w i t h t h etonic. T h i s k i n d o f a r r a n g e m e n t o f pitches
WALES
a harp.
sweet- mu - sic can - not cheer my
PU
15
stream-ing, I think of dear friends who no long - er are
0#
of those who are gone.
 tonic supertonic mediant subdominant dominant submediant leading tone tonic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (8)1

O
Solfa syllables do re mi fa sol la ti do

is c a l l e d a scale ( I t a l i a n : scala, l a d d e r ) . T h e p a r t i c u - p i t c h e s f o r m t h e chromatic scale. H e r e i s t h e c h r o -

l a r scale t h a t y o u see a b o v e is t h e C - m a j o r scale. A m a t i c scale s t a r t i n g o n C . I t ' s w r i t t e n i n t w o ways:
scale is u s e f u l i nt h a t i t s h o w s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s c e n d i n g , w i t h s h a r p s , a n d d e s c e n d i n g , w i t h fats.
pitches i n a piece o f m u s i c , i n a specific o r d e r .
Observe that each letter-name appears once i n t h e T I , I I M
scale u n t i l t h e t o n i c is d u p l i c a t e d .

SCALE-DEGREES T h e v a r i o u s steps o ft h e "lad-

d e r " a r e k n o w n a s degrees o f t h e s c a l e . T h e y a r e
customarily identified i nthree different ways: fl t i i t t t t
b y ames, s t a r t i n g w i t h " t o n i c " ;
b y n u m b e r s , 1 t h r o u g h 7 ; 8 is o f t e n u s e d f o r t h e u p p e r
tonic;
by sol-fa syllables.
T h e s e v e n d i a t o n i c notes o f t h e C - m a j o r scale
A l l three a r es h o w n above, a n d y o u s h o u l d k n o w a r e m a r k e d o n t h i s e x a m p l e ; t h e r e m a i n i n g five
a l l t h r e e . I n Gradus, s c a l e d e g r e e s a r e i n d i c a t e d b y a r e t h e chromatic n o t e s . N o w y o u s e e t h a t t h e Fj o f
n u m b e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , " T h e m e l o d y begins o n5 " The Ash Grove i s a c h r o m a t i c n o t e . I t i s n ' t i n t h e C -
means " T h e m e l o d y begins o n scale-degree five." m a j o r scale, b u t i t c e r t a i n l y is i n t h e m e l o d y .

DIATONIC AND CHROMATIC T h e notes t h a t TONAL AND ATONAL W h e n t h e notes o f a

a r e p a r t o f a p i e c e ' s s c a l e a r e t h e diatonic notes. I n
t h e m a j o r scale t h e r e a r e s e v e n d i a t o n i c notes. T h e
system o ft u n i n g used i n W e s t e r n music divides
the octave into twelve equal parts. T h u s there a r e
twelve different pitches i n o u rsystem. T h o s e twelve
piece gravitate a r o u n d o n e central note, t h e tonic,
t h e m u s i c i s s a i d t o b e tonal. T h e r e i s a l s o m u s i c
t h a t h a s n o t o n i c ; t h i s m u s i c i s atonal. T h e p r i n c i -
pies a n d practices o f a t o n a l m u s i c a r e e x p l a i n e d i n
Gradus, B o o k T w o .

3
Intervals and the Major Scale

Is i t possible t o e x p r e s s t h e distance b e t w e e n pitches AMES O F T H E I N T E R V A L S A n o t h e r w a y t o

in a specific w a y ? Y e s : t h e r e is a u n i t o f m e a s u r e
f o r t h a t p u r p o s e . T h i s m u s i c a l yardstick ist h e
interval. T h e s m a l l e s t i n t e r v a l t h a t y o u h e a r i n
W e s t e r n m u s i c i s t h e semitone, o r half step. A l l o t h e r
intervals m a y b e measured b y t h e n u m b e r o f half
steps t h e y i n c l u d e .
label i n t e r v a l s is b y t h e usage t h e y have a c q u i r e d
i n t o n a l m u s i c . F o l l o w i n g this c o n v e n t i o n , h e r e isa
list o f i n t e r v a l distances w i t h i n t h e m a j o r scale
f r o m smallest t o largest:
from 3 to4 m i n o r 2 n d o r h a l f step o r semitone

5
 1 to2 m a j o r 2 n d o r w h o l e step S i n c e t h e f o u r fats a r e u s e d c o n s i s t e n t l y , w e w r i t e
2 to4 minor 3rd t h o s e f o u r fats a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e a c h l i n e o f
1 to3 major 3rd m u s i c . T h e fats a p p l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e l i n e . T h e
1 to4 perfect 4 t h g r o u p o f fats i s c a l l e d t h e key signature. E a c h k e y
4 to7 augmented 4th
has itso w n signature. T h esignature o f A b :
7 to4 diminished 5th
1 to5 perfect 5 t h
3 to8 minor 6th
and/or
1 to6 major 6th
2 t o8 minor 7th
1 to7 major 7th
A m u s i c i a n is expected t o k n o w t h e k e y signa-
1 to8 octave
t u r e s o fa l l keys. F o r a c o m p l e t e list, see t h e G l o s -
Since these intervals a r e f o u n d i n a diatonic sary u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g Circle o f 5ths, page 316.
s c a l e , t h e y a r e c a l l e d diatonic intervals. T h e r e a r e
a l s o chromatic intervals, i n v o l v i n g a t l e a s t o n e c h r o - SIMPLE AND COMPOUND I N T E R V A L S A n
m a t i c n o t e . Augmented i n t e r v a l s a r e a s e m i t o n e l a r g e r i n t e r v a l o f l e s s t h a n a n o c t a v e i s a simple interval.
t h a n t h e d i a t o n i c ; diminished i n t e r v a l s a r e a s e m i - A n i n t e r v a l o f a n o c t a v e o r m o r e i s a compound
t o n e smaller. T h u s a m a j o r 2 n d plus a s e m i t o n e is interval. A c o m p o u n d i n t e r v a l i s f o r m e d b y a d d i n g
an augmented 2nd; a perfect 5 t h m i n u s a semitone an octave t o a simple interval. F o r example, a
is a d i m i n i s h e d 5 t h . m a j o r 3 r d a d d e d t oa n octave is a m a j o r l O t h .

T H E MAJOR S C A L E Y o u s a w t h a t a m a j o r scale major 3 r d + octave major lOth

consists o f pitches a r r a n g e d i n a specific order. - 4 *
T h a t o r d e r i s b e s t e x p r e s s e d a s a fixed s e r i e s o f
i n t e r v a l s t h a t w i l l a p p l y t o a n y m a j o r scale b u i l t o n
a n y o f t h e twelve pitches. W e need u s e b u t t w o
intervals, t h e w h o l e step ( W ) a n d t h e half step ( H ) ,
in t h e following order: INVERSION I f w e c a n a d d a n octave t oa s i m p l e
interval, can w esubtract a simple interval f r o m a n
scale-degrees: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ( 1 ) octave? Y e s , q u i t e easily. Since a n octave contains
V twelve semitones, w e m a y subtract f o u r semitones
f r o m i t .T h e i n t e r v a l o f eight semitones results.
W W H W W W H
A n o t h e r w a y t o s a y t h a t i s " T h e inversin o f a
I n t h e m a j o r scale t h e h a l f steps o c c u r b e t w e e n 3
m i n o r 6 t h i s a m a j o r 3 r d . " T h e inversin o f a
and 4 a n d between 7 a n d 8. A l l other intervals
m a j o r i n t e r v a l is always a m i n o r i n t e r v a l , a n d vice
b e t w e e n adjacent scale-degrees a r e w h o l e steps.
v e r s a . H o w e v e r , t h e inversin o f a p e r f e c t i n t e r v a l
is a l w a y s a p e r f e c t i n t e r v a l .
KEY AND SCALE T h e r e is a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e t e r m s key a n d scale. Key i s a l a r g e c o n c e p t . T o
s a y t h a t a p i e c e i s in the key of A\> i s t o s a y , a m o n g octave - major 3rd = minor 6th
o t h e r things, that A b is t h e center o f gravity a n d O . o
goal o f m o t i o n f o r t h e piece; a l l t h e notes a r e
related t o A b .T h e concept o f k e y involves a net-
w o r k o frelationships, w h i c h y o uhave just begun
I o 8 :

t o s t u d y . B y c o n t r a s t , a scale i s s i m p l y a l i s t o f t h e
d i a t o n i c n o t e s i n a fixed r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o n e a n o t h e r .
K E Y AMES A k e y i s n a m e d f o r i t s t o n i c n o t e .
A piece w h o s e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y is A b is " i n A k "
T h e scale o f t h a t k e y is t h e A^-scale ( A ^ - m a j o r
scale). B u t h o w c a n y o u tell t h e k e yo fa piece?
KEY SIGNATURE I fy o u w a n t e d t o w r i t e o u t
t h e scale o fA b m a j o r , o n e w a y w o u l d b e :
, o I*
TRANSPOSITION A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t m u s i c a l
p r o c e d u r e i s transposition. T h i s m e a n s t h a t a g r o u p
o f notes, a m e l o d y , a piece, o r e v e n part o f a piece
is m o v e d u p o r d o w n b y s o m e i n t e r v a l , s o t h a t i t
appears i n a different k e y . T h e relationships
between t h e notes don't change w h e n music is
transposed. W h e n y o u transpose a melody i t will
s o u n d h i g h e r o r l o w e r , b u t i t w i l l still b e t h e s a m e
melody.

O * Worksheet 1
 4
Tonality 2: The Minor Mode

The Violet SPAIN

r n . . = 4 v t r -
-1 - * j * p ** j J
* M 1
Vi-o-let, O so mod-est How d< ) you hid your bloc m? Off in the gar - den cor - ner, Far from the re >s - e s bn ght.

^ 1J 1 J J', *~~f m m 1
T m
0 W~m m J r-i 1
- L - T r Pr J
^ 0
i
/
1
Try-ing t o b e un-no-ticed, try-ing to hide your face, Your love-ly scent re-veals you, Tells me your hid ing place.

The E-minor scale

tonic supertonic mediant subdominant dominant submediant subtonic tonic

Scale degrees a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
o
Solfa syllables do fa sol le te do

A D I F F E R E N T SOUND T h e S p a n i s h m e l o d y scale d e g r e e 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (1)

above sounds different f r o m t h e major-mode mel- major W W H W W W H
o d i e s w e a l r e a d y k n o w . T h e r e a s o n is t h a t t h e s o n g minor W H W W H W W
is b a s e d o n a m i n o r s c a l e . T h e t o n i c n o t e i s E . T h e
pitches t h a t c o m p r i s e t h e e - m i n o r scale a r e s h o w n I n s u m m a r y , 1, 2, 4, a n d 5 are t h e same i n both
b e l o w t h e m e l o d y itself. modes, while 3, 6 , a n d 7 are a half step l o w e r i n
minor than i n major.

T H E MINOR S C A L E T h e ames o f t h e scale- AN A B B R E V I A T I O N S i n c e w e r e f e r t o m a j o r

degrees are t h e same i nmajor a n d minor, with the a n d m i n o r a g o o d d e a l i n Gradus, y o u w i l l find t h e
s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n o f 7 . T h e d i f f e r e n c e is s i g n i f i c a n t . following abbreviations useful:
T h e major's 7 has a strong tendeney t o lead t o t h e
tonic, w h i c h is w h y i t is called t h e leading note. m a j o r key o r scalecapital letter;
T h e minor's 7, t h e subtonic, has a decided d o w n - m i n o r k e y o r scalelower-case letter.
ward tendeney. I f y o u hear music i nwhich t h e Some examples:
subtonic moves u pa w h o l e step rather t h a n a half
step, y o u m a y c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e m u s i c is i n n e i t h e r 'C-scale" m e a n s " C - m a j o r scale."
t h e m a j o r or t h e m i n o r m o d e . 'c-scale" m e a n s " c - m i n o r s c a l e . "
'C-triad" means "C-major triad."
T h e differences i n sol-fa syllables reveal t h e dif-
'c-triad" means "c-minor triad."
f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m a j o r a n d m i n o r scales. T h e list
' T h e m e l o d y i s i n e " m e a n s " T h e m e l o d y is i n t h e k e y
shows that 3,6, a n d 7 have t h e vowel sound "ee"
of e minor."
or "ah" i n t h e major, b u t "ay" i n t h e minor.
Y o u c a n c o m p a r e whole-step a n d half-step dis- H e r e a r e t h r e e topics i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r e n t aspeets
t r i b u t i o n i n t h e m a j o r a n d m i n o r scales b y s t u d y i n g of t h e relationships between major a n d m i n o r
the following: modes.
R E L A T I V E MAJOR AND MINOR T h e r e i s a
cise c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a m a j o r k e y a n d t h a t
m i n o r k e y w h o s e t o n i c lies a m i n o r 3 r d b e l o w t h e
major's. T h e y both have the same k e y signature,
thus t h e s a m e diatonic notes. W e say that each is
t h e r e l a t i v e o f t h e o t h e r . T h u s e i s t h e relative minor
o f G ; B b i s t h e relative major o f g . S i n c e r e l a t i v e
keys have the same k e y signature, t h e only w a y t o
tell w h e t h e r a piece o f m u s i c is i n t h e m a j o r o r
m i n o r is t o e x a m i n e t h e piece.
P A R A L L E L MAJOR AND MINOR A m a j o r a n d
m i n o r k e y t h a t h a v e t h e same t o n i c a r e s a i d t o b e
parallel. T w o k e y s t h a t a r e p a r a l l e l d o n ' t h a v e t h e
same k e y signature. T h e difference i n k e y signa-
tures always involves t h e n u m b e r three: i tm a yb e
three sharps ( B m a j o r has 5 sharps; b m i n o r has 2
s h a r p s ; 5 2 = 3 ) ; t h r e e fats ( F m a j o r h a s 1 flat; f
m i n o r h a s 4 fats; 4 - 1 = 3 ) ; o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
s h a r p s a n d fats w h o s e s u m i s t h r e e (D m a j o r h a s 2
s h a r p s ; d m i n o r h a s 1 flat; 2 + 1 = 3 ) .
T h e following illustrates the difference between
relative a n d parallel m i n o r :
o
o
n o
>relative
41 O 331
^parallel
O *> o
Is every piece l i m i t e d t o t h e notes o f a single
mode?
MODE MIXTURE A n i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t i n m u s i c
t h e o r y i s mode mixture, m e a n i n g t h a t i n a n y p i e c e
notes f r o m m o r e than o n em o d e m a y be heard
o v e r t h e s a m e tonic. A piece o f m u s i c need n o tb e
limited t ot h e notes o f o n e mode, b u t m a y include
n o t e s f r o m a p a r a l l e l m o d e . T h e first p h r a s e o f
this folksong illustrates t h e most c o m m o n u s e o f
mode mixture.
I see your_ face in a flow-ing stream, the
sun - shines high a bove._
8
T h e m e l o d y is i n g . A l l t h e notes o f t h e m e l o d y
a r e m e m b e r s o f t h e g-scale e x c e p t o n e . Ffl is a n o t e
i n t h e p a r a l l e l m a j o r scale. I t i s t h e l e a d i n g n o t e , a
scale-degree t h a t t h e m i n o r m o d e lacks. Since t h e
l e a d i n g n o t e isa n essential e l e m e n t i n t o n a l music,
it a p p e a r s i n t h e m i n o r s o f r e q u e n t l y t h a t i t is
considered a n o r m a l usage. Just about all o ft h e
m u s i c t h a t w e cali m i n o r is i n fact a m i x t u r e o f
( p r e d o m i n a n t l y ) m i n o r w i t h a f e w notes f r o m t h e
m a j o r . T h e l e a d i n g n o t e is t h e o n e t h a t a p p e a r s i n
minor most often.
M o d e m i x t u r e i n v a r i a b l y reslts i n t h e a p p e a r -
ance o f chromatic notes. Indeed, w h e n t h e large
t o p i c o f c h r o m a t i c i s m i s p r e s e n t e d i n Gradus, B o o k
T w o , the concept o f m o d e m i x t u r e will be o n e o f
the best tools f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e ways i n w h i c h
c h r o m a t i c n o t e s oprate.
Natural minor
Harmonic minor
i 0
Melodic minor
* 0
S o m e theorists contend that there are three m i n o r
scales. W h a t is g a i n e d b y t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n ? C a n i t b e
said that a piece is i n t h e h a r m o n i c m i n o r m o d e ?
N o t a t all. A piece is i n t h e m i n o r m o d e . M u s i c i n
the m i n o r a l m o s t always uses notes f r o m t h e par-
allel m a j o r , starting w i t h ( b u t n o t limited to) t h e
leading note. I tisn't necessary t o i n v e n t d i f f e r e n t
scales t o e x p l a i n t h e t w o v e r s i o n s o f 6 a n d 7 , since
they c a n b e easily u n d e r s t o o d as t h ep r o d u c t o f
m o d e m i x t u r e . A n d it's i m p o r t a n t t o realize that
that " h a r m o n i c " a n d "melodic" are purely descrip-
tive t e r m s that have little application, w h i l e t h e
concept o f m o d e m i x t u r e is o n e o f t h e m o s t f r u i t -
ful i n music theory.
 5
Tonality 3: Other Modes

Most o f the music y o u k n o w , written between 1700 The Dorian mode

a n d 1900, as well as m u c h o f today's p o p u l a r
music, uses either t h e m a j o r o r t h e m i n o r m o d e .
But there isa large body o fmusic that does not.
M u c h o f t h e music written before about 1600, ^ W H W W W H W
some popular music, some folk melodies, and m a n y
A n obvious difference between t h e Dorian mode
chants are based o n other modes. T h e most i m p o r -
a n d t h e d-scale is i n t h e p l a c e m e n t o f 6. I t is a h a l f
tant o f these are i n t r o d u c e d i n this section.
step above 5 i nm i n o r , but a w h o l e step above 5 i n
Dorian.
HOW T O TELL T H ETONIC K e y signatures
B u t a m o d e is m o r e t h a n a scale. A m o d e c o n -
won't always bea good guide t othe tonic i n modes
tains a n u m b e r o f melodic impulses, a n d each
other than major a n d minor. W eneed another
m o d e has its o w n c h a r a c t e r . C o n s i d e r this c h a n t :
w a y o f finding t h e c e n t r a l n o t e b e f o r e l o o k i n g a t
those modes. Y o u can't d e p e n d o n t h e leading
Kyrie
note, since i tis absent f r o m m a n y modes. I n t h e
melodies studied thus f a r y o ucould make a n
i n f o r m e d guess a b o u t t h e t o n i c , a n d this will also
be t r u e o f s o m e m o d a l melodies. B u t t h e r e is a
surer way.
m Ky

r
ri
- 1
e e

1 r ^ ^ "| i
le -
<

i - son

i
THE 5TH T h e o n e i n t e r v a l that h a s t h e p o w e r
' J.
S r~
to d e f i n e a t o n i c is t h e perfect 5 t h . W h e t h e r h e a r d
successively o r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t w o notes a 5 t h Ky - ri e e le - i - son
apart convey t h esense that t h el o w e r o n e is t h e
tonic, t h eu p p e r o n e t h ed o m i n a n t . T h i s applies
not o n l y t om a j o r - a n d m i n o r - m o d e m u s i c , b u t also
to c e r t a i n o f t h e m o d e s w e w i l l b e discussing h e r e .
Since n o tevery m e l o d y includes a perfect 5th,
mm Ky - ri - e e -
m le - i - son.

its inversin, t h e p e r f e c t 4 t h , m a y d o a l m o s t a s w e l l T h e m e l o d y h a s a m i n o r sound, b u ti t isn't i n d .

in defining the tonic. M a n y melodies begin with a n
u p w a r d s k i p o f a 4 t h , f r o m 5 t o 8 . R e v i e w The Ash
Grove a n d The Violet, w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o
the perfect 4ths a n d5ths that point t o t h e tonic
note.
W e n o wconsider t h emost important modes
other than major a n dminor. T h e examples a r e
d r a w n f r o m c h a n t as well as folk music.
DORIAN O n eo f t h e oldest m o d e s w e k n o w is
the D o r i a n . M a n y chants a n d folk melodies a r e
b a s e d o n t h e D o r i a n m o d e . H e r e i t is:
T h e diatonic 6 is B q n o tB k M o r e i m p o r t a n t , C ,
the subtonic, moves u p t oD . T h e tonic makes itself
felt n o tt h r o u g h t h e leading note, b u t t h r o u g h a
m o t i o n t h a t circles a r o u n d D : E - D - C - D . T h a t
m e l o d i c t u r n is characteristic o f t h e D o r i a n m o d e ,
not the m i n o r .
H e r e t h e first t h r e e n o t e s i n c l u d e t h e p e r f e c t 5 t h
that defines the tonic. T h o s e notes tell y o u that the
c h a n t is i n a k e y based o nD , b u t y o u can't b e sure
o f t h e m o d e u n t i l t h e p h r a s e is c o m p l e t e d .
I n a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t vein, h e r e is a n A m e r i -
can sea chantey.

9
H a u l A w a y , Joe U.S.A. T h e t o n i c is D . I st h e m o d e D o r i a n o r m i n o r ? T h e
presence o f B b m i g h t suggest m i n o r . B u t f o u r
de f a c t o r s arge i n f a v o r o f t h e D o r i a n m o d e :

T h e m e l o d i c c i r c l i n g a r o u n d t h e t o n i c , D - C - D , is t y p i c a l
When I was a lit-tle boy my moth-er al-ways told me:
o f the D o r i a n m o d e (subtonic t o tonic again).
T h e r e is n o l e a d i n g n o t e .
I n c h a n t , w h e n e v e r B a p p e a r s b e t w e e n t w o A s , t h a t B is
a l w a y s flatted n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e m o d e .
Way, haul a-way, we'U haul a - way, Joe. She said, T h e r e a r e n o chants i nt h e m i n o r m o d e .

T a k e n t o g e t h e r , these faets m a k e i tclear t h a t t h e

c h a n t is i n t h e D o r i a n m o d e .
If I did not kiss the girls, my lips would grow all mold-y,

5^5 MIXOLYDIAN

H e r e is t h e scale o f t h e M i x o l y d i a n m o d e .
Way, haul a-way, we'll haul a - w a y , Joe.
The Mixolydian scale
T h e o p e n i n g 4 t h suggests t h a t C is t h e tonic, a n d
o o--
this isc o n f i r m e d b y t h e descent t oC a t t h e e n d o f O *>
5
t h e p h r a s e , i n 4 . B u t i f t h e t o n i c is C a n d t h e s o u n d
W W H W W H W
i s m i n o r , w h y a r e t h e r e o n l y t w o fats i n t h e k e y
s i g n a t u r e ? W e w r i t e o u t t h e scale d r a w n f r o m t h e
The G-scale
piece, s t a r t i n g o n C .

The c-Dorian Scale 3E r r

W W H W W W H

33C
C o m p a r i n g t h e M i x o l y d i a n scale w i t h t h a t o f G ,
W H W W W H W y o u see t h a t t h e r e is a d i f f e r e n c e o f o n e note.
W h e r e t h e m a j o r - m o d e versin o f 7 i s t h e l e a d i n g
T h e m o d e is D o r i a n , t r a n s p o s e d t o C . J u s t as
n o t e , t h e M i x o l y d i a n versin o f 7 i s t h e s u b t o n i c .
m a j o r a n d m i n o r scales m a y b e g i n o n a n y n o t e , s o
Y o u have just seen h o wsignificant such a differ-
m a y t h e scales o f o t h e r m o d e s . I n p r i n t e d collec-
e n c e c a n be. W e t u r n t o a c h a n t t o see t h e m o d e i n
tions, folk music m a y appear i n just about a n y key.
action.
T h e choice is m a d e b y t h e collector o r b y t h e
editor. Plainchant always appears i n itsoriginal
key, since transposition w a s u n k n o w n i n t h e M i d - Veni Creator Spiritus
dle Ages.
5i
T h a t t h e 7 t h degree (here B b )isn't t h e decisive r -f *m | N J V - f l f -
J F f F f U
T TJ f f
(JT)
4
factor i n t h e D o r i a n m o d e m a y be seen f r o m t h e
next example: v< :-ni Cre-a tor S pi-ri-tus , Men-tes tu-ci - rum vi -si - ta;

Kyrie IHL ft ~~W? F t - :

9- -i 000

Im -ple-su - pe " - na Ta-ti-a.

g Quae tu ere-;is-ti p :c-to-ra.

Ky - ri - e e le - i - son O f t e n i n m o d a l t o n a l i t y t h e t o n i c isn't i n as

=#=FFr njTn * 0 J
c o m m a n d i n g a position as i t is i n m a j o r - m i n o r
t o n a l i t y . T h i s i s t h e c a s e i n Veni Creator Spiritus.
T h e chant does begin a n d e n d o n G , a n d that note
Chris-te e le - i - son is t h e t o n i c . B u t t h e 5 t h G - D i s n ' t e m p h a s i z e d ,

Ky - ri
m le - i

10
w h i c h m a k e s t h e t o n i c less o b v i o u s t h a n i n m e l o -
dies w h e r e t h e 5 t h is s t r o n g l y p r e s e n t e d .
A t t h e very b e g i n n i n g t h e subtonic, F , is part o f
a m o t i o n that circles a r o u n d t h e tonic. T h i s s u g -
gests t h a t w h i l e G is t h e t o n i c n o t e , t h e m o d e is
Mixolydian rather than major. Another Mixoly-
dian feature ist h eemphasis o n 4 rather than 5, i n
t h e first a n d t h i r d p h r a s e s . O b s e r v e , t o o , t h a t o f
the f o u r resting points i nt h emelody two areo nC,
one o n D ,a n do n l y o n eo nG .
A n o t h e r M i x o l y d i a n chant illustrates t h e use o f
the flatted B between two As.
Credo
note appears, t a k e n f r o m t h ep a r a l l e l m a j o r , D .
T h a t is t h e o n l y u s e o f t h e l e a d i n g n o t e i n t h e
melody; t h e s u b t o n i c ish e a r d i n e v e r y o t h e r case.
M o r e s u r p r i s i n g l y , i n 7 , t h e diatonic F f gives
w a y t o F\\. T h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s i s n ' t c l e a r u n t i l t h e
m e l o d y finds i t s w a y b a c k t o t h e t o n i c i n t h e l a s t
measure. T h e n w e hear that t h eclosing o f t h e
melody is D o r i a n . T h e m i x t u r e o f M i x o l y d i a n ,
major, a n d D o r i a n is u n u s u a l , a n d particularly
beautiful here.

LYDIAN T h e L y d i a n m o d e is b u i l t o n F .

Cre-do in u-num De-o Pa - trem om-ni-po-ten-tem The Lydian scale

^J>J>J'JJIi)JJ>J>J'S
Fac-to-rem coe-li et ter-rae vi-si-bi-Ii-um om-ni-um
IT
W
O
W W
^

H
o

W
o

W
*

H

T h e first t h r e e i n t e r v a l s o f t h e s c a l e a r e w h o l e
^ et in-vi-si - b i - l i - um.
steps (trtone). S i n c e t r i t o n e s a r e f o r b i d d e n i n c h a n t ,
m u s i c i a n s e l i m i n a t e d t h e m b y flatting t h e B . I n
T h i s chant w a sused b y J . S. B a c h i n t h e C r e d o o f effect, t h e r e s u l t is a n F-scale.
his Mass i nB m i n o r . Despite t h e absence o f t h e
u p p e r D , t h e m e l o d y is s t r o n g l y centered a r o u n d The F-scale
G . B b appears o n l y b e t w e e n t w o A s , as i t w o u l d i n
any m o d e . A n di f y o u have observed that the only
c h r o m a t i c note ever used i nchant is B b ,y o u a r e o
quite right. W W H W W W H
C a n there b em i x t u r e o fmodes other than major
a n d m i n o r ? T h e n e x t m e l o d y answers t h e ques- T h e f o l l o w i n g c h a n t is described as L y d i a n i n
tion.
t h e Lber Usualis.

As I Walked through the M e a d o w s ENGLISH

Kyrie

1As I walk'd thru the mead - ows to

Ky-ri - e e - le-i-son.

take the fresh air, The_ Flow-ers were bloom - ing and T o o u r e a r s t h e m e l o d y is i n F . B u t M e d i e v a l m u s i c
5 theory didn't a c k n o w l e d g e a m a j o r m o d e . W a s F

u as r u
t h e first m a j o r m o d e ? I n c h a n t , y e s . Q u i t e p o s s i b l y
there w a s f o l k m u s i c i n t h e m a j o r b e f o r e t h e chant,
gay; I heard_ a young dam - sel so
but w e h a v e n o r e c o r d o f it.

PHRYGIAN C o n s i d e r this scale:

w
w * ' J " -4-' o-
sweet-ly a-sing, Her_ cheeks like the blos - som in May
The Phrygian scale

T h e t o n i c n o t e is D . W i t h b u t o n e sharp i nt h e k e y y o
FRN O
signature, t h e m o d e is M i x o l y d i a n . T h e m e l o d y is o
-Wo
diatonic until 4 .T h e n ( m o d e m i x t u r e ) t h e leading H W W W H W W

11
T h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h i s scale
a n d t h o s e s t u d i e d p r e v i o u s l y . I n t h e o t h e r scales
t h e first i n t e r v a l i s a w h o l e s t e p , n o m a t t e r w h a t
i n t e r v a l s f o l l o w . I n t h e P h r y g i a n t h e first i n t e r v a l
is a h a l f s t e p . T h i s h a s s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g i m p l i c a -
tions f o rmelodies i n t h e P h r y g i a n mode. A chant
illustrates s o m e o f t h e m .
Pange Lingua
D o r i a n a n d M i x o l y d i a n . A l li n a l l , this m i n o r -
s o u n d i n g m o d e is quite different f r o m t h e m i n o r
with which w ea r e familiar.
I n m o d a l tonality, t h e tonic does n o t hold t h e
c o m m a n d i n g position i t assumes i n later music.
T h e P h r y g i a n i s e v e n less d e f i n i t e t h a n t h e o t h e r
m o d e s i n c o n v e y i n g a sense o f tonic; that's part o f
its c h a r m .
PENTATONIC SCALES F i v e - n o t e scales a r e

J ) j ) J i J l J * J 'c r r i c r p p p p
a m o n g t h e w o r l d ' s oldest. I t is possible t o f o r m
J m a n y s u c h s c a l e s , f o r t h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s the
Pan-ge lin-gua glo-ri - o - si Cor-po-ris mys-te-ri-um,_ p e n t a t o n i c s c a l e . T h e f a m i l i a r five-note s c a l e t h a t
corresponds t o t h e black keys o ft h e piano is a n
anhemitonic pentatonic scalethat i s , a five-note s c a l e
w i t h n o h a l f steps (there a r equite a f e w o f this
San-gui-nis-que p r e - t i - o - s i , Quem in mun-di pre-ti-um_

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Anhemitonic pentatonic scale

Fruc-tus ven-tris ge-ne-ro-si, Rex ef-fu-dit-gen-ti-um.

O b s e r v e that F is barely m e n t i o n e d i nt h e mel-

i o
3E o:
JO

ody. T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e lack o f emphasis o nB so t y p e o f scale, t o o ) . T h e a n h e m i t o n i c p e n t a t o n i c

characteristic o f t h e P h r y g i a n m o d e , this means
that t h e t r i t o n e F B will n o tappear. W e also look
in vain f o rt h e perfect 5 t hthat m i g h t help identify
the m o d e . Instead, t h e m o t i o n s that circle a r o u n d
the central note ultimately define t h e tonic. T h e
melodic notes that come t ot h e fore are G , A , a n d
C . D ,t h e s u b t o n i c , also plays a r o l e , as i t d i d i n
scale h a s n o b u i l t - i n t o n i c . T h e m u s i c i t s e l f estab-
lishes t h e tonic, o f t e n v i at h e perfect 5 t h . T h e t w o
e x a m p l e s b e l o w Ilstrate t h e p o i n t . B o t h m e l o d i e s
u s e t h e s a m e five p i t c h e s , F , G , A , C , a n d D . Y e t
t h e first i s i n F a n d t h e s e c o n d i n d . C l e a r l y t h e
a n h e m i t o n i c p e n t a t o n i c scale d o e s n ' t d e f i n e a k e y .
W h a t does, i neach m e l o d y ?

N o b o d y K n o w s the T r o u b l e I ' v e S e e n U.S.A.

No-bod - y knows the trou-ble I've seen,_ No-bod - y knows my sor - row, No-bod - y knows the

Fine 10

* s m a
trou-ble I've seen,. Glo - ry, Hal - le - lu - jah! Some - times I'm up, some - times I'm down,

1
- Jf~-\z n ~m m
yP " K J! R. R- S

Oh yes, Lord, Some - times I'm al to the ground, Oh, yes, Lord.

Reviva! Song U.S.A.

Sin-ner please don't let

m
this har-vest pass,- Sin-ner please don't let this har-vest pass,
pp

har-vest
10 3 15

^~*
pass, _ Sin-ner please don't- let this har - vest pass, And die and lose_ your soul at last.

12
 I n Nobody Knows, F s o o n a s s e r t s i t s e l f a s t h e m a i n
note. E v e n t h o u g h t h e5 t h doesn't s o u n d i n the
first p a r t o f t h e m e l o d y , t h e 4 t h , C F , i s s t r o n g
e n o u g h t o i m p l y t h a t F is tonic. T h e later appear-
ance o f t h e 5 t h confirms this. W e say that the
m e l o d y isi n F , u s i n g o n l y t h e notes o f t h e a n h e m -
i t o n i c p e n t a t o n i c scale.
T h e Revival Song b e g i n s w i t h t h e n o t e s D F - A .
T h i s tells y o u t h a t t h etonic is D a n d t h e s o u n d
m i n o r . W i t h t h esubtonic m o v i n g t ot h etonic, the
m o d e is D o r i a n r a t h e r t h a n m i n o r . O n l y t h e notes
o f t h e a n h e m i t o n i c p e n t a t o n i c scale a r e used.
I n s u m m a r y , b o t h m e l o d i e s u s e t h e s a m e pitches,
b u t t h e k e y s a r e d i f f e r e n t . I n Nobody Knows, C - F
d e f i n e s F a s t o n i c . I n t h e Revival Song, D A t e l l s
y o u t h a t D is t h e t o n i c n o t e .
NON-WESTERN MODES W h i l e t h e f o c u s o f
Gradus i s o n W e s t e r n m u s i c , w e ' d a l s o l i k e t o i n t r o -
d u c e t w o m o d e s t h a t c o m e f r o m o t h e r parts o f the
world. Each has some similarity t o major o r minor,
b u t each also h a s i n t e r e s t i n g differences.
A JAPANESE SCALE A scale h e a r d frequently
i n Japanese music is this:
0 1
o
Why can I not rest? Birds fly-ing past my.guard house
must dis-turb my sleep. No, it is not the bird cries
10
Sor - row dis - turbs my heart, my rest.
S C A L E S W I T H A U G M E N T E D 2NDS T h e
interval o fa n a u g m e n t e d 2 n ddoes n o t t u r n u p i n
Western music until the middle o f the eighteenth
century. I n y o u r early h a r m o n y a n d counterpoint
exercises y o u ' l l b e advised t o a v o i d t h a t i n t e r v a l i n
any m e l o d y . B u t t h e a u g m e n t e d 2 n d plays a n
important role i n Arabic music a n d i n musical
cultures influenced b y it. T h e r e is a w h o l e family
o f scales t h a t u s e t h i s e x o t i c i n t e r v a l i n m u s i c o f
the M i d d l e East, N o r t h Africa, m u c h o f t h e B a l -
kans, S p a i n , a n dGreece. I talso plays a n i m p o r t a n t
role i n s o m e J e w i s h music, b o t h sacred a n d secular.
Scales c o n t a i n i n g t h e a u g m e n t e d 2 n d h a v e d i f -
f e r e n t ames i n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s :

Jewish: A h a v a Rabah, n a m e d after a prayer

T h i s i s a n o t h e r p e n t a t o n i c scale. U n l i k e t h e scale
o n page 1 2 ,i tincludes t w o semitones. T h e inter-
v a l s o f t h i s scale, n o t l i m i t e d t o steps, a r e h a l f step,
m a j o r 3 r d , w h o l e step, h a l f step. T h i s u n u s u a l
c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f intervals isj u s t o n e e x p l a n a t i o n
f o r t h e fact t h a t t h e m u s i c o f J a p a n isq u i t e differ-
ent f r o m W e s t e r n music. A b o v e r i g h t is a melody
t h a t uses t h e scale.
Arabic: Hejaz, n a m e d after a city
Rumanian: chromatic Phrygian
I n order t o indicate t h eaugmented 2 n d i n a
scale a n u n u s u a l k e y s i g n a t u r e m a y b e r e q u i r e d
( s e e Sabbath Hymn b e l o w ) . A s i n m o s t m e l o d i e s
w h o s e scale begins w i t h a h a l f step, there's a t e n -
deney t o w a r d 4 rather t h a n 5. L e a r n i n g t ohear D
as t o n i c r a t h e r t h a n G i n a m e l o d y s u c h a s t h e
Sabbath Hymn i s p a r t o f l e a r n i n g t o h e a r t h e m o d e .

JEWISH

Peace, peace grant. us _ peace,

10
Fine

0 r
on this Sab - bath day. And may it be your will, Lord to grant. us a bless - ing up - on this Sab - bath_

15 D . C. a l F i n e

o
day, For in the light. of_ Thy coun-te-nance, peace and bless - ing dwell.

13
A COMPARISON T h e t h r e e scales t h a t b e g i n T h i s excerpt f r o m a n ancient Biblicalcantillation
with a semitone a r e here transposed t o E so that (something between speech a n d song) centers
you may compare them. a r o u n d F . A l t h o u g h F i s t h e t o n i c n o t e , t h e final
phrase ends w i t h FC. Such a falling gesture,
Phrygian corresponding t o the fall o f the h u m a n voice a t the
e n d o fa statement, is heard i n m a n y examples o f
cantillation.
Ai
TRANSPOSED MODES I n p r i n c i p i e , a n y m o d e
'Augmented 2nd" m a y b e transposed s o as t o start w i t h a n y pitch.
W h e n modes w e r e transposed i n Renaissance music
-it
*>
o
**
"
fJfK only o n e transposition was used: u pa 4 t h , t o b r i n g

m
Japanesee _
the music i n t o a higher register. T h i s w a s accom-
plished b y w r i t i n g a flat a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f each
line. T h a t flat m a y l o o k like a k e y signature, b u t i t
3H is a c t u a l l y a s i g n t e l l i n g y o u t h a t t h e m o d e h a s b e e n
o transposed u pa 4th. W h a t mode? T h e only way t o
tell ist o l o o k a tthe m u s i c . T o b e sure, that's equally
true o f music w i t h o u t t h e transposition sign. O n e
NONTONIC ENDINGS W e a r e n ' t surprised e x a m p l e i n t h e A n t h o l o g y i s P a l e s t r i n a ' s Veni Snete
w h e n a melody begins o n a note other than t h e Spiritus, [9]. I t ' s i n t h e D o r i a n m o d e , t r a n s p o s e d u p
tonic, but a n o n t o n i c e n d i n g can be a bit o f a shock. a 4 t h s o t h a t t h e t o n i c is G . T h e flat after t h e c l e f
tells y o u t h a t s o m e m o d e h a sb e e n transposed. Y o u
#0- h a v e t o figure o u t t h e r e s t f o r y o u r s e l f .
D u r i n g t h ecourse o ft h e sixteenth century t h e
Ear-li-er to - night, at a par - ty bright, flat s i g n c a r n e t o h a v e t h e m e a n i n g t h a t i t h a s
t o d a y , a n d o n e flat b e c a m e t h e first k e y s i g n a t u r e .
I n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y s h a r p s a s w e l l a s fats
00 began t o appear i n key signatures. B u t groups o f
At a p a r - t y _ bright,- gos-sip-ping ga-lore. m o r e t h a n t w o fats o r s h a r p s w e r e u n u s u a l u n t i l
the eighteenth century.
I n m o d e r n editions o ffolk m u s i c melodies a r e
This song was used b y Igor Stravinsky i n his transposed t oa n y pitch level, a t t h e discretion o f
b a l l e t Petrushka. T h e m e l o d y b e g i n s o n t h e d o m i - the editor.
nant and soon reaches the tonic. T h e 5th f r o m t h e
first n o t e o f J . t o t h e l a s t n o t e d e f i n e s G a s t o n i c . A F T E R T H O U G H T D u r i n g t h e first p a r t o f t h e
T h e first i s t h e o n l y m e a s u r e t o e n d o n t h e t o n i c . s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e od m o d e s g a v e w a y t o t h e
T h e entire m e l o d y ends o n 5 , characteristic o f newer major a n dminor, a n important turning
m a n y Russian folksongs. point i n t h ehistory o fmusic. A s t h eleading note
replaced t h e subtonic, t h e D o r i a n lost its identity
Hebrew cantillation and became t h eminor. A curious notational quirk
resulted. D u e t o t h econservatism o f musicians,
there are m a n y Baroque works i nm i n o r that have
the "key signature" o ft h e D o r i a n mode. B u t t h e
m u s i c isn't D o r i a n , it's m i n o r . A n e x a m p l e i n y o u r
And the earth was un-form'd and void, and dark-ness
A n t h o l o g y i s t h e P r e l u d e b y C o u p e r i n , [24]. T h e
" s i g n a t u r e " says D o r i a n t r a n s p o s e d t o G , b u t t h e

J J=5J
m u s i c i s a c t u a l l y i n g . T h e m i s s i n g flat i s E t , a n d
t h e flat s i g n i s a d d e d t o E w h e n e v e r i t ' s n e e d e d .
was up-on the face_ of the deep; and the spir - it of T h e M i x o l y d i a n was absorbed b y the major. T h e
P h r y g i a n retained its i n d e p e n d e n t existence longer
3 t h a n a n y o f t h e o t h e r od m o d e s , s i n c e t h e h a l f
step between 1 a n d 2 couldn't b e reconciled w i t h
0 0 either major o r m i n o r . B y 1700 the two modes that
God_ hov-er'd o-ver the face of the wa-ters. w e k n o w as m a j o r a n d m i n o r w e r e used almost

14
 e x c l u s i v e l y . N o d o u b t a g o o d deal o f v a r i e t y w a s
sacrificed, b u t t h e attraction o f the m o r e m o d e r n
m o d e s w i t h t h e i r h a r m o n i c possibilities w a s t o o
great t o resist. E a r l y i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c o m -
posers w h o were seeking a fresh approach t o tonal-
ity rediscovered t h e m o d e s a n d p u t t h e m t o n e w
c r e a t i v e u s e s . T h e R u m a n i a n D a n c e s o f Bla B a r -
tk, | 5 0 | , a r e b u t o n e e x a m p l e o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t .
E F Worksheet 2

6
Melodic Elaboration 1

SKIPS AND STEPS O n e n o t e o f a m e l o d y c a n organized i n a particular way. T h e lowest note, o n

m o v e t o t h e n e x t i ne i t h e r o ft w o ways: w h i c h t h e triad is built, is t h e root. A 3 r d above
that is t h e3 r d o f t h e t r i a d . A n o t h e r 3 r d above
W h e n t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e n o t e s is a s t e p ( w h o l e o r
h a l f ) w e s p e a k o f stepwise motion, o r conjunct motion.
that, a n d a 5 t h above t h e root, is t h e 5 t h o f t h e
W h e n t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e notes is l a r g e r t h a n a triad.
s t e p w e s p e a k o f a skip o r disjunct motion.
Major triad Minor triad
M o s t m e l o d i e s c o n t a i n a m i x o f skips a n d steps. Major Triad Minor Triad
T h e m i x vares f r o m o n e m e l o d y t o a n o t h e r , a n d
that m i xis p a r t o f each melody's character. M a n y
folksongs a n d chants begin with a nu p w a r d skip. JB -_ o J^- 1

W e c o m p a r e s u c h s k i p s t o t h e rise o f t h e h u m a n M3rd m3rd m3rd M3rd

voice a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o fa sentence.
A n u n d e r l y i n g i d e a o f m u s i c t h e o r y i n Gradus i s
that certain notes a r e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o t h e struc-
t u r e o f m u s i c t h a n others, I n t h estudy o f m e l o d y ,
t h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e r e a r e main notes a n d o t h e r s t h a t
elabrate t h e m . H o w d o w e d e t e r m i n e w h i c h a r e
t h e m a i n n o t e s ? O n e w a y is t o start w i t h a n e l e m e n t
y o u o f t e n find i n m e l o d y , t h e t r i a d , a n d s e e h o w i t
is e l a b o r a t e d i n s p e c i f i c w a y s .
A b a s i c c o m p o n e n t i n t o n a l m u s i c i s t h e triad. A s
t h e ame i m p l i e s , i t is a g r o u p o f t h r e e notes
THE TRIAD IN T H E MELODY T h e illustra-
tion shows t w otypes o f triads, m a j o r a n d m i n o r .
E a c h t a k e s i t s a m e f r o m t h e first i n t e r v a l a b o v e
the root. T h e study o ftriads aschords (simultane-
ous sounds) is very m u c h a part o ft h e study o f
h a r m o n y a n d c o u n t e r p o i n t . T r i a d s m a y also b e
expressed i n melody. Each o f t h e triads s h o w n
above m a yappear i n a m e l o d y i n three different
ways (see below). I n o t h e r w o r d s , i n a m e l o d y , t h e
notes o ft h e triad m a y appear i na n y order.

Three ways of stating a major triad melodically

o
o o
1 ^" V}
o ~

Three ways of stating a minor triad melodically

root 3rd 5th root 3rd 5th 5th root 3rd

4V i O 1i o 1
} ... *> *>
*>
o

15
THE TONIC TRIAD A t this p o i n t w e focus o n
t h e t r i a d w h o s e r o o t is t h e t o n i c n o t e o f a scale.
T h i s c h o r d , c a l l e d t h e tonic triad, i s a p o w e r f u l
u n i f y i n g forc i n m e l o d y . F o r t h a t r e a s o n y o u h e a r
it i n m a n y t u n e s . A f t e r l o c a t i n g t h e t r i a d i n t h e
m e l o d y y o u can g o o n t o i d e n t i f y a t least s o m e o f
the notes that aren't part o f the triad. A n o t h e r
l o o k a t a f a m i l i a r t u n e , The Ash Grove, o n p a g e 4 .
T h e triad is i nthe background o f the entire first
phrase. All notes that are members o f the triad are
m a r k e d . T h e o t h e r n o t e s a r e embellishments o r elab-
orations o f t h e t r i a d n o t e s . E l a b o r a t i v e n o t e s p l a y
a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n c o u n t e r p o i n t as w e l l as i n t h e
study o f melody. H o w c a nw e understand such
notes?
T h e r e are c e r t a i n specific techniques f o r m e l o d i c
elaboration, w h i c h we will introduce here in their
simplest forms. A s y o u proceed t h r o u g h the study
o f h a r m o n y a n d c o u n t e r p o i n t y o u ' l l find m a n y
applications o f these techniques. T h e i r uses will
g r o w i n c o m p l e x i t y , but the principies established
now will r e m a i n valid.
P A S S I N G N O T E S T h e first n o t e i n t h e m e l o d y
above that's n o t a m e m b e r o f the t r i a d is F . I t
c o n n e c t s o r filis t w o t r i a d n o t e s , G a n d E . S i n c e t h e
m e l o d y " p a s s e s t h r o u g h " t h e F , w e c a l i t h i s a pass-
ing note ( a b b r e v i a t e d P ) . O c c a s i o n a l l y t w o P s m a y
fill a 4 t h , b u t m o s t o f t e n a P filis a 3 r d .
Bb. A r e t u r n s i m m e d i a t e l y . W e say t h a t A is t h e
main note a n d B b t h e neighbor note. T h e f o u r t h n o t e
o f the m e l o d y , G , isa n o t h e r N . I n these few notes
you see t h e t w o possible ways o f placing t h e N
either a step above the m a i n note (upper N ) o r a
s t e p b e l o w ( l o w e r N ) . I n b o t h cases, t h e N r e t u r n s
i m m e d i a t e l y t o its m a i n n o t e .
Later i n t h e phrase there is another N , B k
B e f o r e A t h e r e is a P a n d a f t e r i t a P . A t t h e e n d o f
the phrase the m a i n note is the tonic, D , w i t h the
s u b t o n i c , C , as a N . H o w v e r y D o r i a n !
D I A T O N I C A N D C H R O M A T I C Ns A l l o f t h e
Ns h e a r d sofar have been diatonic notes. B u t even
in m u s i c as s i m p l e as f o l k s o n g t h e r e a r e a few
chromatic notes. I n the e x a m p l e below, the second
note does just w h a t w e expect a N t odo: it elabo-
r a t e s a m a i n n o t e , G ) t . B u t F f t t i s n ' t p a r t o f t h e c-
scale. T h a t n o t e is c h r o m a t i c , a n d w e d e f i n e i t as a
chromatic N. T h i s p a r t i c u l a r o n e r e t u r n s t w i c e i n
the course o f the melody.
INCOMPLETE N T h e N is n o r m a l l y part o fa
three-note group: m a i n note, N , m a i n note again.
This may be shortened t o a two-note group, the
incomplete neighbor ( I N ) .Either the m a i n note or
t h e N m a y b e first.
Neighbor notes

NEIGHBOR NOTES A n o t h e r t y p e o f elabora- Complete neighbor group Incomplete neighbor notes

t i o n i s t h e neighbor note o r auxiliary note ( T h e a b b r e - N A II N
N II N
N_

v i a t i o n f o r t h i s is N ) .

Kyrie
4
Revival Song

Ky - ri-e e - - - le- i - son

T h e t r i a d i n t h e m e l o d y is p r o m i n e n t i n t h e i n i t i a l
The first n o t e , A , is f o l l o w e d b ya n adjacent note, p h r a s e . T h e first n o n t r i a d n o t e , G , i s a P . T h e n e x t

Young M a n ' s Song HUNGARY

Jj IJJJ J U i c _ r r i c j r
What a girl, is my girl, Pret- ti - er than an - y. Hap-py me, luck-y me, hap-pi-er than an - y.

10 15

n n\.i Si + 1

Ap-ples grow, peach-es grow, ev-'ry-where you look, But, no-where else is a girl, who's as sweet as my girl.

16
G comes f r o m i t s n e i g h b o r F , b u ti t skips away with a P,A . T a k e n together, the four-note group
without r e t u r n i n g t o the m a i n note. W e say that consists o f a s k i p a n d p a s s i n g n o t e ( S P ) .
the n e i g h b o r is i n c o m p l e t e ( I N ) . A n o t h e r t e r m for
t h i s e l a b o r a t i v e n o t e i s chapee. S U M M A R Y A n o t h e r m e l o d y reveis s e v e r a l d i f -
ferent elaborative techniques.
DOUBLE NEIGHBOR NOTE Imagine a five-
note group: D - E b - D - C - D . The Vicar of B r a y ENGLAND

A N N DN

In good King Charles 's gold - en days, When

W e can easily u n d e r s t a n d w h a t holds the g r o u p
together. D is t h e m a i n n o t e , E b is a N , D is t h e
m a i n n o t e a g a i n , C is a n o t h e r N , a n d D closes t h e
g r o u p a s t h e m a i n n o t e . T h e five-note g r o u p m a y
J J J J
loy - al - ty no
)fp
crime meant,
be s h o r t e n e d to a f o u r - n o t e g r o u p by o m i t t i n g the
m i d d l e ( m a i n ) n o t e . T h e f o u r - n o t e g r o u p is called
t h e double neighbor, D N . I t c o m p r i s e s t h e o p e n i n g T h r o u g h o u t t h e first t h r e e m e a s u r e s , w e f e e l t h a t
o f this m e l o d y : A is a c o n t r o l l i n g n o t e a r o u n d w h i c h t h e o t h e r s
gravitate. B u t j u s t h o w does A direct the melodic
Sabbath H y m n JEWISH flow?

Peace, peace, grant us peace,

T h e melody begins with a skip o f a 4 t h u p ,

suggesting that D is t h e tonic note a n d A t h e
grant u s _ peace and bless - ing Peace, peace,
d o m i n a n t . T h e s k i p i s filled a t o n c e w i t h t w o P s .
T h u s t h e first g r o u p h a s five n o t e s , a n d i s a S P .
T h i s is a n e x a m p l e o f a S P c o v e r i n g t h e i n t e r v a l o f
a 4th. T h e m a i n note is A .
T h e fifth n o t e o f t h e m e l o d y , A , b e l o n g s t o t w o
grant us peace, on this Sab-bath day.
g r o u p s . N o t o n l y i s i t p a r t o f t h e first g r o u p ( S P ) ,
b u t it's a l s o p a r t o f t h e s e c o n d g r o u p , a D N . N o t
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e first n o t e o f t h e g r o u p i s r e p e a t e d s u r p r i s i n g l y , A is t h e m a i n n o t e i n b o t h g r o u p s .
d o e s n o t a f f e c t its i d e n t i t y as a D N . A remains t h em a i n note i n t h ethird group,
a n o t h e r S P . T h i s s k i p is d o w n w a r d a n d is a 3 r d .
SKIP AND PASSING N O T E I n t e r v a l s l a r g e r t h a n Y o u see t h a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t e l a b o r a t i o n s o f a m a i n
a step m a y also b e used i n melodic elaboration. n o t e b u i l d t h e o p e n i n g o f the m e l o d y . I n 34 t h e
This m a y involve a small skip i n o n edirection, melody descends f r o m 5 t o 1,closing the circuit.
filled i n a t o n c e w i t h s t e p w i s e m o t i o n i n t h e o p p o - T h e D confirms the tonic and brings the melody
site d i r e c t i o n f o r a r e t u r n t ot h e m a i n n o t e . t o i t s first r e s t i n g p o i n t .
W i t h this t y p e o f analysis y o u b e g i n t oget b e y o n d
SP the one-note-at-a-time approach t o music. B y
g r o u p i n g notes y o u can see larger units and find
t h e u n i t y i n a m u s i c a l p h r a s e . W e w i l l continu t h i s
Vi-o-let, O, so mod-est, How you do hide your bloom? approach t om e l o d y i n the next section.

T h e first f o u r n o t e s f o r m a g r o u p a r o u n d t h e m a i n
n o t e , B . T h e s k i p d o w n t o G i s i m m e d i a t e l y filled O " Worksheet 3

17
 7
Melodic Structure: An Introduction
MELODIC STRUCTURE T h r o u g h t h e study o f
the triad i n t h e melody y o u have been introduced
to a f u n d a m e n t a l idea o fm u s i c t h e o r y : s o m e o f
the notes i n a piece o f m u s i c m a yb e considered t o
be m a i n notes w h i l e o t h e r s ( t h e m a j o r i t y ) a r e
embellishing notes. T h o s e m a i n notes, taken
t o g e t h e r , a r e w h a t w e d e f i n e a s t h e melodic structure.
W h e n w e speak o f m a i n notes, w e a r e n o t suggest-
ing that they are m o r e i m p o r t a n t o rm o r e expres-
sive t h a n t h e elaborative ones. W e m e a n that t h e
notes that are structural a r e t h e f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e
pitch organization o ft h e melody.
QUICK ASCENT I s t h e first n o t e o f a m e l o d y
a l w a y s t h e first m a i n n o t e ? N o t n e c e s s a r i l y . M a n y
m e l o d i e s b e g i n w i t h a quick ascent. T h i s c o n s i s t s o f
a note, o rt w o o r three notes, that rise f r o m some
l o w p o i n t t o t h e first m a i n n o t e . O n c e a g a i n t h e r e ' s
a parallel with h u m a n speech, because m a n y spo-
ken sentences also begin w i t h a n u p w a r d inflection.
T h e K y r i e o n page 1 1begins w i t h a quick ascent
t o t h e first m a i n n o t e , 5 ( C ) .
MELODIC ANALYSIS W e analyze a melody t o
learn what holds it together. W e ask which are the
m a i n notes a n d w h i c h a r e t h eelaborative ( a n d
c o n n e c t i n g ) ones. M e l o d i c analysis is a c o m p l e x
matter, r e q u i r i n g years o fstudy t o master. Y o u are
not expected t o p e r f o r m such analysis here. B u t
the ability t o read a simple analytic sketch, like
those i n this section, will b eh e l p f u l i ny o u r f u r t h e r
studies. E a c h sketch t h a t f o l l o w s consists o f t h r e e
l i n e s . T h e first i s t h e m e l o d y i t s e l f ; t h e s e c o n d i s
simply a l l t h e melody's pitches, w i t h repetitions
e l i m i n a t e d . T h i s i s t h e pitch content o f t h e m e l o d y ,
w h i c h is bracketed i n t o g r o u p s m a d e o f neighbor
a n d passing motions. T h u s t h e m a i n notes a r e
revealed o n t h e t h i r d line.
T h e procedure b y w h i c h t h e m a i n notes a r e
e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e p i t c h c o n t e n t i s c a l l e d reduction.
It is a p o w e r f u l a n duseful analytic tool, which
enables y o u t o discover t h e f o u n d a t i o n below t h e
surface o ft h e melody.
18
A BASIC P A T T E R N Isthere some kind o f con-
sistent p a t t e r n i n t h e w a y t h em a i n notes follow
each o t h e r i n a m e l o d y ? T h e r e certainly is. M a i n
notes a r e n o t strung together i n a n arbitrary way.
T h e y fall into a f e w identifiable patterns, starting
f r o m a note o f t h e tonic triad a n d descending t o
t h e tonic. E a c h o f these basic patterns c a n b e ( a n d
has been) elaborated i n a n infinite n u m b e r o f ways.
O n e such pattern is 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 . Y o uwill see
t h a t i t lies b e h i n d s o m e o f t h e m e l o d i e s a l r e a d y
studied, including this English folksong:
The V i c a r of B r a y (first phrase)
^ A Melody | [
Pitch groups
T h e groupings s h o w n o n t h e second line are famil-
iar t o y o u f r o m t h e discussion i n t h e p r e v i o u s
section. T h e t w o SPs, w i t h skips i n opposite direc-
tions, a r eseparated b y a D N . A is t h e m a i n note
u n t i l t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 3. T h e s k i p d o w n t o D m a y
be t a k e n as f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n o fA . T h i s skip also
presents t h e 5 t h that confirms t h e tonic, anticipates
the closing D , a n d h a st h e effect o f "stepping o n
the brakes," slowing d o w n t h e melodic energy i n
p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e first p h r a s e e n d i n g . A f t e r t h a t ,
4 3 - 2 1 f o l l o w i n r a p i d succession.
I n t h e n e x t e x a m p l e , 5 i s t h e first n o t e a n d a l s o
t h e first m a i n n o t e . I t c o n t r o l s m o r e t h a n h a l f t h e
phrase. We'll c o m p a r e its d u r a t i o n w i t h that o f
m a i n notes i nsubsequent melodies.
Kyrie Kyrie

Melody Melody

Pitch group
N S+(P) P i t c h groups N S+(P) N T r i a d
I I l 1 1
' 'i 1
0

zz=
i i i i
N (triad partly N quick ascent N
filled in) M a i n notes
M a m notes 4 3 2 1 5 5 4 3 2 1
2C
xz

T h e first m a i n n o t e i s 5 , e x t e n d e d b y N s a t t h e
outset. T h e n t h em e l o d y skips d o w n a 5 t h a n d
r e t u r n s t h r o u g h t h e triad. T h a t t r i a d isused as a n
e m b e l l i s h i n g device, w i t h A as t h e m a i n note. T h e
t r i a d i s p a r t l y filled w i t h a P , G .
A s t h em e l o d y rebounds f r o m t h e skip d o w n o f
a 5 t h , t h e largest skip i n this chant, u p w a r d
m o m e n t u m carries i tt h r o u g h A a n d t oanother N ,
Bb. T h e r e t u r n t oA completes another N group
a n d starts t h e descent t o t h e tonic, 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 .
A g a i n , 5 is stretched o u t f o r o v e r h a l f the m e l o d y ,
while 4 , 3 , a n d 2 appear as m a i n notes b u t once
each. T h e concluding 1 is embellished with aN ,
the subtonic.
A b o v e right is another example, a b i t m o r e
sophisticated t h a n t h e preceeding one, b u t based
o n t h e s a m e p r i n c i p i e . T h i s c h a n t is i n F . T h e t o n i c
triad plays a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e m e l o d y , a n d
i t s 5 t h i s t h e m a i n n o t e , b u t n o t t h e first n o t e . T h e
chant begins w i t h a quick ascent t o 5.T h a t ascent
moves t h r o u g h t h e notes o f t h e tonic triad, with
o n e P , Bb. T h e u p w a r d m o m e n t u m carries t h r o u g h
5 t o6 , a N . N os o o n e r ist h eu p p e r N h e a r d t h a n
t h e l o w e r f o l l o w s . T h i s k e e p s 5 i n its c o m m a n d i n g
position.
T h e s k i p u p t o F b r i n g s t h e m e l o d y t o its h i g h e s t
point. T h a t skip iselaborative, w i t h a r e t u r n t o t h e
m a i n n o t e t h a t ' s p a r d y filled. S u c h a p a r t i a l r e t u r n
f r o m a s k i p i s a n o t h e r versin o f t h e S P .
T w o m o r e N s a r et h e same as t h e t w o i n t h e
earlier part o f the chant, but i n reverse order.
Preparing for the end, t h e melody moves d o w n
t h r o u g h the triad t otouch the tonic note. C o m p a r e
t h e f o u r - n o t e g r o u p h e r e w i t h t h e first f o u r n o t e s
o f the melody. W h a t d o you find?
3rd 2nd 2nd 3rd 2nd 2nd
T h e s e c o n d s h a p e i s t h e inversin o f t h e first.
T h a t is, ascending intervals a r e replaced b y
d e s c e n d i n g i n t e r v a l s o f t h e s a m e size, u s i n g d i a -
t o n i c n o t e s o n l y . T h e t e c h n i q u e i s c a l l e d melodic
inversin.
T h e ending follows naturally. Just before t h e
final 1, 2 i s r e p e a t e d , s o t h a t t h e m e l o d y s e e m s t o
h o v e r a m o m e n t b e f o r e a r r i v i n g a tits g o a l .
T h e sketch shows the structure o f the melody: a
q u i c k a s c e n t t o t h e first m a i n n o t e , a n extensin
o r p r o l o n g a t i o n o f5 t h r o u g h most o f the melody,
a n d a descent that's p r e p a r e d b y a d o w n w a r d
gesture. T h e tonic ist h ebeginning, t h eend, a n d
t h e g o a l o f moon, e v e n t h o u g h i t ' s h e a r d o n l y
f o u r times i n t h e m e l o d y .

19
 8
The Musical Phrase
The Violet
cadenee
Vi-o-let, O, so mod-est, How you do hide your bloom?
cadenee
*
Try-ing to be un-no - ticed, try-ing to hide your face,
A SENTENCE I N MUSIC A s w e s i n g a m e l o d y ,
we pause to breathe f r o m t i m e t o time. W h y do w e
stop i n o n e place r a t h e r t h a n another? S o m e t h i n g
in t h e music makes u s sense that o n e note is a
resting p o i n t a n d a n o t h e r isn't. W e m a y feel that a
statement has been c o m p l e t e d , o ra fall o f the line
s u g g e s t s a p a u s e . A phrase i s a c o m p l e t e m u s i c a l
statement. S o m e phrases e n d m o r e conclusively
than others, but all have some k i n d o f ending that
d e f i n e s t h e i r d u r a t i o n . A m u s i c a l p h r a s e is r o u g h l y
analogous to a sentence i n spoken language.
HOW L O N G IS T H E PHRASE? W h i l e m o s t
musicians will agree o nthe length o f phrase i n a
g i v e n piece, there's n o h a r d a n d fast r u l e o n e can
follow. T o some extent, determining a phrase length
is a m a t t e r o f m u s i c a l j u d g m e n t , w h i c h y o u c a n
develop t h r o u g h experience. T h e sense o f a r r i v i n g
at a r e s t i n g place isa g o o d g u i d e t ot h e l o c a t i o n o f
a phrase ending, a n dthus t o t h elength o f t h e
phrase.
PHRASE ENDINGS T h e n o t e s t h a t f o r m a p h r a s e
e n d i n g a r e c a l l e d t h e cadenee. ( L a t i n : cadere, t o f a l l .
I n d e e d , the voice o f t e n does fall a t the e n d o fa
phrase, sung o r spoken.)
A t the top o f the page isa f a m i l i a r melody, w i t h
t h e cadenees m a r k e d . E a c h c a d e n e e tells y o u w h e r e
a phrase ends. T h e r e a r e f o u r cadenees and f o u r
p h r a s e s . T h e first, s e c o n d , a n d f o u r t h c a d e n e e s a r e
identical, contributing t o the unity o f the melody.
20
m
cadenee
Off in the gar - den cor - ner, Far from the ros - es bright.
cadenee
Your love-ly scent
r P r J'i J Jj J j j> j
re-veals you, Tells me your hid - ing place.
II
T h e t h i r d c a d e n e e is t h e s a m e as t h e o t h e r s , but
transposed u pa 5th.
MOTIVE W h a t makes it possible f o r the listener
t o g r a s p a m e l o d y i s i t s motive, a g r o u p o f n o t e s
with a definite r h y t h m a n d intervallic shape,
r e p e a t e d a n d d e v e l o p e d . A cise l o o k a t s e v e r a l
melodies will s h o w w h i c h aspect o f t h e m o t i v e ,
pitch o rr h y t h m , ism o r e i m p o r t a n t .
T h e m e l o d y o n page 16 consists o f f o u r phrases,
each f o u r measures long. T h e phrases seem t o
resemble each other, even t h o u g h the intervals o f
the second phrase are quite different f r o m those
o f t h e first. T h e r e a s o n i s t h a t t h e r h y t h m o f t h e
m o t i v e is repeated exactly. T h i s suggests that the
r h y t h m i c aspect o f t h e m o t i v e (we'll cali i t t h e
rhythmic motive) c o n t r i b u t e s m o r e t o m e l o d i c u n i t y
t h a n t h e p i t c h aspect. I n this m e l o d y the f o l l o w i n g
r h y t h m i c m o t i v e is h e a r d f o u r times w i t h o u t a n y
change:
Motive of Young M a n ' s Song
*
c;ric;r
O n l y i n v e r y s i m p l e m u s i c w i l l y o u find a m o t i v e
repeated soliterally t h r o u g h a song. There's m o r e
v a r i e t y , f o r e x a m p l e , i n Red River Valley.
Red River Valley m u s i c b e i n g p l a y e d is a collection o f f r a g m e n t s
w i t h n o u n i t y . A m o r e m u s i c a l a p p r o a c h is t o
stretch f o r larger groups, rather t h a n smaller ones.
00
I n The Ash Grove, o u r p r e f e r e n c e i s f o r e i g h t -
From this val-ley they say you are go-ing._ We will m e a s u r e phrases. T h e m e l o d y is m a d e u po f f o u r
s u c h p h r a s e s , t h e first, s e c o n d , a n d f o u r t h o f w h i c h
fw

miss
m
your bright eyes and sweet smile, For they
are identical.
A s f o r t h e m o t i v e , w e d e f i n e it by its r e p e t i t i o n s ,
varied o r not. I f a g r o u p o f notes isn't repeated,
i t ' s n o t a m o t i v e . T h e u n i t t h a t ' s r e p e a t e d i n The
L v
Ash Grove i s t w o m e a s u r e s l o n g ; t h a t i s t h e m o t i v e .
Its r h y t h m r e m a i n s constant even w h i l e the pitches
say you are tak - ing the sun-shine, That
c h a n g e . A s i n Red River Valley, t h e u p b e a t i s a
characteristic feature o f the motive.
I n t h e first p h r a s e t h e m o t i v e i s h e a r d t h r e e
times. T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e state-
bright - ens our path - way a while.
ments a r e apparent, b u tthey aren't very large.
T o show the different versions o f the motive, here T h e i n t e r v a l s o f t h e m e l o d y v a r y w i t h e a c h versin
is a n o u t l i n e o f t h e r h y t h m , p h r a s e b y p h r a s e . T h e o f the m o t i v e . B u t t h e r e is s o m e similarity t o the
phrases are aligned vertically for comparison. rise a n d fall o f the pitches w i t h each statement o f
t h e m o t i v e , a n d t h e f a l l i n g 3 r d k e e p s its place a t
the phrase end, in_2, 4, a n d 6. So the pitch contour
Motive
contributes to the melodic unity.

PHRASE GROUPS Phrases u s u a l l y c o m e i n

varied groups; a single p h r a s e is rare. T h e melodies i n
P a r t O n e consist o f several phrases s t r u n g together,
often i n groups o f f o u r . Pairs o f phrases are quite
the n o r m a l thing.
varied

ANTECEDENT AND CONSEQUENT T h e

p h r a s e p a i r f o u n d m o s t o f t e n is e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h i s
varied tune:

H a u l A w a y , Joe

First period: antecedent

T h e p h r a s e is t w o m e a s u r e s l o n g ; s o i s t h e m o t i v e .
T h e r h y t h m i c m o t i v e i s s t a t e d i n l_-2. I n t h e
fe
s e c o n d p h r a s e it's v a r i e d j u s t a bit. T h e t h i r d
p h r a s e i s a l m o s t t h e s a m e a s t h e first, a n d t h e When I was a lit - tle boy my moth-er al-ways toldme:
f o u r t h closely resembles the second. T h e changes
in r h y t h m combine with larger changes i n pitch t o consequent

m 1
crate a g o o d d e a l o f v a r i e t y f r o m p h r a s e t o p h r a s e .
Recognizable repetition o f the rhythmic motive
provides unity.
W h i l e the length o f the motive may bethe same
Way,
53
haul a-way,
0 0*
we'll haul a-way, Joe.
0
She said,
0

as t h a t o f t h e p h r a s e , i t ' s a l s o p o s s i b l e f o r t h e Second period: antecedent

m o t i v e to b e stated m o r e t h a n once w i t h i n a phrase. " i
W e ask t w o questions about the m e l o d y o n page
4: h o w l o n g is t h e p h r a s e ? h o w l o n g is t h e
If I did not kiss the girls, my lips would grow all mould-y,
motive?
consequent
It may be tempting t o divide a melody into
smaller a n d smaller units, a n d t o decide that the
fe
s m a l l e s t is t h e p h r a s e . A p e r f o r m e r w h o t a k e s s u c h 0 0
an approach will convey the impression that the Way, haul a - way, we'll haul a - way, Joe.

21
 T h e measures o f this lusty D o r i a n m e l o d y a r e so
l o n g that i t takes o n l y t w o o f t h e m t o m a k e a
p h r a s e . T h e first e n d s o n 5 , d e f i n i t e l y a r e s t i n g
point b u tn o t a full stop. B ycontrast, t h e second
phrase drops a 5 t ht o 1, t h e e n d o fa u n i t .
S u c h a g r o u p o f t w o p h r a s e s i s c a l l e d a period.
T h e first p h r a s e i s t h e antecedent, m e a n i n g t h a t i t
c o m e s first a n d l e a d s t h e l i s t e n e r t o e x p e c t m o r e .
T h e s e c o n d p h r a s e i s t h e consequent; i t f l o w s n a t u -
r a l l y f r o m t h e first, w h i c h i t m a y r e s e m b l e i n a n y
n u m b e r o fways, a n d comes t oa full stop.
T h e first a n d s e c o n d p h r a s e s o f Haul Away, Joe
f o r m a period, a n d so d o t h ethird a n df o u r t h
phrases. T h em e l o d y as a w h o l e has this o u t l i n e :
First period
antecedent phrase
consequent phrase
Second period
antecedent phrase
consequent phrase
There's a slightly irregular element i n t h e f o r m
w h i c h a d d s t o t h e m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t . W h i l e t h e first
p e r i o d begins o n t h e downbeat, t h e second begins
early, w i t h a n upbeat o f t w o eighth notes a t t h e
e n d o f 4 . T h i s l i n k ties t h e t w o p e r i o d s t o g e t h e r
quite effectively.
MELODIC STRUCTURE J u s t as a single p h r a s e
m a y have as itsf o u n d a t i o n 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 , so m a y
the antecedentconsequent phrase pair be built o n
the descent f r o m 5 t o 1.T o b e sure, t h e antecedent
phrase does n o t descend a l lt h e w a yt o 1 . I t stops
on 2 ,creating t h e expectation o fa second descent
t h a t w i l l i n d e e d l e a d t o 1 . T h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n is 5 -
4 - 3 - 2 ; 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 . T o show this i n action w e
d r a w o n melodies f r o m d i f f e r e n t style periods,
s h o w i n g t h e u n d e r l y i n g similarity o f their back-
grounds.
'See, the conquering hero comes" from J u d a s M a c c a b e u s
M e l o d y (antecedent)
Pitch groups s p
4 I m * '
m =
SP
triad
JM a i n n o t e s
5 4 3 2;
I n t h e heroic m e l o d y below, t h e tonic triad has a
s t r o n g p r e s e n c e . T h e first p i t c h g r o u p i s a S P , w i t h
D a s m a i n n o t e . A f t e r t h e s k i p o f a 3 r d i s filled, a
skip o f a 5 t hcompletes t h e triad. T h a t skip, too, is
filled. Y o u see t h a t 5 is still i n c o n t r o l . T h e n t h e
m e l o d y descends t o 2 a n d pauses. T h i s ends t h e
antecedent phrase.
T o start t h e consequent H a n d e l reasserts 5. It's
the m a i n note f o rt w o m o r e measures. T h eskip t o
G is a n o t h e r elaboration. G is t h e highest note i n
the melody, reached b y a striking skip o f a4 t h .
T h e descent follows quickly.
Built o n t h e same ground plan, t h e Romantic
opera aria atthe t o po fpage 23, evokes a different
w o r l d o fmusic f r o m t h eH a n d e l air.T h e m e l o d y
s t a r t s w i t h t h e m a i n n o t e , 5 . T h e first e m b e l l i s h i n g
n o t e is A | t , w h i c h is a N .S i n c e there's n o A f i nt h e
key o f e, this is a c h r o m a t i c N . A S P follows,
k e e p i n g B as m a i n n o t e . T h e n t h e m e l o d y descends,
m o r e gradually than i n t h eprevious examples.
W h e r e 5 was t h em a i n note f o r f o u r measures, 4
has t h a t r o l e f o rt w o , w h i l e 3 a n d 2 have a m e a s u r e
each. 4 also h a s its o w n c h r o m a t i c N , G|f, as w e l l as
a SP. 3 has b u t a pair o f N s t oembellish it, while 2
is s t a t e d p l a i n .
T h e consequent phrase begins b yrepeating t h e
first s i x m e a s u r e s o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t , t h e d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e p h r a s e s b e i n g i n t h elast t w o m e a -
sures. Since t h e goal o f t h e consequent is 1, n o t 2 ,
the c o m p o s e r squeezes 3 - 2 - 1 i n t o t h e space ( t w o
measures) occupied b y 3 - 2 i n t h e antecedent.
T h e r e , 3 a n d 2 each h a d a full measure. N o w they
a r e b o t h i n o n e m e a s u r e , 15. T h i s l e a v e s o n e
m e a s u r e f o r t h e last n o t e , 1 .L i k e its c o u n t e r p a r t
at t h e e n d o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t , t h e consequent's goal
note isn't embellished. T h etonic stands o u t clearly
as t h e g o a l .
HANDEL
(consequent)
e-
N
I 1
r
=
ascent
triad
4 3 2 1
n
O U n
22
"Stride la vampa" from / / trovatore VERDI

Melody
pa ' i . I J >2. '
J
JJ -3 J. J JjJT mm.l6 -epeated - - J -
*r ir p i w ^ i L= * 1
4' 1

Pitch groups N N N
1
N
1 l 1 i
i '. 42 . . ^ = =

|
-* 5 1
I 5
~ " ' m
1 1 l 1
SP SP N

n
M a i n notes
; :
t
3 2; =
" r r - 3 "2 o
1

T h e i n s t r u m e n t a l m e l o d y b e l o w uses skips as its cedent f o r t w oo f its f o u r measures. A g a i n , t h e

chief means o felaboration. T h edescending line necessity o f i n c l u d i n g 1 t o c o m p l e t e t h e m e l o d y
5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 is p a r a l l e l e d b y a n o t h e r l i n e a3 r d brings some tightening u p o ft h e pitch distribu-
lower, indicated o n t h et h i r d U n eo ft h e sketch. tion. I n t h e antecedent, 3 a n d its embellishing
T h e m e l o d y skips back a n d f o r t h between t h e t w o notes h a d a w h o l e measure t o themselves. I n t h e
levis. c o n s e q u e n t , t h e y s h a r e a m e a s u r e (T) w i t h 2 a n d a
A f t e r t h e i n i t i a l N , t h e m e l o d y filis t h e i n t e r v a l n e w e m b e l l i s h m e n t : a skip d o w n t o E . T h i s frees 8
o f a 3 r d , w i t h E as m a i n note. T h e next t w o 3rds for t h e tonic note a n d its embellishment. T h e
a r e n ' t filled, a p p e a r i n g a s s k i p s . W h e n t h e m e l o d y u p w a r d skip contrasts w i t h t h ed o w n w a r d skips so
reaches 2 , B is embellished w i t h Ns. p r e v a l e n t i nt h erest o f the m e l o d y .
T h e c o n s e q u e n t p h r a s e is i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e a n t e -

A M i d s u m m e r N i g h t ' s D r e a m (excerpt) MENDELSSOHN

Melody

m
Pitch groups N N
i 1 I 1
s

ai
s s S
s

3rd i 1
N
M a i n notes 5
4 3 2
5 4
9- a. -S-
2 1
IfiEt O (>)

23
 Rhythm, Meter, Tempo

MUSIC AND TIME M u s i c exists i n t i m e . T i m e Simple Meters a n d Their T i m e Signatures

is t h e d i m e n s i n i n w h i c h m u s i c m o v e s . T h e w a y
i n w h i c h m u s i c m o v e s t h r o u g h t i m e is w h a t w e cali c (until t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y )
rhythm. T h i s s e c t i o n o Gradus i s d e v o t e d t o e x p l a i n - 4 four J to the measure
i n g t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspects o f r h y t h m . A n 4 three J to the measure
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o fthis subject is essential t o y o u r
4 t w o J to the measure
studies i n h a r m o n y a n d counterpoint, f o r there is
a r h y t h m i c aspect t o every part o f music. ^ "alia breve" t w o J t o t h e measure
2
2
THE BEAT A s w e listen t omusic m o v e t h r o u g h
1 three J t o the measure
t i m e w e t r y t o catch h o l d o fi t i n s o m e w a y , f o r
n e i t h e r m u s i c or t i m e w i l l stop a n d w a i t f o r u s . 1 three to the measure
T h e most direct w a y i n which w e grasp sound a four i 1
to the measure
p a t t e r n s i s b y finding a beat o r pulse. T h o s e a r e
terms f o rt h e gesture that recurs regularly.
W e respond t ot h e beat b y physical m o v e m e n t : COMPOUND METERS I na compound meter
tapping the foot, m o v i n g the hand, nodding the t h e beat is d i v i d e d b y t h r e e rather than two.T o
head. A l ldurationslong a n d shortrelate to the find t h e n u m b e r o f b e a t s i n a measure, divide the
beat that w e feel u n d e r l y i n g t h e musical surface. t i m e s i g n a t u r e ' s u p p e r figure by three.

U P B E A T , D O W N B E A T A s s o o n a s w e find t h e
pulses w et r y t o organize t h e m i n t o groups. T h e Compound Meters and Their T i m e
simplest consists o ft w o beats, o n e s t r o n g e r t h a n Signatures
t h e o t h e r . S t r o n g e r doesn't necessarily m e a n l o u d e r ; 6
J- = 1 b e a t
8 t w o beats t o t h e m e a s u r e
r a t h e r it's a m a t t e r o f e m p h a s i s . W e cali t h e s t r o n g
9
b e a t t h e downbeat, r e c a l l i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r ' s g e s t u r e 8 t h r e e beats t o t h e m e a s u r e J- = 1 b e a t
(the s t r i n g player's, t o o ) . T h e w e a k beat is called 12
8
f o u r beats t o t h e m e a s u r e J- = 1 b e a t
t h e upbeat. E v e n a s s i m p l e a p a t t e r n a s a l t e r n a t i n g 6
4 t w o beats t o t h e m e a s u r e J- = 1 b e a t
upbeats a n d downbeats has provided the rhythmic
9
f r a m e w o r k f o ra great deal o f music. 4 three beats t o t h e m e a s u r e 1 = I beat

METER O n t h e basis o f s t r o n g a n d w e a k w e
g r o u p beats i n t o r e g u l a r patterns, w h i c h w e cali
meters. W h i l e t h e r e a r e m a n y d i f f e r e n t m e t e r s , e a c h
is e s s e n t i a l l y d u p l e ( t w o - b e a t ) o r t r i p l e ( t h r e e - b e a t ) .
T h e m e t e r o f a c o m p o s i t i o n is i n d i c a t e d b y t w o
n u m b e r s o r a s y m b o l c a l l e d t h e time signature ( o r
meter sign).
SIMPLE METERS I n a s i m p l e m e t e r , t h e t i m e
s i g n a t u r e tells y o u t h e n u m b e r o f beats i n each
m e a s u r e ( u p p e r figure) a n d t h e valu o f a s i n g l e
beat (lower figure).
It's i m p o r t a n t t o clarify t h e difference b e t w e e n \
a n d %. T a k e n a s f r a c t i o n s , t h e r e i s n o d i f f e r e n c e ,
and they are equivalent. B u t they are n o t fractions.
I n I t i m e , t h e q u a r t e r note ( J ) gets o n e beat a n d
there are three o f t h e m i na measure. I n% time,
t h e d o t t e d q u a r t e r ( J, ) r e c e i v e s o n e b e a t a n d
t h e r e a r et w o o ft h e m i na m e a s u r e . T h u s \ is a
t r i p l e m e t e r a n d is a d u p l e m e t e r .
There's o n e point to add. I n much o fthe music
i n t h e first p a r t o f y o u r A n t h o l o g y , t h e h a l f n o t e
represents o n e beat. T h e sign 2 that appears w h e r e

24
the t i m e s i g n a t u r e is f o u n d i n later m u s i c doesn't
indcate a m e t e r ; i t j u s t t e l l s y o u t h a t t h e h a l f n o t e
is t h e b a s i c b e a t . H o w m a n y t h e r e a r e i n t h e g r o u p -
ings will have t o b e discovered f r o m t h e music
itself.
RHYTHM L E V E I S T h e note that represents o n e
beat m a yitself b e divided i n t o strong a n d weak
parts. T h i s m e a n s that there's m o r e t h a n o n e level
o f r h y t h m i c action i n a piece o fmusic. A n under-
standing o ft h e strongweak relationship o n each
level will b eh e l p f u l t o y o u n o to n l y i n t h e study o f
melody, but, before long, i n the study o f h a r m o n y
and counterpoint.
T h e basic p r i n c i p i e is simple:
I n a t w o - b e a t p a t t e r n , t h e first b e a t i s s t r o n g a n d t h e
s e c o n d is w e a k .
I n a t h r e e - b e a t p a t t e r n , t h e first b e a t is t h e s t r o n g e s t .
T h e s e c o n d b e a t is u s u a l l y w e a k e r t h a n t h e first b u t
s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e t h i r d . T h e n o r m a l p a t t e r n is s t r o n g -
weak-weaker.
Y o u find e a c h o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s i n g r o u p s o f b e a t s ,
in divisions o ft h e beat, a n d even i n groups o f
measures. T o s h o w t h e patterns, t w osigns a r e
used. A d o p t e d f r o m poetic scansion, they a r e -
for a s t r o n g beat a n d u f o r a w e a k beat (see e x a m -
ple below).
T h e m e t e r sign tells y o u t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o
quarter notes t o t h e measure. Consider t h e level
o f t h e q u a r t e r - n o t e b e a t first: i t s h o w s a r e g u l a r
a l t e r n a t i o n o f s t r o n g a n d w e a k beats. M a n y notes
of the melody are p u tinto their proper rhythmic
perspective b y this l i n e o ft h e r h y t h m i c analysis.
T h e s m a l l e s t n o t e valu i s t h e e i g h t h n o t e . T h a t
level appears i n t h eanalysis o n l y w h e n there is
a c t u a l l y a n e i g h t h n o t e i n a m e a s u r e . T h e first
e i g h t h note, a n A b , is o nt h e w e a k p a r t o fa beat.
T h i s is t h e weakest r h y t h m i c p o s i t i o n i n t h e m e l -
o d y . T h es a m e is t r u e o f t h e e i g h t h n o t e i n 5a n d
9.
I n J O y o u see that t h e second Eb is weaker t h a n
t h e first b u t s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e G o n t h e l a s t p a r t o f
t h e s e c o n d b e a t . I n J _ 3 , e i g h t h n o t e s fill t h e m e a -
s u r e . T h e y a r e e q u a l i n duraon b u t n o t i n r h y t h m i c
stress. T h e analysis s h o w s t h e i r r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h :
t h e first B b i s i n t h e s t r o n g e s t p o s i t i o n ; C i s o n t h e
w e a k e r p a r t o f t h e second beat. T h e second B b is
w e a k e r t h a n t h e first, b u t s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e n o t e s
t h a t fall o n t h esecond part o fe i t h e r beat. T h e
f o u r t h n o t e , t ob e sure, is i n t h e weakest p o s i t i o n
o f all.
A r e t h e r e s t r o n g a n d w e a k m e a s u r e s as w e l l as
beats? I f y o u take a large view o fthe m e l o d y , you'll
see t h a t t h e m e a s u r e s o f this s o n g fall i n t o t h e i r
o w n p a t t e r n o f s t r o n g a n d w e a k . T h i s is s h o w n o n
the t o p line o fthe analyses, w h e r e y o u c a n see that
t h e r e s t i n g p o i n t s o f t h e first t h r e e p h r a s e s ( i n 4 ,
8 , a n d 12) f a l l o n w e a k m e a s u r e s ; o n l y t h e c a d e n e e
o f t h e f o u r t h phrase ends o n a strong measure.
T h i s is o n e reason that t h ef o u r t h phrase ends
m o r e conclusively t h a n t h eprevious three. A n o t h e r
reason ist h a t t h ef o u r t h ist h e o n l y p h r a s e t o e n d
on t h etonic note.
COMMENT ON BARLINES T h e b a r l i n e s t h a t
you seei n folksongs a n d m u c h o fthe choral music
o f t h e A n t h o l o g y h a v e been a d d e d t o t h e score.

The P i n e s : rhythmic analysis CZECHOSLOVAKIA

R h y t h m i c analysis 5
J u u U
J - - m u u m u
R h y t h m levis
- O

Fra - grant pine trees

m
ev - er green, tow'r - ing trees that I a - dore,

10 15
J - m u - Cl _ u
J - u u
u U U U

a m 5S
Here my lov - er_ to join me, But he comes_ nev - er

25
Barlines evolved during t h eseventeenth century.
T h e y d i d n ' t exist i n e a r l i e r m u s i c , s u c h as chant.
I n the A n t h o l o g y , barlines have been added where
they are i m p l i e d b ythe accent o f words and music.
O f t e n those barlines a n d t h emeasures they define
a r e n ' t as r e g u l a r as t h o s e y o u a r e a c c u s t o m e d t o
seeing. I n such a piece as t h e Mass excerpt b y
J o s q u i n |T|, t h e a d d e d b a r l i n e s s h o w m e a s u r e s t h a t
are q u i t e u n e q u a l i n l e n g t h . T h i s tells y o u t h a t t h e
n a t u r a l accent o f the music doesn't fall into regular
patterns.
TEMPO T h e speed a t w h i c h m u s i c is p e r f o r m e d
i s c a l l e d i t s tempo. T h e c h o i c e o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
t e m p o i s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t decisin a
performer has t omake. Quite purposely, there are
no tempo markings added t o t h e folksongs a n d
c h a n t s i n Gradus. T h e i r a b s e n c e g i v e s y o u t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y t o start developing a n i m p o r t a n t
m u s i c a l s k i l l , n a m e l y , t o find t h e s u i t a b l e t e m p o
f r o m t h e m u s i c itself. I n t r u t h , musicians d o n ' t
always follow printed t e m p o indications. M a n y
prefer t o look at t h e music, decide o n a tempo,
and then look at what's printed.
T h e r e ' s n o s u c h t h i n g as t h eo n e " r i g h t t e m p o "
f o r a n y piece, a n d certainly n o tf o r t h e folksongs
i n t h i s collecon. Y o u c a n g e t s o m e i d e a s a b o u t t h e
effect o f d i f f e r e n t tempos o n music b y singing a
folksong at different speeds a n d observing t h e
musical differences.
Since t h elate seventeenth century tempos have
been specified b y t h ecomposer, usually i n Italian
terms that a r e fairly standardized. T h o s e used i n
Gradus a r e e x p l a i n e d i n t h e G l o s s a r y .
WORDS AND MUSIC IN FOLKSONG I n s i n g -
i n g f o l k s o n g s y o u h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d t h e cise c o n -
necton b e t w e e n w o r d s a n d m u s i c . T h a t c o n n e c t i o n
is p r i m a r i l y r h y t h m i c . T o a l a r g e e x t e n t , t h e r h y t h m
o f the words influences the r h y t h m o f the melody.
T h e natural accent o fthe text shapes t h e pattern
o f strong a n d w e a k beats i n the m e l o d y . F o r e x a m -
p l e , w h y d o e s Red River Valley b e g i n w i t h t w o
u p b e a t s ? B e c a u s e t h e first t w o s y l l a b l e s o f t h e t e x t
are weak, w h i l e t h e t h i r d is strong. T h i s suggests
upbeatdownbeat.
n \ J
from this val-
Read t h r o u g h t h e song again (page 2 1 ) a n d
observe h o w t h e stressed syllables fall o nthe s t r o n g
b e a t s , t h e first a n d t h i r d i n \ .
26
RHYTHM IN CHANT W h i l e folksongs a r e
associated w i t h m e t r i c a l p o e t r y a n d t h er h y t h m o f
the dance, chant springs f r o m t h edeclamation o f
prose, i n w h i c h there a r e few regular patterns o f
a n y k i n d . A sa result, n o m e t e r predominates i n a
c h a n t . Y o u find s h o r t g r o u p s o f n o t e s , c o n s t a n t l y
s h i f t i n g i n l e n g t h t o a c c o m m o d a t e o r elabrate t h e
syllables o f the text.
WORDS AND MUSIC I N C H A N T T h e r e a r e
three ways i n w h i c h w o r d s a r e set t o music i n
chant.
syllabicone note t o o n e syllable
neumatic-two, three, o r f o u r notes to o n e syllable
melismaticlonger g r o u p s o f notes t oo n e syllable
T h e t e r m syllabic i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y a n d c a n b e
applied t o a good deal o fvocal music other than
c h a n t . A neume i s a s y m b o l u s e d i n M e d i e v a l n o t a -
tion t o indicate a g r o u p o fu p t o f o u r notes sung
t o a s i n g l e s y l l a b l e . A melisma i s a l o n g e r , m o r e
florid melodic unit.
IRREGULAR RHYTHMS T h e treatment o f
r h y t h m i n chant a n dcantillation suggests a n o t h e r
w a y o f o r g a n i z i n g a succession o f beats. I n these
a n c i e n t f o r m s o f v o c a l m e l o d y y o u find n o r e c u r -
r i n g pattern o f beats a n d n o t h i n g that can be called
"meter." T h e music follows t h ewords, which a r e
in prose rather than the metric poetry o f folksong.
There's a similar approach t o r h y t h m i na good
deal o f sixteenth- a n d seventeenth-century music
written f o rcongregational singing. M a n y h y m n s
( c a l l e d chrales) f r o m t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e R e f o r -
m a t i o n a r e n ' t i n a n y fixed m e t e r . T h e n o t e s f a l l
i n t o g r o u p s o f t w o a n d t h r e e beats, f o l l o w i n g t h e
s t r o n g a n d w e a k syllables o f t h e text. O n e e x a m p l e
is t h e f a m o u s c h r a l e m e l o d y A Mighty Fortress.
W h i l e t h e versin s e t b y J . S . B a c h i s i n C , t h e
o r i g i n a l t u n e is n o t . T w o versions o f t h e o p e n i n g
phrases a r e s h o w n at t h e t o p o f page 2 7 . T h e r e
y o u can see the difference b e t w e e n the r h y t h m s o f
the same m e l o d y i n t h e Renaissance a n d t h e
Baroque periods.
T h e o r i g i n a l versin i s t h e b a s i s f o r a bicinium
( t w o - p a r t p i e c e ) , [5], t h a t y o u ' l l s o o n s t u d y . O b s e r v e
t h a t i n t h e s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y versin, t h e h a l f n o t e
is o n e b e a t , w h i l e t h e b e a t w a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e
quarter note i n t h e seventeenth century. I nt h e
e a r l i e r versin, s t r o n g a n d w e a k b e a t s f o l l o w n o
consistent pattern. T h e organization o fmeters i n
regular patterns l e dt o t h esecond formulation o f
the melody.
A Mighty Fortress in our God

Original v e r s i n
(J=beat)
U i U " U U u

i
^ " " ^ -
JE < O V

A might for - tress is- our God, A good - ly shield and weap"

Later versin

i
( J =beat)
r7\ r7\

might - y
m
for - tress our God, good - ly shield and weap

H E M I O L A T h e hemiola i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g r h y t h m i c
device. T h e t e r m isused i n this situation: i n triple 3CE
meter, approaching a cadenee, t w o measures o f 4 :
r=Tf
a r e c o m b i n e d t o f o r m o n e m e a s u r e o f . ( T w o son o'er the land and o'er the ceans,
measures o f m a y also b e c o m b i n e d i n t o o n e
m e a s u r e o f 1, e t c . ) M e n t a l l y w e e l i m i n a t e o n e b a r - 22 * j
l i n e . T h e h e m i o l a is h e a r d , n o t seen. I f w e r e w r o t e
a f a m o u s l i n e i n H a n d e l ' s Messiah, w e w o u l d s e e
p p
3E
s
Y o u ' l l have m a n y occasions t o study hemiolas,
since t h e y a r e f o u n d i n m u s i c f r o m t h e Renais-
sance into the n i n e t e e n t h century.
And the glo - ry, the glo - ry^of the

U " u m w* GAILLARDE A n o t h e r interesting r h y t h m is

associated w i t h a Renaissance dance, the gaillarde.
H e r e , too, the t i m e signature doesn't tell the w h o l e
Lord shall be re - veal ed. s t o r y . T h e m e t e r i s g i v e n a s 2, b u t i n f a c t s o m e o f
t h e m e a s u r e s a r e i n %. O u r e x a m p l e , | 1 5 A | , i s b y
"not: UU"U Michael Praetorius, a seventeenth-century com-
p o s e r w h o s e m u s i c y o u ' l l find i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s i n
Another example, taken from t h e Anthology, this book. W e show the changing patterns by add-
shows t h a t the h e m i o l a affeets the h a r m o n y as well ing different t i m e signatures i n this excerpt.
as t h e m e l o d y .

Villanella
r j j , f i o f , r f i '
DONATO

TV'
rfrri;;f rrrK r
TU

May
May she rule ev ery sea

'"'i rgarrir r |
O

3
1

O * Worksheet 4

27
 10
Writing Simple Melodies
W r i t i n g y o u r o w nm e l o d i e s gives y o u t h e o p p o r -
t u n i t y t o p u t i n t o practice m a n y o f t h e topics
covered i n Part O n e .First, however, t h e element
of r h y t h m needs a bitm o r e attention.
PRELIMINARY EXERCISE IN RHYTHM T o
e x p l o r e t h e r h y t h m i c possibilities o f a text, w r i t e
different settings o f a p o e m w i t h r h y t h m only.B y
finding different rhythms f o rthe same words you
may open your mind t o more than o n e way o f
c o m b i n i n g w o r d s a n d music. H e r e isa m o d e l .
I strt-ed ary, tbk m y d o g ,
A n d vis-it-d t h e s~a,
T h e m e r - m a i d s t t h e base-mnt
C a r n e o t t o lbk a t m e .
Emily Dickinson
T h e p o e m h a s b e e n scanned, that is, analyzed
for s t r o n g a n d w e a k beats. T h e stressed beats i n
t h e p o e t r y will cali f o r s t r o n g beats i n t h e music,
w h i l e w e a k beats m a y c o r r e s p o n d as well. B u t w h a t
a b o u t d u r a t i o n ? H o w l o n g a r e t h el o n g beats a n d
how short a r e t h e short beats?
W h i l e considering that aspect o f t h e r h y t h m ,w e
m u s t also consider t h e fact that t h e lines o f t h e
p o e m a r e o f u n e q u a l l e n g t h . T h e first l i n e s e e m s
to establish e i g h t syllables as t h e n o r m , b u t t h e
n e x t line h a so n l y six.T h e t h i r d line h a s seven,
w h i l e t h e f o u r t h line, again, has six.
W e ' l l m a k e a l lt h e musical lines equal i n length
b y s t r e t c h i n g o u t t h e syllables asn e e d e d . W e ' l l also
set t h e p o e m i n b o t h d u p l e a n d t r i p l e m e t e r , s h o w -
ing b o t h possibilities. B e l o w a r e three different
r h y t h m i c settings o f t h e p o e m . I n all three, strong
a n d w e a k beats a r e m a t c h e d i n w o r d s a n d music.
I start - ed ear-ly, took my dog, And vis - it - ed the sea
J J J JJ J j J j j JJ
j j^ j j
J J J j J j J j J JJ JJ 'JJ
j j ] nj JJ JJJJJ j. J J
28
PENTATONIC F o l l o w i n g this p r e l i m i n a r y exer-
c i s e , y o u r first v e n t u r e i n t o m e l o d y w r i t i n g w i l l
make useo f limited pitch material. Using only G ,
A, B , D ,a n d E , write t w oshort melodies. I n t h e
first t h e t o n i c i s G . I n t h e s e c o n d , t h e t o n i c i s E .
H o w will y o u establish t h e tonic?
W R I T E A SONG W r i t e a s o n g f o r s o l o v o i c e
using o n e o fthese poems o r a similar p o e m o f
y o u r c h o i c e . T h e first c o u p l e t m a y b e s e t t o a n
antecedentconsequent phrase period. T h e same
m a y b e done w i t h t h esecond couplet. Give some
t h o u g h t t ot h en a t u r a l accent o f t h e w o r d s before
starting t h e musical setting.
M y t r u e love h a t h m y heart a n d I have his,
By just exchange o n e for theother given;
I h o l d hisdear, a n d m i n e h e cannot miss,
T h e r e never w a sa better bargain driven.
Philip Sydney
T h e n w h y o n e a r t h d o I continu t o
complain?
Since y o u d o n o t love m e , that's all there is
to that,
A n d since I d o n o t w a n t m y s u f ' f r i n g t o b e
known,
IT1 s u f f e r b y m y s e l f , m y spirit resolute.
P a u l V e r l a i n e (trans. L e o Kraft)
M u s i c , w h e n soft voices die,
Vibrates i nthe m e m o r y
O d o r s , w h e n sweet violets sicken,
L i v e w i t h i n t h e sense they quicken.
Percy Shelley
The mer-maids in the base-ment Carne out to look at me.
J JJ J J JJ J J
i
j
4 -
j J JJ J. J J JJ J J
J J JJ JJ J.
 PART T W O
NOTE-AGAINST-NOTE
CONSONANCE
11
Introduction
C o n v e n t i o n a l w i s d o m h a s i t t h a t c o u n t e r p o i n t is
t h e s t u d y o f l i n e s , w h i l e h a r m o n y is t h e s t u d y o f
c h o r d s . A s i s o f t e n t h e case, c o n v e n t i o n a l w i s d o m
is w r o n g . C o u n t e r p o i n t i s t h e s t u d y o f l i n e s i n a
controlled relationship t o each other. A l l parts o f
that s t a t e m e n t are i m p o r t a n t . It's also i m p o r t a n t to
realize that the relationship o f chords to each other
in a piece o f music isd e t e r m i n e d by linear consid-
erations m o r e than b y "chordal" ones o r b y root
movements.
Y o u will begin y o u r study o f elementary coun-
29
terpoint w i t h s o m e practical considerations. A f t e r
that, the procedures for two-part counterpoint
note against n o t e w i l l b e arrived at by studying a
Renaissance piece. T h e n a t u r e o f the c o u n t e r p o i n t
e x e r c i s e s is e x p l a i n e d i n d e t a i l , a f t e r w h i c h y o u w i l l
begin writing t h e m . Since t h estudy o f counter-
p o i n t is a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r the s t u d y o f h a r m o n y ,
i t ' s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o find t r i a d s e x p l a i n e d i n t h e
discussion o f three-part counterpoint. Four-part
counterpoint, note-against-note, concludes Part
Two.
 12
Some Practical Considerations
W r i t i n g c o u n t e r p o i n t e x e r c i s e s f o r v o i c e s i s a n od
t r a d i t i o n t h a t is still v a l i d . W h e n a l i n e is s u n g it's
easy t o f o c u s o n t h e s h a p e o f t h e m e l o d y , a n d it's
also easy to h e a r t h e intervallic relationships b e t w e e n
the parts. T h e r e f o r e , w ebegin b y e x a m i n i n g the
range o f the voices.
V O I C E R A N G E S H u m a n voices d i v i d e i n t o f o u r
groups. T h e h i g h e r f e m a l e voice is the soprano;
the lower, the alto. T h e h i g h e r m a l e voice is the
t e n o r ; t h e l o w e r , t h e bass. T h e n o r m a l r a n g e o f
e a c h is:
B
T H E C L E F S U n t i l fairly recent times, each voice
was n o t a t e d i n i t s o w n clef. T h e c l e f sign w a s
m o v e d t o a different position o n the staff and i t
w a s g i v e n a d i f f e r e n t ame, d e t e r m i n e d b y t h a t
p o s i t i o n . T o d a y , t h e bass a n d treble clefs serve all
voices; o n l y s o m e orchestral i n s t r u m e n t s u s e the
o l d e r C clef. T h i s is h o w m i d d l e C l o o k s i n each
clef:
13
Two-Part Counterpoint
A few general observations introduce the study o f
two-part counterpoint, note-against-note conso-
nance.
30
Treble Soprano Mezzo-soprano
w
Alto Tenor Bass
Baritone
--
F o r a m o d e r a e d i t i o n o f a c h o r a l piece, t u r a t o
pages 255, 282, o r 290 i n the A n t h o l o g y . T h e s e
a r e a l l open scores, e a c h v o i c e s h o w n o n a s e p r a t e
s t a f f . T h e s o p r a n o p a r t is w r i t t e n i n t h e G o r t r e b l e
c l e f ( t r e b l e i s a n od E n g l i s h w o r d f o r s o p r a n o ) , a s
is t h e a l t o p a r t . T h e t e n o r i s w r i t t e n i n t h e G c l e f ,
b u t s o u n d s a n o c t a v e l o w e r . T h e bass p a r t is i n t h e
F o r bass clef.
I n o r d e r t o r e a d a score a n d l e a r n w h a t it con-
tains, y o u m u s t read all the lines a t the same t i m e .
T o d e v e l o p this skill, b e g i n w i t h c h o r a l scores,
w h i c h are s i m p l e r t h a n o r c h e s t r a l scores.
H O W T O S T U D Y A S C O R E T h e best w a y t o
study a score is t o play i t a t t h e piano. L i s t e n
carefully, correcting any errors y o u m a y hear. I f
y o u can't play a piece u p t o t e m p o , y o u can still
study it effectively by playing it slowly.
TYPES OF M O T I O N I ndescribing the way i n
w h i c h t w o parts o r voices r e l a t e t o e a c h o t h e r , w e
speak o f three types o f m o t i o n . T h e y are:
1. Direct motiontwo l i n e s m o v e i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n :
a. Parallel motiontwo l i n e s m o v e t h e s a m e d i s t a n c e
in the same direction.
b . Similar motiontwo l i n e s m o v e i n t h e s a m e d i r e c -
t i o n b u t d i f f e r e n t distances.
2 . Contrary motiontwo l i n e s m o v e i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c -
tons.
3 . Oblique motionone l i n e h o l d s ( o r r e p e a t s ) a n o t e
while the other moves.
DIRECT CONTRARY OBLIQUE
similar parallel
3E
3E 3E
All types o f m o t i o n a r e used i n music, b u t they
serve d i f f e r e n t purposes. C o n t r a r y m o t i o n e m p h a -
sizes t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t w o voices, m a k i n g f o r
the greatest independence o f line. Oblique m o t i o n
also s h o w s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e voices b u t
less t h a n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n . W h e n t w o l i n e s m o v e i n
parallel m o t i o n they blend smoothly a n dtheir dif-
ferences a r em i n i m i z e d .
W h i l e a h e a l t h y a m o u n t o f c o n t r a r y m o t i o n is
essential t o g o o d c o u n t e r p o i n t , it's n o tpossible a l l
t h e t i m e , or w o u l d y o u w a n t t o h e a r o n l y o n e
k i n d o f m o t i o n i n a piece o r exercise. V a r i e t y i n
types o f m o t i o n keeps b o t h exercise a n d piece
interesting. Parallel 3rds a n d 6ths sound euphon-
ious, but i fc o n t i n u e d beyond three o r f o u r sounds
they can become tiresome. Oblique motion m a y
not seem very p r o m i s i n g , b u t actually it's quite
useful.
CONSONANCE AND DISSONANCE K n o w i n g
t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f m o t i o n eables y o u t o d e s c r i b e
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n voices i n a general way.
B u t w h a t , specifically, controls that relationship?
Y o u c a n b e g i n t o find a n a n s w e r b y s t u d y i n g t h e
first t w o p h r a s e s o f t h e b i c i n i u m b y O t h m a y r ,
below. T h e text has been replaced by figures
between the parts, s h o w i n g the simultaneous inter-
vals that y o u hear. T h e y include a l lt h e diatonic
i n t e r v a l s : unisn, 2 n d , 3 r d , p e r f e c t 4 t h , p e r f e c t
5th, 6 t h , a n d 7 t h . E a c h i n t e r v a l generates a sense
o f e i t h e r s t a b i l i t y o r actvity. W h e n t h e s o u n d s a r e
r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e w e c a l i t h e m consonant; w h e n t h e y
a r e a c t i v e w e c a l i t h e m dissonant. T h e s e a r e r e l a t i v e
terms, n o t absolutes. Actually, w e m a ys h o w t h e
intervals o n a c o n t i n u u m , f o r t h e m o s t stable t o
t h e least a c t i v e (see b e l o w ) .
L I N E AND C H O R D T w o p o w e r f u l t e n d e n c i e s ,
pulling i n w h a t m a y seem t obe opposite directions,
are held i n balance i n tonal music. O n o n e hand,
w e w a n t e a c h l i n e t o h a v e as m u c h i n d i v i d u a l i t y as
possible. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e w a n t t h e c o m -
b i n e d s o u n d s t o b e as b e a u t i f u l as w e c a n m a k e
them. Each note must be part o fa n independent
l i n e , y e t e a c h n o t e is d e p e n d e n t o n o t h e r s f o r s o m e
o f its m e a n i n g . T h e greatest c o m p o s e r s w e r e able
to reconcile t h e t w oimpulses so that c h o r d a n d
line have t h e u t m o s t f r e e d o m o f play.
P A R A L L E L 5THS AND O C T A V E S T h e m o s t
stable s o u n d s u n i s o n s , perfect 5ths, a n d perfect
4 t h s a r e n o t h e a r d i n succession i n t o n a l music.

Bicinium OTHMAYR

U n 1 { ~ J |_ r v ^ n 1n =-J H 1
1 o LS G 1 fj- J- -_ u <5 t f5*
r-
2 u t
w r A i " 1 o f j " r. s
6 6 (?) 6 5 8 5 6
1 o >
l o I

Outline of Relative Degrees of Dissonance

consonant intervals dissonant intervals

S unisn perfect 4 t h A
T major 3rd minor 6th major 7th C
A octave minor 7th T
B m i n o r 3rd major 6th minor 2nd I
I perfect 5 t h major 2nd V
L I
I tritone T
T (the perfect consonances) (the imperfect consonances) Y
Y

31
Parallel unisons clearly m a k e n o sense i n music TYPES OF MOTION W h a t types o f m o t i 0 r i

t h a t h a s i n d e p e n d e n c e o f l i n e as o n e o f its desir- y o u h e a r b e t w e e n t h e voices? A l l t h r e e types. ^

able features. Similarly, parallel octaves don't serve
t h e p u r p o s e , a s y o u c a n find o u t f o r y o u r s e l f b y
p l a y i n g scales a n o c t a v e a p a r t a t t h e p i a n o a n d
observing h o wcompletely they blend into o n e .
Parallel 5ths destroy t h e independence o f t h e lines
a l m o s t as m u c h as octaves, b u t a r e a b i t m o r e
S
a good deal o fsimilar a n doblique m o t i o n w i ^
c o n t r a r y m o t i o n is h e a r d a t t h e cadenee.
SKIPS AND STEPS I n t h e s e v e r y s i n g a b l e \
stepwise m o t i o n predominates. Skips a r e l i m i t e , ^ '
3rds a n d 4ths. T h o s e skips a r e almost a
t 0

difficult t o hear i n a four-part context. Y o u c a n answered b ym o t i o n i n t h e opposite direction T u ^ S

check y o u r c o u n t e r p o i n t exercises f o r parallel 5ths creates t h e balance that characterizes most R e

by playing t w o lines at a time, listening carefully t o ^nais-

sanee vocal lines.
the intervals.
R A N G E T h e r a n g e o f e a c h p a r t is l i m i t e d - a

HARMONY AND COUNTERPOINT H a r - f o r t h e s o p r a n o , a n o c t a v e f o r t h e chrale m l6 t h

m o n y a n d counterpoint aren't t w o very different i n t h e a l t o . T h e c o m b i n e d r a n g e is a 1 2 t h T \ J
topics. T h e y a r e closely related, w h i c h is w h y they shows y o u that a good deal can be o m p l i a c c
jS n e (

a r e p r e s e n t e d i n a n i n t e g r a t e d w a y i n Gradus. W e a limited spatial f r a m e w o r k . in

have already stated o u r disagreement with t h e
conventional idea that h a r m o n y deals w i t h chords L I N E AND C H O R D E v e n t h o u g h t h e r e a r e

a n d c o u n t e r p o i n t s i m p l y w i t h lines. S u c h a position t w o parts, w e m u s t consider t h e chordal a s p e c t o

o v e r l o o k s s o m e basic facts o f m u s i c a l life: lines t h e m u s i c . I n t h i s m u s i c , y o u h e a r t w o - n o t e c h ^
flow together t o f o r m chords, w h i l e t h e best w a y t o c a l l e d dyads. T h o s e d y a d s a r e m o s t l y 3 r d s a n d fi^'
u n d e r s t a n d t h em o t i o n o f o n e c h o r d t o a n o t h e r is w i t h 5ths a n d octaves at b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d ' S

to u n d e r s t a n d t h elines that guide t h e m . T h e lin- few dissonances. T h e r e ' s considerable v a r i . e t

a

ear aspect o f m u s i c is f u n d a m e n t a l t o a n y serious the choice o f simultaneous sounds. A t t h e ^ l n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t o n a l m u s i c a n d is e m p h a s i z e d t i m e , t h e l i n e s a r e s m o o t h a n d flowing. A l t h S a m e

i n Gradus. m o d e s t i n scope, t h i s piece satisfies t h e

U g h

T h e s e general observations a r en o wapplied t o a dem

s

specific piece. R e f e r t o t h e excerpt f r o m O t h m a y r ' s o f b o t h t h el i n e a r a n dc h o r d a l aspeets o f ^ .

b i c i n i u m o n p a g e 3 1 . T h e sign 2 tells y o u that t h e w h i c h is w h a t c o u n t e r p o i n t is all about.
h a l f n o t e represents o n e beat. T h e n u m b e r o f THE COUNTERPOINT EXERCISE T o h e l
b e a t s i n a u n i t is v a r i a b l e , as y o u s a w w h e n t h e m a k e t h etransition f r o m t h estudy o f a pie g C

chrale m e l o d y w a s d i s c u s s e d o n p a g e 2 7 . B a r l i n e s c o u n t e r p o i n t exercise, h e r e is a n excerpt f l a

have been added t o suggest t h e groupings o f two, Oltl

F u x ' s Gradus ad Parnassum. I t ' s i n t h e t r a d i t i
three, a n d f o u r beats. f o r m : a g i v e n m e l o d y , t h e cantus firrnus, [ tonal
n

F i g u r e s s h o w t h e intervals b e t w e e n voices. First voice a n d t h e counterpoint i n another. H e r

C t n e
y o u h e a r a unisn, d e f i n i n g F a s t o n i c . A f t e r s e v - c a n t u s firmus i s i n t h e a l t o .
e r a l c o n s o n a n c e s , a d i s s o n a n c e i s h e a r d . Figures of
dissonant intervals are encircled i n e x a m p l e s a n d i n
y o u r exercises; dissonance will b e t h e subject o f n n n o ^
P a r t T h r e e . A t this p o i n t o u r discussion focuses o n 3 5
consonant intervals. -e-

C A D E N C E A t t h e e n d o f t h e first p h r a s e , a m a j o r
6 t h o p e n s o u t i n t o a n octave. T h a t m o t i o n is a
cadenee, o n e t h a t ' s h e a r d a g o o d d e a l i n t w o - p a r t STUDY T H E EXERCISE T h e same t o p i C s

m u s i c o f t h e period. T h e melodic cadenee, t h e fall w e r e discussed i n relation t ot h e bicinium a r ^ ^ t a t

o f t h e voice that y o u h e a r d so o f t e n i n folksong investigated here. L i s t e n t o t h e intervals bet ^ ^ e

a n d chant, is h e a r d i n t h ealto. T h e c o u n t e r p o i n t the voices a n dt o t h e ways i nw h i c h they a r e

en
t o t h a t is i n t h e s o p r a n o , l e a d i n g n o t e t o t o n i c . T h e What's the tonic? t h e mode? Compare ther^j ^" L a
1 8 6

., . - . . de
c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e l i n e s o n t h e g o a l n o t e , C, e r e - w i t h t h e t w o i n O t h m a y r . W h a t types o f m o t i e n c e 0

ates a sense o f arrival. i 0

y o u h e a r b e t w e e n t h e voices a t each point? l ^
T h e second cadenee, at t h ee n do ft h e excerpt, are skips a n d steps treated? What's ther a n

i s t h e s a m e a s t h e first. each voice? t h e c o m b i n e d range? ge o f

32
T H E C O U N T E R P O I N T E X E R C I S E A SUM-
MARY T h es u m m a r y o f c o u n t e r p o i n t proce-
dures that f o l l o w s isbased i np a r t o n t h emusic j u s t
s t u d i e d , i n p a r t o n observatons a b o u t s i m i l a r p i e c e s .
A l l generalizations reflect n o r m a t i v e musical prac-
tice. T h i s s u m m a r y deals w i t h c o n s o n a n t s o u n d s
only; dissonant usages a r e explained i n Part T h r e e .
T h e p u r p o s e o f w o r k i n g c o u n t e r p o i n t exercises
is t o d e v e l o p s k i l l i n w r i t i n g t o n a l m u s i c , t o b e t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d t h e pul b e t w e e n c h o r d a n d l i n e i n t h a t
music, a n d t o gain first-hand knowledge o f how
tonality functions. T h ep r o p e r execution o f these
exercises requires that y o u w r i t e simultaneous lines
that combine harmoniously. B o t h t h e individual
lines a n dt h e resulting p o l y p h o n y require u n i t y
and variety t o b e musically satisfying. H e r e a r e
g u i d e l i n e s t h a t w i l l h e l p y o u achieve those goals.
Line
T o achieve unity each line should:
Stay w i t h i n t h e range o f one octave.
End w i t h t h e note o n w h i c h i tbegan, o r a 3 r d o r 5 t h
away.
Use stepwise m o t i o n p r e d o m i n a n t l y .
Use small skips r a t h e r t h a n large ones.
Fill t h e skips w i t h m o t i o n i n t h e opposite direction.
A v o i d any skip larger than a 6th, a n dany augmented o r
diminished interval.
T o achieve variety:
V a r y t h e stepwise m o t i o n w i t h a t least o n e skip.
D o n ' t repeat t w o - n o t e units, either literal o r transposed.
Polyphony
T o achieve u n i t y :
Establish t h e t o n a l i t y w i t h t h e first s o u n d , u s i n g a p e r f e c t
c o n s o n a n c e (unisn, p e r f e c t 5 t h , o c t a v e ) o v e r t h e l o w -
est v o i c e .
Confirm t h e tonality at t h e end, t h etonic i n t h e lowest
voice.
K e e p t h e l i n e s cise t o g e t h e r s o t h a t t h e y a r e h e a r d as
one e n t i t y .
T o achieve variety a n d interest:
Aim for independence o f the parts.
C o n t r a r y m o t i o n is best f o r t h a t p u r p o s e b u t :
A good m i x o f p a r a l l e l , c o n t r a r y , a n d o b l i q u e m o t i o n is
desirable.
A v o i d p a r a l l e l p e r f e c t c o n s o n a n c e s (unisn, 5 t h , o c t a v e ) .
V a r y the i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n voices.
The Cadenee
A n exercise m u s t n o t m e r e l y stop, b u tm u s t c o m e
to a c o n v i n c i n g e n d . T h e c a d e n e e e f f e c t i v e l y b r i n g s
t h e m u s i c a l m o t i o n t o a conclusin b y d i r e c t i n g
b o t h lines t o goals, w i t h ^ t h e t o n i c i n t h e bass. B e l o w
are s o m e cadenees i n t w o voices. A l l s h o w c o n t r a r y
m o t i o n i n t o t h e final s j o u n d , e x c e p t f o r o n e t h a t
uses o b l i q u e m o t i o n . O b s e r v e t h a t t h e l e a d i n g n o t e ,
originating i n t h em a j o r m o d e , is a n essential part
of all cadenees except i n t h e Phrygian. I n that
mode t h em o t i o n f r o m F t oE s o m e w h a t resembles
the m o t i o n l e a d i n g - n o t e - t o - t o n i c , p u l l i n g d o w n a
half step t o t h etonic. S o m e cadenees i n m i n o r -
type m o d e s m a y e n d w i t h a m a j o r t r i a d (raised 3 r d
or Picardy 3 r d ) , a n o t h e r u s e o f m o d e m i x t u r e .

6 8 10 10 8 1 3 6 5
Major O

W *>
1 4 Lrt
i
Minor > 8 10 8 10 8 10 8 6 3 6 5
4 v f > <jtm im o - i o
A 1 B ti f
o *5 *>

f
u
o
O
o
Dorian 6 8 10 8 10 8 3

fe fe

33
THE CANTUS FIRMUS T r a d i t i o n a l c o u n t e r -
p o i n t exercises consist o f a g i v e n m e l o d y , t o w h i c h
the student writes o n e o r m o r e o t h e r melodies, as
in the F u x exercise o n page 32. T h e given m e l o d y
is t h e cantus firmus; t h e m e l o d i e s w r i t t e n a g a i n s t
t h a t a r e t h e c o u n t e r p o i n t ( s ) , f r o m t h e L a t i n punctus
contra punctum, n o t e a g a i n s t n o t e .
N o t o n l y a r e exercises w r i t t e n w i t h a cantus
firmus, but compositions have been created b y the
s a m e m e t h o d . T h e b i c i n i u m b y O t h m a y r , \5\, i s o n e
e x a m p l e , t h e chrale m e l o d y s e r v i n g a s c a n t u s
firmus. T h e technique o f w o r k i n g with a given
melody originated i n t h e Middle Ages a n d per-
sisted t h r o u g h t h e Renaissance a n d , t o s o m e extent,
14
Three-Part Counterpoint
W e begin b y studying t h e Response by Marc-
A n t o n i o I n g e g n e r i , a n Italian c o m p o s e r o f the late
Renaissance, r e p r o d u c e d at the top o f the page. I f
singing this music gives y o u the impression that i t
has m a n y 3rds a n d 6ths, y o u a r e correct. T h o s e
e u p h o n i o u s s o u n d s h e l p crate t h e b e a u t y o f t h e
m u s i c . I n m o s t cases t h e y a d d u p t o triads.
34
t h e B a r o q u e . E x p l a n a t o n s o f c a n t u s firmus t e c h -
niques i n exercises a p p e a r i n t h r e e i m p o r t a n t books:
Counterpoint, b y G i o s e f f e Z a r l i n o ( 1 5 5 8 ) ; A Plaine
and Easie Introduction to Practica!! Musicke, b y T h o m a s
M o r l e y ( 1 5 7 9 ) ; a n d Gradus ad Parnassum, b y J o h a n n
J o s e p h F u x ( 1 7 2 5 ) . T h a t b o o k s a s od a s t h e s e
s h o u l d still h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o tell u s a b o u t m u s i c
shows the continuity o f musical tradition. Y o u may
i d e n t i f y y o u r s e l f w i t h t h a t t r a d i t i o n , a n d Gradus
offers y o u a w a y t od o j u s t that.
A c o l l e c t i o n o f c a n t u s firmi i s i n A p p e n d i x 4 .
O * Worksheets 5, 6
THE TRIAD Y o u a l r e a d y k n o w t h e t r i a d as a
three-note structure. I n y o u r study o f the triad i n
a m e l o d y , notes o f t h e t r i a d w e r e h e a r d i n succes-
sion. I npolyphonic music they a r eheard simulta-
n e o u s l y as w e l l as i n succession.
I n simplest f o r m , t h et r i a d consists o f t w o 3 r d s
stacked up. T o g e t h e r the 3rds add u p t oa 5th. I n
Response INGEGNERI

Interval b e t w e e n soprano and alto-3

o
m 3
s-
3 1 3 (?) 3
(9 O

I n t e r v a l b e t w e e n a l t o and bass- 3 3 3 3 5
S-
--
i
I n t e r v a l b e t w e e n s o p r a n o aa n d bass-5
Dass 10 10 5 3 3 (|) 3 (2) 3

10

<S -
3 4

10 3 3 3 3

O
TT
- r i t r
5 10 10

the Response, the hrst notes that are s u n g f o r m a
t r i a d . F r o m t h e b o t t o m u p , t h e ames o f t h e t r i a d ' s
m e m b e r s are: root (lowest), 3 r d (middle), and 5th
(highest).
Components of the triad
v o i c e t h e bass, w h e t h e r o r n o t a bass voice sings i t ) ,
t h e i n t e r v a l s o v e r t h a t bass a r e a 5 t h a n d a 3 r d .
T h e t r i a d i s t h e r e f o r e i n t h e | o r root position. B u t
the lowest note i n the t r i a d n e e d n o t always be the
r o o t . S o m e t i m e s t h e 3 r d o f t h e t r i a d i s i n t h e bass.
I n t h a t case, w h e n y o u m e a s u r e t h e intervals f r o m
t h e bass u p , w h a t d o y o u find?

5th C-triad
3rd
root
root first
position inversin

T h e r e a r e t h r e e different types o ftriad i n t h e both are consonant

Response. W e will discuss t w o o f t h e m n o w . C o m -
pare the o p e n i n g t r i a d w i t h the one that starts 4 .
T h e r e a r e similarities a n ddifferences; listen f o r
t h e m ! B o t h c h o r d s fit w i t h i n a 5 t h , b u t t h e 3 r d s
are a r r a n g e d differently.
Major triad M i n o r triad
6th-
5th-
positions
T h e i n t e r v a l s o v e r t h e bass E are a 6 t h a n d a 3 r d .
W h a t type o f 6 t h a n d 3 r d isn't i m p o r t a n t here,
because b o t h major a n d m i n o r 3rds and 6ths are
c o n s o n a n t . T h e versin o f t h e t r i a d i s t h e r e f o r e

I M3rd
k
m3rd
s e e n h e r e i n t h e f p o s i t i o n , o r first inversin. T h e
e x a m p l e above represents a comparison o f the t w o
consonant positions o f a C-triad.

T h e triad w i t h a m a j o r 3 r d above the r o o t (CE
G ) i s c a l l e d a major triad. T h e t r i a d w i t h a m i n o r
3 r d a b o v e t h e r o o t ( E G B ) i s a minor triad.
AND | POSITIONS W h e n t h e r o o t o f t h e t r i a d
is i n t h e l o w e s t v o i c e ( i n p o l y p h o n y w e c a l i t h a t
THE 4TH T h e f position includes the interval o f
a 4 t h b e t w e e n t h e t w o u p p e r voices. T h a t interval,
c o n s i d e r e d d i s s o n a n t i n t w o - p a r t w r i t i n g , is con-
sidered c o n s o n a n t i nt h r e e - p a r t chords. H o w can
t h a t be? T h e a n s w e r d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e
o f t h e b a s s i n t o n a l p o l y p h o n y : w h e n a 4 t h is h e a r d

35
 o v e r t h e bass i t is a dissonance. A l l i n t e r v a l s a r e
h e a r d o v e r t h e bass i n t w o - p a r t m u s i c , s o t h e 4 t h is
always a dissonance. B u t w h e n heard between t w o
u p p e r voices, t h e 4 t h is a c c e p t e d asa c o n s o n a n c e .
L o o k again a t t h eO u t l i n e o fRelative Degrees o f
Dissonance o n page 3 1 . Y o u c a n see that t h e 4 t h is
t h e least active dissonance o f all. T h a t ' s w h y i t c a n
b e p u s h e d a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r i n t o ( m o r e o r less)
c o n s o n a n t status b y r e m o v i n g i tf r o m a n y connec-
t i o n w i t h t h e b a s s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e 4 t h i n _1
isn't circled, as a r e t h e dissonant intervals i n t h e
score. B y contrast, t h e 4 t h is 5 is h e a r d w i t h t h e
bass a n d is c i r c l e d .
I t r e m a i n s t o a d d t h a t t h e 3 p o s i t i o n is a b i t m o r e
c o n s o n a n t t h a n t h e3p o s i t i o n , a fact t h a t we'll m a k e
use o fi n t h e study o f h a r m o n y .
DIMINISHED TRIAD S o f a r w e h a v e discussed
four consonant chords: m a j o r a n d m i n o r triads
m a y b e heard i neither 3 o r 3 position. A n o t h e r
t y p e o f t r i a d h a s as its o u t s i d e i n t e r v a l n o t a p e r f e c t
5 t h b u t a d i m i n i s h e d 5 t h . I t i s c a l l e d t h e diminished
triad, a f t e r t h a t o u t s i d e i n t e r v a l , a n d c o n s i s t s o f t w o
m i n o r 3rds stacked u p . I n 3 p o s i t i o n it's a disso-
nance, n o tavailable i nthis study a n d rarely heard
in a n y music. B u ti n 3 position it's considered
consonant, o r p e r h a p s m o r e c o n s o n a n t t h a n dis-
sonant. T h i s gives y o u o n e m o r e t r i a d t ow o r k w i t h
in three-part counterpoint.
Diminished triad:
3 position or another 3 position or
first inversin first inversin
I
i or root position
t G
i i
diminished 5th augmented 4th diminished 5th
dissonant in relation but consonant but consonant
to lowest voice to lowest voice to lowest voice
W h a t about t h e a u g m e n t e d 4 t h i nt h ef position
o f t h e d i m i n i s h e d triad? L i k e t h e perfect 4 t h ,it's
accepted asa consonance w h e n n o th e a r d w i t h t h e
bass. A n o t h e r s p a c i n g o f t h e voices j s also s h o w n
above. I t tells y o u t h a t t h e d i m i n i s h e d 5 t h , t o o ,
m a y b e treated as a consonance w h e n n o t h e a r d
w i t h t h e bass.
INCOMPLETE TRIADS M o s t o f t h e s o u n d s i n
the Response a r e c o m p l e t e triads, w i t h three dif-
ferent notes. B u t there a r e t w oother consonant
c h o r d s as well. T h e s e c o n d c h o r d i n 2 consists o f
two Fs a n d o n e A . It'sa three-note sound, b u t
t h e r e a r e o n l y t w o d i f f e r e n t n o t e s . I n cases l i k e
36
t h i s , w e s a y t h a t t h e F i s doubled. T h e r e s u l t i s c a l l e d
a n incomplete triad, o f t e n h e a r d i n t h r e e - p a r t m u s i c .
A d i f f e r e n t t h r e e - n o t e s o u n d is h e a r d f o r a
m o m e n t o n t h e last beat o f 9 . T h i s f o r m o f t h e
triad lacks a 3 r d b u t includes a 5 t h . Since t h e
i n t e r v a l s f r o m t h e bass a r e a n o c t a v e a n d a 3 r d , w e
c a l i t h i s t h e f posion o f t h e t r i a d . W h i l e i t ' s u n u s u a l
t o find t h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i t i s
heard a good deal i nearlier music.
TONALITY C o n t i n u i n g with o u r observations
concerning t h e Response, w e note that t h e k e y is
G, t h eMixolydian mode. (Both key and m o d e were
established before t h e beginning o f this excerpt.)
T y p i c a l o f t h e m o d e , t h e emphasis iso n 4 r a t h e r
than 5. Each o ft h e t w o phrases begins with a C -
triad. C isalso t h e highest n o t e i n each phrase. G
is c o n f i r m e d a s t o n i c b y t h e c a d e n e e s , b o t h o f
which bring i ntheleading note.
SPACING T h e voices k e e p cise together
t h r o u g h o u t . T h e largest interval between t h e outer
voices is a l O t h . O f t e n s o p r a n o a n d bass a r e w i t h i n
a 5 t h o r a 6 t h o f each o t h e r . T h e y a r e closest
t o g e t h e r o n t h e last beat o f 4 , w h e r e o n l y a 3 r d
separates t h e m . T h e closeness o f t h e voices con-
tributes m u c h t o t h e w a r m , blended sonority o f
this music.
RANGE T h e r a n g e o f e a c h v o i c e - p a r t is l i m i t e d .
T h e bass h a s t h e largest span, a 7 t h , w h i l e s o p r a n o
a n d alto b o t h encompass only a 6 t h . T h e total
r a n g e o f t h e piece is a p e r f e c t 1 2 t h .
V O I C E CROSSING I n 4 t h e s o p r a n o s k i p s d o w n
to its lowest note, E ,crossing u n d e r t h e alto G .
T w o b e a t s l a t e r t h e s o p r a n o m o v e s i n t o a unisn
w i t h t h ealto, b u tdoesn't regain t h eu p p e r position
u n t i l a f t e r t h e first c a d e n e e ( 6 ) . V o i c e c r o s s i n g i s a
familiar technique i npolyphonic music, offering
more opportunity for flexibility.
S P E C I A L F U N C T I O N O F T H E BASS Y o u m a y
have observed that w h i l e t h e u p p e r voices m o v e
s t e p w i s e m o s t o ft h e t i m e , t h e bass h a s m a n y skips.
T h e r e a r e several reasons f o r this, b u t t h e most
s i g n i f i c a n t is t h a t t h e bass s u p p o r t s t h e c h o r d s ;
that's its special f u n c t i o n .
T h e opening o f t h e excerpt clearly shows t h e
bass d o i n g i t s j o b . T h e s o p r a n o m o v e s G - A - G .
T h e A is a c o n s o n a n t N . T h e bass skips t o s u p p o r t
the consonant chord u n d e r the A . W h i l e the soprano
has m o v e d stepwise a n d t h e alto has kept i t c o m -
p a n y i n 3 r d s , t h e bass h a s t w o skips. T h e bass skips
i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n t o t h eu p p e r voices, displacing
the independence s odesirable i n tonal music.
CADENCES T h e r e are t w o p h r a s e s i n the e x c e r p t ,
e a c h b r o u g h t t o a conclusin b y a c a d e n e e . T h e
first p h r a s e c o m e s t o a p a u s e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
6. T h e l e a d i n g n o t e , Fjt, is i n v o k e d t o lead f r o m
t h e e n d o f 5 i n t o t h e g o a l c h o r d , t h e first G - t r i a d
in t h emusic. M u c h the same thing happens i n t h e
second cadenee, 910.
DISSONANCE O u r d i s c u s s i o n h a s focused o n
the consonant sounds i n t h e music. T h e r e a r e
dissonant sounds as well, as s h o w n b y t h e circled
figures. These will beexplained i n Part Three.
C O M M E N T ON S T Y L E T h e R e s p o n s e b y
I n g e g n e r i shows many i m p o r t a n t characteristics o f
t h e late Renaissance style. S i m p l e lines, m o v i n g
s t e p w i s e f o r t h e most p a r t ( e x c e p t f o r t h e bass),
genrate a succession o f c o n s o n a n t c h o r d s . T h e s e
a r e a l l t r i a d s i n 1 a n d jj p o s i t i o n . T h e m u s i c f l o w s
effortlessly from o n e sound t o t h e next. E v e n
t h o u g h t h e r e are only three voices, t h e s o u n d is
u n f a i l i n g l y rich and b e a u d f u l . E a c h line, t o o , h a s a
s h a p e o f its o w n ; c h o r d a n d l i n e a r e i n balance. It's
not surprising to learn that f o r m a n y years t h e
responses o f Ingegneri were attributed t othe lead-
i n g c o m p o s e r o f sacred m u s i c i n R o m e , P a l e s t r i n a .
B e f o r e proceeding t o exercises i n t h r e e parts,
s t u d y t h e cadenees below.

Cadenees in three parts

Major

Z3SZ
rx:
0o
6 6 +4 6 5 4 5 6 6 5 4 3

0O -04>
-e-
5 10 10 10 6 5 6 3 6 5 3 1 3 1 3 3
-G- -e- -G-

T T

> 10 8 6 8 10 10 8 10 10 8 5 6 5

Minor

3E
00- 0O-
6 6 +4 6 5 6 5 6 6 5 4 3

o cr
0g-
fe i
5 10 10 10 6 5 6 3 6 5 3 1 3 1 3 3
e- -

N io 6 8 10 10 8 10 10 8 5 8 3

a
0 Worksheets 7,8, 9

37
 Four-Part Counterpoint

FOUR PARTS I nt o n a l m u s i c , f o u r p a r t s is t h e part music. I n four-part music, every chord must

n o r m . N o t o n l y is m o s t choral music w r i t t e n i n
f o u r parts; it's also t r u e that m u c h i n s t r u m e n t a l
m u s i c is i n f o u r parts. M a s t e r y o ff o u r - p a r t w r i t i n g
is a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f y o u r t r a i n i n g a s a m u s i c i a n .
T h a t mastery begins with t h e study o f four-part
counterpoint.
A short Mass excerpt b y a great composer o f t h e
early Renaissance h a s m a n y instructive features
(see b e l o w ) . T h i s s c o r e i s i n y o u r A n t h o l o g y , [T],
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t e x t . T h e e n t i r e M a s s is b a s e d o n
t h e c h a n t Pange Lingua, w h i c h y o u find o n p a g e
12.
F r o m n o w on, w e will n o tindicate all t h e inter-
vallic relationships b e t w e e n t h e voices. Instead, w e
will show t h e content o f each chord with either
or 3 u n d e r t h e bass line. I f y o u k n o w t h a t t h e t r i a d
is i n first inversin o r r o o t p o s i t i o n , y o u c a n r e a d i l y
d e t e r m i n e all t h e intervals b e t w e e n t h e voices.
DOUBLING A s w e k n o w , a triad has o n l y three
d i f f e r e n t notes. H o wa r e these notes distributed
a m o n g f o u r voices? T h ea n s w e r is that o n e o f t h e
triad's notes is h e a r d i n t w o d i f f e r e n t voices, o r
doubled. Y o u h e a r d a f e w s u c h d o u b l i n g s i n t h r e e -
h a v e a d o u b l e d m e m b e r (as l o n g as w e ' r e d e a l i n g
w i t h triads).
I n t h e J o s q u i n e x a m p l e , d o u b l i n g is i n d i c a t e d b y
a figure o r l e t t e r b e t w e e n t h e a l t o a n d t e n o r l i n e s .
R, 3 r d , o r 5 t h tells y o uw h e t h e r t h e r o o t , 3 r d o r
5th o ft h e t r i a d is d o u b l e d . R e a d i n g t h r o u g h those
indications, y o u c a n see t h a t t h e r o o t is d o u b l e d
m o r e o f t e n t h a n e i t h e r t h e 3 r d o r t h e 5 t h . T h i s is
true i nmost four-part tonal music.
W h e n t h e 3 r do r 5 t h isd o u b l e d , t h e r e is usually
a g o o d r e a s o n . I n _2, s o p r a n o a n d b a s s m o v e d o w n
i n p a r a l l e l l O t h s . H o w t o crate c o n t r a r y m o t i o n
w i t h a n u p w a r d line? T h e answer: place alto a n d
tenor l o w so that they c a nthen move u p . T h e
t e n o r reaches d o w n t oF , f r o m w h i c h i t c a n rise i n
c o n t r a r y m o t i o n t o t h e u p p e r voices. T h a t F is t h e
3 r d o f a t r i a d . Since F is also s u n g b y t h e s o p r a n o ,
t h e 3 r d is d o u b l e d .
I n 6.7 t h e r o o t i s n ' t j u s t d o u b l e d ; i t ' s t r i p l e d .
H e r e is t h e o n l y i n c o m p l e t e t r i a d i n t h e excerpt.
H o w t o a v o i d parallel octaves c o m i n g o u t o f a l l
those Gs? Josquin sends each o n e i n a different
direction. T h e s o p r a n o repeats itsG (that's part o f
t h e c h a n t ) . A g a i n s t t h a t , t h e bass skips u p a n dt h e

Et Incarnatus Est from the Mass P a n g e L i n g u a JOSQUIN

10
Triad member _. Ci , , , . .... . ,,
m soprano
<> 41 r
S <- r. *-/
r
o ^ u
(3

Triad J J J . Je- JJ O TT7

member - R R 3rd R R R 3rd R R R (si!) R R 5th3rd R 3rd R R 3rd R
doubled , 33 I O
o o o&

O L &
5 5 5 65 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 8 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Triad position - 3 3 3 33 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

38
tenor skips d o w n . T h e y a r e i ncontrary m o t i o n t o
each o t h e r a n di n oblique m o t i o n t o t h e soprano.
T h e alto moves u p stepwise. There's every k i n d o f
motion b u t parallel.
A t t h e final c a d e n e e , 1 1 1 2 . t h e B i s d o u b l e d i n
t h e n e x t - t o - l a s t c h o r d . T h e d o u b l e d B is t h e l e a d -
ing note. I nk e e p i n g w i t h t h e chant, t h e soprano B
m o v e s d o w n t o G. B u t i t s e e m s t h a t J o s q u i n also
wanted t o hear t h e leading note m o v e t o t h e tonic.
H e a d d e d a n o t h e r B i nt h e tenor, a n octave before
the s o p r a n o B .T h i s doubles t h e leading note. T h e
tenor B moves u p , t h esoprano's moves d o w n , a n d
the voices a r e i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n .
C o n v e n t i o n a l w i s d o m cautions against d o u b l i n g
the 3 r di na m a j o r triad. Instead o ffollowing such
a d i c t u m blindly, w e suggest that y o u t h i n k about
w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n s w h e n a 3 r d is d o u b l e d . I f
b o t h t h e d o u b l e d n o t e s m o v e u p a step, p a r a l l e l
octaves will s u r e l y result. B u t i f t h e d o u b l e d notes
proceed i ncontrary m o t i o n there will be n o paral-
lel octaves, a n d t h u s there's n o o b j e c t i o n t o t h e
doubling.
R O O T , 3RD, 5 T H O n e t h i n g t h a t a f f e e t s t h e
s o u n d o f a c h o r d is w h e t h e r t h e s o p r a n o h a s t h e
root, 3rd, o r 5 t h o ft h e triad. T h i s hasnothing t o
do with doubling; it'sa question o f which triad
m e m b e r is t h e m e l o d y n o t e . A b o v e t h e s o p r a n o
p a r t i n t h e J o s q u i n e x c e r p t y o u ' l l find i n d i c a t i o n s
o f R, 3 r d , a n d 5 t h , s h o w i n g t h e r o l e o f t h e s o p r a n o
note i n t h e triad.
M o s t o f t e n , t h e 3 r d o f t h e t r i a d is t h e h i g h e s t
n o t e . T h e 5 t hplays s o m e r o l e as m e l o d y n o t e , b u t
t h e r o o t r a r e l y d o e s . S i n c e t h e r o o t is i n t h e bass
most o ft h e t i m e , t h e presence o fthe 3 r do r 5 t h i n
t h e t o p l i n e m e a n s t h a t m e l o d y a n d bass a r e u s u a l l y
d i f f e r e n t n o t e s . T h i s is a w a y o f c r e a t i n g s o m e
richness a n dcolor i n t h e chords, w h i c h b y t h e m -
selves a r e q u i t e s i m p l e .
F r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , w e see h o w a musical
effect c a n b e created b y c h a n g i n g t h erole o f t h e
m e l o d y n o t e . I n t h e first c h o r d , t h e m e l o d y E i s
t h e 3 r d o f a t r i a d . I n t h e s e c o n d c h o r d , E is still
the m e l o d y note, b u t it's n o w t h e 5 t h o f a triad.
This, combined with t h edifference between a major
triad a n d a m i n o r o n e , changes t h e sound a n d
c o l o r o f t h e E . I t ' s t h e s a m e n o t e a s i n t h e first
chord, y e tthere's a difference y o u can hear.
TONALITY T h e k e y is c l e a r l y C . T h e r e a r e n o
c h r o m a t i c n o t e s . T h e t o n i c t r i a d i s t h e first c h o r d
heard, a n d it'spresent m u c h o f t h e time. After
o t h e r c h o r d s pass b y i n 6 1 1 , t h e t o n i c t r i a d is
39
r e a f f i r m e d as t h e g o a l o f m o t i o n . T h e notes o f t h e
t r i a d figure l a r g e l y i n t h e m e l o d y , w h i l e C a n d G
a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e bass.
T H E BASS A g a i n t h e bass h a s m a n y s k i p s ; i t i s
fulfilling its special f u n c t i o n , as w e c a n see i n
a l m o s t e v e r y m e a s u r e . A bass s k i p is p a r t o f t h e
first c h o r d c h a n g e , w h i c h a l t e r s t h e r o l e o f t h e
melody E from 3 r d to 5th. W h e n the melody
m o v e s b y N , E - F - E , t h e bass skips t o s u p p o r t
those m e l o d y notes w i t h consonance. T h e fall o f a
5 t h i n t h e final p a i r o f c h o r d s i s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t
of the cadenee.
RANGE T h e total r a n g e o f t h e piece is f r o m t h e
l o w G o f t h e bass t o t h e C o f t h e s o p r a n o , t w o
octaves a n da 4 t h . T h eo n l y voice w i t h a range o f
o v e r a n o c t a v e is t h e bass, w h i c h stretches f o r a
9th.
REGISTER T h em u s i c lies i n a l o w register, a n d
has, as a result, a r a t h e r d a r k color. A l t h o u g h t h e
voices m a y seem u n u s u a l l y l o w t o u s , this is a
n o r m a l way o fwriting vocal music i nt h e fifteenth
century.
A cise l o o k a t 9 s h o w s a n i n t e r e s t i n g d e t a i l . O n
t h e first b e a t t h e a - t r i a d i s q u i t e s p r e a d o u t , c o v e r -
ing t w o octaves a n da 3 r d . T h e n s o m e t h i n g u n e x -
p e c t e d h a p p e n s : t h e bass skips u p a n octave, a n d
the alto a n d t e n o r skip u p too. T h e voices r e t u r n
t o t h e l e v e l o f t h e first m e a s u r e s . T h e d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e t w o statements o ft h e a-triad i n 9 is a
difference i n range a n dregister, n o t pitch. N o n e -
theless, it'sa m u s i c a l event, a n d is used h e r e t o
l a u n c h t h e final p h r a s e o f t h e e x c e r p t . I m p o r t a n t
things h a p p e n i n music besides pitch changes.
FOLLOW-UP T h i s is a g o o d t i m e t o p e r f o r m
a n d listen t o three pieces i n t h e A n t h o l o g y . A l l
consist o f consonant triads i n a n df positions. T h e
v i l l a n e l l a b y D o n a d , [7], i s a c h e e r f u l c a r n i v a l s o n g
f r o m Venice, very m u c h note-against-note conso-
n a n c e . Innsbruck, I Now Must Leave Thee, [2], i s a
f a m o u s ( a n d v e r y beauful) c h o r a l s o n g o f t h e
mid-Renaissance. Finally, a p o w e r f u l setting o f
P s a l m 7 8 b y H e i n r i c h Schtz, [ 1 7 ] s u g g e s t s a s p e e t s
o f t h e transition f r o m Renaissance t o Baroque
styles. A l l o f these pieces m a y b e s u n g b y voices
alone, o r with instrumental doubling, o r even played
by instruments alone.
B e l o w a r e some cadenees t o be used i n y o u r
c o u n t e r p o i n t exercises.
Typical cadenees in four parts

Major JJ

T E

r
2 :
1
T
33C 3E 331

'5
3
5
3
6
3
5
3
5
3
5
3
6
3
5
3
T
5
3
5
3
5
3
5
3

Minor

SE
2= 3CC
o XE

r
2. 2.

5
o
5
f
6
331

5

5 5 6 5
r 5
cu

5
5 5
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

E F W o r k s h e e t s 10, 1 1

40
 PART THREE
DIATONIC
DISSONANCE
16
Introduction
As y o u listen t o t o n a l music a n d focus o n t h e
s i m u l t a n e o u s s o u n d s , y o u w i l l find t h a t t h e y s e e m
to h a v e d i f f e r e n t i m p u l s e s : s o m e sounds s e e m active
a n d m o v e f o r w a r d , o t h e r s a r e r e l a t i v e l y stable. T h e
sounds that agree w i t h each other and contain n o
a c t i v e e l e m e n t a r e t h o s e w e ' v e c a l l e d consonant.
T h o s e sounds that i n some w a y disagree w i t h each
o t h e r a n d d e m a n d f u r t h e r m o v e m e n t we've called
dissonant. D i s s o n a n c e m a k e s s e n s e t o t h e e a r b e c a u s e
it's " e x p l a i n e d " b y s u b s e q u e n t c o n s o n a n c e . T h e
relase o f t h e tensin c a u s e d b y d i s s o n a n c e i s f e l t
in the consonance that follows.
C o m p o s e r s l e a r n e d t o maniplate t h e d i s s o -
nance-consonance interaction early in t h e Renais-
sance. T h e y t r e a t e d dissonance carefully, p r e p a r i n g
a n d r e s o l v i n g i t b y s t e p i n m o s t cases. E v e n w i t h i n
these limitations, t h o u g h , they made good musical
use o fdissonance. T h i s is o n e reason w h y Renais-
sance m u s i c provides such a g o o d m o d e l f o r y o u r
early exercises.
T h e discipline o fcounterpoint offers a system-
atic w a y o fs t u d y i n g t h e i n t e r p l a y o f consonance
a n d dissonance. T h e c o u n t e r p o i n t exercises o f P a r t
T w o , concerned w i t h consonance only, gave y o u a
starting point. I nPart T h r e e y o u will study conso-
nancedissonance i n t w o , three, a n df o u r parts.
T h e r e a r e three m a i n types o f dissonance i n a l l
tonal music. T h e y are:
P a s s i n g m o t i o n ( P ) : T h i s t y p e o f m o t i o n filis i n t h e
m e l o d i c i n t e r v a l o f a 3 r d (less o f t e n , a 4 t h ) , c a u s i n g a
t e m p o r a r y dissonant relationship w i t h another voice
as i t m o v e s . M o t i o n t o a n d f r o m t h e P is s t e p w i s e i n
o n e d i r e c t i o n . W h e n a passing t o n e falls o n a w e a k
b e a t o r a w e a k p a r t o f a b e a t , w e indcate i t w i t h a P .
W h e n i t falls o n a s t r o n g beat o r a s t r o n g p a r t o f a
beat, w e a d d a n accent (P).
Neighbor-note m o t i o n ( N ) : T h i s embellishes a m a i n note
w i t h stepwise m o v e m e n t u p o r d o w n , causing a disso-
n a n c e w i t h a n o t h e r v o i c e as i t m o v e s . W h e n a n e i g h -
b o r n o t e falls o n a w e a k beat o r t h e w e a k p a r t o f a
b e a t , w e indcate i t w i t h N . W h e n i t f a l l s o n a s t r o n g
beat o r a s t r o n g p a r t o f a beat, w e a d d a n accent ( N ) .
Suspensin ( S U S ) : A S U S i s t h e d e l a y e d r e s o l u t i o n o f a
n o t e , w h i c h cretes a d i s s o n a n c e w i t h a n o t h e r v o i c e .
T h e s u s p e n d e d n o t e m o v e s t o a consonance, t h e res-
olution.
T h e p u r e l y m e l o d i c aspects o f P a n d N w e r e
introduced i n Part O n e . N o w y o u will study t h e
17
Passing and Neighbor Motion: Two Parts
T h e e x e r c i s e b e l o w f r o m T h o m a s M o r l e y ' s A Plaine
and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke c o n t a i n s
useful i n f o r m a t i o n about diatonic dissonance. T h e
key is G , t h e m o d e a m i x t u r e o fm a j o r a n d M i x o -
lydian. T h e h a l f n o t e represents o n e beat.
T h e exercise is i nt h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m o f cantus
firmus and counterpoint. Figures have been added
to s h o w i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e voices. M o s t o f t h e
sounds i n t h eexercise a r e consonant, b u tw e will
concern ourselves w i t h those that a r e dissonant.
F i g u r e s s h o w i n g dissonance a r e circled; each dis-
s o n a n c e is lettered.
(a) E , a 4 t h b e l o w A , i s a d i s s o n a n t P . I t filis i n t h e
melodic 3 r d between F and D , both consonant. T h e
d i s s o n a n c e is o n t h e w e a k p a r t o f t h e beat.
(b) G l i e s b e t w e e n t w o A s a n d i s r h y t h m i c a l l y w e a k e r
t h a n b o t h . I t is a N .
(c) E i s d i s s o n a n t w i t h t h e D i n t h e c a n t u s . S i n c e E filis
t h e 3 r d b e t w e e n F a n d D , this is passing m o t i o n .
S i n c e t h e E is r h y t h m i c a l l y s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e D t o
w h i c h i t l e a d s , i t is a n P .
(d) F|t is d i s s o n a n t w i t h t h e C i n t h e c a n t u s firmus.
F i l l i n g t h e space o f a 3 r d b e t w e e n t h e c o n s o n a n t E
a n d C , F# is a n o t h e r P .
cantus firmus
I T
3 10 3 6 5 3 5 6 6 5 6 6 6 8
counterpoint
d ^ J JJ
i-fi-
s (a) (b)
42
ways i n w h i c h they relate t o other notes heard
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h e S U S is n e w . Since all o f these
dissonances u s e o n l y t h e notes o f t h e scale ( w h a t -
e v e r t h e k e y a n d m o d e ) , o u r t o p i c i s diatonic disso-
nance.
(e) A s i n (c), t h e P f a l l s o n t h e s t r o n g e r p a r t o f t h e b e a t .
T h e n o t e t o w h i c h i t passes is o n t h e w e a k e r part. B
is a n P .
RHYTHM T h i s short exercise illustrates another
i m p o r t a n t point: every interaction o f dissonance
a n d c o n s o n a n c e takes place i n a specific r h y t h m i c
framework. T o understand a n y consonance-dis-
sonance action, y o u must identify t h estrong a n d
w e a k beats, as w e l l as t h e s t r o n g a n d w e a k parts o f
a beat.
E v e n i n a n e x e r c i s e as s i m p l e as M o r l e y ' s , t h e r e
a r e t h r e e levis o f r h y t h m . T h e p u l s e i s r e p r e -
sented b y a half note; slightly m o r e than half the
n o t e s i n t h e e x e r c i s e h a v e t h a t valu. T h e b e a t i s
divided into quarter notes several times. Here, too,
s t r o n g a n d w e a k altrnate a n d m o s t p a s s i n g a n d
n e i g h b o r m o t i o n is f o u n d o n this level. T h e cantus
firmus m o v e s i n w h o l e notes, a n d t h e last n o t e o f
the counterpoint hasthe same duration. T h e long
n o t e a t t h e e n d c r e a t e s a s e n s e o f finality; i t i s a
double w h o l e note o r breve.
R e v i e w i n g t h e exercise, y o u c a n easily i d e n t i f y
the r h y t h m level o f each dissonant note.
Ai
1 6 8 6 3 6 (7) 8 5 8
-o-
(c) (d)
(a) P o n t h e q u a r t e r - n o t e l e v e l ; o n t h e w e a k p a r t o f a
b e a t ( r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e h a l f n o t e is o n e b e a t )
(b) N o n t h e q u a r t e r - n o t e l e v e l ; w e a k p a r t o f a beat
(c) P o n t h e q u a r t e r - n o t e l e v e l ; s t r o n g p a r t o f a b e a t
(d) P o n t h e h a l f - n o t e level; w e a k beat
(e) P o n t h e q u a r t e r - n o t e l e v e l ; s t r o n g p a r t o f a b e a t
W e conclude that i n this music P m a y b e placed
e i t h e r o n a w e a k beat o r t h ew e a k p a r t o fa beat.
Less o f t e n , i t m a y b e placed o n the s t r o n g p a r t o f
a beat. N w i l l fall o n t h e w e a k p a r t o fa beat, n o t
o n a full beat. T h e s e observations h o l d t r u e i n
Renaissance a n d early B a r o q u e music, including
the w o r k s i ny o u r A n t h o l o g y . Use this paragraph
as a g u i d e i n w r i t i n g c o u n t e r p o i n t e x e r c i s e s i n
w h i c h t h e c a n t u s firmus c o n s i s t s o f w h o l e n o t e s .
T o study t h e consonancedissonance interplay
in a piece o f m u s i c w e t u r n t o t h eo p e n i n g o f
L a s s o ' s B e n e d i c t u s , [ T T | . T h e versin i n t h e A n t h o l -
o g y s h o w s y o u t h e w a yi n w h i c h such m u s i c is
usually p r i n t e d i nm o d e r a editions. B u t Lasso was
very interested i nt h e rhythmic independence o f
the voices, a n d t h e m o d e r a e d i t i o n doesn't s h o w
t h a t . T h e first p h r a s e i n t h e versin b e l o w f o l l o w s
the n a t u r a l accent o f w o r d s a n d music i n each part.
H e r e is t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o feach dissonance ( t h e
h a l f note represents o n e beat):
A l t o D is a P, o n t h e w e a k p a r t o f a beat.
A l t o F is a P .
S o p r a n o C is a P .
T h e l o n g s o p r a n o E is a S U S , e x p l a i n e d i n t h e n e x t
section.
T h e s o p r a n o D is a P .
T h e s o p r a n o E is, a g a i n , a S U S .
T h e a l t o E is a n P . H e r e i t ' s p a r t o f t h e e l a b o r a t i o n i n a
cadenee, i n a typical Renaissance pattern.
T h e s o p r a n o D is a S U S .
O n c e a g a i n , p a s s i n g m o t i o n is a l l o n t h e q u a r t e r -
n o t e level. T h i s m a k e s possible t h e f l o w i n g melis-
mas ( m a n y notes t oo n e syllable).
E F Worksheet 12

.i o
2 mf aj f -9 2
4*
> 4> w m m-i On
1 8
- 4 =
@ 5 3 @ 5 3 8 6 6 5 3 3 3
--
m

3 @ 5 6 6 8 6
f

32:

18
Suspensions: Two Parts

I n h i s Gradus ad Pamassum F u x s h o w s h o w t h i s m a yb e elaborated i n this manner:

series o f consonances

v
* o
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

11 3t
32:

43
T h e u p p e r voice is delayed b y o n e beat. T h e delay
i n t r o d u c e s a dissonance. E a c h dissonance is p r e -
pared b y a consonance a n d resolves t o a conso-
nance, w i t h a step d o w n . T h i s type o f dissonance
is a suspensin ( S U S ) .
T h e r h y t h m i c p l a c e m e n t o f each note is a n
essential feature o f the S U S . T h e succesion conso-
nancedissonanceconsonance takes place i n a
specific f r a m e w o r k o f s t r o n g a n d w e a k beats. H e r e
is t h e r h y t h m i c s h a p e o f a S U S .
preparation suspensin resolution
consonance dissonance consonance
T h e S U S i s parcularly effecve b e c a u s e i t p l a c e s
the dissonant e l e m e n t o n a s t r o n g beat, highlight-
ing t h e dissonant relationship. Because o f their
e x p r e s s i v e valu y o u find m a n y S U S s i n R e n a i s -
sance a n d B a r o q u e music. O f t e n t h eS U S is used
in such a w a y that t h e resolution (astep d o w n ) is
t o t h e l e a d i n g n o t e . T h u s y o u f r e q u e n t l y find a
S U S a tthe cadenee.
H e r e is a list o f S U S s i n t w o p a r t s .
S U S in upper voice S U S in lower voice
*
but ]0(
3 3 8 6 D 8 3j>)
not
i r V l e v e l , w h i l e t h e first c o n t i n e s . I m i t a t i o n i s n o t o n l y
O b s e r v e t h a t a l l resolve d o w n w a r d b y step,
r e l e a s i n g t h e tensin o f t h e d i s s o n a n c e i n t o t h e
stability o f t h e consonance. U p w a r d resolution o f
a S U S is o n l y f o u n d later, a n d t h e n t h e s u s p e n d e d
note is often a leading note, w i t h itso w n u p w a r d
tendeney.
I n exercises, t h etie is t h e sign o ft h e S U S . B u t
i n a r e a l piece o f m u s i c , t h i s i s n o t a l w a y s so. F o r a
v i e w o f S U S s i n a t w o - p a r t piece, refer t o t h e
b i c i n i u m , \5. T h e r e a r e s i x p h r a s e s i n t h e p i e c e
a n d six cadenees. S U S s a r e used i n every cadenee.
T h r e e are explained here.
A t ". . . o u r G o d " y o u h e a r t h e m o s t c o m m o n
S U S , i n w h i c h a 7 t h resolves t o a 6 t h . T h e disso-
nance resolves t o a leading note. T h e cadenee is
the n o r m a t i v e 6 t h t o octave.
A t ". . . - v i l f o e " t h e i n i t i a l c a d e n e e i s i n v e r t e d .
Instead o f 6th-7th-6th y o u hear 3rd-2nd-3rd. W h e r e
t h e first c a d e n e e o p e n e d o u t f r o m a 6 t h t o a n
o c t a v e , t h i s o n e c l o s e s i n , 3 r d t o unisn. B o t h h a v e
a strong drive t oa goal.
O n "(wick)-ed way" y o u hear a Phrygian ca-
denee. It's transposed u p t h e (customary) 4 t h so
that its goal is A . T h i s is a n elaborated cadenee,
f o u n d i n m u c h Renaissance vocal music.
I n t h ecadenee, a nP leads i n t o t h eoctave A , s o
that a 3 r d precedes the 7th. T h e r e are t w o r h y t h m
levis i n p l a y . T h e S U S a n d r e s o l u t i o n a r e o n t h e
h a l f - n o t e level. Passing m o t i o n is o n t h e quarter-
note level. B o t h c o n f o r m t o t h e n o r m s y o u have
seen i n o t h e r pieces a n d exercises.
W i t h t h eS U S y o u have completed t h estudy o f
dissonant notes. B e f o r e proceeding t o t h e exer-
cises, w e ' l l t a k e a l o o k a t a t e c h n i q u e t h a t h a s l o n g
been associated w i t h vocal m u s i c a n d w i t h counter-
p o i n t , a n d w h i c h y o u m a y find u s e f u l i n y o u r
exercises.
IMITATION I na n exercise a l l t h e voices m a y
begin together. B u ti n m u c h Renaissance music
the voices usually enter o n e a t a t i m e . O n e voice
3 m a y sing o n l y a f e w notes, w h i c h a r e t h e n taken
i u p (imitated) b y the n e x t voice a ta different pitch
a w a y o f i n t r o d u c i n g t h em u s i c a l m a t e r i a l b u t also
a w a y o f i n t r o d u c i n g the voices themselves a n d the
registers i n w h i c h they'll b e heard.
T h e best w a y t ostudy i m i t a t i o n is t o e x a m i n e a
c o m p l e t e piece that uses t h e technique t h r o u g h -
o u t . I n C e r t o n ' s c h a n s o n , [4], t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l
places o t h e r t h a n the b e g i n n i n g w h e r e i m i t a t i o n is
h e a r d . A l l t h e i m i t a t i o n s take place w i t h i n t h e
f r a m e w o r k o f the tonic triad, t h e t w o voices t a k i n g
t u r n s a t l e a d i n g a n d f o l l o w i n g . It's s u r p r i s i n g t o
s e e h o w m u c h artfice t h e r e i s i n t h i s l i g h t h e a r t e d
work.
O * Worksheet 13
44
 19
Diatonic Dissonance: Three Parts

M (<0 (d) (e), (0,

fe
1 -BT
3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 3 3 2 (2) 3 3
O

8 3 3 8 3 1 3 8 3 6 8
33 6 8 6 8 6 5 3 3 5 10

10 5 10 10 5 10 5 3 5
TZZZ

10 5 8 10 6 8 10 10
m 1 0 8 5 3 @ 5

T h e three types o f dissonancepassing motion, (d) O n t h e w e a k p a r t o f a w e a k b e a t t h e a l t o filis t h e 3 r d

n e i g h b o r m o t i o n , a n d suspensinare readily
u n d e r s t o o d i n t h r e e parts ase x t e n s i o n s o f two-part
p r o c e d u r e . Y o u c a n a l w a y s d e t e r m i n e t h e type o f
d i s s o n a n c e i n p l a y b y e x a m i n i n g t w o p a r t s at a (e)
t i m e . A n y n o t e t h a t i s d i s s o n a n t w i t h e i t h e r o f the
(f)
o t h e r notes h e a r d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y is considered
dissonant. A t h r e e - n o t e s o u n d m a y c o n t a i n two
c o n s o n a n c e s , o n e c o n s o n a n c e a n d o n e dissonance, (g)
or t w o dissonances.
A n o t h e r e x a m p l e f r o m M r . M o r l e y ' s b o o k , above,
is i n s t r u c t i v e . T h i s t i m e t h e q u a r t e r n o t e i s t h e beat
a n d p a s s i n g m o t i o n i s i n e i g h t h s . T h e k e y is a n
u n e q u i v o c a l F . T h e r e i s n o c a n t u s firmus. Disso-
nances a r elettered i nthe illustration.
(a) F i n t h e a l t o is s u s p e n d e d . I n t r o d u c e d a s a conso-
n a n c e o n t h e p r e v i o u s ( w e a k ) b e a t , i t becomes a
d i s s o n a n c e o n t h e d o w n b e a t o f 2. T h e F f o r m s a 4th
w i t h t h e s o p r a n o a n d a 7 t h w i t h t h e bass. T h e outer
v o i c e s d o n ' t h o l d t h e i r n o t e s , w a i t i n g f o r t h e resolu-
t i o n , as t h e y m i g h t i n a n e x e r c i s e . I n s t e a d t h e y move
o n . B o t h o f t h e i r n e w n o t e s a r e c o n s o n a n t w i t h the
a l t o ' s r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e S U S t o E . T h e dissonance is
o n t h e level o f t h e beat, t h e q u a r t e r n o t e .
( b ) S o p r a n o a n d a l t o m o v e t h r o u g h P s a t t h e eighth-
n o t e l e v e l , o n t h e w e a k p a r t o f t h e b e a t . T h e Ps are
c o n s o n a n t w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d d i s s o n a n t w i t h the
bass.
(c) T h e a l t o C i s d i s s o n a n t b o t h w i t h t h e s o p r a n o D and
t h e bass G . I n r e s o l v i n g o n e i t r e s o l v e s b o t h , as
s o p r a n o a n d bass w a i t f o r t h e r e s o l u t i o n , which
completes a major triad.
C E w i t h a P . I t ' s d i s s o n a n t w i t h t h e bass, a l t h o u g h
c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e s o p r a n o . T h i s i s as m i l d a d i s s o -
n a n c e as y o u ' l l find.
Repeats (a), w i t h t h e difference that h e r e t h e o u t e r
voices w a i t f o r t h e S U S t o resolve.
T w o P s i n t h e bass, i n e i g h t h n o t e s , f o r m d i s s o -
nances o n t h e weak parts o f the t h i r d a n d f o u r t h
beats.
A s y o u m i g h t expect, a S U S resolves into the leading
note a t t h e cadenee. M o r l e y adds a n interesting
decail t o t h e s t a n d a r d f o r m u l a . T h e s o p r a n o reaches
the tonic n o t e a t t h e e n d o f the exercise. S u r p r i s -
ingly, t h e a l t o crosses t h e s o p r a n o a n d e n d s i n t h e
h i g h e r p o s i t i o n . T h e last dissonance resolves i n t o a
complete triad. T h e o n l y w h o l e note o f the exercise
filis t h e last m e a s u r e .
IMITATION I m i t a t i o n i n t h r e e parts picks u p
w h e r e t w o - p a r t i m i t a t i o n leaves o f f . T h e t h i r d
e n t r a n c e i s o f t e n a t t h e s a m e p i t c h l e v e l a s t h e first,
o r a n o c t a v e a w a y . P a l e s t r i n a ' s B e n e d i c t u s , \8\, i s
imitative throughout. T h e short excerpt o n page
4 6 t h a t l e a d s t o t h e e n d is j u s t o n e s a m p l e o f t h e
m a s t e r f u l w r i t i n g i n t h e piece. B o t h t h e i m i t a t i v e
procedures a n d the consonancedissonance inter-
a c t i o n a r e w o r t h a cise l o o k . T h e b a s s l e a d s o f f
w i t h a f o u r - n o t e idea, g i v i n g t h esense o f t h r e e
upbeats a n d a downbeat; t h emusic moves t o a
goal. T h e soprano imitates at t h e octave, starting
as t h e b a s s r e a c h e s i t s f o u r t h n o t e . T h e a l t o i m i -
tates j u s t as closely b u t a 5 t h b e l o w t h e s o p r a n o .
B e f o r e t h e a l t o h a s finished i t s s t a t e m e n t t h e b a s s

45
J a , (a) (b) (c) (d)
-Jf- ' IJ y
tT ^'^
r, gj rs
m ^ ^ 1 " s s

1
1 E

10 10 10 10 8 10

enters again, intensifying t h edrive t ot h e C-triad. ( b ) T h e bass B , a P , i s d i s s o n a n t w i t h b o t h s o p r a n o a n d

T h e n a l l voices j o i n i na c h o r d a l texture, a sure
s i g n t h a t t h e m u s i c i s d r a w i n g t o a cise.
T h e dissonanceconsonance interplay unfolds
i n a r h y t h m i c c o n t e x t i nw h i c h t h e h a l f n o t e is t h e
beat. W h e n n o h a l f n o t e is h e a r d o n t h e f o u r t h
beat o fthe excerpt's f o u r t h measure, w esense that
t h e m u s i c i s c o m i n g t o a cise.
(a) T h e preparaton f o r t h e S U S s o u n d s f o r m o r e t h a n
o n e beat. T h e alto doesn't w a i t f o r t h e s o p r a n o t o
resolve t h e S U S , but meets t h e note o f resolution, B ,
with a consonant E .
alto. R e a c h i n g C , i t is c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e s o p r a n o
but:
(c) T h e a l t o is s u s p e n d e d a c r o s s t h e b a r l i n e . H e r e i s t h e
standard S U S procedure, consonant preparation a n d
d i s s o n a n t i m p a c t o n t h e s t r o n g beat. T h e a l t o F is
d i s s o n a n t w i t h b o t h t h e s o p r a n o G a n d t h e bass F .
A g a i n , t h e r e s o l u t i o n filis u p a t r i a d .
(d) T h e r e s o l u t i o n is e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h a N , D . T h i s
p a r t i c u l a r e m b e l l i s h m e n t is associated n o t o n l y w i t h
t h e m u s i c o f Palestrina b u t also w i t h m u c h C a t h o l i c
church music.
O * Worksheets 14, 15

20
More on Diatonic Dissonance

W e h a v e discussed t h ebasic dissonance t y p e s DN

passing m o t i o n , neighbor m o t i o n , a n d suspen-

sionsin their simplest forms. Let us n o w examine
a f e w o f t h e m o r e elabrate f o r m s f o u n d i n R e n a i s -
sance music. O t h e r f o r m s typical o f later music a r e
A n e x a m p l e f r o m a dance, |15B|, illustrates t h e
explained i nPart Five.
D N i na four-part context.
T h e r e a r et w oadditional versions o f neighbor
m o t i o n . O n e is l o n g e r a n d o n eis s h o r t e r t h a n t h e
basic t h r e e - n o t e g r o u p . DN

DOUBLE NEIGHBOR T h eD Nw a s i n t r o d u c e d
in t h e study o f m e l o d y . T h e t w om i d d l e notes o f
the four-note g r o u p m a y b o t h be dissonant. T h i s
r e p r e s e n t s t h e first s k i p t o o r f r o m a d i s s o n a n c e i n
y o u r study.

46
I n t h e D N , b o t h F a n d D a r e dissonant with t h e
b a s s C , a n d w i t h C s i n t h e o t h e r v o i c e s as w e l l . I f
y o u i m a g i n e t h e D N replaced b y its m a i n note, E ,
y o u h a v e t h e c o n s o n a n t b a c k g r o u n d f o rt h e dis-
sonant elaboration.
IN T h e I N is a w a y o f c o n t r a c t i n g a three-note
g r o u p i n t o t w o . T h e dissonant note m a y precede
the m a i n note o r follow it.
continu u p , a s a P w o u l d . o r d o e s i t r e t u r n a t
o n c e , a s a N w o u l d . I t ' s a s t r e t c h e d - o u t versin o f
a N , taking u p b o t h a w e a k a n da s t r o n g beat. T o
see w h a t p u s h e s t h e G b a c k t o F U w e m u s t l o o k a t
the soprano. T h e A i n that voice b u m p s i n t o t h e
G, i n a S U S . T h a t presses t h e alto line d o w n , back
t o F j t . T h e 4 t h a t t h i s c a d e n e e i s c a l l e d a consonant
4th, f o u n d i n m a n y R e n a i s s a n c e c a d e n e e s . T h e
e l a b o r a t e d n o t e is a l w a y s t h e l e a d i n g n o t e .

VOICE EXCHANGE F o r w a r d m o t i o n c a n b e
F=1
( (
created w i t h o u t c h o r d change b y a simple device:
r "
4=f = 1 i t w o voices e x c h a n g e notes. T h e result m a y b e
entirely consonant. B u t often voice exchange has
interesting possibilities f o rt h e u s e o f dissonance,
I n t h e e x a m p l e above, w e see as i n t h e f o l l o w i n g , f r o m [2].
(a) P a r a l l e l t h i r d s , q u i t e c o n s o n a n t .
( b ) T h e first n o t e e l a b o r a t e d b y a N .
(c) A t w o - n o t e g r o u p , i n w h i c h t h e I N s k i p s away f r o m
t h e d i s s o n a n c e . T h i s i s a l s o k n o w n as a n escape note
o r chappe.
(d) A skip t o dissonant n o t e f o l l o w e d b y the main note.
S i n c e t h e B is s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e note t o w h i c h i t
r e s o l v e s , i t ' s a n I N , a l s o c a l l e d a n appoggiatura.

E x a m p l e s o f a n y k i n d o fI N a r e rare i n Renais-
s a n c e m u s i c . O n e i n y o u r A n t h o l o g y is i n t h e
b i c i n i u m , |5]. I n t h e s o p r a n o p a r t , t h e second q u a r t e r
n o t e f o r m s a 2 n d w i t h t h e l o w e r voice. O n t h e
w e a k p a r t o f t h e beat, G is a n I N .

CONSONANT 4TH T h e 4 t h is such a m i l d dis- As t h e s o p r a n o skips f r o m A t o C , t h etenor skips

s o n a n c e t h a t i t s t r e a t m e n t is s o m e t i m e s d i f f e r e n t
f r o m t h a t o ft h e o t h e r , s t r o n g e r dissonances. Y o u
have already seen that w h e n it's n o t heard i n
r e l a t i o n t o t h e bass i t passes f o r a semiconsonance.
H e r e is a n o t h e r w a y o f u s i n g t h e 4 t h . I t comes
f r o m a n illustraton o f c a d e n e e s i n M o r l e y ' s f a m o u s
book.
f r o m C t o A ,i n contrary motion. I n t h e illustra-
t i o n , voice e x c h a n g e is s h o w n b y a r r o w s . T h e activ-
ity w i t h i n t h e F - t r i a d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e bass m o v e
f r o m F t o A , c r e a t e s a l m o s t as m u c h o f a sense o f
m o t i o n as w o u l d a c h o r d c h a n g e .
JF L

tT \\
3 4 4
3^T= 3 T 0,
/,

\x1 J J j
/

3 (2)
V h | 1 *- a, Ja
4&J-i- A*U J- o f - f
3 3 3 8 t r 4
H
3 4! 3
"
- <4
5 6 6 6 5 10

I n t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e , f r o m [9, s o p r a n o a n d
C o n s i d e r t h e a l t o a n d b a s s first. T h e y m o v e i n tenor exchange notes at the beginning o f the mea-
p a r a l l e l 3 r d s f o r f o u r n o t e s . T h e n t h e alto steps s u r e . T h e i r m o t i o n s o f a 3 r d a r e filled w i t h P s i n
u p , f o r m i n g a 4 t h w i t h t h e bass. T h e G doesn't contrary m o t i o n . T h e t w oPs f o r m a consonant

47
octave with each other; they a r e dissonant with
o t h e r voices.
T h e v i l l a n e l l a , \7\, o p e n s w i t h a n e x c h a n g e o f n o t e s
b e t w e e n s o p r a n o a n d t e n o r . A g a i n , a n octave is
h e a r d b e t w e e n t h e P s t h a t fill t h e 3 r d s . B u t h e r e
t h e c h o r d s c h a n g e t o fit t h e o c t a v e , s o t h a t a l l t h r e e
triads a r e consonant.
P p
21
Writing a Simple Bicinium
A g o o d w a y t od e v e l o p w r i t i n g skill ist o apply w h a t
y o u have l e a r n e d i n y o u r exercises t o w r i t i n g a
s i m p l e b i c i n i u m . A h y m n that's suitable f o r t h e
p u r p o s e is o n W o r k s h e e t 1 7 . T h e t u n e m a yb e
f a m i l i a r t o y o u . I t i s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d "Od H u n -
d r e d t h " a n d is o n eo f the b e s t - k n o w n melodies i n
E n g l i s h a n dA m e r i c a n c h u r c h services. W r i t t e n b y
the H u g u e n o t composer Louis Bourgeois, the mel-
o d y w a s first p r i n t e d i n t h e G e n e v a P s a l t e r i n 1 5 5 1 .
T h e r e h a v e b e e n m a n y h a r m o n i z a t i o n s since.
T h e r e are t w o instances o f voice exchange i n Psalm
7 8 , [77], o n e as s i m p l e as c a n b e , t h e o t h e r q u i t e
elabrate. I n t h e first e x a m p l e , v o i c e e x c h a n g e i s
all that h a p p e n s . I t propels t h e music o n t o t h e
next chord. T h e skips o f a 3 r d aren't filled.
A l l the examples o f voice exchange thus far have
used a m o t i o n o fa 3rd. T h e striking exchange o f
v o i c e s i n t h e final c a d e n e e o f t h e l a s t e x a m p l e
involves t h e i n t e r v a l o fa 4 t h . T h e result is h i g h l y
dissonant. I n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n , t h e m e l o d i c 4 t h is
filled by b o t h soprano a n d tenor, each w i t h a n P
a n d a P . T h o s e e i g h t h notes clash w i t h each o t h e r
before resolving into t h econsonance o fa perfect
5th.
H e r e is a s u m m a r y o f d i s s o n a n c e techniques
studied thus far:
p passing m o t i o n o f - (weak beat o r w e a k part o f a
beat)
p passing m o t i o n o n (strong beat o r strong part
o f a beat)
N neighbor motion on -
N neighbor motion on
IN incomplete neighbor o n - , either before o r after
main note
incomplete neighbor o n (appoggiatura)
SUS suspensin, a l w a y s d i s s o n a n t o n
DN double neighbor, with one o r both o f the middle
notes dissonant
O* Worksheet 16
U s e t h e b i c i n i u m b y O t h m a y r as a m o d e l f o r
two-part writing. A i m for a cadenee at t h ee n d o f
each phrase, a n dtry t ointroduce the leading note
as t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f a S U S . G i v e s o m e t h o u g h t t o
the r h y t h m o f t h e words a n d music. Decide o n
barline placement before y o u start t o write y o u r
counterpoint.
O" Worksheet 17
 PART FOUR
BASIC H A R M O N Y
22
Introduction
T h e s t u d y o f h a r m o n y fiows n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h e
study o f counterpoint. H a r m o n y and counterpoint
aren't t w o d i f f e r e n t topics; t h e y a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t
ways o f l o o k i n g a tthe same topic, polyphonic tonal
music. H a v i n g b e g u n w i t h studies o f t h e linear
aspect o fmusic (in w h i c h y o u developed chords
o u t o f lines), y o u n o w focus o n t h e chordal aspect,
i n w h i c h lines play a very i m p o r t a n t part. Y o u ' l l
find t h a t v o i c e l e a d i n g , w h i c h i s t h e l i n e a r a s p e c t
of harmony, hasm u c h i nc o m m o n with counter-
point.
P a r t F o u r begins w i t h a detailed discussion o f
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c h o r d i n tonal music, the triad,
49
for w h i c h y o u r p r e v i o u s s t u d y h a sp r e p a r e d y o u .
T h e next three sections a r e d e v o t e d t o connecting
and g r o u p i n g c h o r d s . E v e n t h e d i a t o n i c pieces that
form the background o f this discussion have a few
chromatic notes, a n dthese interesting notes a r e
the subject o f a s h o r t section t h a t lays t h e g r o u n d -
work f o r later studies i n chromaticism. Y o u a r e
then i n t r o d u c e d t o s o m e basic types o f exercises i n
harmony a n d voice leading, f o u n d i nm a n y later
p a r t s o f Gradus. F o l l o w i n g t h i s , y o u w i l l find a
study o f a c o m p l e t e piece b y H e i n r i c h Isaac. A
summary o f diatonic chord functions brings Part
F o u r t o a conclusin.
 23
More about Triads

CHORD VOCABULARY C h o r d s m a y b e c o m - c h o r d i n music ( w h a t i tdoes a n d h o w it relates t o

pared with words: they make u p t h e vocabulary o t h e r c h o r d s ) , t h o s e romn n u m b e r s b y t h e m s e l v e s
w i t h w h i c h w e crate o u r s t a t e m e n t s . T h e b a s i c will b e o f limited usefulness. A s i nthe study o f a
c h o r d a n d n o r m a t i v e s o n o r i t y o f t o n a l m u s i c is t h e language, vocabulary alone c a ntake y o u only so
triad; a l l o t h e r s o u n d s r e l a t e t o i t . far.
Thre are f o u r types o f t r i a d . W e will r e v i e w the
ones already studied and introduce another here. CLOSE POSITION, OPEN POSITION T h e list
a b o v e s h o w s t i r a d s w i t h t h e i r n o t e s p l a c e d a s cise
t o g e t h e r as possible. B u t t h e r e can b e m a n y o t h e r
inside intervals outside intervals i n root position
spacings. I nf o u r parts, w h e n the t o p t h r e e voices
(a) maior 3rd + minor 3rd
J
. .
_.
perfect 5th
a r e a s cise a s t h e y c a n b e , w e s a y t h a t t h e c h o r d i s
r
= major triad consonant triads i n cise position. I f a c h o r d i s a r r a n g e d i n a n y o t h e r
(b) minor 3rd + major 3rd , , r
. , perfect 5th w a y i t ' s i n open position. T h e f o l l o w i n g , a l l r e p r e s e n -
= minor triad
(c) minor 3rd + minor 3rd tations o f the same triad, shows some ways a triad
diminished 5th
= diminished triad may b e spaced.
dissonant triads
(d) major 3rd + major 3rd
augmented 5th
= augmented triad
j Cise p o s i t i o n Open position
3 E .o o_
(a) m
Q ?l n r
(b) m a j o r ( c ) minor i\ major o
3rd rd 3rd 3rd
1
perfect V perfect \ diminished \ augmented\ Z2QZ
5th \ 5
5 t ht h J 5 t h -\ 5th_ } 3X7 CE 331
major minor minor major
3rd 3rd 3 r d 3rd

ROMAN NUMBERS C h o r d s a r e customarily

THE M U S I C W e will beusing the same music i n
i d e n t i f i e d b y romn n u m b e r s .
Part F o u r that w e did i n Parts T w o a n d T h r e e .
However, y o u will n o w look atthat music f r o m the
Diatonic chord vocabulary
point o f view o f h a r m o n y (and voice leading). A s
a l w a y s , f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e m u s i c i t s e l f is e s s e n t i a l
to y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e issues a n d techniques
under consideration.
C: i n m iv v vi vn i I n all t h e pieces w e are n o w studying, t h e r e are
a:m I V V V I VD I - II El e x a c t l y five d i f f e r e n t c h o r d s :

8 major triads i n | position

I C: i
a: m
o:
8
6

6
n
rv
8
6

6
=8=
ni
v 6
6

rv
vi
6

6
8
v
vn
6

6

vi
i 6
6
vn
n 6
6
i
m
6

6
m i n o r triads i n 3 position
major triads i n 3 position
m i n o r triads i n 3 position
diminished triads i n f position

O f w h a t valu a r e t h e r o m n n u m b e r s ? T h e y s i m - The a m o u n t and quality o fmusic that has been

ply i d e n t i f y t h e scale d e g r e e o n w h i c h t h e c h o r d is m a d e o u t o f these c h o r d a l resources is t r u l y
built. T h i s is basic i n f o r m a t i o n a n d will b e useful impressive.
in t h e early stages o f y o u r s t u d y o f h a r m o n y . B u t
since t h e y tell y o u n o t h i n g about the f u n c t i o n o f a E F Worksheet 18

50
 24
Chords in Motion

Having looked at t h eindividual chords that make d i s t r i b u t i o n o f skips a n dsteps is characteristic o f

up thevocabulary o ftonal music, w ewill g oo n t o four-part harmony.
study h o wo n e c h o r d m o v e s t o a n o t h e r a n d h o w
chords are grouped into coherent units. W e might
compare that with g r a m m a r a n d rhetoric.
T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e several lines (voices) shapes
the m o t i o n f r o m each c h o r d t o t h enext. I n this,
however, a l lvoices aren't equally i m p o r t a n t . I n I * U f "f
general, various voices have d i f f e r e n t roles i n lead- a: I TV V t I
ing f r o m o n ec h o r d t o another.

I n m i n o r ( o p e n p o s i t i o n ) t h es o p r a n o starts w i t h
T h e soprano i s t h e m e l o d y , t h e first p a r t t o
outer catch t h e ear's a t t e n t i o n a n d t h e l e a d i n g 3. T h el e a d i n g n o t e m u s t b e b r o u g h t i n f r o m t h e
voices p a r t i n m a n y cases. parallel m a j o r i f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n is t o s o u n d m i n o r .
T h e bass g u i d e s t h e h a r m o n y a n d s u p p o r t s T h e d o m i n a n t triad that includes t h eleading note
mer the u p p e r voices. i s V. S o p r a n o a n d b a s s b e g i n i n s i m i l a r m o t i o n ,
v o i c e s " | Alto a n d tenor c o m p l e t e t h e c h o r d s . continu i n c o n t r a r y ; c o m m o n n o t e s a n d s t e p w i s e
m o t i o n a r e i n t h ei n n e r voices.

CHORD PROGRESSIONS W e d o n ' t h e a r c h o r d s 3 C

one ata time, any m o r e t h a n w ehear spoken words =8=

one a ta t i m e .Just as g r o u p s o f w o r d s f r o m phrases
and sentences, groups o f notes f o r m units o f var-
H E
i o u s k i n d s . G r o u p s o f c h o r d s a r e c a l l e d progressions, 6

an i n f o r m a l t e r m that is u s e f u l i n this early stage C: i n V

of study. W estudy chords i n m o t i o n b yl o o k i n gat
several o f t h e progressions f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d i n There's a difference o fonly o n enote between
tonal music. E a c h isillustrated i nm a j o r a n d m i n o r this progression a n d t h e previous o n e i n C major.
m o d e s . T h e first s o p r a n o n o t e m a y b e t h e r o o t , I n t h e s e c o n d c h o r d , t h es o p r a n o ' s 1 is replaced b y
3rd, o r5th o fthe triad. 6
2, m a k i n g a I I o u t o f w h a t was a I V . I nt h e m a j o r ,
t h e I I is a m i n o r t r i a d a n d this o n e is i n f p o s i t i o n .
T h e t e n o r starts w i t h t h e 3 r do f t h e triad, a n d its
ICE line isa D N a r o u n d that note. T h e o t h e r voices a r e
=8= the same as i n I - I V - V - I . S o p r a n o a n d t e n o r
m o v e i n parallel 6ths. H o w m u c h difference o n e
note can make!
H E
S
C:I IVV

I n t h e m a j o r m o d e (cise p o s i t i o n ) t h e s o p r a n o

< I
A

starts w i t h t h e r o o t o f t h e t r i a d . T h e o u t e r voices ,^
proceed i n oblique, then contrary motion. Soprano
and alto m o v e stepwise. T h etenor has o n e skip,
part o f a D N . T h e bass skips t w i c e , steps once. T h e a: I n V < I

51
 T h i s i s a m i n o r - m o d e versin o f t h e s a m e p r o - V doesn't always g o t o I ; here i t goes t oV I .
gression, t h e s o p r a n o starting o n t h e triad's 3 r d . T h e r e ' s c o n t r a r y m o t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r voices
S o p r a n o a n d t e n o r m o v e i n parallel lOths, each a except f o r t h e initial similar m o t i o n . I I i n r o o t
D N . A g a i n , t h e l e a d i n g n o t e is p a r t o ft h e n o r m a l position provides a strong preparation f o rt h e V
6
p r o c e d u r e i n t h e m i n o r . I n m i n o r , I I is a d i m i n - that does g o t o I .
ished triad.
6
Observe that I - I V - V - I a n d I - I I - V - I have
t h e s a m e bass line.

6
^ a: I Vi VI n V I

C: I VI rv V In m i n o r , I I does not appear i n root position. I t

o f t e n a p p e a r s i n first inversin, h o w e v e r , a s i n t h i s
example. Observe the m o t i o n o f the alto i n the V * -
T h e bass h a s a n i n t e r e s t i n g m o t i o n : i t d i v i d e s
V I m o v e . I t d o e s n ' t f o l l o w t h e s a m e p a t h w a y as i n
the 5 t h between 8 and 4 into t w o 3rds, generating
t h e ( p r e v i o u s ) m a j o r - m o d e versin o f t h e s a m e
6 as a bass n o t e . T h a t n o t e , A , b e c o m e s t h e r o o t o f
progression. I f i t d i d , t h e alto's notes w o u l d b e
V I . J u s t as t h e bass n o t e A is a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
Gjt-Fl], f o r m i n g the intervalo f an augmented 2nd.
C a n d F ,so t h e V I c h o r d is a connection between
T h a t is n o t u s e d i n basic h a r m o n y a n d c o u n t e r -
I and I V .
point. B y m o v i n g G ( t - A t h e alto avoids t h e aug-
m e n t e d 2 n d . I t s A i s i n unisn w i t h t h e s o p r a n o ,
d o u b l i n g t h e 3 r d o f V I . T h i s is t h e n o r m a t i v e
procedure.
S u r v e y i n g these basic c h o r d progressions, w e
m a k e these general observations about t h e voice
3JZ
leading:
6
a: I VI I Vtl I
T h e r e are n o p a r a l l e l 5ths o r octaves.
Parallel 3rds and 6ths are used freely.
I n t h i s m i n o r m o d e versin, t h e b a s s m o v e s u p T h e o u t e r voices are m o s t l y i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n .
f r o m 1 t o6 rather than d o w n . Observe that the I V T h e i n n e r - v o i c e m o t i o n is p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t e p w i s e .
6 T h e bass s k i p s t o s u p p o r t t h e c o n s o n a n t t r i a d s .
c h o r d h a sbeen replaced b y I I .
W h e n t h e s a m e n o t e a p p e a r s i n t w o successive c h o r d s , i t

m
u s u a l l y s t a y s i n t h e s a m e v o i c e . I t i s t h e common note,
m e a n i n g that it's a note i n c o m m o n between t w o
3 E chords, heard i n one voice.

Y o u also see that voice l e a d i n g (the linear aspect o f

h a r m o n y ) is a n o t h e r v i e w o f c o u n t e r p o i n t .

E F Worksheet 19
C: I V vi n

52
 25
Cadenees 1

I n s t u d y i n g m e l o d y y o u h e a r d m a n y phrases e n d d o , t h e bass e i t h e r d e s c e n d s a 5 t h ( 5 - 1 ) o r rises a

w i t h a fall i n p i t c h . W e c o m p a r e d t h a t with t h e fall 4th ( 5 - 8 ) .
o f t h e h u m a n v o i c e a tt h e e n d o f a sentence, calling T h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e s o p r a n o o n t h e last c h o r d
it t h e c a d e n e e . A p p l y i n g this i d e a i n c o u n t e r p o i n t , a f f e e t s t h e d e g r e e o f finality o f t h e c a d e n e e . F o r
w e u s e d t w o - c h o r d patterns t o b r i n g each exercise t h e mximum s e n s e o f c l o s u r e t h e s o p r a n o m u s t
or phrase t oa convincing end. e n d o n t h e t o n i c , a g r e e i n g w i t h t h e bass. I n t h a t
S p e a k i n g i n t e r m s o f h a r m o n y , a cadenee i s a p a i r c a s e w e s p e a k o f a perfect authentic cadenee. W h e n
o f c h o r d s t h a t e n d s a m u s i c a l p h r a s e . It's s h o r t e r the soprano ends o n t h e 3 r d o r 5 t ho ft h e goal
t h a n a p r o g r e s s i o n . I n a p i e c e , c a d e n e e s s e r v e as c h o r d w e h a v e a n imperfect authentic cadenee. T h e
t h e p u n c t u a t i o n m a r k s , separatng o n e p h r a s e f r o m only difference between t h et w o versions o f t h e
another. B e y o n d that, t h e concluding chord o fa a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e is i n t h e t o p l i n e , b u t t h a t d i f f e r -
cadenee ist h egoal o fm o t i o n f o r t h eentire phrase. ence is significant.
E a c h o f t h e t w o c h o r d s i n a c a d e n e e has a defi-
nite p u r p o s e : t h esecond is t h e goal chord; i t is Authentic cadenees
p r e c e d e d b y a n o t h e r , w h i c h leads t o that goal.
Perfect Imperfect
N o t a l l m e l o d i c c a d e n e e s e n d o n 1 , or d o a l l
h a r m o n i c cadenees e n d o n I . Different kinds o f
cadenees express d i f f e r e n t degrees o f closure. T h e r e
^
I-Q 9
i o
* O
m
9-**
o

tTs- &

.
8

are f o u r types o f cadenee:

r ^ 1
authentic cadenee 4V p
semicadence o r half cadenee ./ I " =9 o *>
J m
1
1

plagal cadenee
deceptive cadenee C: V I ^T I / I / I

I n discussing each w e consider both the chord

content a n d t h evoice leading.
AUTHENTIC CADENCE T h e m o s t conclusive
c a d e n e e i n t o n a l m u s i c is b u i l t o n t h e m o t i o n f r o m
d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y t o tonic. T h estandard t e r m
f o r t h a t c h o r d p a i r i s authentic cadenee. A l m o s t
e v e r y t o n a l piece e n d s w i t h a n a u t h e n t i c cadenee,
a n d s o d o m a n y p h r a s e s . W h a t e v e r t h e o t h e r voices
In t h eillustration t h e chords that comprise a ca-
denee a r e u n d e r l i n e d . T h i s p r o c e d u r e is f o l l o w e d
i n a l l i l l u s t r a t i o n s a n d e x a m p l e s i n Gradus.
T o hear t h e musical difference between perfect
and imperfect authentic cadenees, w ecompare t w o
p h r a s e s . T h e o p e n i n g o f t h e B a c h chrale b e l o w
illustrates t h e p o i n t clearly. C o m p a r e t h e d e g r e e
of closure i nt h e t w o cadenees. B o t h have t h e same

Chrale No. 14 BACH

T T f f fTTT r T
as m V I

53
 c h o r d content; b o t h a r e authentic cadenees. B u t (a) semicadence i nopen position, I - V
chords aren't all there ist o h a r m o n y . Consider t h e (b) semicadence i n m i n o r , IV*
m e l o d y . I n t h e first c a d e n e e , t h e s o p r a n o r i s e s 2 (c) I V is n o w t h e c h o r d t h a t a p p r o a c h e s V
3 o v e r V I . T h e r i s i n g inflection tells y o u t h a t this (d) the same i n m i n o r
6

is o n l y a t e m p o r a r y r e s t i n g p o i n t . T h e c a d e n e e i s (e) I V is a g o o d a p p r o a c h t o t h e d o m i n a n t
imperfect. B ycontrast, i nt h esecond cadenee t h e (f)t h e same i n m i n o r
(g) d o u b l i n g t h e 3 r d o f V I m a k e s possible contrary
s o p r a n o descends 21 o v e r V I . T h e falling pitch
m o t i o n as V I m o v e s t o V
a n d t h e stop o n 1 a r e conclusive. Y o u hear that t h e
(h) t h e s a m e i n m i n o r
s e c o n d p u n c t u a t i o n m a r k i s m o r e final t h a n t h e
first. The musical difference between a perfect
O c c a s i o n a l l y y o u find a m i l d f o r m o f t h e a u t h e n - authentic cadenee a n d a semicadence is s h o w n i n
7
tic c a d e n e e , V I I I . T h e s t e p w i s e m o t i o n i n a l l t h e first t w o p h r a s e s o f a B a c h chrale.
p a r t s m a k e s f o r a s m o o t h e n d i n g . T h i s versin o f
the authentic cadenee is m o r e useful i n t h e m i d d l e Chrale No. 233 BACH

mm
o f a piece t h a n a t t h e e n d .

r%
m : o

"tri
&
s

^
J
* T i 1

W r r r
> C: v n | I a: VR I
S 1 6 V
v i

SEMICADENCE T h e d o m i n a n t is t h e goal o f T h e first p h r a s e e n d s w i t h a s e m i c a d e n c e . T h e

m o t i o n i nm a n y phrases. A cadenee o nV means a h a r m o n y reaches V a n d t h e m e l o d y stops o n2 . A n
temporary pause, after which another phrase will a n s w e r i n g phrase is needed. T h e second phrase
b e g i n . S u c h a p u n c t u a t i o n m a r k i s a semicadence o r ends w i t h a perfect authentic cadenee. T h e soprano's
half cadenee. I t ' s a n a l o g o u s t o a s e m i c o l o n i n p r o s e 2-1 combines with t h eharmony's V - I f o r com-
p u n c t u a t i o n ; after t h e pause, there's m o r e t o come. plete closure. T h et w o phrases f o r m a coherent
Any chord m a y precede t h edominant a n d f o r m group.
part o ft h e cadenee. I fV is preceded b yeither I V
or V I , parallel 5ths o r octave c a nresult. T h e best PLAGAL CADENCE T h e a p p r o a c h t o I f r o m
way t o p r e v e n t t h e m is t h r o u g h c o n t r a r y m o t i o n I V i s t h e plagal cadenee. T h i s t y p e o f c a d e n e e i s
b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r voices. K e e p t h a t i n m i n d as y o u heard occasionally i n Renaissance music, i n which
study these examples. the dominanttonic polarity h a dn o t yet crowded
out other relationships. T h e t w o phrases o n page 5 5
f r o m a response b yI n g e g n e r i s h o w typical usages.
' o
(b)-
1 ( c)
o
d)|
T h e first s h o r t p h r a s e , i n C , h a s a d e s c e n d i n g t o p
o o l i n e a n d b a s s . I n n e r v o i c e s fill o u t t h e c h o r d s ; t h e
_
o l a s t t w o a r e I V I . T h i s p l a g a l c a d e n e e fits i n t o t h e
0-
i ) :
9
R
O 8. 0 **
d o w n w a r d flow o f t h e lines quite smoothly, a n d
w e ' r e h a r d l y a w a r e o fi t . Y e t i t closes t h e p h r a s e

O 1 c o n v i n c i n g l y . T h es a m e is t r u e i n t h e second, e v e n
^ C: I V a: i v i C: 1V V a: I V V t t
shorter phrase, which moves t o A .

D E C E P T I V E C A D E N C E T h e first c h o r d i n a
f) g) h) deceptive cadenee i s V . T h e s e c o n d i s a n y c h o r d b u t
t
*o- P" _- 8 I . T h e p u r p o s e o f this c a d e n e e is n o ts o m u c h t o
^
(

deceive t h e l i s t e n e r as t o p r o v i d e a n o p e n e n d i n g

> l i
*
so t h a t m o r e m a y c o m e . O f a l l c a d e n e e types, t h e
4>. r_o
[I
T
u r deceptive h a s t h e least d e g r e e o f closure.
1 + - 1

The pattern most o f t e n heard i n deceptive
> C:I V V 6
a : I V V 6
C: V I V a: V I vt cadenees is V - V I . I n t h e pieces studied i n Part

54
F o u r y o u find f e w e x a m p l e s o f t h e d e c e p t i v e c a -
denee, b u ti t will play a larger role i n later music.
O n e e x a m p l e f r o m t h e early Renaissance is i n t h e
M a s s e x c e r p t b y J o s q u i n , [JJ. T h e p h r a s e e n d i n g o n
6
t h e first b e a t o f 9 h a s t h e c a d e n e e V - V I , w h i c h
p r e p a r e s t h e c o n c l u d i n g p h r a s e o f t h e piece.
CADENCES IN A PIECE T obetter u n d e r s t a n d
the differences i n strength o f the various cadenees
we will n o w study a short w o r k that h a s a variety
of phrase endings.
There's a n important difference between a n
exercise a n d a piece. A n exercise is u s u a l l y s h o r t ,
a n d i t s t o n i c is t h e o n l y g o a l o f m o t i o n i n m o s t
cases. I n a piece o f m u s i c , n o m a t t e r h o w s h o r t ,
t h e r e w i l l p r o b a b l y b e o t h e r scale d e g r e e s as goals
of m o t i o n f o rphrases. A n y consonant triad m a y
serve that purpose. A t this point, however, w e will
l i m i t o u r discussion t o cadenee types, n o t keys.
L o o k i n g back at t h e I n g e g n e r i e x a m p l e above w e
were able t odefine the cadenees w i t h o u t consider-
ing j u s t h o w t h em u s i c g o tf r o m C t o a. T h e s a m e
will b e t r u e i n the piece y o u ' r e about t o e x a m i n e .
Consider t h e handsome setting o f Psalm 7 8by
H e i n r i c h Schtz, [ T 7 | . B a r l i n e s m a r k t h e p h r a s e s i n
this score; there are six. W h a t type o f cadenee ends
each phrase?
(a) T h e first p h r a s e e n d s o n a B t - t r i a d . D o e s t h a t c h o r d
f u n c t i o n i n t h e c a d e n e e as t o n i c o r d o m i n a n t ? Y o u
find t h e a n s w e r b y l o o k i n g a t t h e c h o r d t h a t p r e -
cedes it. A s the s u s p e n d e d B t i n the t e n o r resolves
to A l l y o u h e a r t h e d o m i n a n t o f B t . T h e goal t r i a d
serves as a t o n i c t o a p r e c e d i n g d o m i n a n t . T h e
cadenee moves dominanttonic; t h etop line o f the
g o a l c h o r d a g r e e s w i t h t h e bass. W e c o n c l u d e t h a t
the phrase e n d s w i t h a perfect authentic cadenee.
(b) T h e s e c o n d p h r a s e e n d s w i t h a s e m i c a d e n c e , I - V .
S o p r a n o a n d alto m o v e d o w n i n parallel 3rds, t h e
55
t e n o r h a s t h e c o m m o n n o t e , and t h e bass s k i p s d o w n
a 4 t h . T h e s o p r a n o rests o n 2.
(c) T h i s i s a m i l d versin o f the a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e ,
7
V I I - I . H e r e t h e a l t o crosses the t e n o r . I f t h e a l t o
m o v e d t o the nearest note, E t , parallel octaves w i t h
t h e bass w o u l d r e s u l t . B y crossing v o i c e s Schtz
a v o i d s t h e p a r a l l e l s a n d gains c o n t r a r y m o t i o n a t t h e
same time.
(d) T h e g o a l o f t h e f o u r t h phrase is a c - t r i a d . I t ' s p r e -
c e d e d by its o w n d o m i n a n t . T h u s the cadenee m o v e s
d o m i n a n t - t o n i c . S i n c e t h e soprano e n d s w i t h t h e
r o o t o f t h e c - t r i a d , t h i s is a perfect a u t h e n t i c c a -
denee.
(e) B y t h e e n d o f t h e fifth p h r a s e we h e a r E t as t o n i c
o n c e a g a i n . T h a t d o e s n ' t mean that t h e p h r a s e m u s t
e n d w i t h a n E t - t r i a d . A c t u a l l y , the p h r a s e e n d s w i t h
a B t - t r i a d , t h e d o m i n a n t o f E t . T h e g o a l c h o r d is
p r e c e d e d b y V I . T h u s t h e phrase e n d s w i t h a s e m i -
c a d e n c e , w h i c h w i l l l e a d i n t o the final p h r a s e o f t h e
piece.
(f) T h e s i x t h p h r a s e e n d s w i t h a perfect a u t h e n t i c ca-
d e n e e w i t h E t as its g o a l . It's the o n l y s u c h c a d e n e e
i n t h e t o n i c . I t ' s a l s o t h e m o s t elabrate c a d e n e e i n
t h e p i e c e . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f voice e x c h a n g e , w i t h
its s t r i k i n g d i s s o n a n c e , a n d t h e c o n s o n a n t 4 t h is
explained o n page 48.
T h i s i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d piece w i t h w h i c h t o
survey cadenee types, because no t w o are q u i t e t h e
s a m e . T h e first i s a p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e w h o s e
g o a l is V ; t h e second, a semicadence, I - V ; t h e
t h i r d , a m i l d versin o f t h e a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e ; t h e
f o u r t h i s a p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c cadenee w h o s e g o a l is
V I ; t h e fifth, a d i f f e r e n t s e m i c a d e n c e , V I - V ; t h e
sixth isa n elaborated perfect authentic cadenee o n
t h e t o n i c . T h e v a r i e t y o f cadential t r e a t m e n t s i n
such a short w o r k shows the hand o f a master
composer.
O* W o r k s h e e t 2 0
 26
Grouping the Chords

INTRODUCTION I n t h estudy o f melody w e (a) (b) (c) N (d) (e)

w e r e able t o g e tb e y o n d a one-note-at-a-time view
o f music b yg r o u p i n g notes. W e f o u n d m a i n notes
a n d subordnate o n e s , a n d c o n s i d e r e d t h e m a i n
H | | i
>9 o
f II
O t O

notes t obe o na deeper level o fmusical structure

t h a n t h e embellishing notes. T h a t helped us t o
understand the groups.
T h e same principie is applied t o chords: there
a r e m a i n c h o r d s a n d subordnate c h o r d s . T h i s l i n e
of thought canhelp you t og o beyond the chord-
by-chord approach o fconventional h a r m o n y a n d
to d e v e l o p a b r o a d e r v i e w o f the subject.
H o w a r echords grouped? I nseveral different
ways. S o m e o f t h e ways a r e introduced i n this
section, w h i l e o t h e r s a r e t a k e n u p as y o u r c h o r d
v o c a b u l a r y g r o w s . B u t i n a l l cases y o u w i l l b e
expected t o consider t h e linear aspect o f t h e
g r o u p i n g j u s t as m u c h as t h e p u r e l y c h o r d a l aspect.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , s o p r a n o a n d bass p l a y a decisive r o l e
in grouping chords.
3JT
> C : , i rv i. 6
,1 v n 1 1 , 1 0 1 ,
I i i i i
(a) T h e u p p e r N i n t h e t o p l i n e i s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e
bass, w h i c h s k i p s i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n . I n n e r v o i c e s
fill i n t h e n o t e s o f I V .
(b) T h e l o w e r N i n t h e s o p r a n o is u n d e r p i n n e d b y a
n e i g h b o r c h o r d , V . T h e bass s k i p t o 5 s u p p o r t s V .
(c) T h e N i n t h e s o p r a n o i s c o u n t e r p o i n t e d v / i t h a s k i p
o f a 3 r d i n t h e bass. T h e t w o c o m m o n n o t e s b e t w e e n
I a n d V I are i n t h e i n n e r voices, w h i c h d o n ' t m o v e .
( d ) S o p r a n o a n d bass b o t h s t e p i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n . T h e
6
i n n e r v o i c e s fill i n V I I , a passing chord.
(e) W i t h t h e s a m e o u t e r v o i c e s as t h e p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e ,
t h e i n n e r v o i c e s fill i n I I .

N I N T H E B A S S I n (c) a b o v e , a N i n t h e bass
C H O R D EXTENSION W h e n o n e c h o r d is t a k e n
cooperated with a N i n t h e soprano t o f o r m a
as t h e m a i n c h o r d a n d o t h e r s a r e g r o u p e d a r o u n d
n e i g h b o r c h o r d . T h e bass c a n a c t i n d e p e n d e n t l y
it w e s a y t h a t t h e c h o r d is e x t e n d e d . W e r e f e r t o
i n a n e i g h b o r m o t i o n ,j u s t as t h e s o p r a n o can.
b o t h t h e p r o c e s s a n d t h e g r o u p a s chord extensin;
o t h e r t e r m s a r e expansin a n d prolongation. I n s u c h
a s i t u a t i o n , w e say t h a t t h e m a i n c h o r d c o n t r o l s t h e
"T * H
o t h e r s . T h e extensin o f c h o r d s i n m u s i c a l t i m e i s -W > O 8 18 1 8 w
* "ZZ
8-H
a m a j o r topic i nthe study o f tonal h a r m o n y ; we'll tr o o o %. o
r e t u r n t oit o n several o t h e r occasions. N N
4)
B e f o r e w e s t a r t e x p l a i n i n g h o w c h o r d extensin
y
o 9 r O o
works, bear i n m i n d : a dissonant P o r N connects
o r elaborates a m a i n n o t e , a n d m a y also connect o r ^ C : ,1 V 6
I , ,v rv v V V I V .
I v
elabrate c h o r d s . B u t a c o n s o n a n t P o r N m a y
a c t u a l l y b e p a r t o f a c h o r d w h o s e f u n c t i o n is deter-
6

m i n e d b y t h e P o r N , as y o u w i l l see below. (a) A l o w e r N i n t h e bass sets u p a V . T h e s o p r a n o

N I N S O P R A N O I n t h et o p line, a m a i n note
m a y b e e l a b o r a t e d w i t h a N . T h e bass m o v e s t o
s u p p o r t t h i s w i t h c o n s o n a n c e , a n d a neighbor chord
is f o r m e d . T h i s c h o r d e m b e l l i s h e s t h e m a i n c h o r d
j u s t as the N embellishes the m a i n m e l o d i c note.
s k i p s i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n , w h i l e t h e i n n e r v o i c e s fill
in the triad.
(b) W i t h V as t h e m a i n c h o r d , I V i s a n e i g h b o r c h o r d .
T h e bass m o t i o n t o a n d f r o m t h e l o w e r N is d e c i s i v e
in the move.
(c) W i t h V t h e m a i n c h o r d a g a i n , t h e bass u p p e r N
g e n e r a t e s V I as a n e i g h b o r c h o r d . T h e s o p r a n o j o i n s
w i t h its o w n N .

56
5-3 T O 6-3 A s i m p l e t y p e o f extensin i s t h e
m o v e f r o m t h eroot position o fthe tonic triad to
t h e first inversin. B o t h p o s i t i o n s h a v e t h e s a m e
tonic function. I tm a y seem that m o t i o n f r o m o n e
position o f a t r i a d t o a n o t h e r isn't v e r y p r o m i s i n g ,
b u t i n fact this m o t i o n is t h e basis f o r m a n y i n t e r -
esting m u s i c a l gestures. H e r e is t h e m o v e i n its
simplest f o r m .
i H TS
\o 8
r
4*
-**o
6
I ,
Notice t h e voice exchange between soprano a n d
bass. F i l l i n g i n t h e skips i n t h e o u t e r voices g e n e r -
6
ales V I I :
=8=
6 6
,i v n i ,
i A t t h e o u t s e t Schtz c r e a t e s a s e n s e o f f o r w a r d
6
T h i s is t h e n o r m a t i v e u s eo fV I I , clearly a subor-
dnate c h o r d . S i n c e b o t h s o p r a n o a n d bass h a v e
6
Ps, w em a y cali this V i l a passing c h o r d .
LINEAR CHORDS T h e difference between
chords f o r m e d b y neighbor m o t i o n a n d those
f o r m e d b y passing m o t i o n isn't very i m p o r t a n t .
T h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g is t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t b o t h
are t h e result o flines m o v i n g . A l lsuch chords will
b e r e f e r r e d t o a s linear chords f r o m t h i s p o i n t o n
unless w e particularly wish t o show t h e neighbor
or passing aspect o fthe voice leading.
THE TRIAD IN T H E MELODY A n o t h e r type
o f c h o r d extensin i s b u i l t o n t h e t o n i c t r i a d i n t h e
melody. Y o u saw that t h e triad has a definite
u n i f y i n g p o w e r i n p u r e l y m e l o d i c t e r m s . I t ' s also
important i n t h e relation between melody a n d
harmony.
W h a t h a r m o n y fits w i t h t h e m e l o d y ' s t o n i c t r i a d ?
M u s t every note o fthat triad be met with a I ? H o w
d o e s t h i s t o p i c r e l a t e t o c h o r d extensin? W e w i l l
look f o r answers t o those questions i n a musical
p h r a s e i n w h i c h a t r i a d i n t h e m e l o d y is u s e d t o
b u i l d a c h o r d extensin. T h e w o r k i n q u e s t i o n w a s
written i nt h eearly seventeenth century, w h e n the
possibilities o f o n e c h o r d e x t e n d i n g over longer
periods o ftime were being explored. O n e o f the
57
first c o m p o s e r s t o g r a s p t h e n e w p o s s i b i l i t i e s w a s
H e i n r i c h Schtz. S o m e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s
introduced above a r ecombined i nt h e opening o f
his P s a l m 3 3 , b u t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t u n i f y i n g
element i n t h e p h r a s e is t h e t r i a d i n t h e m e l o d y .
P s a l m 33 SCHTZ
-i J -I 1J J J=
i i M JJj=J=i
i v v i n i rv
i
T h e p h r a s e d e m o n s t r a t e s s i m p l e c h o r d extensin
created b y t h e t r i a d i n t h e m e l o d y ; i t also s h o w s
h o w t o crate v a r i e t y w i t h i n t h e u n i t y i m p o s e d b y
that triad.
Most o f t h e notes i n t h e m e l o d y belong t ot h e
tonic triad. W e l o o k t o see i ft h e y a r e all h a r m o -
nized w i t h a I c h o r d . A n d w h a t a b o u t the t w o notes
that aren't m e m b e r s o ft h e triad?
motion without a n ychange o fchord at all, simply
by m o v i n g s o p r a n o a n d alto w i t h i n t h e c h o r d .
T h e i r u p w a r d gesture starts t h em u s i c o n its w a y .
Then themelody C (common note between Ia n d
V ) changes f r o m 5 t h o f I t o r o o t o f V . T h e n e x t
m e l o d y note, A , is a m e m b e r o f t h e t o n i c t r i a d b u t
i s n ' t s e t w i t h I . I n s t e a d , Schtz u s e s V I . T h a t ' s a
c o m m o n substitute chord f o r I , m e a n i n g t h a t i t fits
into tonic h a r m o n y , p r o v i d i n g a change o f color
but not a change o f f u n c t i o n .
T h e m e l o d y B t is a c o n s o n a n t P . I t ' s p a r t o f a
subordnate c h o r d , I I , w h i c h w i l l l e a d b a c k t o I .
O b s e r v e t h e unisn b e t w e e n b a s s a n d t e n o r ; i t
makes possible t h e r i s i n g l i n e i n t h e tenor, i n
parallel l O t h s w i t h t h e s o p r a n o . I t also sets u p
contrary m o t i o n b e t w e e n t h eo u t e r voices m o v i n g
into the I .T h e last N i nt h e s o p r a n o is set w i t h I V .
We n o w have a w a yt o describe t h e tonal u n i t y
o f t h e p h r a s e : i t ' s a n extensin o f t o n i c h a r m o n y .
T h e m a i n o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t i n t h e s o p r a n o is t h e
triad. M o s t notes o ft h e t r i a d a r e h e a r d w i t h tonic
chords. I n a m u s i c a l w o r k , m o r e t h a n o n e tech-
n i q u e o f c h o r d extensin m a y b e f o u n d i n a p h r a s e .
T h e Schtz e x a m p l e s h o w s y o u t h i s . T o g a i n a
better u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w c h o r d e x t e n s i o n s w o r k
in pieces, s t u d y t h e n e x t e x a m p l e s a n d t h e i r e x p l a -
nations. C h o r d g r o u p s a r e discussed i n t e r m s o f
voice l e a d i n g as w e l l as c h o r d c o n t e n t . A l l e x a m -
ples a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e A n t h o l o g y .
 (a) (b) ber I , s h o w i n g that t ob e the m a i n c h o r d . B u t using

i O * O -
8va 8va
the same symbol b o t h within the bracket and below
it c r e a t e s a p r o b l e m : w e d o n ' t m e a n t h e s a m e t h i n g
by b o t h uses o f I . W e ' l l reserve I f o r t h e single
c h o r d . R e f e r r i n g t o t h e e n t i r e g r o u p as t h e e x t e n -
1 3 T rs: 3SZ
3E
sin o f t o n i c h a r m o n y , w e a b b r e v i a t e t h a t T . L a t e r ,
d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y will be similarly abbreviated
10 10 10 jj ,I VI n i.
w i t h D , a n d s u b d o m i n a n t w i t h S.
i i
K e e p i n m i n d : I means the I chord.
(a) I n t h e k e y o f C , i m a g i n e a t o p l i n e E F E . E i s t h e T means t h e chord group "tonic
m a i n n o t e a n d F is a N . A bass t o t h a t s o p r a n o m i g h t harmony."
be CDC, f o r m i n g p a r a l l e l l O t h s b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r A l o n g e r extensin o f t o n i c h a r m o n y u n d e r l i e s
voices. t h e first p h r a s e o f t h e c h a r m i n g c h a n s o n b y A r c a -
(b) F i l l i n g i n t h e i n n e r v o i c e s w e h a v e I I I I , t o g e t h e r delt. T o see h o w t h e m e l o d y is c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h
w i t h parallel 5ths a n d octaves.
the polyphony w ebegin b yanalyzing the soprano.
(c) N o w V I p r o v e s u s e f u l . I t b r e a k s u p t h e p a r a l l e l s
T h e technique o f reduction introduced i nthe study
between I and I I .
o f f o l k s o n g is u s e f u l h e r e .
T h e V Ialso d o e s s o m e t h i n g else that's nice: i t
changes the color o f the melody E. Y o u hrst heard E x c e r p t f r o m \3 ARCADELT
t h a t n o t e as t h e3 r d o f a m a j o r t r i a d . O v e r V I y o u
h e a r E as t h e 5 t h o f a m i n o r t r i a d .
-Jnr i
I f a m o v e f r o m I t o I I will produce parallels, so
rA ri r. n
will a m o v e f r o m I I t o I .T h e c o m p o s e r deals w i t h 5 _ G *> 0, ..A
this i n a n interesting way. I nt h e I I , alto and tenor
SP
are sent t o l o w e r notes t h a n those s h o w n i n (b).
T h e alto sings A , n o t D . T h e t e n o r has F , d o u b l i n g
the 3 r d i n t h e soprano. T h e r e a r e n o parallels.
T h e r e is instead c o n t r a r y m o t i o n , b e t w e e n t h e
ascending i n n e r voices a n d t h e descending outer
i SP

M a i n notes
ones.
T h e addition o fa P i n t h e tenor, leading back
3 E
f r o m I I t o I , gives u s the o p e n i n g o f Josquin's Mass
excerpt.
T h e m e l o d i c s t r u c t u r e consists o f t w o m a i n notes,
E x c e r p t f r o m [TJ JOSQUIN 3 a n d 2 . 3 is e l a b o r a t e d t h r o u g h m o s t o f t h e
phrase, m o v i n g t o 2 as t h e goal. T h e t e c h n i q u e s o f
elaboration are familiar: N , SP, another S Pi n t h e

trrz 3 E
opposite direction, all circling a r o u n d 3. Y o u may
also observe t h e t r i a d b e h i n d t h e m e l o d y . H o w
does all this relate t othe h a r m o n y ? I n the example
b e l o w , y o u see t h a t e v e r y 3 is s e t w i t h 1 i n t h e bass
3 E
a n d thus w i t h I i nthe h a r m o n y . W h e n the m e l o d y
VI t o u c h e s 1 t h e bass h a sa d i f f e r e n t n o t e , v a r y i n g t h e
color a n d avoiding closure too early i n the phrase.
B u t t h e I V c h o r d i s subordnate t o t h e l a r g e r t o n i c .
This example introduces a n e w abbreviation. T h e m e l o d y ' s 5 is set w i t h I . Ps a n d N s i nt h e
U n d e r t h e b r a c k e t w e m i g h t place a romn n u m - m e l o d y are setw i t h passing a n d neighbor chords.

M a i n chords

t=t=i 1 7~. r;
H9l 1
t
*1 8 A

m r ,. r r f r r\ l
6
i v i r v v n i i>vn i , v i v

58
 I n t h e large v i e w , 3 i n the m e l o d y combines with
I i n t h e h a r m o n y . T h e m a i n m e l o d y n o t e i s part o f
t h e m a i n c h o r d a t e v e r y p o i n t . I t w o u l d b e difficult
t o find a c l e a r e r e x a m p l e o f t h e cise r e l a t i o n
between melody and harmony.
O u r final e x a m p l e a b o v e s h o w s a c h o r d e x t e n -
sin i n f o u r p a r t s . H e r e ' s a n o t h e r p i e c e t h a t begins
w i t h m o t i o n w i t h i n t h e t r i a d r a t h e r t h a n chord
c h a n g e o f a n y k i n d . A f t e r t h e initial sound, with
d o u b l e d 5 t h , t h e i n n e r v o i c e s m o v e d o w n i n paral-
l e l 6 t h s , c r e a t i n g a c t i v i t y b e f o r e t h e c h o r d change.
27
A Few Chromatic Notes
W h e n w e s a yt h a t t h es i x t e e n t h - a n d seventeenth-
c e n t u r y pieces u n d e r s t u d y a r e d i a t o n i c w e mean
t h a t t h e y a r e prevaingly d i a t o n i c , n o t c o m p l e t e l y
s o . C h r o m a t i c n o t e s a r e f o u n d i n a g r e a t deal o f
p o l y p h o n i c m u s i c a f t e r 1 5 0 0 o r s o . T h e Josquin
M a s s e x c e r p t , [ T ] , a n d t h e d a n c e b y G e r v a i s e , [6],
are exceptions i n t h a t t h e y i n c l u d e n o chromatic
notes at all. A l l t h eother w o r k s i n t h eAnthology
c o n t a i n a t least a f e w c h r o m a t i c n o t e s , w h i c h add
h a r m o n i c c o l o r a n d i n t e r e s t . T h e r e a r e t w o ways
i n w h i c h c h r o m a t i c n o t e s m a y b e b r o u g h t i n t o the
largely diatonic language o f this music:
as l e a d i n g n o t e s o f scale d e g r e e s o t h e r t h a n 1
through mode mixture
L E A D I N G N O T E S O n e c h r o m a t i c n o t e with
w h i c h y o u ' r e f a m i l i a r i n t h e m i n o r m o d e results
f r o m m i x t u r e : t h e l e a d i n g n o t e . I n t e r m s o f har-
59
5 - 6 - 5 i n t h e s o p r a n o is t h etop l i n e o f I - I V - I ,
w i t h I V i n its f a m i l i a r r o l e as n e i g h b o r c h o r d . T h e
role o f C i n t h e c h o r d changes f r o m 5 t ho f I t o
root o f V , after which w e don't hear I b u t V I .
A n o t h e r I V uses t h e m e l o d y B t as a N , w h i c h
returns t o I .T o n i c h a r m o n y has been i n c o n t r o l o f
most o f the phrase. A f t e r that, there's m o t i o n away
f r o m t h e tonic t o w a r d t h e d o m i n a n t a n d t h e ca-
denee.
0 a
Worksheet 2 1
m o n y , t h e d o m i n a n t o f a m i n o r is a m a j o r triad,
V.
Y o u have already seen that n o t all t h e cadenees
i n a piece h a v e I as t h e i r goal. A n y scale d e g r e e o n
which you can build a major o r m i n o r triad may
be t h e goal o f m o t i o n f o r a phrase. A n authentic
cadenee requires a leading note, w h i c h f o r m a n y
scale d e g r e e s is a c h r o m a t i c n o t e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e
l e a d i n g n o t e o f t h e d o m i n a n t is t h e 4 t h d e g r e e
s h a r p e n e d (4jt) i n b o t h m a j o r a n d m i n o r . T h i s is a
chromatic note.
A n o t h e r l o o k a t t h e c a d e n e e s i n t h e Schtz P s a l m
7 8 , | I7j, w i l l s h o w t w o c h r o m a t i c n o t e s as l e a d i n g
notes o f scale d e g r e e s o t h e r t h a n 1 .
I n t h e first p h r a s e , A\ is t h e l e a d i n g n o t e o f B t .
I n t h e f o u r t h p h r a s e , Bb, i s t h e l e a d i n g n o t e o f C , first as
a N i n t h e bass, t h e n i n t h e c a d e n e e .
 B o t h chromatic notes a r e treated carefully, P s a l m 7 8 , [ 7 7 ] . W h a t ' s t h e n o t e D\> d o i n g i n t h e k e y
a p p r o a c h e d a n d left b y step. T h e s a m e is t r u e o f o f El>? I t ' s t a k e n f r o m t h e M i x o l y d i a n m o d e , a n d
t h e c h r o m a t i c n o t e s i n t h e L a s s o c h a n s o n , [72]. u s e d f o r its s t r o n g color.
H e r e a r et h e c h r o m a t i c notes i n that piece: I n t h e L a s s o c h a n s o n , 112|, m o d e m i x t u r e e x p l a i n s
those c h r o m a t i c notes that aren't leading notes.
5 Ctt i s t h e leading note of D.
F r o m t h e u p b e a t t o 9 t h r o u g h 12 b o t h t h e k e y o f
8 Fjt i s t h e leading note of G.
d a n d t h e D o r i a n m o d e a r e i n play. T w o clashes
9-12 C|t i s t h e leading note of D.
14 Gjt i s t h e leading note of A. r e s u l t , C f a g a i n s t C t | a n d Bl> a g a i n s t B t | . H o w m u c h
17-18 F|t i s t h e leading note of G. c o l o r t h e p o l y p h o n y gains as a result!
17 C f is t h e leading note of D. O f this g r o u p o f w o r k s , t h epiece w i t h t h e m o s t
23. 2 6 Fjt i s t h e leading note of G. c h r o m a t i c notes is t h e B e n e d i c t i o n b y C l a u d e l e
J e u n e , |10|. It's i n t h e k e y o f a, b u t n o p h r a s e e n d s
A m o n g other things, this survey shows y o u that a w i t h a n a-triad. Each phrase either ends with a n
g o o d piece doesn't always sit o n t h e tonic. O n l y A - t r i a d ( m i x t u r e ) o r w i t h a c a d e n e e o n a scale
t o w a r d t h e e n d d o e s Fjt as l e a d i n g n o t e o f G t a k e degree other t h a n 1. Such cadenees m a y involve
c o n t r o l . S o m e o f t h e s h i f t i n g a b o u t is r e l a t e d t o t h e t h e use o f c h r o m a t i c notes as l e a d i n g notes. A b r i e f
m o d a l aspect o f t h e m u s i c , since M i x o l y d i a n isn't s u r v e y o f all t h e c h r o m a t i c notes i n this s h o r t piece
as r i g i d a f r a m e w o r k a s t h e k e y o f G . will provide a review o f the entire topic.
T h e list s h o w s t h e l e a d i n g notes. B u t c h r o m a t i c T h e second c h o r d includes the leading note, Gjt,
notes m a y also e m e r g e t h r o u g h m o d a l variability. h a n d l e d w i t h t h e c u s t o m a r y care. Just w h e n w e
expect t o hear a m i n o r triad, o n "us" there's a rich
M I X T U R E T h e play o f two modes with the same m a j o r s o u n d i n s t e a d . N o s o o n e r is C f h e a r d t h a n
tonic attracted c e r t a i n c o m p o s e r s i n t h e late six- Cl] f o l l o w s , t a k i n g f u l l a d v a n t a g e o f t h e c o n t r a s t o f
teenth a n d early seventeenth centuries, w h e n t h e modes. T h e n F fappears, the leading note o f G.
older modes were giving way tothe m o d e r n major A f t e r t h e rest, V * is a n o t h e r v i v i d c o n t r a s t , as G f
a n d m i n o r . Y e t D o r i a n a n d M i x o l y d i a n w e r e still follows Gl| i n t h e soprano. T h e second phrase
in the ears a n d m i n d s o f musicians. T h e availability m o v e s t h r o u g h I I I , r e q u i r i n g n o chromatic notes.
o f notes f r o m m o r e t h a n o n e m o d e provided a T h e phrase ends with a semicadence i n w h i c h alto
r i c h r e s o u r c e f o r c r e a t i v e m u s i c i a n s , as t h e f o l l o w - and tenor exchange the leading note, G f .
ing discussion, based o n examples f r o m t h e M o d e m i x t u r e colors t h e third phrase at t h e
Anthology, demonstrates. o u t s e t : C f p l a y e d o f f a g a i n s t C|. T h e n G f a n d G t |
Y o u m a y h a v e n o t i c e d a n o d d n o t e i n t h e first a r e h e a r d i n cise p r o x i m i t y . T h e s o u n d s a r e n ' t
phrase o f Arcadelt's chanson, H o w canw e j a r r i n g because t h e d i r e c t i o n o f each n o t e is so
u n d e r s t a n d t h e Cl) i n t h e a l t o , i n 4 ? ( R e m e m b e r clear: G f m o v e s u p t o A a n d G ^ d o w n t o F . T h e
t h a t t h e piece is t r a n s p o s e d a n d t h a t t h e c h r o m a t i c 6
phrase ends with a V I I I (mild) cadenee. T w o
note was originally E t , i n the key o f F.) T o be sure, c h r o m a t i c notes h e a r d i n that cadenee a r eC f ,
Cl] a v o i d s a t r i t o n e w i t h t h e s o p r a n o , w h i c h w o u l d leading note o fD , a n dF f , w h i c h turns m i n o r into
e n s u e i f t h e d i a t o n i c C(t w e r e h e a r d . B u t w h a t m a j o r . T h e goal c h o r d is I V * .
m a k e s the subtonic available is t h e existence o f the I n t h e f o u r t h a n d final p h r a s e , F f i s t h e l e a d i n g
Mixolydian mode. T h e subtonic comes f r o m that note t o G . T h eBenediction ends w i t h a perfect
m o d e . T h e c h r o m a t i c n o t e is t h e r e s u l t o ft h e authentic cadenee, w h i c h includes t h e obligatory
mixture o f major and Mixolydian. l e a d i n g n o t e a n d a m a j o r 3 r d i n t h e last t r i a d . T h e
Exactly the s a m e p r o c e d u r e gives a n u n e x p e c t e d m a j o r 3 r d i n t h e last c h o r d o f a m i n o r - m o d e piece
t u r n t o t h e f a m o u s c o n c l u d i n g c a d e n e e i n Schtz's is t h e P i c a r d y 3 r d .

60
 28
Harmonizing Simple Melodies
W e will n o w t u r n t o t w o types o ftraditional har-
m o n y a n dv o i c e - l e a d i n g exercises: the h a r m o n i z a -
t i o n o f a s i m p l e m e l o d y a n d , i n t h e next section,
t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f a figured b a s s . Y o u c a n l e a r n a
good deal o f h a r m o n y a n dcounterpoint f r o m
exercises like these, f o r t h e y h e l p prepare y o u f o r
t h e m o s t valuable exercise o f all, writing y o u r o w n
music.
STUDY T H E MELODY T h e first s t e p i n h a r -
m o n i z i n g a m e l o d y i s t o l e a r n i t well. S i n g i t ,
o b s e r v e i t s r i s e a n d f a l l , p a y cise a t t e n t i o n t o t h e
b e g i n n i n g a n d t h e e n d , a n d l o o k f o r the m e l o d i c
triad.
S K E T C H A B A S S L I N E A g o o d bass l i n e i s t h e
most important part o f a good harmonization.
F i r s t w r i t e a bass t o t h eg i v e n melody, i n w h i c h
e a c h bass n o t e r e p r e s e n t s a c h o r d . T h i s starts t h e
p r o c e s s o f s h a p i n g t h e h a r m o n y t o fit the m e l o d y .
D o n o t g o t h r o u g h t h e m e l o d y o n e note at a t i m e ,
p l a c i n g a c h o r d u n d e r each n o t e . Instead, s u p p o r t
t h e m a i n n o t e s o f t h e m e l o d y w i t h suitable c o n s o -
n a n t chords a n d p l a n the cadenees.
W o r k i n g i n t h e m a n n e r j u s t described, h a r m o -
nize this s i m p l e m e l o d y , i n f o u r parts.
A f t e r o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e m e l o d y i s i n the k e y o f B t
a n d i n \ , w e a l s o n o t e t h a t t h e t u n e rises f r o m 1
t h r o u g h 5 , t h e n d e s c e n d s 54321. T h e m o t i o n
is e n t i r e l y s t e p w i s e . T h e t r i a d i n t h e m e l o d y c l e a r l y
expresses the key. S owill the harmony.
T a k i n g t h e t r i a d i n t h e m e l o d y as our p o i n t o f
d e p a r t u r e , w eb e g i n w i t h a bare-bones sketch i n
w h i c h each n o t e o f t h e t r i a d issetwith I , indicated
b y a B t i n t h e bass. F o r t h e m o m e n t we d o n ' t t a k e
advantage o fthe t w o possible placements o f B t i n
t h e b a s s , b u t w e m a y find u s e f o r t h e m l a t e r o n .
T h e b a s s B t s a y s t h a t t h e extensin o f t o n i c h a r -
61
m o n y l a s t s u n t i l t h e final c a d e n e e , w h e n w e p l a c e
a n F b e f o r e t h e final B t .
I
rI I I v i
T h e h a r m o n y agrees with t h e m e l o d y c o m -
pletely; t h eresult will b e quite dull. W h a t o t h e r
resources d o w e have? W e accept t h e o p e n i n g I
(starting point) a n d t h eclosing I (goal). T h e n w e
l o o k f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e o t h e r B t s i n t h e bass.
W h a t n o t e s o f t h e t r i a d c a n b e set w i t h bass n o t e s
o t h e r t h a n B t ? D c a n b e m e t i n t h e bass w i t h G ,
r e s u l t i n g i n V I , t h a t v a l u a b l e c o l o r c h o r d . T h e bass
6
m a y a l s o r e a c h D u n d e r t h e first F , i m p l y i n g I .
The second F m a y beheard over a B t , but perhaps
a l o w e r versin o f t h a t t o n i c w i l l g i v e t h e b a s s l i n e
more r o o m i nw h i c h t o move. T h e D just before
6
t h e c a d e n e e m a y b e p a r t o f I i f t h e bass also h a s
D.
0 |9
-o-
6
I V I I V I
N o w a d e f i n i t e s h a p e f o r t h e bass l i n e e m e r g e s .
It descends against t h esoprano rise a n d climbs
back u pagainst t h e soprano's fall: c o n t r a r y m o t i o n
in the o u t e r voices.
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t n o t e s i n t h e bass h a v e b e e n
set o u t , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r i m p l i e d c h o r d s . N e x t
we a d d t h e c o n n e c t i n g bass n o t e s a n d t h e i r c h o r d s .
T h e i n i t i a l b a s s s k i p o f a 3 r d i s r e a d i l y filled w i t h
A . T h e bass c a n t h e n r e p e a t t h e G . T h e r i s i n g 3 r d s
a r e filled w i t h C a n d E t , a n d t h e b a s s u n e i s
complete. O ris it? Perhaps t h e r e will b e a chance
t o elabrate i t a b i t a t t h e e n d o f o u r t a s k .
 R O O T , 3 R D , 5 T H Since simple diatonic melo-
dies c o n t a i n s o f e w n o t e s , it's h e l p f u l t o t h i n k a b o u t
ways i n w h i c h t h e setting o f those notes m a y b e
varied. Keep i n m i n d that a n ymelody note may
m rrrr 6 6

6 6 6
take the role o f root, 3rd, o r5 t h o f a triad.
H e r e is a m e l o d y b y M i c h a e l P r a e t o r i u s .
i v vi rv v i vn i n v i

H e r e is a c o m p l e t e h a r m o n i z a t i o n , w i t h i n n e r voices
filling i n t h e c h o r d s i m p l i e d b y t h e bass line.

=4
i J J J J It begins w i t h three Gs, f o l l o w e d b ythe tonic triad.
T o n i c h a r m o n y will predominate, but w i t h i n that,

i v vi rv 6 6
v
ri ivnr ir nr vf 6 6 6
i
h o w can the p o l y p h o n y provide some variety? H e r e
is P r a e t o r i u s ' s a n s w e r .

1
Listening t o t h eentire setting, w e m a y feel that
t h e acon s t o p s i n t h e s e c o n d m e a s u r e . J u s t b e c a u s e
t h e m e l o d y consists o f t w o h a l f notes doesn't m e a n
that t h e o t h e r voices m u s t d o exactly t h e same.
T h e alto can a d da N before m o v i n g t o B t . T e n o r
n
J_J
JiJ J J J
4 J-J J=
a n d bass m a y also e x c h a n g e notes, i n quarters.
G o i n g further, a S U S o nthe eighth-note level may
add interest t othe beginning o f the t h i r d measure,
a n d t h e t e n o r c a n a d d a P t o fill i t s c o n c l u d i n g 3 r d .
Each o f these elaborations adds interest t o t h e
iJ
i n d i v i d u a l l i n e s . H e r e i s a m o r e e l a b r a t e versin
of the harmonization. j _ j

JJJ,J J ,J
SUS
m i I _^
331

T h e first G i s t h e r o o t o f a t r i a d . T h e s e c o n d G i s
the 3rd, the sound changing f r o m major t o minor.

6
i v vi rv v
i 6
i vn 1 n v 6
O n e m o r e p o i n t : t h e first c h o r d i n o u r h a r m o n i -
z a t i o n i s i n cise p o s i t i o n . T h i s m a k e s p o s s i b l e t h e
mximum c o n t r a r y m o t i o n b e t w e e n s o p r a n o a n d
b a s s . T h e c h o i c e o f t h e first c h o r d ' s p o s i t i o n m a y
affect t h e e n t i r e p o l y p h o n y , s o consider i t care-
fully.
We've shown a method o f harmonizing a melody
in some detail i norder t ob r i n g u p several i m p o r -
t a n t i s s u e s . I n y o u r first e f f o r t s , f o l l o w t h i s p r o c e -
d u r e closely. W i t h m o r e experience y o u m a y
quicker ways o f arriving at a good harmonization.
6 6
i
T h e t h i r d G is t h e 5 t h o f a m a j o r triad. A l s o
o b s e r v e t h a t w h e n t h e bass r e t u r n s t o G t h e s o p r a n o
is s o m e p l a c e e l s e , k e e p i n g t h e p o l y p h o n y i n a c t i o n .
T h e s e c o n d p h r a s e b e g i n s w i t h t h e u p b e a t t o _5.
I t i s s i m i l a r t o t h e first, b u t n o t i d e n t i c a l . T h e r e a r e
o n l y t w o w r i t t e n Gs, b u t i n fact G sounds o n three
d i f f e r e n t beats. O n each there's a d i f f e r e n t place-
m e n t o f t h e m e l o d y note. T h i s t i m e t h e o r d e r is
3 r d , r o o t , 5 t h , a l l i n b. A g a i n t h e e m p h a s i s i s o n
t o n i c h a r m o n y , a n d a g a i n w h e n t h e bass r e t u r n s t o
G t h e s o p r a n o h a s m o v e d a w a y . S h o r t as i t is, t h i s
example clearly shows h o w changing the role o f a
s o p r a n o n o t e c a n crate a g o o d v a r i e t y o f s o u n d ,
even within the overall control o f tonic h a r m o n y .
find
O* W o r k s h e e t 2 2

62
I
 29
Figured Bass

REALIZATION I n a figured b a s s e x e r c i s e , t h e E x p l a n a t i o n o fF i g u r e d Bass S y m b o l s

figures u n d e r t h e g i v e n bass l i n e tell y o u w h a t
notes a r e i n t h e u p p e r three voices. B u t t h e figures Chords
symbol explanation
don't directly represent notes: they represent
i n t e r v a l s o v e r t h e b a s s . Y o u r t a s k i s t o realize, t h a t no figure 1 p o s i t i o n o f a t r i a d ; t h e bass i s t h e
is, t o m a k e r e a l w h a t i s i m p l i e d b y t h e figures. root o f the triad
H i s t o r i c a l l y , figured b a s s o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e s e v -
6 3 p o s i t i o n o f a t r i a d ; t h e bass is t h e
e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y as part o f B a r o q u e p e r f o r m a n c e
3rd o f t h e triad
p r a c t i c e . M u s i c i a n s l e a r n e d t o r e a l i z e figured basses
6
at t h e k e y b o a r d as p a r t o ft h e i r n o r m a l t r a i n i n g . 4 4 p o s i t i o n o f a t r i a d ; t h e bass is t h e 5 t h
( F o r m o r e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o n this subject, of the triad
7 7
see A p p e n d i x 2 , C o n t i n u o M u s i c . )
5 p o s i t i o n o f a 7 t h c h o r d ; t h e bass i s
I n t h e s t u d y o f h a r m o n y t o d a y , figured b a s s i s the root
realized i n w r i t t e n exercises. Essentially, t h e y a r e 6
exercises i n voice leading, i n w h i c h the c h o r d con-
5 5 p o s i t i o n o f a 7 t h c h o r d ; t h e bass i s
t e n t i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e figures. Y o u r t a s k i s t o s e t the 3 r d
4
out t h e three u p p e r parts i n a musically convincing 3 < position o f a 7 t h chord
way. T h e m a i n emphasis will b e o n constructing a
t o p l i n e t h a t h a s a g o o d m u s i c a l flow. I t i s a l s o Embellishing Notes
i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e i n n e r v o i c e s m o v e as s m o o t h l y
3-4 4 is a P
as p o s s i b l e . Y o u m i g h t say t h a t r e a l i z i n g a figured
6-7 7 is a P
bass is t h e r e v e r s e o f h a r m o n i z i n g a m e l o d y . 8-9 9isaP
8-7 7isaP
7-6 SUS a n d resolution
T H E F I G U R E S T h e figures u n d e r t h e b a s s n o t e s
4-3 SUS a n d resolution
indcate s i m p l e i n t e r v a l s , w h i c h a r e r e a d f r o m t h e 9-8 SUS a n d resolution
bass u p . I n t e r v a l s i m p l y c h o r d s a n d suggest voice
l e a d i n g . A f e w figures w i l l r e p r e s e n t m a n y i n t e r - Other Symbols
vals. T h e s e s t a n d a r d i z e d abbreviations a r e e x p l a i n e d
below. Y o u have already c o m e across o n e such bit tt Raise (sharpen!) t h e 3 r d . T h i s doesn't
a l w a y s r e s u l t i n a jt i n t h e m u s i c . I n a
of musical shorthand: instead o f 3 you've been
6
flat key, f o r e x a m p l e c, t h e s y m b o l tt
r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g I . T h e 3 i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d is
r a i s e s t h e 3 r d a b o v e t h e bass C f r o m
o m i t t e d . T h i s is precisely t h e type o f abbreviation Et t o E t
f o u n d i n figured b a s s . B u t b e f o r e t h e e x p l a n a t i o n , 6or0 S h a r p e n ( r a i s e ) t h e 6 t h a b o v e t h e bass
a warning: one h a l f step. T h e s h a r p m a y b e
a p p l i e d t o a n y figure.
T h e figures d o n ' t s h o w t h e v o i c e i n w h i c h a n y n o t e i s t o t Flatten ( l o w e r ) t h e 3 r d by a h a l f step.
appear, a n d they don't show doubling. Intervals m a y T h i s doesn't always result i n t h e
be r e a l i z e d i n t h e i r c o m p o u n d f o r m ( a d d a n octave, appearance o f a k I n a sharp key,f o r
o r e v e n t w o ) a s r e a d i l y as i n t h e s i m p l e versin o f t h e e x a m p l e D , t h e s y m b o l l> o v e r D l o w -
figures. ers t h e 3 r d f r o m Fjt t o F l | .
A l l n o t e s o f t h e realizacin a r e d i a t o n i c ( f o l l o w t h e k e y 7t . Flatten (lower) the 7 t h by a semitone.
s i g n a t u r e ! ) u n l e s s y o u find a tt o r a \> i n t h e figure. T h e flat m a y b e a p p l i e d t o a n y figure.
6 Sustain the c h o r d f o r t h e length o f
the horizontal line ( n o c h o r d change).

63
ILLUSTRATION H e r e i s a s i m p l e figured b a s s
exercise. T h e r e a l i z a t i o n is w o r k e d o u t b e l o w .
W~9 i 5*5
J'f 4-3
1
r'rr
6 6 6 6
^ 4-3 6 6 6

N o t i c e t h a t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n is w r i t t e n w i t h t h r e e
S k e t c h a m e l o d y first. B y o u t l i n i n g t h e s o p r a n o
voices i n t h e t r e b l e c l e f a n d o n l y o n e i n t h e bass
y o u crate t h e e s s e n t i a l p o l y p h o n y b e t w e e n t h e
clef. T h i s is s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e w r i t t e n
o u t e r voices. T h e notes o f the s o p r a n o a r e t a k e n
r e a l i z a t i o n o f figured b a s s , t o b e f o l l o w e d i n y o u r
f r o m chords implied b ythe figures.
exercises.
T h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e first s o p r a n o n o t e d e t e r -
m i n e s t h e s p a c i n g o f t h e first c h o r d . T h i s a g a i n

ftrlrrrl' 1
rnrr suggests that y o u should be careful i ndeciding o n
t h a t first n o t e . A l s o d o u b l e t h e r o o t i n t h e first

m m i c h o r d . T h e i n n e r voices l o o k f o r t h e nearest notes

4-3 6 6 6 6
T h e sopranobass f r a m e w o r k mixes contrary, sim-
ilar, a n d parallel m o t i o n . T h e i n n e r voices a d d
some oblique m o t i o n (with their c o m m o n notes)
and contrary m o t i o n t o offset t h e parallel m o t i o n
i n s o p r a n o a n d b a s s . W e fill i n t h e a l t o a n d t e n o r .
in m o v i n g f r o m o n ec h o r d t o t h e next. Use c o m -
m o n notes w h e r e they a r e available. Observe t h e
notation o f the 4 - 3 , S U S and resolution.
T h e p a r a l l e l | c h o r d s i m p l i e d b y t h e figured b a s s
a r e c o m m o n t o t h i s t y p e o f e x e r c i s e . T h e y crate a
p r o b l e m that's n o t difficult t o solve: h o w t o a v o i d
parallel 5ths a n doctaves. H e r e s o p r a n o , alto, a n d
bass m o v e t o g e t h e r o v e r t h e 66. T h e t e n o r p r o -
vides contrary a n d similar m o t i o n , alternatively, b y
skipping f r o m the 3rd o f the triad t othe root.

O * Worksheet 23

30
Study of a Piece: Isaac's Innsbruck, I Now
Must Leave Thee

By" s t u d y i n g this c o m p l e t e piece y o u w i l l r e v i e w T h e m e l o d y o fthis piece soon achieved a strik-

a n d s u m m a r i z e t h e topics o f Part F o u r . A t t h e
same t i m e y o u will see h o w the techniques d e m o n -
strated i n musical excerpts c a n w o r k o n a larger
s c a l e . Innsbruck, I Now Must Leave Thee, [2], i s a m i d -
Renaissance w o r k by a Flemish composer, o n e o f
the most r e n o w n e d o f his day for b o t h sacred and
secular music.
ing degree o f popularity. I t became a h y m n a n d
w a s o n e o f t h e chrale m e l o d i e s t h a t J . S . B a c h s e t
several times. T h e continuing appeal o f the m e l -
o d y c a n b e s e e n f r o m i t s a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e final
Chrale P r e l u d e f o r o r g a n , O p . 1 2 2 , b y J o h a n n e s
B r a h m s , completed i n 1897.

64
OVERVIEW T h e piece is b u i l t o f seven phrases, T h e lovely S U S in the alto c o m b i n e s w i t h the voice
s o m e r e p e a t e d , w i t h rests s e p a r a t i n g t h e p h r a s e s . exchange between tenor a n d soprano. Also notice
T h e f o u r p a r t s l i e r a t h e r cise t o g e t h e r . T h a t , p l u s t h e s m a l l b u t s t r i k i n g P i n t h e bass. T h e p h r a s e
the fact t h a t t h e m u s i c was m e a n t t o b e s u n g b y 7
closes w i t h t h e m i l d V I I I .
m a l e voices, results i n the r a t h e r d a r k s o u n d f a v o r e d
by m a n y composers f r o m n o r t h e r n countries. T h e Second phrase
basic n o t e - a g a i n s t - n o t e c o n s o n a n c e is e m b e l l i s h e d
J* 5
by passing m o t i o n a n dw i t h S U S s a t t h e cadenee.
T h e h a l f n o t e represents o n e beat, a n d barlines
have b e e n a d d e d t o t h escore. Notice, h o w e v e r ,
that all measures don't have t h esame n u m b e r o f
beats.
I n discussing t h eh a r m o n y o f older music, such
as Innsbruck, w e u s e m o d e r n t e r m s a n d c h o r d i d e n -
tifications. T h e s e didn't exist a t the time the music
w a s w r i t t e n : r o m n n u m b e r s w e r e first u s e d t o
i d e n t i f y c h o r d s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h century. Isaac,
W h e r e t h e first p h r a s e w a s s t r o n g l y t o n i c , t h e
Josquin, a n d Palestrina u n d e r s t o o d music as a
second turns t o thedominant. B u tn o t until a
c o m b i n a t i o n o f l i n e s t h a t fitted t o g e t h e r i n a c c o r d -
f u r t h e r t o n i c extensin i s c o m p l e t e d i n t h e m i d d l e
ance w i t h t h eprincipies o f consonance a n d disso-
o f t h e s e c o n d phrase. P a r t o f t h a t t o n i c is b u i l t o n
nance. T h e normave s i m u l t a n e o u s s o u n d w a s t h e
a N i n t h e b a s s . T h e n o t e El i s t a k e n f r o m t h e
t r i a d . D e s p i t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n theoretcal a p p r o a c h ,
M i x o l y d i a n m o d e . A b o v e i t is t V I I ( t h a t is, a t r i a d
we can understand a good deal about older music
built o n the flatted-seventh degree).
in o u rterms, because that music follows some o f
the s a m e n o r m s o f m o r e recent music. T h i s is Just as t h e m e l o d y reaches F , the h a r m o n y swings
particularly true o fthe cadenee, which developed away f r o m I . T h e phrase ends with another mild
early i n the period o f m o d a l tonality. c a d e n e e , w h o s e goal is V . T h e r a n g e o f t h e voices
is n o w a 4 t h l o w e r t h a n i t w a s a t t h e o u t s e t o f t h e
W e now examine themelody andharmony o f
piece.
each phrase.

T h i r d phrase
First phrase

33C
3E
ff e-
*>
sus \
O 3
rrrt
i J J
/
1
U
6

i 5
S vi vn 6
i 6
vn 6
n v i v v i
5 n
T h e setting remains i n t h elower part o f t h e
T h e m e l o d y b e g i n s w i t h a n u p b e a t , as d o a l l t h e r a n g e f o r t h e t h i r d p h r a s e . T h e h a r m o n y also stays
o t h e r phrases i n t h e piece. T h eupbeat i m p a r t s a w a y f r o m t h e tonic, c i r c l i n g a r o u n d I I f o r t h e
f o r w a r d m o t i o n t oeach phrase a n d contributes t o entire phrase. A l l but o n e o f the triads used here
the r h y t h m i c life o f the music. are m i n o r .
I n the initial phrase, the clear shape o f the triad
in t h em e l o d y is coordinated w i t h tonic h a r m o n y . Fourth phrase
T h a t h a r m o n y is built u p gradually, a n dw e o n l y 10
h e a r i t c o m p l e t e i n t h e m i d d l e o f _2. T h e o p e n i n g
i c h o r d is a pur, b a r e s o u n d , a m a r v e l o u s s t a r t i n g
p o i n t . T h e n t h e c o l o r c h o r d V I does its j o b i n
v a r y i n g t h e s o u n d o f the m e l o d y F .V I I leads back
r
to the complete I . 18=
o
W i t h i n t o n i c h a r m o n y t h e bass m o v e s t h r o u g h a
6
SP. T h e c o u n t e r p o i n t above that is quite elegant. vn
6

65 ^ n l v i vn ,i
 W h i l e t h e initial notes o f the melody return, t h e
h a r m o n y doesn't g o back t o I at t h e same d m e .
T h e extensin o f I I contines f o r j u s t o n e m o r e
b e a t . T h e n V I f a l l s i n t o p l a c e i n t h e flow o f c h o r d s
that does lead back t oI . F r o m that point (mid-10)
t h e f o u r t h p h r a s e i s t h e s a m e a s t h e first. I t ' s
interesting t o see h o w Isaac h a s w o r k e d h i s w a y
back t othe exact range o f the o p e n i n g at the same
time that the h a r m o n y returns t o the tonic.
T h e fifth p h r a s e i s t h e s a m e a s t h e s e c o n d p h r a s e .
Sixth phrase
16
first is i m p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c , w i t h t h e m e l o d y o n 3 ;
the goal o fthe second is V ; t h et h i r d breathes o n
I I ; t h e f o u r t h ends again w i t h t h e imperfect ver-
sin o f t h e a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e ; t h e fifth a g a i n e n d s
o n t h e d o m i n a n t , a n d o n l y t h e sixth concludes
with a perfect authentic cadenee.
FOLLOW-UP A p p l y what y o ustudied i n Part
F o u r t o t h efollowing three works i nt h e A n t h o l -
ogy, w h i c h have features somewhat different f r o m
Innsbruck b u t w h i c h u s e e x a c t l y t h e s a m e t e c h -
niques o f h a r m o n y and counterpoint.
T h e a l l e m a n d e b y C l a u d e G e r v a i s e , [6], t h e b e s t -
k n o w n c o m p o s e r o f Renaissance dances, is a n
e x a m p l e o fearly i n s t r u m e n t a l music. I n this period
i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e n ' t specified, a n d the pieces c o u l d

3
m be played b y m a n y d i f f e r e n t combinations. T h e
6
v v rv n 1 ,rv 6
n v r v , v -6
rv
T h e last p h r a s e , w h i c h is r e p e a t e d , is t h e l o n g e s t
o f t h e p i e c e . F o r t h e first t i m e , I V p l a y s a n i m p o r -
tant role. Y o u see that subdominant h a r m o n y is
6
s p r e a d o v e r t w o m e a s u r e s . I f I - I i s a n extensin
6
o f t o n i c h a r m o n y , t h e n I V - I V i s a n extensin o f
s u b d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y . T w o subordnate c h o r d s
6 6
fill t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n I V a n d I V : I I a n d V a r e
the connecting links.
Observe that 1 7 - 1 8 a r ei ntriple meter. While
t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f beats i n 1 7 - 1 9 is eight, t h e y
don't follow the prevailing pattern o f two and four.
Rather, t h e n a t u r a l accent o f t h e music is three
plus three plus t w o . T h a t g r o u p i n g is frequently
f o u n d near t h e cadenee i n Renaissance music. I t
breaks u p t h er e g u l a r i t y o fthe r h y t h m a n d leads
to the goal chord.
I n t h eperfect authentic cadenee t h e resolution
of the S U S introduces the leading note. A n d , look-
i n g a t t h e w h o l e piece, w erealize that s o p r a n o a n d
bass a g r e e o n t h e t o n i c n o t e a t o n l y t w o places, t h e
first s o u n d a n d t h e l a s t . T h e m u s i c e n d s o n t h e
bare sonority w i t h w h i c h i t began.
CONTINUITY O n e p h r a s e flows i n t o t h e n e x t
effortlessly. I n p a r t this is d u e t o t h e upbeats,
w h i c h l i n k t h e p h r a s e s r h y t h m i c a l l y . B u t also t h e
cadenees a v o i d a strong sense o fclosure until t h e
very end. R e v i e w i n g the cadenees y o u see that t h e
d a n c e is i n t h e M i x o l y d i a n m o d e pur a n d s i m p l e .
W h y might you want t o e n dwith a repetition o f
O t h e first p h r a s e ? W h y d o e s t h e m e l o d y s t a n d o u t
4 3
i so c l e a r l y f r o m t h e l o w e r parts? C o m p a r e t h e u s e
o f t h e s c a l e i n t h e first h a l f o f t h e p i e c e w i t h t h a t
o f the second.
Veni Snete Spirito, [9], i s a s e t t i n g o f a h y m n b y
o n e o f t h e great masters o f t h e Renaissance, Pales-
t r i n a . W h a t d o e s t h e flat ( a f t e r t h e c l e f s i g n ) m e a n ?
W h a t is t h e k e y ? t h em o d e ? W h a t r h y t h m i c device
is u s e d i n J J , ? W h e r e i s t h e r e v o i c e c r o s s i n g ?
T h e l i v e l y b a l l a t a b y G a s t o l d i , | 1 3 | , i s i n five p a r t s .
T h e r i c h n e s s o f a five-part t e x t u r e w a s a t t r a c t i v e
to late sixteenth-century composers, a n d that pref-
e r e n c e contines w e l l i n t o t h e s e v e n t e e n t h . T h e
t e r m Q u i n t o s i m p l y m e a n s t h e fifth p a r t . I t m a y b e
a n y voice; h e r e i tis e q u a l w i t h t h e s o p r a n o . W h e n
t w o voices oceupy t h es a m e range there's likely t o
be a fair a m o u n t o f voice crossing. F o l l o w t h e t w o
u p p e r voices t h r o u g h the piece a n d observe all the
crossings. L o o k a t the r e p r o d u c t i o n o f the o r i g i n a l
m u s i c o n t h e f a c i n g p a g e . W h a t n o t e valu r e p r e -
sents o n e beat? W e r e there barlines i n the original?
T h e h a r m o n y o f t h e first p h r a s e i s i n t e r e s t i n g . I t
begins i n a; w h e r e does i t e n d ? I n6 , w h a t device is
h e a r d i n sopranobass? W h a t type o fcadenee d o
y o u h e a r i n 6 7 ? T h e first p h r a s e , 1 7 , i s r e p e a t e d
in 814. W h y does 7 seem like a full stop while
14 s e e m s l i k e a n i n v i t a t i o n t o k e e p g o i n g ? B e t w e e n
w h i c h t w o v o i c e s i s t h e r e a S U S i 41_? W h a t i s t h e
t e r m f o rt h e m a j o r 3 r d i n t h e last t r i a d o f this
m i n o r - m o d e piece?
C F Worksheet 24

66
 31
Diatonic Chord Functions: A Summary
I N T R O D U C T I O N T h e conclusin o f P a r t F o u r
o u t l i n e s t h e basic f u n c t i o n s o f all t h e diatonic triads.
I n studying this section, y o u l o o k ahead t o music
o f the e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h centuries.
W h i l e a romn n u m b e r i s a h a n d y label f o r a
t r i a d , i t tells y o u little a b o u t t h a t chord's f u n c t i o n
in a piece o fmusic. W h a t does each triad actually
d o i n a p i e c e ? H o w d o e s a c h o r d fit i n t o t h e m u s i c a l
flow? T h e a n s w e r is always f o u n d b y r e l a t i n g a
triad t o w h a t e v e r carne before i t a n d whatever
c o m e s n e x t , t h a t i s , b y d e f i n i n g t h e t r i a d ' s context.
T h e n w ec a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e triad's role.
Each o ft h e seven diatonic triads i na k e y c a n
p e r f o r m m o r e t h a n o n e task. It's possible t o describe
e a c h o f those f u n c t i o n s q u i t e specifically, a n d that's
w h a t this section is about. T h e n o r m a l functions o f
each triad a r eexplained, w i t h musical examples.
O n e o f t h e r e m a r k a b l e aspects o f m a j o r - m i n o r
t o n a l i t y is t h a t a s i n g l e t r i a d m a y b e g i v e n d i f f e r e n t
m e a n i n g s b y d i f f e r e n t contexts. T h e possibility o f
interpreting a s o u n d i nm o r e t h a n o n eway enriches
y o u r resources greatly. M a n y o fthose possibilities
will b e c o m e a p p a r e n t i nt h e f o l l o w i n g discussion.
W h i l e t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s concntrate o n 3 - p o s i t i o n
6
chords, occasional c h o r d s w i l l b e m e n t i o n e d as
well.
T H E I C H O R D T h e t o n i c t r i a d c a n e x p r e s s mx-
i m u m stability. I t serves as m a i n c h o r d m o r e o f t e n
t h a n a n yo t h e r t r i a d . I t ' salso t h e n o r m a l goal o f
m o t i o n i n t o n a l pieces a n d ,i na shorter view,t h e
g o a l o fm a n y p h r a s e s w i t h i n a piece. A n y w o r k i n
the A n t h o l o g y will provide a n example o f the tonic
triad i n itsrole as musical center o f gravity.
As N: I m a y a l s o p l a y a s u b o r d n a t e r o l e .
String Quartet, O p . 18, No. 4, I BEETHOVEN
Efe 4
ff
67
Once again, i nt h ediscussion o fh a r m o n y w e m u s t
reckon w i t h m e l o d y . T h e m a i n note i nt h e m e l o d y
is B , w h i l e C i s a N . T h e t r i a d u n d e r B i s V * , t h e
main chord. T h e triad u n d e r C is I , here a neigh-
bor chord. Y o u c a n hear that t h e m a i n c h o r d
receives a l l t h e r h y t h m i c e m p h a s i s , o n b o t h t h e
h a l f - a n d q u a r t e r - n o t e levis.
T H E V C H O R D In authentic cadenee: M o s t t o n a l
pieces i n c l u d e a n u m b e r o f a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e s ,
p u n c t u a t i n g t h e m u s i c a s i t flows t h r o u g h t i m e .
7
The d o m i n a n t triad (or V ) plays a vital role i n this
type o f cadenee, m o v i n g decisively t o I .W e cali t h e
d o m i n a n t i n t h e c a d e n e e t h e cadential dominant.
Here, too, examples a r et ob e f o u n d i nevery piece
in t h e A n t h o l o g y .
In semicadence: V i t s e l f m a y b e t h e g o a l o f m o t i o n
in a m u s i c a l p h r a s e . I n m i n o r , V * is t h e ame o f
the d o m i n a n t that includes t h e leading note. A
p h r a s e f r o m a B a r o q u e concert s h o w s t h e d o m i -
6
n a n t as g o a l . T h e t y p i c a l s e m i c a d e n c e I V V * p r o -
vides a sense o fp a r d a l closure.
Concert Grosso, Op. 6, No. 8 COREL!.I
0m- i
*
) r t r c f i r , r
23
P rv 6
vi
 As passing chord: T h e s a m e e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t e s
a n o t h e r w a y o f u s i n g V , w i t h i n a t o n i c extensin.
T h e m e l o d y rises 1 - 2 - 3 , a n d2 is a P . H e r e 1 a n d
3 a r esetw i t h I . T h e c h o r d that connects t h e t w o
s t a t e m e n t s o f I i s V. W e c o n s i d e r i t a p a s s i n g
c h o r d because it's u n d e r t h e ( c o n s o n a n t ) P i n t h e
m e l o d y . I nsimplest f o r m :

2.5-
3-=- B o t h I V a n dV a r eelaborative chords i n t h e next
example.

Nocturne, Op. 37, No. 1 CHOPIN

i
fsf
m
p
T h e Corelli excerpt also shows a w a y t ou s eV ( n o t
V ) i n t h em i n o r . T h e d e s c e n d i n g bass 8 - 7 - 6 - 5
o f t e n leads t o a semicadence. I n this m o t i o n , 7 is
6
3
t h e bass t o V . O f t e n , as h e r e , t h a t c h o r d is f o l -
6
l o w e d b y I V , t h e first c h o r d o f t h e s e m i c a d e n c e .
As neighbor chord: V i s a n e i g h b o r c h o r d i n t h i s I n t h e first m e a s u r e , 6 i s a N t o 5 a n d I V i s a
extensin o f t o n i c h a r m o n y . n e i g h b o r c h o r d t o I . I n t h e n e x t m e a s u r e I V is
subordnate o n c e a g a i n , e v e n t h o u g h t h e m e l o d i c
N is n o t as o b v i o u s as i twas. T h e n , as t h e t o p line
String Quartet, Op. 18, N o . 4 , 1 BEETHOVEN
rises 1 - 2 - 3 across t h e b a r l i n e , t h e h a r m o n y sup-

ports i twith I V I . I n3 t h e parallel 3rds o f1 a r e
inverted, becoming parallel 6ths i n t h e I I V I
m o v e . A l l o f t h i s t a k e s p l a c e w i t h i n a n extensin o f
tonic h a r m o n y .
6
I V isa n e i g h b o r c h o r d i nthis phrase.

Sonata in D minor SCARLATTI

U n d e r t h e (consonant) N Bl| i n t h emelody you

hear a neighbor chord, V f . Here t h e rhythmic
e m p h a s i s i s o n t h e m a i n c h o r d , I , first o n t h e h a l f -
n o t e level, t h e n o n the quarter.

THE I V CHORD T h e I V c h o r d m a y f u n c t i o n i n VI
at least t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s : i tm a y e m b e l l i s h a m a i n

W JJJJJJ ddd
chord o ri tm a y m o v e away f r o m the tonic. \h 1 lilil 5- 4S!tT i

As neighbor chord: T h e m e l o d i c m o t i o n 5 6 5
lends itself t o t h eprogression I I V I . A famous
'-n T I
e x a m p l e illustrates. "2 *y y
mf
%J-
7 7
^ M l -
1 " ^ -
-r.
"Hallelujah" f r o m M e s s i a h HANDEL 1

r 9u n B e t w e e n t w ostatements o f V * , t h e o u t e r voices
step i nc o n t r a r y m o t i o n . T h e c h o r d generated b y
6
those lines is I V ,a n e i g h b o r c h o r d .
As passing chord: R e f e r t o t h e C o r e l l i e x a m p l e o n

mm r- F i r
6
p a g e 6 7 . T h e n e x t - t o - l a s t c h o r d is I V . H e r e i t
6
passes f r o m V t o V . O n c e a g a i n y o u s e e t h a t t h e

68
 m e a n i n g o f a c h o r d d e p e n d s n o t u p o n its type, but moves t h e h a r m o n y away f r o m t h e tonic a n d pre-
u p o n its c o n t e x t . pares t h e dominant.
Motion away from the tonic: T h e S c a r l a t t i e x a m p l e
also s h o w s a d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n o f I V . Following " W i t h verdure ciad" f r o m The Creation HAYDN
6
the tonic i n 7 (here I ) I V leads t h ee a r away from
that stable s o u n d a n d t o w a r d t h e d o m i n a n t . I h
T h e t w o d i f f e r e n t functions o f I V m a ybe
o b s e r v e d i n t h i s s h o r t p h r a s e f r o m a c o m i c opera.
i
p

E x c e r p t f r o m L aserva p a d r o n a PERGOLESI

/ v n . his <\ is J n

P r i Vf
f T h e first m e a s u r e i s t a k e n u p w i t h a n extensin o f
tonic h a r m o n y . I nthis, I - V - 1 again supports t h e
melodic ascent 1 - 2 - 3 . T h e n I I moves away f r o m

mi t h e t o n i c a n d sets u p V , w h i c h i s h i g h l i g h t e d b y
the/ marking.
6
M o r e o f t e n t h a n I Io r I V , I I is t h e c h o r d that
follows t h e tonic a n d prepares t h e w a y f o r t h e
I n _1, 6 i s a N t o 5 a n d I V i s a n e i g h b o r c h o r d t o I . d o m i n a n t . W i t h 4 i n t h e bass, this c h o r d is i n a
I n 2, I V h a s i t s o t h e r r o l e , l e a d i n g a w a y f r o m t h e strong position t om o v e t oV .
t o n i c t o t h e d o m i n a n t . T h e t h i r d m e a s u r e repeats
t h e s e c o n d a n d e n d s t h e s h o r t p h r a s e . T h e same S y m p h o n y N o . 92, I I HAYDN
c h o r d , I V , m e a n s t w o d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s i n o n e phrase.

T H E I IC H O R D I I i n r o o t p o s i t i o n i s n ' t as useful
6
as I I . I n d e e d , I I is h e a r d o n l y i n t h e m a j o r , a n d
e v e n there i t plays a limited role.
As neighbor chord: I n s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m u s i c I I
was u s e d as a n e i g h b o r c h o r d .

Good Day, M y Heart LASSO

Here i na nutshell a r e t h ethree main harmonic
J functions. Tonicsubdominantdominanttonic
forms o n eo f t h e great h a r m o n i c plans o f tonal

r f4? 6
music. I I o f t e n plays a part i n this progression.

i j i | i J. i A
') r r p
T H E V IC H O R D V I is a n interesting chord,
m#t = m rr W i t h o u t a n y s t r o n g d i r e c t i o n o f its o w n , i tm a y b e
interpreted i n different ways according t o the chords
i n i that precede a n d follow it. V I m a y b e used w i t h i n
a n extensin o f I o r V , o r i t m a y b e g i n a m o t i o n
T h e c o n t r a r y m o t i o n o f t h e o t h e r v o i c e s is t h e a w a y f r o m t h etonic. T h e c h o r d isv a l u a b l e i n b o t h
c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r . B o t h s o p r a n o a n d bass have Ns. major a n d minor.
Motion away from the tonic: M o r e o f t e n , I I i s t h e As neighbor chord: V I i s o f t e n h e a r d a s a n e i g h b o r
first c h o r d a f t e r a t o n i c extensin. A s s u c h , i t c h o r d t o V o r V. ( S e e e x a m p l e b e l o w . ) T h e p o l y -

Piano Sonata K . 280, I I MOZART

fe
m
p

7
n vi
p h o n y reaches V * b y t h e third measure, rather
early i nt h e eight-measure phrase. T h e h a r m o n y
keeps m o v i n g b y using V I as a neighbor c h o r d t o
V*. H e r e t h e bass is decisive, t h e D t - C m o t i o n
s t a n d i n g o u t clearly against t h e m o v i n g u p p e r voices.
V I m a y also b e a n e i g h b o r c h o r d t oI . A beauti-
ful m o t i v e f r o m a R o m a n t i c opera illustrates.
Prelude to Act I of L o h e n g r i n WAGNER
m ta
H e r e t h e N m o t i o n is i n t h e m e l o d y . I tbegins o n
E , a n d i s first e l a b o r a t e d w i t h a s k i p t o A a n d b a c k .
T h e N , Fjt, f o l l o w s . T h ebass (the l o w e s t part, n o
matter h o w high) supports t h eN m o t i o n w i t h a
skip t o p r o v i d e consonance. T h e c h o r d is V I .
Refer t o t h eC h o p i n example o n page 68. I n t h e
bass, a t t h e c a d e n e e , C is a N b e t w e e n t w o B t s .
T h e c h o r d over that C isV I , a neighbor chord.
If V I canbe a neighbor chord over a N i n the
bass, c a n i talso b e p a r t o f a D N i n t h el o w e s t voice?
Clarinet Quintet, I V MOZART
| | ^ | ||
y= f w
r -t
w
V color change that y o uheard at t h e beginning o f
1 p p_ i
= - J== 3 :=b 6
^v r
i vi n 6
V vi n
v
S t a r t i n g w i t h t h elast n o t e o f 2 t h e bass m o v e s E -
F j t D E , E b e i n g t h e m a i n n o t e . T h e D N figure
6
supports f o u r chords, V V I I I V . V ist h e m a i n
c h o r d , a n d t h e o t h e r t w o a r e subordnate.
Motion away from the tonic: T h e s a m e e x a m p l e
illustrates a n o t h e r possible u s e o f V I . I nt h e very
first m e a s u r e t h e t r i a d i n t h e m e l o d y m i g h t l e a d
70
the e a r t oexpect tonic h a r m o n y . B u t t h e entrance
o f Fjt i n t h e bass m o v e s t h e h a r m o n y a w a y f r o m
the tonic. V Idoes this j o b well, leading, i n this
6
case, t oI I .
As tonic substitute: V I m a y b e i n c l u d e d w i t h i n a
t o n i c extensin a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o I , w i t h w h i c h i t
has t w o notes i n c o m m o n . T h eh a r m o n y o f W a g -
ner's P i l g r i m s ' C h o r u s takes advantage o f the color
gained b ythe substitution.
Overture to Tannhuser WAGNER
VI
T h e triad controls t h e melody for three measures,
and tonic h a r m o n y predominates f o r that time.
W h e n t h em e l o d y reaches G#, t h e3 r d o fthe triad,
I isr e p l a c e d b y V I . I tdoesn't i n t e r r u p t t h e c o n t r o l
o f the tonic, b u ti tdoes a d d t h e s o u n d o fa m i n o r
triad t ot h e phrase.
T w o different ways o fusing V I a r e found i na
single phrase.
Chrale No. 334 BACH
f
m 4 LA
VI
T h e m e l o d y begins w i t h t w o Ds, a challenge t o t h e
h a r m o n i s t t o crate s o m e v a r i e t y . T h i s B a c h d o e s
by f o l l o w i n g t h einitial I w i t h V I . H e r e ist h e same
Innsbruck, [ 2 ] , a n d t h e J o s q u i n M a s s e x c e r p t , [JJ.
T h e bracket s h o w s t h a t t h e V I is i n c l u d e d i n t h e
t o n i c extensin, h e a r d u n d e r t h e s o p r a n o ' s m o t i o n
within t h etonic triad.
T h e s e c o n d V I , i n _3, m o v e s t h e h a r m o n y a w a y
f r o m t h e tonic a n d t o w a r d t h e subdominant. Again,
the same chord means different things.
THE I I I CHORD I I I plays quite d i f f e r e n t roles
in m a j o r a n dm i n o r . I n m a j o r i t h a s n o strong
direcon, b u t i s u s e f u l a s a c o l o r c h o r d . I n t h e
Symphony No. 9 DVORAK

Dvofk e x c e r p t a b o v e , I I I f o l l o w s V I . T h e b a s s i s Chrale No. 215 BACH

o n its w a y d o w n t h r o u g h a n octave, t h e f r a m e w o r k
f o r a t o n i c extensin.
J
J J JJ
f f r r
I n t h e m i n o r m o d e , I I I represents t h e relative
m a j o r , a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t w i t h i n t h e m i n o r scale. f = * T
I n m i n o r , I I I is o f t e n a goal o f m o t i o n , as you'll
see i n l a t e r s t u d i e s . A s t r i k i n g u s e o f I I I o r i g i n a t e d
j j JJ
in t h e late Renaissance a n d w a sp u tt o g o o d use by
J. S. Bach. vn
Chrale No. 25 BACH
6
In both major a n d m i n o r , V I I is another mat-
ter. M o r e c o n s o n a n t t h a n dissonant, i t w a s w i d e l y
used i n Baroque music. Its n o r m a l function was t o
6

f. l i n k I a n d I i n a t o n i c extensin.

3g| Concert Grosso, Op. 6, No. 9 HANDEL

J f. Vlns. 1 and 2

m
6
IV v m

rr rr rr rr rr
m
Va.

4 JZM
Vcl. and Cont.

J 5 6

T h e first p h r a s e e n d s w i t h a s e m i c a d e n c e , i n w h i c h
El) i s t h e l e a d i n g n o t e . A f t e r a b r e a t h , t h e m u s i c
r e s u m e s w i t h I I I . E t c o n t r a d i c t s Ei] w i t h d r a m a t i c The five-measure p h r a s e is a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a
effect, t h e n I I I m o v e s back t o V . concert m o v e m e n t . T h e r e ' s a d e f i n i t e r h y t h m a n d
n o m e l o d y t o s p e a k o f . O v e r a l l , t h e m o t i o n is f r o m
6
I t o V . First the tonic is stabilized, w i t h V I I l i n k i n g
6
T H E V I I C H O R D I n t h e m a j o r m o d e , V I I is a I a n dI . Subdominant a n ddominant follow i n t h e
d i s s o n a n t c h o r d a n d is r a r e l y u s e d i nr o o t position. semicadence.
I n m i n o r , t h e r o o t o f V I I lies a 5 t h a b o v e t h e root
o f I I I . Y o u w i l l h e a r V I I acting as t h ed o m i n a n t o f
I I I w h e n y o u hear i t at all.

71
A p r e l i m i n a r y versin o f t h e d e c o r b y M . F . L a r i o n o v f o r B r o n i s l a v a N i j i n s k a ' s b a l l e t , L e Renard, p r e m i e r e d i n Pars
o n M a y 18, 1922. (Courtesy D a n c e Collection, T h e N e w Y o r k Public L i b r a r y at L i n c o l n Center, Astor, L e n n o x and
Tilden Foundations).
 INTERLUDE ONE
A LOOK AHEAD
I N T R O D U C T I O N I n f o l k s o n g a n d chant you
h e a r d a simple k i n d o f tonal music that relied o n
stepwise m o t i o n i n a diatonic context. Modes other
t h a n m a j o r a n d m i n o r played a n i m p o r t a n t part in
this music. R h y t h m s w e r e rather straightforward.
Renaissance p o l y p h o n y s h o w e d m a n y o f the same
t e n d e n c i e s , t h e c h o r d a l dimensin flourishing w i t h i n
a l a r g e l y d i a t o n i c c o n t e x t . I n succeeding periods
the importance o f the d o m i n a n t and subdominant
g r e w , a i d e d b yt h e increasingly c o m p l e x extensions
t h a t w e r e first d e v e l o p e d i n B a r o q u e k e y b o a r d
music. M a j o r a n d m i n o r , often mixed, were the
o n l y m o d e s , a n d t h e l e a d i n g n o t e was a n i m p o r t a n t
e l e m e n t i n h a r m o n y . T h e steady development o f
chromaticism i nt h e nineteenth century continued
u n t i l i tbegan t o w e a k e n the f r a m e w o r k o f tonality
itself.
E a r l y i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y some composers
p u s h e d those tendencies t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e all the
r e s o u r c e s o f t h e c h r o m a t i c scale became equally
available, w i t h o u t reference t o a tonic. T h e music
t h a t r e s u l t e d w a s c a l l e d atonal.
A t t h e same t i m e , o t h e r composers sought out
n e w possibilities w i t h i n tonality. T u r n i n g away f r o m
c h r o m a t i c i s m , they f o u n d ways o f using a tonal
center without relying u p o n the dominant, the
l e a d i n g note, o r h i g h l y dissonant chords. T h i s
d i r e c t i o n m a y b e d e s c r i b e d a s t h e extensin of tradi-
tional harmony. B y s u r v e y i n g a f e w a p p l i c a t i o n s o f
extended tonality i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p i e c e s y o u c a n
l o o k a h e a d t o m u s i c that's a g o o d deal m o r e mod-
e r n i n style t h a n w h a t y o u h a v e seen t h u s far, yet
has s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s o f contact.
73
R U M A N I A N F O L K D A N C E S O n e such point
o f contact stems f r o m the increased interest i n folk
music early i n the twentieth century. T h e Hungar-
i a n c o m p o s e r Bla B a r t k w a s o n e o f t h e p i o n e e r s
in t h e serious study o f w h a t h e called peasant
music. H i s investigations extended beyond t h e
frontiers o f hiso w n country, a n d t h e R u m a n i a n
Dances, |50|, a r eevidence o f that w i d e interest.
T h e m e l o d y o f t h e Stick Dance i s i n t h e D o r i a n
mode, w i t h t w oversions o f 6 ( F a n d F f ) .T h e
melody has a n unusual shape: a n eight-measure
phrase, repeated, followed b y a sixteen-measure
phrase, also repeated. T h e r h y t h m is s t r i k i n g , s h o r t
notes i n strong contrast t o longer ones.
T h e h a r m o n y takes advantage o f b o t h versions
o f 6. I t also puts m o d e m i x t u r e t o g o o d u s e ,
arriving at a n A - t r i a d at t h e e n do feach cadenee.
E a c h m a j o r t r i a d is i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w e d b y a
contrasting chord o f o n e kind o r another. T h e
m e l o d y r e p e a t s e n t i r e phrases, b u t t h e h a r m o n y is
varied with the melodic repetition.
T h e m e l o d y o f t h e Waistband Dance i s p u r D o r i a n .
F o u r short units o f f o u r measures each comprise a
long phrase with light punctuations. T h e h a r m o n y
uses b o t h v e r s i o n s o f 6 (Bt] a n d B t ) . T h e l e a d i n g
n o t e i s h e a r d a t t h e final c a d e n e e .
I n Dance in Place, t h e m e l o d y i s b u i l t o n o n e o f
t h e scales w h o s e f e a t u r e is a n a u g m e n t e d 2 n d . T h e
scale:
aug 2 n d
-& 1 < L
W -M~K1
is-
T h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t suggests the bagpipes that are
so m u c h a p a r t o f B a l k a n f o l k m u s i c . A g a i n s t t h e
clearly articulated m e l o d y t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t sways
back a n d f o r t h between a 5 t h a n da n upper note.
T h e first h a l f o f t h e p i e c e i s b u i l t o n t h e t o n i c , b .
W h e n t h e m e l o d y begins t o repeat, at 2 1 , t h e
h a r m o n y moves u p t o D . A st h e melody nears t h e
e n d t h e h a r m o n y slips back t o b . B u t i t does n o t
simply cover t h e m i n o r 3rd f r o m t h e original B t o
D . I n s t e a d t h e bass m o v e s d o w n t h r o u g h C f , A ,
G f , G l | , d r o p s a 4 t h t o D , a n d t h e n steps d o w n t o a
lower B .T h e setting is i n a h i g h register, settling
d o w n b e l o w m i d d l e C o n l y i n t h e last t h r e e m e a -
sures.
T h e m e l o d y o f t h e Hornpipe Dance i s b a s e d o n
t h e scale t h e R u m a n i a n s cali t h e c h r o m a t i c P h r y -
gian, a n d t h e tonic is A :
aug. 2 n d
2 b o y . . . ^
A f o u r - m e a s u r e p h r a s e is repeated, t h e n a n o t h e r
f o u r - m e a s u r e p h r a s e i s h e a r d t w i c e . Bartk b e g i n s
w i t h a two-measure i n t r o d u c t i o n , i n t h e piano's
m i d d l e register. W h i l e t h e bass is a n c h o r e d o n A
f o r e i g h t measures, t h e i n n e r voices color the m e l -
ody with a variety o fchords, ending with t h e A -
triad. T h e second h a l f o fthe setting takes advan-
tage o fthe semitone above A ,so characteristic o f
the mode. Each phrase ends with a major triad,
three o f which areA-triads.
O U R T O W N Although the melody o f Aaron
C o p l a n d ' s m u s i c f o r t h e m o v i e Our Town, [ 5 3 ] , i s
quite simple, it'sn o t a folk melody. T h e t u n e is
based o n m a j o r triads, starting w i t h the G-triad. Is
the music i n G ?
L i s t e n i n g t o t h e e n t i r e piece, o n e is left w i t h a
clear sense t h a t G is t h e t o n i c n o t e . B u t i t isn't t h e
same k i n d o f tonic that y o u f o u n d i n earlier music.
H e r e i s a d i f f e r e n t k e y s e n s e , a n extensin o f
t r a d i t i o n a l t o n a l i t y . W e m a y say t h a t t h e piece is i n
G, i n the language o f extended tonality. W h i l e this
t o p i c is discussed i n d e t a i l i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f
Gradus, B o o k T w o , s o m e o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e u s e f u l a t
t h i s p o i n t . W e c o n c n t r a t e o n t h e first e i g h t m e a -
sures.
Y o u m a y have noticed s o m e t h i n g i n this music
t h a t y o u d o n ' t find e a r l i e r : t h e l o w e r s t a f f s h o w s a
stream o f parallel 5ths f o r eight measures. T h e
objection t o such parallels i n earlier music was that
t h e y destroyed t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e l i n e s , b u t
here t h e lines aren't independent at all. T h r e e
n o t e s , s t a r t i n g w i t h C G E , a c t as a s i n g l e u n i t .
74
T h e line has been thickened a n d t h e resulting
c h o r d is t r e a t e d as a line. W e d o n ' t h e a r f o u r - p a r t
w r i t i n g , b u tt w o - p a r t w r i t i n g . O n e part is t h e m e l -
o d y , o n e p a r t is t h es t r e a m o f t h r e e notes t h a t lies
below t h e m e l o d y (upper-staff stems d o w n plus
l o w e r - s t a f f notes). S u c h t h i c k e n i n g o f lines is char-
acteristic o f m u s i c i n t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y tonality.
W i t h that i n m i n d , follow t h e m o t i o n o ft h e
chords-as-lines t o w a r d G , away f r o m G , a n d back
to it. I n c o u n t e r p o i n t , t h e m e l o d y projects triads
that c o m b i n e w i t h t h e l o w e r stream o f triads. T h e
C - t r i a d m o v e s t o a G - t r i a d ; t h a t is h e a r d s o o f t e n
as t o b e c o m e a n o r m a l m o t i o n i n t h i s p i e c e . A f t e r
we've heard that twice w e hear a B t - t r i a d i n t h e
l o w e r part, w h i c h t h e n m o v e s t o its n e i g h b o r i n g C -
triad before t a k i n g t h e n o r m a l path back t o G . I n
contrary m o t i o n t h e melody outlines a n A-triad,
clashing w i t h t h e B t - t r i a d . B o t h chords step i n t o
the next, n o w - f a m i l i a r sound, w h i c h leads back t o
the tonic. T h i s completes a short opening phrase.
It also demonstrates Copland's w a y o f stretching
o u t a motive t o build a phrase. T h e four-beat
m o t i v e is h e a r d t w i c e , t h e n is e x p a n d e d t o six beats
to complete the phrase.
A s e c o n d p h r a s e contines a n d d e v e l o p s t h e
i d e a s o f t h e first. I n o b l i q u e m o t i o n , t h e b a s s s t a r t s
f r o m G ' s n e i g h b o r F , w h i l e t h e m e l o d y stays w i t h
the tonic. T h eneighbor moves u p t h e expected
s t e p t o finish t h e m e a s u r e . I n _5 t h e E t - t r i a d i s
combined with the G-triad, and the El?-triad moves
to t h eF . T h a t c h o r d t h e n skips u p t o C , p o i n t i n g
back t o t h etonic. T h e path o fthe melody's triads
is G , n e i g h b o r c h o r d A , a n d b a c k t o G , a l l a r t f u l l y
blended with the triads i n the lower stream.
A t h i r d , s h o r t p h r a s e c l o s e s t h e first s e c t i o n .
B e g i n n i n g pp, t h e f o u r - b e a t m o t i v e i s s t r e t c h e d
a g a i n t o s i x , h e l p i n g t o crate a s e n s e o f c l o s u r e .
T h e D-triad might be dominant i n another con-
t e x t ; h e r e it's a n e i g h b o r t o t h e C - t r i a d . T h e fact
t h a t it's a n e i g h b o r is s o m e w h a t d i s g u i s e d b y a n
octave shift, but i n this music the d o m i n a n t has n o
r o l e . T h e first C - t r i a d i s a m o m e n t a r y g o a l ; t h e
second leads back t o G , closing the phrase.
T h e c h o r d v o c a b u l a r y o f t h e p h r a s e consists o f
seven m a j o r triads: w i t h G as t h er e f e r e n c e p o i n t ,
t h e s e a s c e n d b y 4 t h s G , C , F , B\>, E\>while these
descend b y 4 t h s G , D , a n d A . T h e triads a r e
combined i n various ways, b u t neighbor-chord
m o t i o n directs the flow m o s t o f the t i m e .
S Y M P H O N Y F O R S T R I N G S W h e n y o ulisten
to t h ebeginning o fthe second m o v e m e n t o f W i l -
l i a m Schuman's Symphony for Sirings, [ 5 4 ] , you h e a r
a marvelous sonority: m u t e d , divided strings play
t w o s u p e r p o s e d t r i a d s ff. T h i s d o e s n ' t r e p r e s e n t
eight parts, t ob e sure. T h e r e are t w o c h o r d streams,
e a c h t r e a t e d as a l i n e . C h o r d as l i n e is t h e m e t h o d
o f t h e o p e n i n g phrase, a concept introduced i n
o u r discussion o f t h e C o p l a n d piece.
C o m p a r i s o n w i t h Our Town reveis s o m e i n t e r -
e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s . C o p l a n d ' s m u s i c is clearly cen-
tered o n G , w h i l e i n the S c h u m a n there's n o definite
tonal center. I nCopland, most o f the triads a r e i n
root position, while Schuman's sonority combines
r o o t - p o s i t i o n t r i a d s i n t h e u p p e r register w i t h sec-
ond-inversion triads i n t h e lower. T h a t position
doesn't m e a n t h esame t h i n g here that i t d i d i n
tonal music, w h e r e it was a dissonant chord requir-
i n g a specific r e s o l u t i o n . N o w it's s i m p l y o n e m o r e
versin o f t h e m a j o r t r i a d . T h i s t e l l s y o u t h a t t h e
4 t h o v e r t h e bass h a s lost its special status, a s u r e
sign that w e a r e o u t o f t h e w o r l d o f traditional
tonality.
T h e o p e n i n g s h o w s t h a t c o n t r a r y m o t i o n still h a s
its uses, a s t h e t w o c h o r d - l i n e s m o v e i n o p p o s i n g
d i r e c t i o n s t o a m o m e n t a r y g o a l . T h e first u n i t i s
extended a n dreaches a goal i n 4 . T h e chord at
that p o i n t isb u i l t o ft w o superposed m a j o r triads,
t h e s a m e s o u n d t h a t began t h e C o p l a n d piece.
T w o measures o f transition lead t oa l o n g phrase
that constitutes t h e rest o f the excerpt. T h e open-
ing chords (upper stream) repeat, t h e n m o v e o n t o
other m a j o r triads. T h a t becomes t h e accompani-
m e n t for a long-breathed melody that hasn o reg-
u l a r p a t t e r n b u t iss p u n o u t i n a spacious arch. T h e
h a r m o n y finally a p p r o a c h e s a n A l > - t r i a d t h r o u g h a
n e i g h b o r , a G t - t r i a d . S i m p l y b y repeang t h e c h o r d
pair f o u r times S c h u m a n creates a sense o f stability
a n d a r r i v e s a t a g o a l . W h i l e t h e r e p e t i t i o n is d o i n g
its w o r k t h e m e l o d y w o r k s i t s w a y s l o w l y t o B k
T h i s combines w i t h the A t - t r i a d t of o r m (most o f )
another c h o r d built w i t h t w o m a j o r triads.
Phrase o n e
PS+Ns
N I 1 S
(N N)
DN
m N r N
Phrase three Phrase f o u r
\4 . i i
, m
'
*J 8 8 1 8
# N N _d
*- m-
H e r e is m u s i c t h a t is m a d e o u t o f m a j o r triads,
and y e tthere's n o tonal center. I s there such a
t h i n g as t r i a d i c a t o n a l i t y ? T h e S c h u m a n piece sug-
gests t h a t t h a t m a y b e o n eo f t h e possibilities o f
twentieth-century music.
A SWAN I f t h e C o p l a n d a n d S c h u m a n pieces
live i n t h e w o r l d o f twentieth-century A m e r i c a ,
Paul H i n d e m i t h ' s music suggests t h e E u r o p e a n
past, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h eRenaissance a n dB a r o q u e . A
Swan, [ 5 2 ] , t a k e s y o u b a c k t o t h e S A T B f o r m a t . I t s
tonality h a s m o d a l aspects, a n o t h e r p o i n t o f c o n -
tact w i t h t h e past.
W e s u r v e y t h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t o f t h e entre
piece b e l o w , t h e n l o o k f o r w a y s i nw h i c h t h e c o m -
p o s e r h a s t a k e n t h e p o e m as his g u i d e l i n e i n w r i t -
i n g t h e m u s i c . T h e r e a r e five p h r a s e s .
Phrase one, l5_: A l a r g e - s c a l e e x a m p l e o f o b l i q u e
motion. T h e soprano remains o nB , embellishing
t h a t m a i n n o t e w h i l e t h e b a s s filis t h e o c t a v e f r o m
B t o B .M o s t o ft h echords y o u hear a r ebuilti n
4ths, b u ttriads a r enot excluded. Notice h o w t h e
bass o v e r s h o o t s t h e g o a l B , r e b o u n d s o f f t h e l o w
G , a n d m o v e s u p t h r o u g h A t o its d e s t i n a t i o n . T h e
s o u n d t h a t concludes t h e p h r a s e isa m a j o r t r i a d .
Phrase two, 611: T h e m a j o r i s i m m e d i a t e l y c o n -
t r a d i c t e d b y t h e m i n o r as t h e t e n o r sings D i ] . E is
the center both melodically a n d harmonically,
e m e r g i n g g r a d u a l l y as t h e p h r a s e a p p r o a c h e s its
goal. W em i g h t e x p e c t t h e bass t oa r r i v e a t E i n 9 ,
b u t instead i tsidesteps t oa lovely E k T h e E k t r i a d
falls back t o a d - t r i a d , s o o n l e a d i n g t o E l | . T h e
c a d e n e e s o u n d s m o r e P h r y g i a n t h a n a n y t h i n g else.
T h i s c o n c l u d e s t h e first s t a n z a o f t h e p o e m a n d
t h e first h a l f o f t h e p i e c e .
Phrase t w o
SP
"I N
SP
S E
Phrase five
' ' m 0 m_0
8 8
N . N N
9 ffai , 1-^ r 1
' 0 ' ^ ' i , 1 \y i>r-
75
 Phrase three, 12-mid-14: T h eopening melody
r e t u r n s i n t h e m a l e voices i na short phrase. T h e
t o n a l i t y is a g a i n E , b u t is m o r e a m b i g u o u s t h a n i n
t h e first m e a s u r e s .
Phrase four, mid-14-17: T h e c l i m a x o f t h e p i e c e .
T h e p h r a s e b e g i n s o n a unisn. I n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n ,
the voices are l e d t o J 6 , w h e r e t h e y are as f a r apart
a s t h e y g o i n t h i s p i e c e . T h e first s o u n d s i n t h e
p h r a s e a r e a unisn E o p e n i n g t o a 3 r d , D - F . A t
the h i g h point o fthe phrase t h esoprano F meets
t h e bass D , a n d t h e y b o t h m o v e t o E . A t t h e s a m e
time, t h edynamics build along with t h e density
and complexity o f texture. T h e phrase ends with a
d i m i n u e n d o a n d a c h o r d i n w h i c h F plays a n
important role.
Fifth phrase, 18-22: T h i s p h r a s e r e m i n d s u s o f
t h e first t w o w i t h o u t b e i n g a n e x a c t r e p e t i t i o n o f
either. T h e melody's repeated B s a r efamiliarb y
n o w , a n d t h e t u r n t o t h e E t - t r i a d is welcome.
A g a i n , t h e E t serves t o d e l a y t h e bass a r r i v a l a t E ,
a n d again a cadenee that's nearly P h r y g i a n does
a r r i v e a t E . T h i s t i m e t h e goal triad is major, t h e
o n l y E - t r i a d i n this piece i n the key o f E .
T h e musical imagery grows o u to f t h e poem.
T h e c a l m o ft h e o p e n i n g s o p r a n o m e l o d y refleets
the swan m o v i n g serenely t h r o u g h the water, while
his image unfolds below. T h e suggestion o f"a
l o v e d o n e " injS-9 i s c o l o r e d b y t h e w a r m E t - t r i a d .
T h e emptiness o f t h e c h o r d w i t h n o 3 r di n J J .
expresses " m i g r a t i n g space." W h e n t h e image is
"redoubled" the reflection o f the soprano's melody
is h e a r d i n t h e l o w e r v o i c e s . T h e e m o t i o n a l c l i m a x
o f t h e p o e m finds e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e c o n t r a r y m o t i o n ,
the increased r h y t h m i c activity, a n d t h e linear
expansin w i t h i n a g r o w i n g m u s i c a l s p a c e . T h e
p i c t u r e o f t h e s w a n a n d its r e f l e c t i o n , seen t o g e t h e r ,
is s e t t o m u s i c t h a t g r o w s q u i e t e r a s t h e s c e n e
disappears. T h e p o e m h a s shaped n o tonly t h e
line-by-line setting o f t h e music, b u talso t e x t u r e
a n d sonorities t h r o u g h o u t t h e piece.
T h e v e r y fact t h a t w e c a nspeak o fgoal triads
shows a connection with traditional tonality. T h e
bass l i n e still h a sa c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l o v e r
the tonal m o v e m e n t here. T h e suggestion o f m o d a l
t h i n k i n g is a n o t h e r s u c h p o i n t o fcontact. C o n t i n -
ued u s e o f t h e S A T B format, n o tf o u n d i n t h e
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y pieces studied previously, shows
a n o t h e r facet o f H i n d e m i t h ' s l i n k w i t h h i s past.
Clearly this music couldn't have been w r i t t e n b y
any but a composer o f the early twentieth century.
Y e t this particular composer w r o t e w i t h a strong
awareness o f the m u s i c that h a d p r e c e d e d his.
R E N A R D A b r i e f m a r c h , [5"T], s e r v e s a s t h e i n t r o -
d u c t i o n t o Renard, a s t a g e p i e c e t h a t ' s s u n g a n d
76
acted. S t r a v i n s k y invents a little orchestra i n c l u d -
ing piccolo, soprano clarinet, oboe, bassoon, t w o
h o r n s , t r u m p e t , c y m b a l , bass d r u m , t a m b o u r i n e ,
and c i m b a l o m (aH u n g a r i a n i n s t r u m e n t m u c h like
a d u l c i m e r ) . T h e A n t h o l o g y shows a reduced score
in w h i c h all transposing instruments are notated a t
concert pitch except f o r the piccolo, w h i c h sounds
(as u s u a l ) a n o c t a v e h i g h e r .
T h e piece is i n t h r e e sections, t h e t h i r d o f w h i c h
is i d e n t i c a l t o t h e first. T h u s w e s a y t h a t t h e M a r c h
is i n t e r n a r y f o r m . T h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n
sections couldn't b e clearer: they a r econtrasted i n
key, m o d e , meter, texture, register, a n d timbre.
T h e pulse is constant t h r o u g h o u t t h e piece a n d
t h e d y n a m i c level isl o u d f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d .
T h e t o n a l c e n t e r o f t h e first p a r t i s A , a b o u t a s
definite ( o r i n d e f i n i t e ) as m o d a l pieces that y o u
h a v e h e a r d . A n F f o f f e r s a D o r i a n flavor; b o t h B t )
a n d B t a r eh e a r d as 2 . C f puts i na n a p p e a r a n c e
as 3 i n a f e w s p o t s . T h e c a d e n t i a l g e s t u r e c o n s i s t s
o f a d e s c e n d i n g a-scale. O n l y a t t h a t m o m e n t d o e s
t h e unisn t e x t u r e o f t h e m u s i c c h a n g e t o t w o
parts. A n u p p e r part accompanies t h e descending
scale, a d d i n g c h r o m a t i c n o t e s B t a n d F f . T h e
subtonic a t the e n d preserves the m o d a l flavor.
T h e center o fthe second part is a tritone away
f r o m t h e A o f t h e first p a r t . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e
u p p e r l i m i t o f t h e first p a r t i s D ( a b o v e m i d d l e C ) ,
while t h el o w e r limit o f the second part is t h e E t
j u s t a b o v e . T h e s c o r i n g ( t h u s t h e timbre) o f t h e
second part isq u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m that o f the first;
the o n l y i n s t r u m e n t they have i n c o m m o n is t h e
h o r n . W h e r e t h e m e t e r o f t h e first p a r t w a s a \ t h a t
s h i f t e d c o n s t a n t l y f r o m thre.es t o t w o s , t h e s e c o n d
p a r t sits d o w n i n d u p l e m e t e r a n d n e v e r m o v e s .
T h e u n i s n o f t h e first p a r t i s a n s w e r e d b y c h o r d s
in the second part. A n d w h e n the lowest part goes
b e y o n d t h e b o u n d a r y E t i n _ 3 5 , it's a signal t h a t t h e
section is o v e r . T h e piece is a lesson i n contrasts
b e t w e e n sections.
T w o songs f r o m t h e w o r l d o f popular music
s h o w h o w a n od m o d e c a n b e u s e d i n n e w w a y s .
OLD DEVIL M O O N T h e k e y s i g n a t u r e o f [55]
w o u l d lead y o u t o t h i n k t h a t t h e piece is i nG . B u t
a look at t h epage shows Fq i nalmost every mea-
7
sure, w i t h a clear F f i n a V j u s t once, i n 27, a n d a
p a s s i n g F f i n 50. T h e s c a l e o f t h e p i e c e i s t h a t o f
the Mixolydian mode.
T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n is t h e o n l y p a r t o f t h e s o n g
that's clearly i n G . I t ' s based o n s u b d o m i n a n t ,
dominant, a n d tonic harmonies, expressed i n 9th
and l l t h chords. O n e chromatic note, E t , comes
f r o m the parallel m i n o r (mode mixture).T h a t note
will be heard again.
 T h e p o l y p h o n y o f t h e first p h r a s e ( 5 - m i d - 1 2 )
is i n t w o p a r t s . T h e u p p e r p a r t c o n s i s t s o f a G -
t r i a d w i t h a n F - t r i a d b o t h as n e i g h b o r a n d p a s s i n g
chord. Against this the l o w e r part alternates G and
D . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h i s is a n a r p e g g i o b a s s , w i t h
n o c h a n g e o f c h o r d i m p l i e d . B u t i n a few spots the
D seems to be a m e m b e r o f the chord.
12 leads i n t o t h e n e x t p h r a s e w i t h the d o m i n a n t
o f I V . T h e s u b d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y o f 1 3 1 5 is
intensified i n the n e x t t w o measures t h r o u g h the
a d d e d e l e m e n t o f t h e flat 6, E t . T h e n , w h e n the
m e l o d y r i s e s t o E t i n J_7, t h e h a r m o n y i s s h i f t e d
u p a s u r p r i s i n g h a l f s t e p , s o t h a t A t is t o n i c i z e d
f o r a m o m e n t . E t leads back d o w n to D a n d the
dominant-to-tonic cadenee ends the phrase. Notice
t h a t t h e l e a d i n g n o t e is a b s e n t f r o m t h e c a d e n e e ,
7
despite the V - I h a r m o n y .
A c o n t i n u a t i o n begins i n m i d - 2 0 . T h r e e mea-
s u r e s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e first p h r a s e i n h a r m o n y ,
b u t t h e n t h e F - t r i a d slides d o w n a h a l f step a n d E
is s e c o n d a r y t o n i c f o r a m e a s u r e a n d a h a l f . T h e
E - t r i a d m e l t s i n t o a n e-triad. T h a t m o v e s i n t o the
d o m i n a n t o f t h e d o m i n a n t i n _26, a n d t h e d o m i -
n a n t e n d s t h e p h r a s e i n 2 7 - 2 8 . N o t i c e h o w F|t
s t a r t s t h e d o m i n a n t a n d is p h a s e d o u t i n t h e c h r o -
m a t i c P s . T h e first p h r a s e s a r e t h e n r e p e a t e d .
A short c o n c l u d i n g phrase begins i n m i d - 4 7 .
7
T h e notes a d d u p to a c h o r d that m a y be called V
but has n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the standard c h o r d o f
t h a t ame. W i t h o u t a l e a d i n g n o t e , t h e d o m i n a n t
f u n c t i o n doesn't exist.
T h e r h y t h m o f the music stems f r o m the natural
accent o f A m e r i c a n speech, w i t h m a n y syncopa-
tions. B u t t h a t a c c e n t i s n ' t f o l l o w e d l i t e r a l l y t h r o u g h
t h e s o n g . T h e v e r y first w o r d , a w e a k b e a t i n
s p e e c h , is d e l i b e r a t e l y s t r e s s e d a n d l e n g t h e n e d ,
a n d so are o t h e r w o r d s ( a n d syllables) that w o u l d
n o r m a l l y b e u n a c c e n t e d . T h e e f f e c t is o n e o f e x a g -
g e r a t i o n , fitting i n n e a t l y w i t h t h e " m o o n m a d n e s s "
that u n d e r l i e s the sense o f the song.
T h e h a r m o n y i n f l e e t s t h e m e l o d y , as i t d i d i n
R o m a n t i c m u s i c . T h a t m e l o d y consists o f activated
c h o r d n o t e s , a n d d e p e n d s o n t h o s e c h o r d s f o r its
m e a n i n g . T h e h a r m o n y is c o l o r e d b y t h e s u b t o n i c ,
measure after measure.
F u n c t i o n a l h a r m o n y isn't f a r away i n this song,
a n d y e t t h e m o d a l quality p r o v i d e s a special sound
that's d i f f e r e n t . T h e t w o elements are combined
successfully i n a n i d i o m that's m o d e r n , yet grows
o u t o f t h e classical t r a d i t i o n .
77
I FEEL FINE A d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h is f o u n d i n
t h e B e a t l e s s o n g , |56|. A s y o u c a n see i n t h e i n t r o -
duction, the melody dominates the h a r m o n y , w h i c h
is k e p t t o a m i n i m u m . T h e t w o - m e a s u r e m o t i v e
circles a r o u n d D , C , a n d G . T h o s e n o t e s i n t h e bass
s e r v e n o t s o m u c h t o s u p p o r t as t o c o n f i r m w h a t
t h e m e l o d y is s a y i n g . N o c h o r d s a r e i m p l i e d , a n d
none are necessary.
T h e f o u r - m e a s u r e v o c a l p h r a s e is b u i l t o n t h e
tonic triad, w i t h N s a n d a skip to (and back f r o m )
F. T h e bass a l t e r n a t e s b e t w e e n G a n d D . A t t h e
end o f the phrase the D-triad returns to the very
opening o f the song. T h a n k s to the introduction,
we k n o w that the D - t r i a d isn't d o m i n a n t , a n d that
it w i l l s t e p d o w n t o a C - t r i a d . T h a t m o v e is e l a b o -
r a t e d w i t h c h r o m a t i c P s i n _ 1 5 , a n d t h e g o a l a t first
s e e m s t o b e g . B u t B i | i s r e s t o r e d i n _17 a n d t h e
phrase ends with the expected major sound.
A c o n t i n u a t i o n b e g i n s i n 19, a n d i t s o u n d s q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t y o u ' v e h e a r d so f a r : Fq has
b e e n r e p l a c e d b y F j t , s o t h a t t h e k e y is G . T h e first
c l u e t o t h i s is i n 2 0 , w h e r e I I I p r o v i d e s a n u n e x -
pected c h a n g e o f color. I t also c h a n g e s the m e a n -
ing o f t h e m e l o d y D : 5 t h o f t h e t r i a d i n 19 b e c o m e s
3 r d o f t h e t r i a d i n _ 2 0 . A n od d e v i c e i s p u t t o n e w
use. T h e p h r a s e e n d s w i t h d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y , i n
26.
After the repetition o f the opening material
there's a s h o r t coda. I t consists o f t h e last m e a s u r e s
o f the p r e v i o u s phrase, stretched so t h a t it fades at
the end.
O B S E R V A T I O N S O n e observation you might
m a k e is t h a t t h e r e a r e m o r e d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g
twentieth-century composers than a m o n g Renais-
sance c o m p o s e r s . F r o m t h a t y o u m i g h t c o n c l u d e
t h a t e x t e n d e d t o n a l i t y i s n ' t as u n i f i e d a s u b j e c t as
is m o d a l t o n a l i t y o r m a j o r m i n o r t o n a l i t y . A t t h e
s a m e t i m e y o u c a n see s o m e o f t h e p r i n c i p i e s o f
the older m u s i c at w o r k : n e i g h b o r - n o t e m o t i o n ,
o f t e n as n e i g h b o r - c h o r d m o t i o n ; e s t a b l i s h i n g a t o n i c
and m o v i n g away f r o m a n d back to it; a diatonic
approach rather than a chromatic one. A l lo f which
is t o s a y t h a t t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y m u s i c h a s i t s r o o t s
in the past, a n d t h a t t h e m o r e y o u u n d e r s t a n d o f
that past the better p r e p a r e d y o u are to deal w i t h
the music o f extended tonality.
Chamber music in the conservatory, e n g r a v i n g b y D a n i e l N i k o l a u s C h
i s a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s i n g e r s t a n d i n g t o h e r l e f t ; t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t d o u b l i n g t h e bass l i n e r e a d s d i r e c t l y f r o m the
continuo part.
 PART FIVE
EXTENSIONS O F
MELODY,
COUNTERPOINT,
AND HARMONY
32
Introduction
Y o u r i n t e g r a t e d study o f m u s i c b e g a n w i t h mel-
o d y . I n P a r t O n e y o u d i s c o v e r e d basic concepts of
tonality, intervals, r h y t h m , a n d musical shape. After
l e a r n i n g f u n d a m e n t a l aspects o f m u s i c f r o m folk-
song and chant, y o u began to w o r k in counterpoint
a n d h a r m o n y . W h a t k i n d o f melodies w e r e heard
i n t h e Renaissance a n d early B a r o q u e pieces you
studied? T h o s e melodies were quite simple. They
m o v e d s t e p w i s e m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t , u s u a l l y bal-
ancee! t h e i r f e w skips w i t h m o t i o n i n t h e opposite
direction, had fairly u n i f o r m rhythms, and keptto
one register.
I n m u c h o f t h e m u s i c w e cali B a r o q u e , melody
is m o r e c o m p l e x a n d p l a y s a m o r e c e n t r a l r o l e i n
the music itself. W ewill begin P a r t Five w i t h a
study o f that type o f melody. Y o u m a y gain a n
impression o f w h a t Baroque melodies are like b y
s c a n n i n g [16] t h r o u g h [37] i n t h e A n t h o l o g y . T h e r e
y o u w i l l find q u i t e a f e w s k i p s , a g o o d d e a l o f
rhythmic variety, a n d m o t i o n f r o m one register t o
another.
T h e melodies o f the earlier period are vocal i n
character; they a r e shaped b y w h a t t h e h u m a n
voice does n a t u r a l l y . T h e melodies o f later times
are m o r e likely t ob e s h a p e d b y t h e w a y a h u m a n
hand touches a ni n s t r u m e n t . T o b e sure there isa
vocal aspect t o i n s t r u m e n t a l m e l o d y . B u t e v e n a
vocal m e l o d y b y H a n d e l will have m a n y m o r e
skips, m u c h m o r e r h y t h m i c variety, a n d certainly
m o r e registral m o t i o n t h a n a melody b y Palestrina.
M u s i c changed f r o m a n essentially vocal art t o a
largely instrumental one a r o u n d 1600, a date that
marks o n e o f t h e great watersheds i n history. B y
t h a t t i m e t h e p e r i o d w e k n o w as t h e Renaissance
h a d r u n its course, a n d a n e we r a w a sevolving.
O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspects o f t h e n e w
B a r o q u e style was a n emphasis o n m e l o d y , w h i c h
was n o longer simply t h et o pline o fthe h a r m o n y
or t h e highest note o f t h e counterpoint, b u ta n
element that contained a n e w kind o f expressivity.
Melody became a powerful means o f musical
expression.
As p a r t o f t h e s a m e g i a n t step, c o m p o s e r s b e g a n
t o e x p l o r e m u s i c a l s p a c e . Musical space i s o u r w a y
o f describing t h e total r a n g e o f a piece, f r o m t h e
highest t o t h e lowest note. T h edevelopment o f
instrumental playing and writing enabled compos-
ers t o g o b e y o n d t h e l i m i t a t i o n s i m p o s e d b yt h e
S A T B format. M e l o d y stretched into higher a n d
33
Melodic Elaboration 2
T h e t e r m melodic elaboration i m p l i e s t h a t t h e r e i s
s o m e t h i n g t o b e e l a b o r a t e d . I n d e e d t h e r e is. B e h i n d
e v e r y m e l o d y there's a basic s t r u c t u r e o f a f e w
m a i n notes. I n Part O n e y o u saw h o w those notes
m i g h t be discovered b y t h e process o f reduction.
N o w y o u reverse t h e process. Starting w i t h a few
n o t e s o f l a r g e r h y t h m i c valu, y o u elabrate t h e m
into melodies w i t h s h o r t e r notes. I nd o i n g this y o u
develop c o m p o s i n g skills, w h i l e g a i n i n g insights
into the nature o f instrumental melody.
But d i d musicians o fthe past t h i n k i n terms o f
m a i n n o t e s a n d elaborave o n e s ? D i d t h e y k n o w
about starting with large notes and breaking t h e m
u p into small, active ones? T h e y certainly did. W e
find d i r e c t i o n s f o r i m p r o v i s i n g a f a s t e r m e l o d y o n
t h e basis o f a s l o w e r o n e i n m a n y b o o k s o f m u s i c a l
instrucdon, going back t o t h e sixteenth century.
Now, w h y d o books o n performance concern
themselves w i t h improvisadon? Because learning
to i m p r o v i s e w a s p a r t o f t h e s t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n
80
l o w e r registers, and, m o r e i m p o r t a n t , m o v e d rap-
idly f r o m o n eregister t o another. A new kind o f
melody, polyphonic melody, wast h eresult o f the
exploration.
Since counterpoint involves t h ecombination o f
m e l o d i e s , y o u find m o r e c o m p l e x a n d c h a l l e n g i n g
counterpoint i n Baroque music. However, t h e
complexities a r elargely rhythmic. T h e interaction
of consonance a n d dissonance remains the guiding
forc i n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n n o t e s , a n d t h e t r i a d
remains the normative sonority. Baroque counter-
p o i n t is v e r y m u c h a n o u t g r o w t h o f Renaissance
practice, a n d d o e s n ' t c o n t r a d i c t a n y o f its basic
principies.
I n P a r t F i v e y o u w i l l s t u d y e l a b o r a t e d m e l o d y as
a starting point, t h e n discover the concept o f musi-
c a l s p a c e , f o l l o w u p w i t h t h e expansin o f c h o r d s
in that space, a n dlead t o t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f con-
t i n u o u s v a r i a t i o n f o r m s as w e l l as s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g
f r e e - f o r m pieces.
of musicians until quite recently. Books o n perfor-
m a n c e a r e o u r best source o f i n f o r m a t i o n not o n l y
a b o u t p e r f o r m a n c e practice b u t also a b o u t i m p r o v -
isadon and composition.
W e c a n ' t e x p e c t t o find e x a c t l y t h e s a m e t e r m s
that w e use today w h e n w e read a b o o k several
c e n t u r i e s od, b u t i t ' s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o transate f r o m
t h e o l d e r t e r m i n o l o g y t o o u r s . Y o u find t h a t t h e
c o n c e p t o f s t r u c t u r a l levis, a p p l i e d s o o f t e n i n
Gradus, u n d e r l i e s m u c h o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n i n
improvisadon a n d composition f o u n d i n older
b o o k s , s u c h a s F u x ' s Gradus ad Parnassum. O n e
instruction book will provide y o u with m u c h o f
what you need t o k n o w i n order t o understand
elaborated melody.
O u r l e s s o n c o m e s f r o m The Divisin Viol, b y t h e
E n g l i s h m u s i c i a n C h r i s t o p h e r S i m p s o n , first p u b -
lished i n 1659. I n t h e example o n page 8 1 , t h e
b a s i c m e l o d y , c a l l e d t h e ground, i s p r i n t e d i n l o n g
notes. T h e m e t h o d o f e l a b o r a t i o n is called "break-
T h r e e e x a m p l e s o fm e l o d i c elaboration
1 GROUND 2
9 _
s \> S 1
n f i
d J
ing," a procedure b y w h i c h l o n g notes a r e divided
i n t o s h o r t e r o n e s t o genrate n e w m e l o d i e s . ( S i m p -
s o n c a l i s t h i s p r o c e s s "divisin.") H e r e y o u s e e t h e
technique o f elaboration that makes u p the n o r m a l
language o f Baroque melody. T h e example shows
a g r o u n d bass a n d t h r e e e l a b o r a t i o n s o r d i v i s i o n s ,
l e t t e r e d (a), (b), a n d (c). F i r s t , l i s t e n t o t h e g r o u n d .
H o w d o e s S i m p s o n elabrate i t ?
TECHNIQUES T h e technical devices that S i m p -
s o n uses t o b r e a k u p t h e g r o u n d bass a r e :
P : A s k i p i n t h e g r o u n d m a y b e filled w i t h p a s s i n g
m o t i o n . T h i s is p r e c i s e l y w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e first t w o
notes o f the g r o u n d . I n (a), G a n d B t a r e connected
w i t h a P o n a w e a k beat.
N: A n o t e o f t h e g r o u n d m a y b e e l a b o r a t e d w i t h n e i g h -
b o r m o t i o n . I n (a), t h e g r o u n d ' s F , i n 5 , is e l a b o r a t e d
with a N.
O c t a v e s h i f t : A p i t c h r e t a i n s its i d e n t i t y w h e n t r a n s p o s e d
u p o r d o w n a n o c t a v e . T h i s s i m p l e f a c t is t h e basis f o r
a t e c h n i q u e o f e l a b o r a t i o n characteristc o f m u s i c f r o m
the B a r o q u e t o the present day. A l o n g note m a y be
b r o k e n i n t o t w o s h o r t e r notes, o n e a n octave away
f r o m t h e o t h e r . See the b e g i n n i n g o f (b): the o r i g i n a l
G is elaborated b y a n octave skip, after w h i c h t h e
m e l o d y r e t u r n s t o its i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n .
SIMPSON
O
C Ll
nJ*1 ifl ii J1
J ' J * J
T h e 3 r d : A n o t h e r t e c h n i q u e o f e l a b o r a t i o n consists o f a
m o t i o n to a n o t e a 3 r d a b o v e o r b e l o w t h e m a i n n o t e ,
then a return. T h i s m a y take any o f f o u r forms:
S: A s i m p l e s k i p o f a 3 r d ( n o t i n S i m p s o n ' s e x a m -
Pie).
S P : T h e r e t u r n t o t h e m a i n n o t e is f i l l e d w i t h a P .
Simpson seems t o p r e f e r :
P S : Stepwise m o t i o n t o t h e 3 r d , t h e n a s k i p b a c k t o
the m a i n n o t e . O n e e x a m p l e is i n (b), 4 , w h e r e t h e
P S c o m b i n e s w i t h a n o c t a v e s k i p t o elabrate D .
T h e m o t i o n o f a 3 r d i s c o m p l e t e l y filled i n , s o t h a t
t h e r e are n o s k i p s . T h i s i s h e a r d o n c e , i n ( b ) , 7_.
Melodic triad: A s y o u saw i n folk m u s i c a n d chant, all
t h r e e notes o f a t r i a d m a y b e u s e d t o elabrate a n y
o n e o f t h e m . T h e first n o t e o f t h e g r o u n d i s e m b e l -
l i s h e d i n this w a y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f ( c ) . T o b e s u r e ,
this involves n o t o n l y a m e l o d i c t r i a d , b u t a n octave
s h i f t as w e l l .
Scale: A n octave m a y b e c o m p l e t e l y filled w i t h a s t e p w i s e
m o t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n a scale. W e s t a r t w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t
a n octave s k i p is t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f o n e n o t e ; t h e scale
c a r r i e s t h a t e l a b o r a t i o n o n e s t e p f u r t h e r b y filling t h e
o c t a v e w i t h Ps. S i m p s o n s h o w s u s o n e e x a m p l e , i n (c),
7 . T h e first e i g h t n o t e s o f t h e m e l o d y a r e a n e l a b o r a -
t i o n o f o n e n o t e , D , i n t h e f o r m o f a scale.
N o w s t u d y t h e first t h r e e d i v i s i o n s o f t h e g r o u n d .
As i n any good lesson, the examples p r o c e e d f r o m
81
t h e s i m p l e t o t h e c o m p l e x . Y o u see t h a t (a) h a s t h e
longest notes, m o v i n g gradually f r o m quarters t o
eighths. T h e n (b) has m o r e eighth-note activity.
Finally (c) c o m b i n e s eighths a n d sixteenths i n a
m e l o d y that brings t o m i n d the bustling activity o f
so m u c h B a r o q u e i n s t r u m e n t a l w r i t i n g .
(a) T h e o n l y w a y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n n e c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e first m e a s u r e s o f t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e
divisin i s t o u s e t h e c o n c e p t o f o c t a v e s h i f t . A f t e r
the initial l o n g note a n da P , Simpson inverts t h e
4th B t F b y shifting t h e F u p a n octave. T h e 5 t h
t h a t r e s u l t s i s filled w i t h P s . T h e s h i f t o p e n s u p
m o r e musical space f o r the m e l o d y , w h i c h will have
a m u c h larger range than the ground.
J u s t as F w a s s h i f t e d u p a n octave, s o G is s h i f t e d
d o w n a n o c t a v e i n 3. T h e m e l o d y h a s c o v e r e d
almost t w o octaves i n three measures.
I n 4 t h ee l a b o r a t i o n o f D is s i m p l y a r e p e t i t i o n ,
a d d i n g a b i t o f r h y t h m i c mpetus. T h e t w o h a l f
n o t e s o f 5_ a r e e l a b o r a t e d i n a s i m p l e m a n n e r , t o o ,
w i t h r e p e t i t i o n s a n d a N . R e p e t i t i o n is also h e a r d
a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f _6. T h e n C i s e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h
a PS. S l o w i n g d o w n for t h eend, S i m p s o n returns
to q u a r t e r - n o t e m o t i o n , w i t h a N a n d a n octave
skip.
( b ) T h e first m e a s u r e i n t r o d u c e s a r h y t h m i c p a t -
t e r n o f six notes, w h i c h a r e repeated i n t h e n e x t
measures. Such a repeated pattern, f o u n d often i n
B a r o q u e m e l o d i e s , i s a figure. I t s t r e a t m e n t i s i n t e r -
esting: t h e t w o q u a r t e r notes a r e associated w i t h
an octave skip, while t h e f o u r eighth notes m o v e
(mostly) stepwise.
I n J_ t h e N F j t i s c h r o m a t i c , i n i t s c u s t o m a r y r o l e
o f l e a d i n g note. T h e P , A , retains t h eplace i t h e l d
i n (a), b u t is n o w a n e i g h t h n o t e . O c t a v e shift is a t
w o r k i n t h e m o v e f r o m t h e g r o u n d ' s B t t o F ,as i n
(a), b u t i n a d i f f e r e n t w a y . N o w t h e F a n d G a r e
b o t h s h i f t e d . T h e q u a r t e r n o t e s t h a t filled t h e 5 t h
in (a)a r e n o w eighth notes, part o f t h e r h y t h m i c
figure. S i m p s o n contines t o u s e i d e a s f r o m (a) as
he moves ahead. Y o u c a n see that t h e third mea-
s u r e s o f (a) a n d (b) a r e s i m i l a r , w i t h (b) a d d i n g N s
in eighth notes.
S t a r t i n g i n t h e second h a l f o f 4 S i m p s o n uses
t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f h i s figure a n d w o r k s w i t h t h e P S
i n t o 7 . E a c h o f t h o s e filis a 3 r d a b o v e t h e m a i n
n o t e e x c e p t f o r o n e d o w n w a r d m o v e i n 7_.
(c) I f y o u k n o w t h a t a m e l o d i c t r i a d c a n e m b e l -
lish a m a i n n o t e y o u can u n d e r s t a n d the b e g i n n i n g
o f t h i s divisin: t h e g - t r i a d i s s p r e a d o v e r a f u l l
o c t a v e ; t h e r o o t o f t h e t r i a d i s h e a r d o n t w o levis
82
a n o c t a v e a p a r t ; t h e first s i x n o t e s o f t h e m e l o d y
add u p to a n elaboration o fthe note G . B u t look
a t t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e first n o t e ! I t ' s a n o c t a v e
h i g h e r t h a n t h e first n o t e o f t h e g r o u n d . U s i n g
o c t a v e shift, it's possible f o r S i m p s o n t o b e g i n w i t h
t h e h i g h e s t n o t e o f t h e divisin. T h e r e f o l l o w s a
long descending gesture f r o m t h e opening G t o
the lowest note, D , i nm i d - 4 . T h i s striking melodic
shape is typically B a r o q u e .
A g a i n , a c l e a r - c u t figure u n i f i e s t h e m e l o d y . I t ' s
o n e m e a s u r e l o n g a n d t h e r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n is
h e a r d f o u r times. T h e n t h esecond h a l f is b r o k e n
off and heard twice i n a measure, a f o r m o f inten-
sification. I n t h e last m e a s u r e t h e s i x t e e n t h s give
way t o the eighths t o prepare for the ending.
S i n c e t h e first G i s a n o c t a v e h i g h e r t h a n t h e
g r o u n d ' s G , t h e r e i s n o w a 6 t h t o b e filled i n s t e a d
o f a 3 r d (inversin). T h a t m a k e s r o o m f o r t h e
sixteenth notes. B u t there's n o te n o u g h t i m e f o r
t h e f a s t n o t e s t o r e a c h F a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 3. S o
S i m p s o n uses t h e n o t e a 3 r d h i g h e r t h a n t h e F ,
a n d m a r k s i t " 3 r d . " T h i s e l a b o r a t i o n is s o o n fol-
lowed b y the m a i n note. Simpson's m a r k i n g shows
h o w conscious h e w a s o f a 3 r d u s e d as a t y p e o f
elaboration.
G o i n g o n i n 3, y o u find a n o t h e r lessor i n i n v e r -
sin. T h e 2 n d o f t h e g r o u n d i s i n v e r t e d a n d t h e
r e s u l t i n g 7 t h filled w i t h s i x t e e n t h n o t e s . A l l t h e
r e m a i n i n g steps i n t h e g r o u n d a r e elaborated i n
the same way. T h e y ' r e inverted into 7ths, and that
l a r g e i n t e r v a l i s filled w i t h P s .
T h e o n e t i m e t h a t a c o m p l e t e scale is h e a r d is i n
7 . D i s e l a b o r a t e d first w i t h a s c a l e ( f i l l e d o c t a v e ) ,
t h e n w i t h a C t h a t w a s a N i n (b) a n d n o w is a n I N .
Y o u find t w o c h r o m a t i c n o t e s i n t h e s c a l e : E l ] i s
n e e d e d t o a v o i d a n a u g m e n t e d 2 n d w i t h Fjt.
S U M M A R Y T h e standard techniques o f melodic
e m b e l l i s h m e n t a r e f o u n d i n these t h r e e exercises.
T h e o n l y o n e that's n e w t o y o u is octave shift. I n
each exercise, a m e l o d y i nl o n g notes is elaborated
into a m e l o d y i n shorter notes, full o f r h y t h m i c
life. T h e short notes, f a rf r o m being r a n d o m , a r e
u n i f i e d b y figures. T h e s e e x a m p l e s g e t t o t h e h e a r t
of melodic elaboration i n t h eBaroque instrumen-
tal style. N o w o n d e r t h a t M r . S i m p s o n w a s a w i d e l y
r e s p e c t e d t e a c h e r i n his o w n d a y ; w e c a n still l e a r n
much from him.
O * Worksheet 25
 34
Two-Part Counterpoint With
Elaborated Melodies
T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o elaborated melodies leads
to a c o m p l e x type o f counterpoint. T h e most
developed examples o fsuch writing a r e f o u n d i n
the i n v e n t i o n s a n d fugues o fJ . S. Bach. A t this
stage, y o u a r e p r e p a r e d t o study elaborated t w o -
part c o u n t e r p o i n t i n t w o types o f exercises:
O n e m e l o d y is e l a b o r a t e d , t h e o t h e r is a c a n t u s firmus
in l o n g notes.
B o t h melodies are elaborated, but to a limited extent.
W I T H CANTUS FIRMUS Early Baroque organ
m u s i c c o n t a i n s m a n y e x a m p l e s o f chrale m e l o d i e s
combined with other, m o r e elaborated melodies.
O n e s u c h e x a m p l e (see b e l o w ) is i n a n o r g a n w o r k
b y S a m u e l S c h e i d t , TS], a s t u d e n t o f t h e g r e a t
D u t c h composer Sweelinck. Scheidt's music w a s
part o f t h e heritage o f J . S. Bach, w h o b r o u g h t
B a r o q u e o r g a n c o m p o s i t i o n t o its greatest h e i g h t s .
T h e piece is a b i c i n i u m . W h i l e t h e Renaissance
bicinium studied earlier h a d t h e same type o f
m e l o d y (vocal) i n b o t h parts, t h e early B a r o q u e
piece b e f o r e y o uc o u n t e r p o i n t s a n i n s t r u m e n t a l
m e l o d y i n small notes against t h e l o n g notes o f a
chrale m e l o d y . I n b o t h t y p e s o f b i c i n i u m , t h e
chrale m e l o d y i s n ' t u s u a l l y e l a b o r a t e d .
T h e s c o r e s h o w s a l l i n t e r v a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n fig-
ures. S o m e large c o m p o u n d intervals a r e reduced
to s i m p l e intervals. It's a p p a r e n t a t once that dis-
sonance plays a small role here. T h e purpose o f
the n u m e r o u s Ps, o n both eighth- a n d sixteenth-
n o t e levis, i s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f l o w o f t h e l i n e s .
T h e f e w N s a r e also m o r e i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e i r
m e l o d i c valu t h a n f o r c r e a t i n g a n y k i n d o f tensin
b e t w e e n parts. E v e n t h e Pso f 1 9 pass b y t r a n q u i l l y .
A s t r i k i n g a s p e c t o f t h e p i e c e i s t h e meody's
d e c i s i v e figure i n t h e first f o u r m e a s u r e s . B y m o v -
i n g t h e figure u p a n d d o w n a n o c t a v e t h e c o m -
p o s e r covers t h e t e n o r a n d bass r a n g e s w i t h a
single melody.
T h e chorale's second phrase hasa calmer coun-
terpoint, i n e v e n eighth notes. W h e n t h e cantus
firmus r e a c h e s C i n 1 0 t h e C - t r i a d is e l a b o r a t e d
below, a n d t w osixteenth notes a r e heard. T h e
c o u n t e r p o i n t s h o w s still a n o t h e r r h y t h m i n t h e
t h i r d p h r a s e , a figure o f t w o e i g h t h n o t e s a n d f o u r
s i x t e e n t h n o t e s . T h i s figure, t o o , i s t o s s e d f r o m
o n e octave t oa n o t h e r a n d occupies alto, tenor, a n d
bass ranges.
T h e r h y t h m i c b u i l d u p brings a steady stream o f
s i x t e e n t h s i n t h elast phrase. A N plus octave s k i p
m a k e s a f o u r - n o t e figure t h a t f o r m s p a r t o f t h e
melody.
Scheidt's b i c i n i u m is a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e x a m p l e
o f t w o - p a r t c o u n t e r p o i n t o f a specific type: o n e
p a r t i s a c a n t u s firmus i n l o n g n o t e s , w h i l e t h e
o t h e r is a n e l a b o r a t e d m e l o d y i n a v a r i e t y o f s m a l l
n o t e vales, o f t e n u n i f i e d b y t h e u s e o f a figure.
T h e procedures o f counterpoint are just what they
w e r e i n t h e Renaissance; it's t h e r h y t h m a n d t h e
registral f r e e d o m that have changed.
O * Worksheet 26

Organ bicinium, Warutn betrubst du dich, mein herz? SCHEIDT

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8 (7) 6 @ 8 8 (7) 6 (7)
J
8
i
8 (7) 6 5 6 10(9) 8
u
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(?) 8 1( > 10 13 12 10 1 3 @

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83
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10 8 6 1 0 8 6 5 (3) 6 12 8 12 6 8 10 12 5 12 3 10 6 10 6 5 8 6 6 5 8 6 10 6 3

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o
6 85 6 6 8 5 6 [6 8 8 ) 8 12 5 6 8 12 () 1 0 10 @ 1 0 8 10 5 12 5 @ 3 5 8 5 5 3 5

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N P P P IN P P

15
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(1 5) 5 6 5 8 3 3 5 6 6 8 3 3 )3 10 6 6 10 8 8 10 6 6 1 0 10 10 1 0 @ 10 33 5

3 6 8 3 3 6 8 3 3 (4)3 6 6 6 8 3 6 8 3 6 8 10 6 58 10 5 6 8 10 6 6 8 6 5 12 1 0 8 8 6 5 3

ta*

EQUAL PARTS Simple examples o f instrumen- the minor. A l t h o u g h t h eelaboration o fthe melo-
tal w r i t i n g w i t h t w o parts that are m o d e r a t e l y elab- dies isn't v e r y great, t h e lines a r e definitely i n s t r u -
orated arefound i nanother book by Christopher m e n t a l i n character. T h e exercises w e r e i n t e n d e d
S i m p s o n , t h e Compendium o f 1 6 6 7 . T h e y w e r e w r i t - for t w oviols; f o r study purposes they m a y b e
t e n as m o d e l s f o r c o m p o s i t i o n , a n dwe'll u s e t h e m played b yalmost a n y two string o r w i n d instru-
for exactly that purpose. W e study t w o o f S i m p - ments.
son's exercises, o n e i n t h em a j o r m o d e a n d o n e i n A l l i n t e r v a l s a r e figured. T h e s o u n d s a r e p r e -
v a i l i n g l y c o n s o n a n t . T h e i n t e r v a l h e a r d m o s t is t h e
l O t h . Perfect consonance is h e a r d o n l y a t phrase
beginnings and endings. Dissonances are the small
notes that help the melodic flow.
12 @ 10 10 10 10 10 12 10 1 0 12 10 10 10
Y o u find a n i c e b a l a n c e o f p a r a l l e l a n d c o n t r a r y
m o t i o n i n this exercise. T h e r h y t h m i c vocabulary,
=6 while limited t o half, quarter, a n d eighth notes, is
varied f r o m o n emeasure t o another. T h e regular
i , AN
r h y t h m hasa dancelike quality.
A n o t h e r interesting feature is t h e u s e o f imita-
t i o n i n t h esecond h a l f o fthe exercise. T h e imita-
12 13 10 ( 12 13 10 12 (11)
t i o n s d o n ' t continu f o r v e r y l o n g , b u t t h e y a d d
s o m e t h i n g t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n o f t h e t w o voices.
T h e o n e c h r o m a t i c n o t e , B q , is t h e l e a d i n g n o t e o f
t h e d o m i n a n t ( C ) , t h e g o a l o f t h e first p h r a s e .

84
 AN
T h e o t h e r exercise is i n t h e m i n o r m o d e . Y o u
find h e r e a f e w m o r e c h r o m a t i c notes, easily
e x p l a i n e d b y t h e k e y s h i f t s i n t h e m u s i c . T h e first
two measures, i ng, include t h e customary leading
n o t e . T h e Fjt d o e s n ' t r e s o l v e u p , h o w e v e r , because
t h e t o n a l i t y shifts t o I I I ( B t ) i n , h e n e e t h e F q .
T h i s is t h e s a m e u s e o f I I I f o l l o w i n g V that w a s
35
The Extensin of Lines in Musical Space
W H A T IS M U S I C A L SPACE? W e u s e t h i s t e r m
as a n a n a l o g y , c o m p a r i n g t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e
h i g h e s t t o t h e lowest notes o f a piece w i t h the space
available o n a painter's canvas. A l t h o u g h t h e m u s i -
cian's space is c o n t i n u o u s , w e d i v i d e i t i n f o r m a l l y
i n t o s e g m e n t s , c a l l e d registers. I n s o m e m u s i c , t h e
w a y s i nw h i c h notes a r ed e p l o y e d i n m u s i c a l space
is o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e . I n R e n a i s s a n c e
m u s i c , s p a c e w a s filled i n a r a t h e r c o n s i s t e n t a n d
h o m o g e n e o u s w a y . C h a n g e s o fregister played lit-
tle p a r t i n t h e m u s i c a l process. S t a r t i n g w i t h t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n s t r u m e n t a l t h i n k i n g i n t h e sev-
e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y composers began t o u s e spatial
m o v e m e n t purposefully.
THE SATB FORMAT I n f o u r - p a r t m u s i c , t h e
s i m p l e s t u s e o f m u s i c a l space is t o f o l l o w t h e ranges
85
e x p l a i n e d o n p a g e 7 1 . T h e second h a l f o f the piece
b e g i n s i n I I I a n d m o v e s t h r o u g h V back to I . H e r e
t h e a u g m e n t e d 2 n d i s a v o i d e d b y t h e use o f E q .
T h e e x e r c i s e b e g i n s w i t h i m i t a t i o n b y inversin.
T h i s is f o l l o w e d f o r o n l y a f e w notes, b u t that's
e n o u g h t o crate t h e e f f e c t o f o n e p a r t a n s w e r i n g
t h e other. T h e s a m e p r o c e d u r e begins the second
h a l f o f the piece.
T w o dissonances n o t f o u n d i n the previous
e x a m p l e a r e t h e P o f 2 a n dt h e A N (Anticipation)
t h a t p r e p a r e s t h e l e a d i n g n o t e i n both cadenees.
O n t h ewhole, dissonances a r e unobtrusive and d o
little t o d i s t u r b t h e e u p h o n y o f t h e lOths that
domnate t h e s o u n d .
T h e s e exercises a r e a valuable transition f r o m
the vocal style o f e l e m e n t a r y counterpoint t o t h e
i n s t r u m e n t a l style o f elaborated counterpoint.
E v e r y t h i n g y o u l e a r n h e r e c a n b e applied b e y o n d
B a r o q u e m u s i c t o C l a s s i c a l a n d R o m a n t i c styles as
well.
C F Worksheet 27
o f t h e h u m a n voice. U n t i l t h e e n d o f the sixteenth
c e n t u r y each p a r t k e p t p r e t t y m u c h within its o w n
t e r r i t o r y , w i t h a l i m i t e d a m o u n t o f voice crossing.
T h e l i m i t s o f t h e h u m a n v o i c e w e r e literally t h e
spatial limitations o f music.
BEYOND T H E SATB FORMAT N o w we sean a
l a t e B a r o q u e h a r p s i c h o r d p i e c e , t h e Bourre b y
K i r n b e r g e r , [iT]. T h e m e l o d y is e n t i r e l y i n s t r u m e n -
t a l i n s t y l e . W i t h i n t h e first f o u r m e a s u r e s i t c o v e r s
two full octaves, e n c o m p a s s i n g b o t h soprano a n d
a l t o registers. T h e bass c o u n t e r p o i n t s that m e l o d y
w i t h o n e o f its o w n . I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the piece
t h e l o w e r p a r t m o v e s i n t o t h e a l t o register. Still t h e
bass o f t h e p o l y p h o n y , it's h e a r d i n a higher regis-
ter t h a n i n t h e b e g i n n i n g . B o t h melodies have
large ranges, a n d b o t h a r e e l a b o r a t e d melodies.
RANGE, REGISTER, T E X T U R E B e f o r e c o n -
t i n u i n g w i t h this topic, w eobserve three i m p o r t a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e K i r n b e r g e r Bourre ( a s
well as o t h e r pieces i n this part o ft h e A n t h o l o g y )
a n d t h e Renaissance pieces studied earlier.
1. T h e r a n g e o f t h e m u s i c i s c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d ,
t a k i n g advantage o f t h e fact t h a t i n s t r u m e n t s c a n
reach b o t h h i g h e r a n d l o w e r t h a n voices.
2. T h e r e ' s a clearer d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e registers
that a r e i n play.
3 . T h e texture o f m o s t o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e p i e c e s is e i t h e r
strictly c h o r d a l o r l i n e a r . T h e r e is m u c h m o r e t e x -
t u r a l v a r i e t y i n B a r o q u e pieces: t w o - p a r t elaborated
counterpoint i n the Kirnberger; chordal with a mel-
o d y o n t o p i n C o u p e r i n ' s s a r a b a n d e , [25]; a m i x t u r e
o f a n i m a t e d melodies a n d chords i n Scarlatti's sonata,
|38|; e l a b o r a t e d t h r e e - p a r t c o u n t e r p o i n t i n H a n d e l ' s
c o u r a n t e , |35|; a n d m e l o d y a n d a c c o m p a n i m e n t i n
t h e T e l e m a n n o d e s , [29]. A n d t h e n t h e r e ' s t h e t y p e o f
m e l o d y t h a t i m p l i e s m o r e t h a n o n e l i n e , as i n Bach's
violin sonata m o v e m e n t , |31|.
POLYPHONIC MELODY T o u n d e r s t a n d i n -
strumental melody m o r e fully y o u need t o be
familiar w i t h o n e m o r e concept. I twill help y o u t o
grasp t h e f o l l o w i n g passage.
characterized b y p r e d o m i n a n t l y stepwise m o t i o n
in a single register. A l lt h evocal parts i nt h e earlier
music studied a r e lines.. Y o u r e l e m e n t a r y counter-
point exercises c o m b i n e d lines. M e l o d y , h o w e v e r ,
is a l a r g e r t e r m , w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s o t h e r t y p e s . A
m e l o d y c a n b e t h ecenter o fmusical interest i n a
w a y that a line can't.
T h e first e x a m p l e o f p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y w a s
taken f r o m a w o r k f o rsolo cello. Since that far-
r a n g i n g type o f m e l o d y is particularly suited t o a
single string i n s t r u m e n t , y o u w o n ' t be surprised t o
learn that m a n y examples a r e f o u n d i n Bach's solo
violin a n d solo cello sonatas. B u t h o w does poly-
p h o n i c m e l o d y w o r k i na piece f o r m o r e t h a n o n e
instrument? T w o different examples show h o w
polyphonic melody m a y be combined with other
p a r t s . T h e P e z e l S a r a b a n d e , [ 7 9 ] , i s f o r five b r a s s
instruments.
M o s t o f t h e f o u r - p a r t h a r m o n y is i n t h e l o w e r
f o u r l i n e s . T h e s e a r e , i n d e e d , fines, m o v i n g s t e p -
wise w h e r e v e r possible. T h e highest part, h o w e v e r ,
is d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o t h e r s . I t ' s q u i t e m e l o d i o u s
a n d c o m m a n d s o u rattention, while t h eother parts
recede i n t o t h eb a c k g r o u n d . T h e highest p a r t isa
polyphonic melody.

Menuet I I from Suite No. 1 for Solo Cello BACH ? ra ra. 'J o
1 L - M l l
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A l l t h e notes o f t h e excerpt, h e a r d i n succession,
constitute t h emelody. Y o u hear t h e immediate T h i s melody doesn't express t h e complete poly-
connection o f o n e note t o another, b u ty o u m a y p h o n y , as d i d t h e m e l o d y i nt h e B a c h cello sonata.
also observe o t h e r connections. C a n y o u hear t h e H e r e , o t h e r voices state w h a t e v e r notes t h e m e l o d y
first B t o f t h e m e l o d y c o n n e c t e d t o ( o r g o i n g t o ) A doesn't include. B u t t h e m e l o d y is polyphonic
in t h e second measure, a n do nt o G i nt h e third because it'sm a d e u p o fnotes taken f r o m m o r e
a n d F f i n t h e f o u r t h ? C a n y o u h e a r a bass l i n e t h a n o n e voice.
descending f r o m G t o D ? Listen again. These T h e first n o t e o f t h e m e l o d y i s t h e first n o t e o f
aren't t h e note-to-note connections; they are long- the polyphony's t o pline. T h e n t h e m e l o d y moves
range connections. T h e y help y o u t o hear t h e u p t h r o u g h a P t o G , t h e alto's n o t e transposed u p
entire phrase as a unit. W h e n those long-range an octave. A f t e r t h e m e l o d y skips d o w n t ot h e Co f
connections a r espelled o u ty o u hear: the t o p line i tagain moves u p , leaving t h e top-line
B(_4) t ot h e second part. T h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f notes
o f r o m t h e polyphony's t o pline with inner-voice
)' 1 ' O 'o n o t e s contines o n e m o r e t i m e , a n d t h e m e l o d y
' Vn %Z0 *
\3 O -O ends with notes that are part o ft h e polyphony b u t
not top-line notes.
T h e m e l o d y expresses three lines. T h i s type o f T h e second h a l f o f t h e piece uses a d i f f e r e n t
m e l o d y i s a polyphonic melody. I t i s o n e o f t h e g r e a t approach t o polyphonic melody. Rising parallel
technical advances o ft h e Baroque period. lOths a r e t h ef r a m e w o r k f o r t h ephrase, u pt o t h e
c a d e n e e . O n t h e first b e a t o f e v e r y m e a s u r e f r o m
MELODY AND L I N E W e assign different 9 t h r o u g h J_3 t h e m e l o d y s t a r t s w i t h t h e m a i n n o t e
m e a n i n g s t o t h e t e r m s melody a n d line. A l i n e i s o f t h e t o pline. I t t h e n elaborates that note b y

86
Concert Grosso, Op. 6, No. 12 HANDEL

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t
Violini
soli

Violini
ripieni , .

Viole
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Mi

Violoncello
solo - t
r r r r r r 1
t=t=
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Continuo

s k i p p i n g u p t o s o m e i n n e r - v o i c e n o t e t h a t has been T h e e x a m p l e a t t h e t o p o f t h e page is m o r e

transposed u p a n octave. T h e r e ' s a slight change c o m p l e x , b u t t h e p r i n c i p i e is t h e s a m e . T h e p o l y -
o f pattern i n 14, but the m e l o d y remains i n paral- p h o n i c m e l o d y is d i v i d e d between t w o solo violins.
lel l O t h s w i t h t h e bass all t h r o u g h t h e octave rise. B u t t h e r e a s o n t h e m e l o d y is c o n s i d e r e d p o l y -
T h a n k s t o octave shift, t h e m e l o d y i n t h e second p h o n i c is because i tembodies these lines:
h a l f o f t h e s a r a b a n d e is q u i t e j a g g e d a n d h a s a
s t r i k i n g c h a r a c t e r o f its o w n .
A g a i n t h e m e l o d y d o e s n ' t h a v e t o state all t h e
notes o f the h a r m o n y . I t does state t w o o f the three
chord notes i n most measures, a n d t h e complete
t r i a d i n _1_3. T h i s i s a k i n d o f p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y
that's m a d e o fs o m e notes o fthe h a r m o n y . Y o u ' l l
find t h i s a p p r o a c h i n m o s t i n s t r u m e n t a l m e l o d i e s .

87
T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g cello p a r t is also p o l y p h o n i c .
It's s i m p l e r t h a n t h e u p p e r m e l o d y ( l o w e r p a r t s
usually are). T h e t w o polyphonic melodies com-
b i n e t o delinate f o u r l i n e s :
T h e violin m e l o d y expresses a good deal o f t h e
h a r m o n y , a n d t h ecello m e l o d y states t h e r e m a i n -
ing notes w h i l e d o u b l i n g s o m e o ft h e violin's notes.
A l l this is standard procedure i n B a r o q u e instru-
mental music.
SPECIAL FUNCTION OF T H E TRITONE
The tritone (augmented 4 t ho r diminished 5th)
w a s xcluded f r o m l i n e a r w r i t i n g a s l o n g a s m u s i c
m o v e d i n ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y ) stepwise lines. ( T h e r e
was n ow a y t oassimilate this active i n t e r v a l into t h e
linear now.) Polyphonic melody proved t o bet h e
n a t u r a l place t o u s e t h e t r i t o n e , w h i c h is particu-
larly effective i n d i v i d i n g t w o elements o fa m e l o d y
i n t o seprate l i n e s . T h e r e a s o n t h a t t r i t o n e s w e r e
o u t o f place i n e l e m e n t a r y c o u n t e r p o i n t is n o w
clear: tritones b r e a k u p stepwise lines, t h e v e r y
lines that a r e t h e material o f linear counterpoint.
Just h o w tritones p e r f o r m t h e i r task m a y b e seen
in t h enext example, b y t h emaster o f polyphonic
melody.
M e i n e Seele erhebt den Herrn
O u r g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h e s a m e as. i n t h e s o l o
cello example. Y o u h e a r n o t o n l y t h e note-to-note
connection o f a l l t h e sounds that comprise t h e
m e l o d y , b u t also a larger connection. T h e m e l o d y
implies t w olines. W h a t separates t h em e l o d y into
two lines? T h etritone, h e a r d f o u r times i n this
s h o r t p h r a s e . T w o o f t h e t r i t o n e s a r e p a r t i a l l y filled
w i t h 3 r d s , b u t t h e i r effect is felt nonetheless. T h e
t w o seprate l i n e s a r e c h r o m a t i c . A s k e t c h s h o w s
how t h etritones (marked with arrows) divide t h e
p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y into its c o m p o n e n t lines, indi-
cated b ystem direction.
88
T h e u p p e r line descends chromatically f r o m 8 t o
5, a w e l l - t r o d d e n p a t h i n B a r o q u e m u s i c . T h e
lower line descends f r o m 5 t o 2 before dropping
d o w n t o t h e 5 that leads t o 1. T h em e l o d y expresses
a complete polyphonic motion.
SATB VS K E Y B O A R D T E X T U R E S L e t u s n o w
c o m p a r e t h eS A T B f o r m a t w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l tex-
tures. Fortunately f o ro u r purpose, there a r e quite
a f e wearly Baroque keyboard transcriptions o f
Renaissance c h o r a l pieces available. T h e s e s h o w
h o w t h es a m e basic p o l y p h o n y m a y t u r n o u t quite
differently i n different hands. W e will compare
t h e u s e o f m u s i c a l space a n d register i n Lasso's
Good Day, My Heart a n d a t r a n s c r i p t i o n m a d e o n l y
a f e w years later. I n those f e w years m u s i c a l style
was u n d e r g o i n g m a j o r changes. T h e transcription
is b y P e t e r P h i l i p s , o n e o f t h e E n g l i s h c o m p o s e r s
w h o w e r e a m o n g t h e first t o d e v e l o p t h e n e w
k e y b o a r d s t y l e . I t c o m e s f r o m t h e Fitzwilliam Vir-
ginal Book, o u r m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f l a t e s i x -
teenth-century keyboard music. I n theexample o n
page 8 9 Lasso's c h o r u s isp r i n t e d o nt w o staves a n d
aligned with t h e corresponding measures o f t h e
transcription, f o rready comparison. Barlines have
been a d d e d t ot h e chorus t ocorrespond w i t h those
in t h e transcription. Since barlines aren't entirely
r e g u l a r i z e d i n t h e Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, s o m e
measures contain m o r e beats t h a n others.
W e l o o k f o rapplications o f t h e topics o f Part
F i v e : m e l o d i c e l a b o r a t i o n , t h e expansin o f l i n e s
i n m u s i c a l space, a n d p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y . Y o u r
first i m p r e s s i o n m a y b e t h a t t h e c h o r a l m u s i c h a s
b e e n e x p a n d e d n o t o n l y i n space b u t also i n time.
T h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n stretches o v e r m o r e m u s i c a l space,
o f course, b u ti t also takes m o r e t i m e t o p e r f o r m
than t h e chorus. T h e r e a r e m a n y m o r e notes i n
t h e k e y b o a r d versin t h a n i n t h e o r i g i n a l . W h a t
a r e those notes a n d h o w a r e t h e y r e l a t e d t o Lasso's
piece?
A l l o f t h e notes i n t h e keyboard transcription
are elaborations o f t h e notes i n t h e chorus. T h e
ways o f elaborating those notes a r e precisely t h e
techniques that you've been studying: passing a n d
n e i g h b o r m o t i o n c o m b i n e d w i t h octave shift.
The first s o u n d i n t h e c h o r u s is t r a n s c r i b e d
l i t e r a l l y i n t h e k e y b o a r d versin, b u t t h e s o l i d
c h o r d is i m m e d i a t e l y b r o k e n u p w i t h a w r i t t e n - o u t
drill. T h i s r a p i d a l t e r n a t i o n o f t w o n o t e s uses a N .
I t w i l l t a k e l o n g e r t o p l a y t h e first m e a s u r e o f t h e
Good Day, M y Heart

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k e y b o a r d versin t h a n t o s i n g t h e first m e a s u r e o f
the chorus.
T h e r e ' s a c h a n g e t o a b r o k e n t e x t u r e i n 2, t h e
t e n o r e l e a b o r a t i n g its C w i t h a t r i a d . A t t h e e n d o f
t h e m e a s u r e M r . P h i l i p s a d d s P s i n a l t o a n d bass,
i n p a r a l l e l lOths. I t ' s t h e alto's t u r n t o h a v e t h e
a c t i v i t y i n 3, w i t h a l i t t l e h e l p f r o m t h e t e n o r . A l l
the elaborative notes are Ps a n dN s related t o t h e
triads.
T h e s u d d e n flurry o f t h i r t y - s e c o n d n o t e s i n 4
5 r u n s t h r o u g h a n octave a n d a step, o c c u p y i n g
t h e alto's s p a c e as w e l l as t h e s o p r a n o ' s . A D N i n
m i d - 5 elaborates E , w h i c h isn't a m e l o d y n o t e b u t
is a m e m b e r o f t h e t r i a d . I f t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e
bass i n . 6 l o o k s s o m e w h a t f a m i l i a r , there's a r e a s o n :
j u s t as i n S i m p s o n ' s g r o u n d , t h e ascent o fa 4 t h i s
elaborated (inverted) into the descent o f a 5th, and
t h e s p a c e filled w i t h P s . T h e s e c o n d o f t h e s i x -
t e e n t h notes, C , is a P f r o m a D t h a t ' s p a r t o f t h e
c h o r d b u t n o t i n t h e same register. T h i s is a n
imaginative use o f octave shift.
M o t i o n i n s i x t e e n t h notes is c o n t i n u o u s , b u t it's

89
not always i none voice. I n t h elatter half o f 6 t h e
r u n s pass t h r o u g h t h e s o p r a n o a n d alto ranges,
w h i l e t h e r u n i n 7_-8 b e g i n s i n t h e b a s s t e r r i t o r y
a n d moves u p t o t h ealto. T h a t r u n begins, again,
w i t h a P f r o m a n o t e that's i m p l i e d b ythe h a r m o n y
b u t n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e s a m e register as t h e P .
I t ' s i n t e r e s t i n g t o s e e h o w L a s s o ' s F - t r i a d i n 1_ i s
e l a b o r a t e d . P h i l i p s takes t h e bass m o t i o n o f a 5 t h
a n d simply adds a n octave t o it. T h a t provides t h e
space f o r t h e sixteenth notes, a n d they m o v e
t h r o u g h i t quickly t o the m i d d l e C i n8.
1 0 , 1 1 . a n d J_2 a r e t r i a d s i n L a s s o a n d e l a b o r a -
tions o f those triads i n Philips. T h e techniques are
m u c h t h e s a m e as i n t h e p r e v i o u s measures.
SUMMARY T h e r e ' s n o t h i n g u n u s u a l a b o u t t h e
t h i n g s t h a t P h i l i p s d o e s . T h a t is precisely w h y t h e
t r a n s c r i p t i o n is v a l u a b l e : i t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e n o r m s
o f early Baroque keyboard music. T h e broken
t e x t u r e o f t h e k e y b o a r d versin c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e
strictly c h o r d a l t e x t u r e o f t h e S A T B piece; musical
space is used i na creatiVe w a y w i t h m e l o d i e s m o v -
ing t h r o u g h m o r e t h a n o n e register; l o n g notes
are b r o k e n into m a n y short ones; r h y t h m s a r e
m o r e irregular. These are the standard techniques
of melodic elaboration. I n Simpson's ground you
saw t h e m a p p l i e d t o a single line. H e r e y o u see
them applied t o a four-part model. T h e compari-
s o n b e t w e e n Lasso's c h a n s o n a n d the t r a n s c r i p t i o n
offers a clear illustration o f the difference between
the S A T B format and a keyboard texture.
R A M E A U ' S V A R I A T I O N S T h e Fitzwilliam Vir-
ginal Book r e p r e s e n t s a n e a r l y s t a g e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n
o f k e y b o a r d music. T o see t h e late B a r o q u e i nall
its b r i l l i a n c e w e t u r n t o t h e G a v o t t e a n d V a r i a t i o n s
f o r h a r p s i c h o r d b y J e a n - P h i l i p p e R a m e a u , |28|.
T h e techniques introduced i n a simple w a y i n
S i m p s o n and i n a m o r e complex way i n Philipsare
n o w developed t o a high degree. Registral move-
m e n t , i n particular, is t r e a t e d w i t h a k i n d o f v i r t u -
osity that shows a m a t u r e style.
W h i l e this piece has m a n y i n t e r e s t i n g aspects, w e
concntrate o n r e g i s t e r a n d t e x t u r e , t h a t is, o n t h e
ways i n w h i c h t h e notes a r e deployed i n musical
space.
M o s t gavottes a r e i n , b u t there a r e some
F r e n c h g a v o t t e s i n f , a n d t h i s is o n e . T h e d i f f e r -
ence between t h et w o is m o r e visual t h a n aural: a
gavotte i n 0 begins w i t h t w o quarter-note upbeats;
Rameau's gavotte begins w i t h a n upbeat measure
o f t w o quarter notes.
T h e gavotte that serves as t h e t h e m e f o r t h e
variatons i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d : t w o f o u r - m e a s u r e
p h r a s e s c o m p r i s e t h e first s e c d o n ; t w o e i g h t - m e a s u r e
phrases m a k e u p the second. I f we're t o follow the
90
way i n w h i c h t h e notes o f t h e theme a r e m o v e d
about i n the variations we had better look carefully
at t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n t h e initial statement.
T h e first p h r a s e - p a i r i s s e t i n t h e m i d d l e r e g i s t e r ,
i n f o u r p a r t s t h a t a r e f a i r l y cise t o g e t h e r . T h e
third phrase spreads t h e sounds o u t a n d intro-
duces a different accompaniment. W e m i g h t expect
the f o u r t h t o r e t u r n t o t h etexture and spacing o f
t h e first. I n s t e a d , i t m o v e s u p a s u r p r i s i n g o c t a v e
(1617), o p e n i n g u p a new, h i g h e r register. T h i s
l e a d s t o a final A t h a t ' s a n o c t a v e h i g h e r t h a n t h e
first A o f t h e g a v o t t e . T h e s p r e a d o f t h e g a v o t t e ' s
first c h o r d i s j u s t o n e o c t a v e , w h i l e t h a t o f t h e l a s t
c h o r d reaches t h r e e full octaves. T h e r e ' s a steady
expansin o f r e g i s t e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e t h e m e .
F I R S T D O U B L E I n t h e first v a r i a t i o n , c a l l e d
double, R a m e a u l e t s u s k n o w t h a t h e c o n s i d e r s C t o
b e t h e first m a i n n o t e o f t h e m e l o d y b y o m i t t i n g
the ascent A - B . T h e same will be true o fmost o f
the succeeding variations.
T h e bass a n d s o p r a n o o f t h e gavotte, a l O t h
apart a t t h e start, a r e compressed i n t o a 3 r d b y
octave shift. Similarly, all t h ec o m p o u n d intervals
b e t w e e n the o u t e r voices are reduced b ya n octave.
T h e left h a n d n o w h a s this condensed outer-voice
framework. Over that a new melody i n sixteenth
notes is s p u n o u t . Since this m e l o d y is m a d e o f
n o t e s f r o m t h e i n n e r voices o f t h e g a v o t t e , it's a
polyphonic melody. H o w are the quarter notes and
h a l f notes o fthe gavotte elaborated into sixteenth
n o t e s ? A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e first t w o m e a s u r e s o f
the double with those o f the gavotte shows Rameau's
m e t h o d clearly.
1 2 25 26
A a n d E (circled) a r e inner-voice notes i n t h e
first t r i a d . I n t h e first d o u b l e , A i s h e a r d first,
f o l l o w e d b y t w o R s t h a t lead t o E . T h e n E is
elaborated w i t h a D N . I nthe second m e a s u r e F, D ,
and C are heard i n that order. Connected with a
P, E , each is t h e n f o l l o w e d b y a n I N . T h i s is a r t f u l
elaboration indeed.
S i m i l a r t e c h n i q u e s fill t h e first e i g h t m e a s u r e s .
R a m e a u breaks t h e pattern just once, e x t e n d i n g
t h e t o n i c t r i a d i n t h e b a s s a t t h e e n d o f t h e first
four-measure phrase, thereby opening u p the lower
register a bit. T h e second m e a s u r e o f the second
e n d i n g begins the next phrase.
 T h e third phrase introduces a different pattern.
T a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e fact that a single n o t e
m a y b e e l a b o r a t e d i n t o a n o c t a v e scale (as M r .
S i m p s o n s h o w e d y o u ) , R a m e a u begins a string o f
b r i l l i a n t scales. T h e y a r e c l e a r l y b u i l t o n t h e n o t e s
o f t h e t h e m e , as a c o m p a r i s o n o f 9 - 1 6 w i t h 3 4 -
4 0 s h o w s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e bass is e x t e n d e d
s p a t i a l l y b y j u m p i n g t h e first n o t e o f e a c h m e a s u r e
d o w n a n octave. A tt h e e n d o fthe phrase (40) t h e
sixteenth notes have almost r u no f f t h e keyboard,
a n d a t t e n t i o n is focused o n t h e lowest register o f
the harpsichord.
T o a p u r p o s e : t h e octave skip o f 1617 is enor-
m o u s l y stretched t o three octaves i n 4 0 - 4 1 . T h i s
r e m a r k a b l e u s e o f musical space launches t h e t h i r d
phrase, w h o s e m e l o d y h a s n o place t og o b u t d o w n .
A n d that m e l o d y certainly does descend, ending
in t h e m i d d l e register, n o t t h e higher o n e that
ends t h e gavotte.
SECOND DOUBLE T h ec e n t e r o f a c t i v i t y shifts
to t h elower register f o rt h eentire variation. T h e
left h a n d e l a b o r a t e s t h e m a i n n o t e s o ft h e bass l i n e
w i t h octave runs. M o s t o fthose ascend, i n contrast
to t h e scale r u n s o f t h e p r e v i o u s d o u b l e . A f e w
changes o f pattern a r e heard i n t h em o v i n g part,
b u t t h e s i x t e e n t h - n o t e figure o f a r i s i n g s c a l e p r e -
dominates. T h e right h a n d follows that o ft h e
gavotte closely.
THIRD DOUBLE T h e center o f activity has been
t h e h i g h e s t a n d l o w e s t reas; n o w i t ' s t h e m i d d l e .
T h a t activity takes t h e f o r m o f t h e very same
m e l o d y t h a t y o u h e a r d i n t h e first d o u b l e . S o p r a n o
a n d bass a r e spaced f a r e n o u g h a p a r t t o m a k e
r o o m f o r t h e m o v i n g melody i n between. T h e
s o p r a n o i s a s i m p l i f i e d versin o f t h e g a v o t t e m e l -
o d y i n e v e n n o t e s , m u c h l i k e a c a n t u s firmus, w h i l e
t h e bass uses o c t a v e skips t o increase t h e s o n o r i t y .
T h e sixteenth-note action shifts t o a l o w e r level at
t h e first c a d e n e e ( 8 1 ) . b u t t h e t h r e e - t i e r e d t e x t u r e
is m a i n t a i n e d f o r t h r e e p h r a s e s .
I n t h e first h a l f o f t h e c o n c l u d i n g p h r a s e ( 9 0 )
there's a n a b r u p t change o f texture. T h e t w o u p p e r
voices b e g i n a duet, e m b o d y i n g all t h e notes i n t h e
r i g h t h a n d o f t h e g a v o t t e . T h i s is d o n e i n a w a y
that emphasizes t h e SUSs that were concealed i n
t h e a p p o g g i a t u r a s o f t h e g a v o t t e . T h e bass p r o -
vides s u p p o r t f o rt h e duet. T o w a r d t h e e n d o f t h e
d o u b l e t h e e l a b o r a t e d m e l o d y r e t u r n s a n d finds i t s
way back into t h ei n n e r voice. T h evariation ends
i n t h e s a m e f o r m a t w i t h w h i c h i t began, as t h e
u p p e r v o i c e closes w i t h t h e h i g h A .
F O U R T H DOUBLE T h i s v a r i a t i o n is t h e c e n t e r
o f t h e e n t i r e c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e t e x t u r e is e n t i r e l y
91
different f r o m that o fthe preceding a n d following
variations, for the chords are arpeggiated through-
out. I n contrast t o t h e o t h e r variations, the notes
are n o w l i m i t e d t o t h e m i d d l e register, a n d t h e
c l o s i n g A is i n t h e l o w e r p o s i t i o n . W h i l e t h e basic
p o l y p h o n y is u n c h a n g e d , a subtle r h y t h m i c shift
c r e a t e s a n e w d i s s o n a n c e . T h e s o p r a n o is d e l a y e d
at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1 0 0 , s e t t i n g u p a quiet S U S , a
leading note that resolves u p .
I n t h e first p h r a s e - p a i r , o n e n o t e a t a t i m e i s
played until t h e goal V * . T h ethird and fourth
phrases begin w i t h single notes, t h e texture thick-
e n i n g as e a c h p h r a s e p r o c e e d s . T h i s is a w a y o f
building a crescendo o n t h e harpsichord, a n d i t
m a k e s f o r s t r o n g e n d i n g s t o t h e latter two phrases.
F I F T H D O U B L E A n a r p e g g i a t e d figure s t r e t c h -
i n g b e y o n d a n octave, o n e m e a s u r e long, r u n s
t h r o u g h allt h e registers. T h e polyphonic melody
embodies three lines. W h e r e ' s t h eoriginaltop line?
It isn't t h e highest line i nthis polyphonic melody,
AFE; those a r ei n n e r - v o i c e notes transposed u p
a n octave. T h e g a v o t t e m e l o d y is concealed i n t h e
m i d d l e o f t h e figure. Y o u k n o w t h a t y o u h e a r i t ,
yet i t isn't w h e r e i t used t o be. I n the f o u r t h
m e a s u r e o f t h e d o u b l e t h e m e l o d y n o t e s G(tA a r e
u n c o v e r e d a n d s o u n d as t h e h i g h e s t notes.
A t t h e s a m e p o i n t t h e bass picks u p the arpeggia-
t i o n , so that there isa c o n t i n u o u s flow o f sixteenth
n o t e s . I n 1 2 6 t h e c o v e r u p r e s u m e s , a n d contines
t h r o u g h t h e p h r a s e . A g a i n t h e b a s s uses o c t a v e
skips t o increase t h e overall sonority.
I n t h e second a n d t h i r d phrases the gavotte
m e l o d y is o f t e n c o n c e a l e d a g a i n , b u tf r o m t i m e t o
t i m e i t c o m e s t o t h e t o p . T h e m e l o d y ends o n t h e
lower A .
S I X T H D O U B L E T h e final v a r i a t i o n b r i n g s t h e
p i e c e t o a b r i l l i a n t conclusin. T h e f o u r - n o t e fig-
u r e h e a r d i n t h e p r e v i o u s v a r i a t i o n is m o d i f i e d a n d
p u t t o w o r k i n t h e left h a n d . F u l l chords i n t h e
r i g h t h a n d fill o u t t h e h a r m o n y . T h e final c h o r d i s
a l m o s t identical w i t h t h a t o f t h e gavotte, a n d t h e
melody ends t r i u m p h a n t l y with t h ehigh A.
COMMENT M a n y different techniques o f
B a r o q u e keyboard writing a r e f o u n d i n Rameau's
G a v o t t e a n d V a r i a t i o n s . T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s crate
m o s t o ft h e contrast between t h e variations. T h u s ,
t e x t u r e a n d registral m o t i o n a r e essential elements
i n t h e f o r m o fthe piece.
C FWorksheet 2 8
 36
Continuous Variations 1
T h e w o r k o f t h e p r e c e d i n g sections leads t o t h e
study o fa n i m p o r t a n t Baroque type: continuous
variations.
In general, there a r e two different kinds o f
v a r i a t i o n sets. T h e t y p e f a m i l i a r t h r o u g h m a n y
examples i n the literature istheme a n d variations,
such as the R a m e a u w o r k j u s t studied. A n earlier
a n d s i m p l e r t y p e i s continuous variations, i n w h i c h
t h e r e a r e n o p a u s e s b e t w e e n v a r i a t i o n s as t h e r e a r e
in theme a n dvariations. Moreover, t h e material
o n w h i c h c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a t i o n sets a r e b a s e d i s n ' t
a self-contained unit but simply a pattern o f chords
or a single line. O n ev a r i a t i o n follows a n o t h e r
w i t h o u t pause u n t i l the piece is completed. B o t h
t y p e s o f v a r i a t i o n sets h a v e a l o n g h i s t o r i c a l associ-
ation with improvisadon atthe keyboard.
Officially there are t w o types o f continuous var-
i a t i o n s , passacaglia a n d chaconne. B o t h arse i n t h e
l a t e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , first a s d a n c e s , t h e n a s
frameworks for improvisadon o n guitar, lute, o r
h a r p s i c h o r d . A t first, e a c h t y p e h a d i t s o w n m e l o d i c
a n d h a r m o n i c patterns, but before l o n g each took
over some o f the other's traits. I nm a n y Baroque
pieces t h e o n l y w a y t o tell o n e f r o m t h e o t h e r is
f r o m the title.
W e m a k e a distinction b e t w e e n pieces based o n
bass p a t t e r n s a n d pieces b a s e d o nc h o r d patterns.
I n this section y o u will s t u d y pieces built o n t h e
f o r m e r ; i n C h a p t e r 37 y o u will t u r n t opieces built
on the latter.
I f y o u a r e familiar with theme a n d variations
you m a y expect t o hear a definite theme at t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f a v a r i a t i o n set. B u t m o s t c o n t i n u o u s
variations don't begin w i t h a "theme." Some, such
as t h e P a c h e l b e l C h a c o n n e , [20], a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n
a bass p a t t e r n that's n e v e r stated a l o n e , as a t h e m e
w o u l d be. Y e t t h e bass p a t t e r n isw h a t t h e piece is
built on.
W e w i l l e x a m i n e t h e first s e v e n v a r i a t i o n s , w h i c h
c o m p r i s e a c o m p l e t e section o f t h e piece. T h e
C h a c o n n e b e g i n s w i t h t h e first v a r i a t i o n . W h a t i s i t
v a r y i n g ? T h e basic p o l y p h o n y o f t h e piece. T h i s
may b e f o u n d b ythe process o f r e d u c t i o n .
92
Pachelbel Chaconne: basic polyphony
Ti
4-. - e C
O 6 o
10 10 10 10
T h e bass l i n e d e s c e n d s f r o m 8 t o 5 , a s t a n d a r d
s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a t t e r n (associated w i t h t h e
passacaglia!). T h e t o p line m o v e s i n p a r a l l e l l O t h s
w i t h t h e bass, a n d this l i n e is r e t a i n e d f o r m u c h o f
t h e p i e c e . A t h i r d , i n n e r v o i c e , i s subordnate t o
t h e o t h e r s . T h e C h a c o n n e is b u i l t o n a bass line,
b u t t h e r e is also a t h r e e - p a r t p o l y p h o n i c f r a m e -
work.
Typical o f early chaconnes, most o f the four-
measure units are repeated, so that each variation
is e i g h t m e a s u r e s l o n g . T h e s k e t c h e s o f t h e first s i x
v a r i a t i o n s s h o w o n l y t h e first h a l f o f e a c h , s k i p p i n g
t h e r e p e t i t i o n . B u t t h e r e is n o r e p e t i t i o n i n t h e
seventh variation because Pachelbel recomposes
the second half, a n d the sketch shows that.
V A R I A T I O N 1 T h e basic p o l y p h o n y is d r a w n
f r o m t h e first v a r i a t i o n . C o m p a r e t h e r e d u c t i o n
above a n d the m u s i c t o seeh o w the f r a m e w o r k is
elaborated.
T h e m e l o d y begins w i t h a quick ascent t o t h e
first m a i n n o t e , e x a c t l y a s i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e
R a m e a u Gavotte. H e r e , too, p r e l i m i n a r y notes 1
and 2 will b e omitted i nm a n y o fthe variations.
T h e i n n e r voice rises, t o o , r e a c h i n g its C o n l y o n
t h e t h i r d beat. I n 2 a n expressive octave skip frees
t h e m e l o d y f r o m t h e c o n f i n e s o f t h e basic p o l y -
phony's vocal registers. T h e m e l o d y t h e n incorpo-
r a t e s C f r o m t h e i n n e r v o i c e a n d El f r o m t h e b a s s .
T h i s t e l l s y o u t h a t t h e m e l o d y o f t h e first v a r i a t i o n
is p o l y p h o n i c , f o r i t i n c l u d e s n o t o n l y n o t e s f r o m
t h e t o p l i n e o f t h e basic p o l y p h o n y b u t also notes
f r o m the o t h e r voices.
 A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f _3 t h e S U S i n t h e i n n e r v o i c e
is a l o v e l y d e t a i l . T h e m e l o d y t a k e s a d v a n t a g e o f
a n o t h e r f a m i l i a r d e v i c e , t h e filled-in 3 r d , t o elab-
rate t h e m a i n note F . I n 4 t h eC-triad is activated
by skips i n t o p a n di n n e r voices. E a c h m e a s u r e o f
the v a r i a t i o n isd i f f e r e n t , w i t h itso w n r h y t h m .
W h i l e 5.-8 e s s e n t i a l l y r e p e a t 1_4, t h e r e a r e a
f e w differences. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t is t h e shift o f
the F (3) t oa position a n octave higher (7), thereby
changing t h eshape o fthe melody.
Variation 2: voice leading
41 4y
nW
10 10 10 11 10
Y., \y L o
%Jt o o V A R I A T I O N 4 A l lthree lines a r e elaborated. A s
!_[ 6 6 6 5
V A R I A T I O N 2 T h e i n n e r voice o f t h e basic
p o l y p h o n y is transposed u p a noctave. B u t there's
m o r e t o t h em e l o d y t h a n a simple octave shift.
E x a m i n e t h e i n n e r voice o fthis v a r i a t i o n . It's m o r e
a r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e bass t h a n a n i n d e p e n d e n t
voice. T h e n w h e r e is t h e original t o pline? I n t h e
melody, together w i t h t h enotes o ft h e original
i n n e r voice a n octave higher. T h e polyphonic mel-
o d y incorporates b o t h t o p a n dm i d d l e lines o f t h e
basic p o l y p h o n y . T h e r e d u c t i o n above shows t h e
original i n n e r voice i n w h o l e notes, t h e original
m e l o d y i nblack noteheads. T h e polyphonic m e l -
ody o fVariation 2 includes both. T h e 4ths between
t h e l i n e s a r e filled w i t h P s i n t h e m e l o d y . A o n e -
m e a s u r e figure h e l p s t o articlate t h e m e l o d y o f
t h i s v a r i a t i o n . T h e first f o u r m e a s u r e s a r e r e p e a t e d
without change.
Variation 3
s*>
_i 1
j %
-o
"o
~\
10 10 10
-\
VARIATION 3 There's a striking change i n t h e
t e x t u r e ast h e m e l o d y m o v e s i n t o t h eu p p e r octave.
W h i l e t h ei n n e r voice pauses, t h et o p voice begins
w i t h a t h r e e - n o t e figure, C F G . T h e i n n e r v o i c e
h a s a n a p p r o x i m a t e i m i t a t i o n i n J_8 a n d f u r t h e r
i m i t a t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d i n J_9. I n t h e s k e t c h a b o v e ,
t h e o c t a v e s h i f t is s h o w n b y t h e c u r v e d a r r o w . T h e
93
s k e t c h a l s o reveis t h a t Al, t h e first n o t e o f t h e
basic p o l y p h o n y ' s t o p line, h a s b e e n lost. ( I t will b e
f o u n d i nt h e next variation.) B ya gradual b u i l d u p
t w o n o t e s s o u n d i n g t o g e t h e r i n J _ 7 , t h r e e i n 18,
a n d f o u r i n 1 9 - 2 0 t h e fullest sonority o f t h e
piece thus f a r is achieved.
Variation 4
t h e c h a c o n n e bass m o v e s u p o u t o f t h e o r g a n ' s
p e d a l o n t o a m a n u a l , t h e bass p a t t e r n itself is
e l a b o r a t e d f o r t h e first t i m e . T h e first t h r e e n o t e s
o f t h e b a s s a r e e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h filled 3 r d s ; t h e
f o u r t h is u n a d o r n e d . A g a i n t h et o p line o f t h e
basic p o l y p h o n y is h e a r d inside t h e m u s i c a l fabric.
It's also v a r i e d b y I N s that follow each m a i n note.
H e r e , t o o , t h e o r i g i n a l i n n e r voice is transposed
u p a n octave a n d h e a r d i n t h e highest register.
T h i s line is elaborated w i t h a chain o f S U S s , an e w
e l e m e n t i n t h e piece. I n contrast t o t h e ( s o m e w h a t )
b r o k e n t e x t u r e o fV a r i a t i o n 3,t h e texture o f V a r i -
a t i o n 4 is c o n t i n u o u s , w i t h o u t a single rest.
Variation 5
O
7* JTTi
f "
K 3 ft3hr-i
j
a HK3
VARIATION 5 T h e c h a c o n n e bass r e t u r n s t o
the organ pedal a n d regains itsoriginal shape.
Interest n o w centers o nt h emelody. I n continuous
variations there is often a speeding u p o f t h e
r h y t h m i c activity f r o m o n e variation t o t h e next.
T h e melody, w h i c h h a dt w o t o f o u r notes t o a
measure i n t h e preceding variations, n o whas six
eighth notes t o a measure, a n d even t w o sixteenth
notes i n 3 f ia n d 4 0 .I tranges across a w i d e span,
c o m b i n i n g t h e registers o fall t h emelodies h e a r d
i n t h e first f o u r v a r i a t i o n s a n d s t r e t c h i n g a f u l l t w o
octaves. A l l t h e lines o f t h e basic p o l y p h o n y c o n -
tribute t othe polyphonic melody.
Variation 6
V 10 10 10 10
V A R I A T I O N 6 A r h y t h m i c figure o f a n e i g h t h
and t w o sixteenth notes drives t h e m e l o d y on. T h e
inner-voice c o u n t e r p o i n t m o v e s i n steady e i g h t h
notes. T h e c h a c o n n e bass h a s a single e l a b o r a t i o n ,
a n octave skip that helps m o v e t h eline f o r w a r d
a n d m a r k s its m i d p o i n t . T h i s variation shows t h e
m o s t r h y t h m i c i n d e p e n d e n c e o fvoices that we've
seen thus f a r .
Variation 7
VARIATION 7 T h e s e v e n t h v a r i a t i o n is t h e c u l -
mination o f t h e rhythmic crescendo a n d o f t h e
C h a c o n n e ' s first s e c t i o n . T h e first f o u r n o t e s o f t h e
basic p o l y p h o n y ' s t o p l i n e a r e c e n t r a l t o t h e six-
teenth-note melody, b u tthey don't all appear i n
t h e s a m e r e g i s t e r , a n e w t w i s t . T h e first t w o n o t e s ,
A\> a n d G , a r e h e a r d i n t h e l o w l e v e l . B u t i n 50 a n
abrupt octave shift (seesketch above) brings t h e
m e l o d y t o t h e upper level. T h ei n n e r voice resem-
b l e s i t s o r i g i n a l f o r m , b u t t h e S U S s first h e a r d i n
Variation 4 a d d depth a n d color t ot h e polyphony.
T h e second f o u r measures o f Variation 7 don't
s i m p l y r e p e a t t h e first f o u r ; t h e y c o n t i n u t h e
action. T h e t o p l i n e o ft h e basic p o l y p h o n y starts
in t h e i n n e r voice, a n octave below its original
position (see a r r o w ) . T h e n t h eline shifts u p , n o t
o n e b u t t w o octaves. F a n d E r e t u r n t ow h e r e they
w e r e i n t h e first h a l f o f t h e v a r i a t i o n .
T h e polyphonic m e l o d y pushes t o its goal,
e m p h a s i z i n g t h e t o n i c n o t e as i tn e a r s t h ee n d . T h e
last t w o m e l o d y n o t e s i n 5 6 o u t l i n e a t r i t o n e ,
clearly separadng t h e t w o strands o f t h e poly-
phony. W e require t w o notes t oresolve t h e tritone
to a 6th. T h e r e t w o notes a r e heard simultaneously
t o cise t h e v a r i a t i o n a n d t h e e x c e r p t .
94
GROUND B A S S E v e r y piece b u i l t o n a g r o u n d
bass isn't necessarily a c h a c o n n e o r passacaglia.
Seventeenth-century Italian opera composers
l e a r n e d h o w t o u s e a r e p e a t e d bass p a t t e r n t o
organize a song o r aria. T h e English composer
H e n r y Purcell applied this device i n h i svocal music,
a fine e x a m p l e o f w h i c h i s t h e d u e t , | 2 3 [ , f r o m Come
Ye Sons of Art, a c e l e b r a t o r y c a n t a t a .
O u r discussion focuses o n w h a t t h e E n g l i s h called
t h e ground bass. I t c o n s i s t s o f s i x t e e n n o t e s , q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t f r o m Pachelbel's b a r e - b o n e s bass p a t t e r n .
W e m a y suspect that some o f those notes a r e
e l a b o r a t i v e , a n d , i n d e e d , t h ebass i t s e l f is a p o l y -
phonic melody. W e m a y hear:
T h e t w onotes i n brackets a r e t h ecompletion o f
the t o p line, w h i c h w o u l d be part o f t h e continuo
realization.
T h e piece is a n a c c o m p a n i e d duet, a t e x t u r e
f o u n d i n m u c h vocal a n d instrumental music o f
the B a r o q u e . ( A n i n s t r u m e n t a l e x a m p l e is t h e
m o v e m e n t f r o m C o r e l l i ' s T r i o S o n a t a , [22].) T h e
u p p e r voices, t w o altos, have equal i m p o r t a n c e ;
t h e y cross m o r e t h a n o n c e . T h e bass, o n t h e o t h e r
h a n d , supports t h e voices. W h i l e t h evocal parts
are rhythmically varied, following a n d extending
t h e n a t u r a l accent o f t h e w o r d s , t h e bass m o v e s i n
continuous eighth notes.
T h e d u e t is i n t w o sections, separated b y a d o u -
ble b a r . E a c h section is repeated. T h e divisison
s u g g e s t s b i n a r y f o r m , a n d i n t h e s e c t i o n o f Gradus
w h e r e w e discuss that subject we'll r e t u r n t o this
piece.
T h e v e r y first t i m e t h e g r o u n d b a s s a p p e a r s i t i s
a s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n . T h e n w e find t h e t w o - m e a s u r e
pattern repeated seven times before t h e double
b a r . T h e v o i c e s e n t e r , a n d t h e g r o u n d contines.
Including t h e repeat (the introductory statement
i s n ' t r e p e a t e d ) , t h e r e a r e fifteen s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e
g r o u n d i n t h e first s e c t i o n o f t h e d u e t .
I n t h e s e c o n d section t h e g r o u n d is transposed,
first t o A , t h e n t o b , a f t e r w h i c h i t r e t u r n s t o D f o r
t h e conclusin. S o m e i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g s h a p p e n
w h e n t h e g r o u n d is t r a n s p o s e d .
O n t h e d o w n b e a t o f J_5 ( s e c o n d e n d i n g ) t h e b a s s
lands o n a D that's l o w e r t h a n a n yh e a r d u p t o that
p o i n t . T h i s is a s i g n a l t h a t t h e bass p a t t e r n w i l l
s h i f t . T h r e e P s l e a d t o A , a n d t h e bass p a t t e r n
starts o f f a g a i n i n t h a t k e y . T h i s t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f
 the g r o u n d is h e a r d b u t twice. I n mid-l_9 t h e
expected note, A ,iselaborated w i t h a PS. T h e n a
short connection leads t h e line t oB a n d the key t o
b. I n t h a t k e y (mid-_20) t h eg r o u n d begins a n e w
a n d i s h e a r d t w i c e m o r e . I n m i d - 2 4 t h e bass r e a c h e s
B a n d elaborates i tw i t h a skip o f a 3rd. T h e n aP ,
C|t, leads n e a t l y back t o t h e tonic. T h r e e m o r e
statements o f the g r o u n d r e a f f i r m D a n d lead back
to the reprise o f the second part, o rt othe end.
I n all this P u r c e l l s h o w s a n a d m i r a b l e sense o f
tonal direction, managing t h e motion from o n e
key t o another effortlessly. A tt h e same time, h e
j u g g l e s m e a s u r e s a n d h a l f m e a s u r e s s o as t o v a r y
the r h y t h m . W e hear t h e starting note o f t h e
g r o u n d as a d o w n b e a t , w h e t h e r it's w r i t t e n o n t h e
first beat o f t h e measure o r t h e third. Purcell
37
Continuous Variations 2
C o n t i n u o u s v a r i a t i o n s m a y b e b u i l t o n c h o r d pat-
t e r n s as w e l l as bass patterns. T h e c h o r d c o n t e n t
o f each v a r i a t i o n is t h esame, b u tt h e i n d i v i d u a l
lines a r e c h a n g e d . T o c o m p a r e t h et w o types o f
c o n t i n u o u s variations w en o w t u r n t oa w o r k based
o n a c h o r d p a t t e r n , H a n d e l ' s Passecaille ( F r e n c h
f o r Passacaglia), |34|. I tresembles Pachelbel's C h a -
conne i nitstechniques o felaboration; t h e differ-
ences b e g i n w i t h t h e basic m a t e r i a l o nw h i c h each
is b u i l t .
A g a i n there's n o " t h e m e . " A s t h e basic m a t e r i a l
o f t h e piece H a n d e l uses o n e o f t h e e l e m e n t a l
m o t i o n s o f t o n a l music, t h e circle o f 5ths. T h e
versin t h a t s e r v e s a s t h e b a c k g r o u n d i s :
i iv 6
vn m vi n (n?)vS i
5
(iv)
95
moves t h e p a t t e r n a b o u t , s o t h a t i t starts o n t h e
third beat several times. T w i c e t h e g r o u n d is
stretched b yh a l f a measure, b r e a k i n g the regular-
ity i m p o s e d b y t h e basic p a t t e r n .
A n o t h e r aspect o f the d u e t is Purcell's avoidance
of the m a i n pitfall o f continuous variations, t h e
stop a t t h e e n d o f e a c h s t a t e m e n t o f t h e bass
pattern. W h i l e t h eg r o u n d stops a n dbegins again
(almost) r e g u l a r l y , t h e vocal parts o v e r l a p t h e t w o -
measure u n i t a n dm a i n t a i n a n o n g o i n g continuity
in each s e c t i o n . I m i t a t i o n is u s e f u l i n t h i s , f o r it's a
natural w a y t o overlap parts. Finally, o n e o f t h e
joys o f t h e d u e t is Purcell's m a r v e l o u s w a y o f
setting t h e E n g l i s h language.
E F Worksheet 29
T h e s e c h o r d s a r e t h e basis o f t h e piece. T h e y m a y
appear i n 3 p o s i t i o n as w e l l as 3. I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
there's n o " r i g h t " bass l i n e , as t h e r e w a s i n P a c h e l -
b e l . I n p a r e n t h e s e s y o u find a l t r n a t e b a s s n o t e s
used f r e q u e n t l y . N o t i c e a m o n g t h o s e t h e A t h a t
precedes t h e last D . C a n i t b e t h e r o o t o f a t r i a d ?
T h e I I i n m i n o r is a d i m i n i s h e d t r i a d , a n d H a n -
del's v o c a b u l a r y d i d n ' t i n c l u d e t h a t d i s s o n a n t c h o r d .
T h e dissonance w o u l d be a tritone, A - E k We'll
watch t oseeh o w t h e c o m p o s e r f o u n d ways t o u s e
t h e A w h i l e a v o i d i n g t h e El> a b o v e i t . T h e a d v a n -
tage o f t h e A i s t h a t i t m a i n t a i n s t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f
5ths i n t h e bass.
V A R I A T I O N 1 T h e Passecaille begins w i t h t h e
heroic " d o t t e d r h y t h m " i n v e n t e d by J e a n Baptiste
Lully f o rt h ecourt o f L o u i s X I V ,a r h y t h m that
echoes t h r o u g h B a r o q u e m u s i c . T h e t o p t w o voices
m o v e i n r e s o n a n t 3 r d s a n d 6 t h s . T h e first n o t e o f
the t o p l i n e is elaborated w i t h a D N , others w i t h
Ns. T h e t h i c k five-part t e x t u r e creates a g r a n d
sound. I nt h e last m e a s u r e t h e bass reaches d o w n
an octave t oh e l p p u s h V t o I .
V A R I A T I O N 2 A s i m p l i f i e d versin o f V a r i a d o n
1. T h e d o t t e d r h y t h m m o v e s t w i c e a s s l o w l y as i t
did, a n d e l a b o r a t i o n is m i n i m a l . T h e bass, d o u b l e d
i n o c t a v e s , a l t e r n a t e l y filis t h e 5 t h s w i t h P s a n d
elaborates m a i n notes w i t h PSs. T h e octave d o u -
b l i n g is f o r t h e s a k e o f s o n o r i t y , a p r o c e d u r e t y p i c a l
of instrumental writing i ntonal music.
VARIATION 3 T h e r i g h t h a n d expresses t h e
basic c h o r d s i n t h e f o r m o f a p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y .
I n e a c h m e a s u r e t h e first c h o r d i s o u t l i n e d , w h i l e
t h e i n t e r v a l s i n t h e s e c o n d a r e filled w i t h P s . T h e
left h a n d , t o o , i s p o l y p h o n i c . I t plays t h e bass a n d
tenor parts alternately. A n o t h e r technique o f vari-
a d o n f o u n d h e r e i s inversin: t h e d e s c e n d i n g 5 t h s
o f V a r i a t i o n 2 b e c o m e t h eascending 4ths o f V a r i -
ation 3.
VARIATION 4 C o m p a r e this w i t h t h e previous
variation. Y o u see that t h e l o w e r part o f V a r i a t i o n
3 has become t h eupper part o fVariation 4, a n d
v i c e v e r s a . T h i s t e c h n i q u e i s k n o w n a s invertible
counterpoint, s i n c e t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e v o i c e s a n d
also t h eintervals b e t w e e n t h e m a r e i n v e r t e d . W h e n
t w o v o i c e s a r e i n v o l v e d , a s h e r e , w e s p e a k o double
counterpoint: i n v e r t i b l e c o u n t e r p o i n t f o r t w o v o i c e s .
H a n d e l uses this t e c h n i q u e t om a k e t w o variations
out o f one. O n e result o ft h e double counterpoint
is t h a t t h e b a s i c c h o r d s a r e n o w h e a r d i n f p o s i t i o n .
VARIATION 5 T h e eighth-note m e l o d y used i n
the t w oprevious variations returns t o its original
p o s i t i o n i n V a r i a t i o n 5 . T h e bass, also i n e i g h t h
notes, is n e w .T h em a i n notes a r e h e a r d i n t w o
octaves, t h eu p p e r o n e embellished w i t h a filled
3rd. T h e connection b e t w e e n t h e f o u r t h note o f
o n e g r o u p a n d t h e first n o t e o f t h e n e x t i s d e l i b e r -
ately abrupt, w i t h m a n y 7ths a n d 9ths. A l l this
m a k e s a s t r i k i n g bass line. W h e n a s m o o t h connec-
tion is h e a r d i n 1 9 - 2 0 w esuspect that t h e varia-
t i o n is n e a r i n g i t s e n d . I n 1 9A is i n t h e bass, w i t h
n o El? a b o v e i t .
A GROUP V a r i a t i o n s 3, 4 , a n d 5 a r ea g r o u p .
T h e u s e o ft h e s a m e m e l o d y i n each is a s t r o n g
u n i f y i n g element. G r o u p i n g is standard variation
practice, a n d H a n d e l will g r o u p o t h e r variations as
t h e Passecaille proceeds.
VARIATION 6 T r i p l e t s a r e i n t r o d u c e d , as t h e
process o fspeeding u p begins. H e r e some o f t h e
bass line's n o t e s a r e i nt h e u p p e r octave, s o m e i n
the lower. T h e m i x o fascending 4ths a n d descend-
i n g 5 t h s is n e w , b u t t h e pitches a r e n o t . T h e t r i p l e t
m e l o d y begins i n t h e s a m e register as i n V a r i a t i o n
5, t h e n d e s c e n d s t o e m b r a c e a r a n g e o f t w o a n d a
96
h a l f octaves. T h e v a r i a t i o n e n d s w i t h a v e r y l o w
s o u n d as t h e m e l o d y r e a c h e s d o w n b e l o w m i d d l e
C. O n c e a g a i n , t h e A i n t h e bass keeps t h e 5 t h
motion going.
VARIATION 7 A sbefore, t h eprincipie o f d o u -
ble c o u n t e r p o i n t enables H a n d e l t om a k e t w o var-
iations o u to fone. B u t h e doesn't d o things t h e
same w a y twice. T h e right h a n d o fVariation 7has
t h e s a m e c h o r d c o n t e n t as t h e left h a n d o f V a r i a -
tion 6,b u t t h e exact d i s t r i b u t i o n o f notes is differ-
ent. T h e m e l o d y o fV a r i a t i o n 6 is t a k e n o v e r b y
t h e b a s s o f V a r i a t i o n 7 a n d i n t h e first t w o m e a -
sures there's o n l y o n e d i f f e r e n c e b u t w h a t a dif-
f e r e n c e ! T h e s t e p DEl? ( f i f t h a n d s i x t h n o t e s o f
V a r i a t i o n 6 )is inverted, b e c o m i n g a 7 t h i n V a r i a -
t i o n 7 . T h e skip is q u i t e s t r i k i n g . T h e second h a l f
of Variation 7 does not correspond t ot h e previous
variation. D o u b l e c o u n t e r p o i n t p r o v i d e d t h e start-
ing point, b u t i t isn't followed t o t h e e n d . W h i l e
the triplets persist, t h e h a r m o n y m o v e s q u i c k l y
t h r o u g h V * - I i n 2 7 ,then t o a strong cadenee i n
28. a u t h e n t i c b u tn o t perfect. T h i s t w o f o l d p u n c -
tuation ends thegroup o ftwo variations.
VARIATION 8 T h ep o w e r f u l dotted r h y t h mo f
the o p e n i n g r e t u r n s i n t h e m e l o d y , w h i c h takes
notes f r o m a l lvoices o f t h e h a r m o n y a n d strings
t h e m o u t i n t o a scale. T h i s i n t r o d u c e s t h e u s e o f
t h e scale as t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f o n e n o t e , w h i c h w i l l
be c o n t i n u e d i nt h e n e x t t w ovariations. T h e left
h a n d presents t h e basic c h o r d s as a l t e r n a t i o n s o f |
and f positions.
VARIATION 9 T h i s v a r i a t i o n is a n intensifica-
d o n o f t h e p r e v i o u s o n e . T h e d e s c e n d i n g scales
m o v e t w i c e as q u i c k l y as i n V a r i a t i o n 8 , a n d six-
teenth notes predominate.
V A R I A T I O N 10 I n a f r e e inversin o f V a r i a t i o n
9, n o t o n l y a r e t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e p a r t s
r e v e r s e d , b u t t h e scale is i n v e r t e d t o o ; w h a t w e n t
d o w n n o w g o e s u p . T h e s i x t e e n t h s elabrate t h e
b a s s o f t h e c h o r d s . T h e s t r o n g d o u b l e c a d e n e e first
heard i nV a r i a t i o n 8 again provides t h e punctua-
tion for a pair o fvariations.
V A R I A T I O N 11 I n t h i s i s o l a t e d v a r i a t i o n , t h e
right h a n d plays t h e k i n d o fp o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y
associated w i t h b o t h t h e o r g a n a n d violin, t w o
instruments that H a n d e l himself played. T h e upper
line o ft h e melody moves, B l ? - A - G - F j t - G , i n a
stately f a s h i o n . T h e i n n e r l i n e is a d e s c e n d i n g scale
a n d t h ebass a c c o m p a n i e s w i t h r o o t - p o s i t i o n t r i a d s .
Observe h o w , i n 4 4 , t h e polyphonic melody
expresses a S U S a n d itsresolution.
V A R I A T I O N S 12 and 13 T h e s e t w o v a r i a t i o n s ,
i n d e p a r t i n g f r o m t h e basic c h o r d p a t t e r n , s e r v e as
a n i n t e r l u d e w i t h i n t h e e n t i r e s e t . T h e c o n t r a s t is
u n e x p e c t e d . W e m a y h a z a r d a guess about these
two variations: H a n d e l was a great improvisor,a n d
variations have l o n g been associated w i t h i m p r o v -
i s a d o n . Possibly h e i m p r o v i s e d t h i s Passecaille b e f o r e
he w r o t e i t d o w n . V a r i a t i o n s 12 a n d 13 m a y rep-
r e s e n t a flight o f f a n c y t h a t t h e c o m p o s e r w a s n ' t
willing t o give u p ,even i fthey didn't correspond
to t h eaccepted n o t i o n o f v a r i a t i o n f o r m .
V A R I A T I O N S 14, 15, A N D 16 A f t e r t h e d i g r e s -
s i o n , these v a r i a t i o n s r e t u r n t o t h e basic c h o r d
content t o f o r m a brilliant closing group. O n e
figure, consisting o f f o u r sixteenth notes i n a n
arpeggio, unifies t h ethree. Insistent repetition o f
t h e figure b u i l d s a p o w e r f u l m o m e n t u m t o w a r d
t h e final g o a l . T h e figure i s h e a r d i n t h e l o w e r p a r t
in Variation 14, i nt h e upper part i nVariation 15,
a n d i n b o t h i n V a r i a t i o n 16. W i t h this simple
38
Extensions of Chords
in Musical Time and Space
H a v i n g examined ways i nw h i c h melodies m a y be
e l a b o r a t e d i n m u s i c a l space, y o u will n o w study
h o w t o elabrate c h o r d s . W h i l e t h e r e i s s o m e s i m -
ple c h o r d elaboradon i n Renaissance music, i t wasn't
until t h eseventeenth century, w h e n keyboard a n d
string i n s t r u m e n t s became t h e focus o f musical
thought, that composers began t o project chords
beyond t h eS A T B limits. T h r e e principal ways o f
doing that emerged:
arpeggiation, s o u n d i n g t h e notes o f a chord o n e after
the other rather than simultaneously;
m o t i o n w i t h i n a c h o r d , elaborating t h e individual notes
o f a c h o r d w i t h p a s s i n g a n d n e i g h b o r moton;
p e d a l p o i n t , s u s t a i n i n g t h e r o o t o f a c h o r d i n t h e bass
w h i l e subordnate c h o r d s m o v e a b o v e i t .
ARPEGGIATION W h e n t h e notes o f a c h o r d
a r e s o u n d e d i n s u c c e s s i o n , i t i s c a l l e d arpeggiation.
d e v i c e H a n d e l b u i l d s a s t r o n g conclusin t o t h e
entire Passecaille.
COMPARISON A b r i e f c o m p a r i s o n o f P a c h e l -
bel's C h a c o n n e a n d H a n d e l ' s P a s s e c a i l l e w i l l r e v e a l
their similarities a n d differences. T h e Chaconne
a d h e r e s t o a fixed b a s s l i n e ; H a n d e l h a s n o s p e c i f i c
bass i n m i n d . T h e c h o r d s o f t h e C h a c o n n e f l o w
f r o m t h e c o u n t e r p o i n t b e t w e e n bass a n d u p p e r
voices a n d a r e n ' t a l w a y s t h e s a m e ; t h e c h o r d s o f
t h e P a s s e c a i l l e a r e fixed. B o t h p i e c e s u s e t h e s a m e
t e c h n i q u e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n , first s e e n i n S i m p s o n : P ,
N , 3 r d s b o t h filled a n d a s s k i p s , a n d o c t a v e s h i f t s .
H a n d e l a l s o u s e s a s c a l e t o elabrate a s i n g l e n o t e .
I n b o t h t h e r e is s p e e d u p i n r h y t h m : t h e n o t e
vales g e t s m a l l e r , t h o u g h t h e t e m p o r e m a i n s
unchanged. B o t h u s e i m a g i n a t i v e register shifts
and p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y t o v a r y t h e basic p a t t e r n
and t ob r i n g i tt o musical life.
CF Worksheet 30
( T h e t e r m c o m e s f r o m t h e I t a l i a n arpeggiare, t o
play t h e h a r p . ) Y o u h a v e j u s t h e a r d e x a m p l e s o f
arpeggiation i n t h e last t h r e e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e
H a n d e l Passecaille. T h e r e t h e c h o r d s a r e activated
at t h e k e y b o a r d t h r o u g h r a p i d s i x t e e n t h - n o t e
motion. E v e r y n o t e h e a r d is a m e m b e r o fa c h o r d .
T h a t music doesn't reach b e y o n d t h e S A T B regis-
ters. T h e n e x t e x a m p l e d o e s .
Toccata in e, X P A C H E L B E L
H e r e y o uhave t h e o p e n i n g o f a brilliant o r g a n
w o r k , [2"T]. T h e i n i t i a l g e s t u r e o f t h e p i e c e i s b a s e d
entirely o na n arpeggiation o f the tonic triad. T h e
music reaches b e y o n d t h e S A T B f o r m a t i n a w a y
that's characteristic o fk e y b o a r d music. O n e reason
that this measure sounds like t h e beginning o f a
piece is that i t o p e n s u p a l l t h e available registers
of the instrument.
I f a single c h o r d m a ybe extended i n musical
space t h r o u g h arpeggiation, so m a y a c h o r d p r o -
T h e D - t r i a d is arpeggiated i nt w o ways. O na s m a l l
scale, a r p e g g i a t i o n s s p a n a n o c t a v e a n d t a k e o n e
h a l f o f a m e a s u r e . A t h r e e - n o t e figure, b u i l t o n a
N , plays a role i n this arpeggiation. B u t there's a
l a r g e r c o n n e c t i o n t o o . Y o u find a l o n g - r a n g e c o n -
nection, s h o w n with arrows i n theexcerpt, between
the highest notes o f each half-measure unit.
T o g e t h e r they a d du p t o :
8

m
gression. I n o n e o fScarlatti's r e m a r k a b l y inventive
7
h a r p s i c h o r d sonatas, I - I V - V - I is s p r e a d f r o m
the top t othe bottom o fthe instrument.

S o n a t a i n E , 1 10 SCARLATTI This type o flong-range arpeggiation will be f o u n d

i n Classic a n d R o m a n t i c pieces, as w e l l as B a r o q u e .

M O T I O N W I T H I N A C H O R D A n o t h e r type o f
c h o r d extensin m a y o p r a t e w i t h i n a s i n g l e r e g i s -
ter. Voices that c o m p r i s e t h e c h o r d a r e elaborated
with passing a n d neighbor m o t i o n , o r they exchange
notes, o r simply m o v e t oother chord members. I n
a n y case, t h e r e is s o m e o f t h e effect o f c h o r d
i a n g e f our octaves change without a n y actual change o fchords, a n d
litMii

t V r s the music moves ahead.

u*4
s
A l m o s t a n y t o n a l piece will include s o m e m o t i o n

Mi * l
w i t h i n a c h o r d , f o r that's t h e "small change" o f
tonal m u s i c . T h e r e a r e several typical uses o f t h e
-^H* * i* p r o c e d u r e i n t h e S a r a b a n d e b y M a t t h e s o n , |27|.
z
I IV V 7 i

7
I a n d I Va r e arpeggiated. T h enotes o f V a r e
elaborated with Ps.T h u s t h etechnique o f arpeg-
giation is c o m b i n e d w i t h a n o t h e r t y p e o f elabora-
tion.
T h e next example shows arpeggiation i n t w o
dimensions.
A r o m a n - n u m b e r description o f t h e t w o sounds
VIVALDI w o u l d say that they a r e b o t h I .Y e t there's a differ-
e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e o c t a v e s k i p i n t h e bass is
a m u s i c a l event, i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h t o g e t t h e piece
started. T h elistener hears that s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n s
f r o m t h e first t o t h e s e c o n d b e a t ; w h a t h a p p e n s i s
a change o fregister within a chord.
A skip i n t h e m e l o d y starts t h e second section o f
the s a m e piece:

Range: t w o octaves
*>J<b f f f
98
T h i s is a s k i p b e t w e e n m e m b e r s o f a single chord.
A g a i n , there's n o c h o r d c h a n g e , b u t m o t i o n within
the c h o r d carries the musical action
I f a s k i p b e t w e e n c h o r d m e m b e r s i s filled w i t h a
P, y o u h a v e t h e m e l o d y i n 14:
a r p e g g i a t e d t r i a d is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e w h o l e n o t e s
that follow t h emeasure o fmusic. A l l notes that
aren't chord m e m b e r s are P o r N , m o v i n g within
the triad.
Each o f the melodies implies m o r e than one line;
each is p o l y p h o n i c . Indeed, B a c h used a l l t h e
resources o f elaborated counterpoint that were
available to h i m .

PEDAL POINT " P o i n t " m e a n s note, as i n c o u n -

terpoint, a n d the pedal o f the o r g a n can sustain a
bass n o t e f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e . P u t t i n g t h e t w o
I n a m o r e c o m p l e x piece, m o t i o n w i t h i n a chord w o r d s t o g e t h e r y o u h a v e t h e t e r m pedal point,
m a y c o m b i n e w i t h a r p e g g i a t i o n . O n l y o n e measure m e a n i n g a sustained note i n t h e lowest voice,
o f B a c h i s n e e d e d t o s h o w a g o o d d e a l o f such whether played o nthe organ pedal o rnot. I t m a y
activity. also r e f e r t o all t h em u s i c that is h e a r d o v e r t h e
pedal.
Allemande from French Suite N o . 3 BACH T h e T o c c a t a b y P a c h e l b e l , [21], a l s o s e e b e l o w ,
N f e a t u r e s t h r e e p e d a l p o i n t s . T h e first f o l l o w s t h e
a r p e g g i a t i o n t h a t o p e n s the piece, r u n n i n g f r o m 2
11= into 7 .T h e r e are three parts t othis pedal, follow-
o
ing each other w i t h o u t a break. Observe that the
p i t e r m " p e d a l " r e f e r s b o t h t o t h e bass n o t e a n d t o a l l
Z+B.
?p? f f m 8 the notes above it.
-o A short stabilizing m o t i o n answers the opening
flourish, o c c u p y i n g t h e first t h r e e b e a t s o f 2. T w o
i n n e r voices m o v e i n parallel 3rds w i t h i n the triad.
T h e first f u l l m e a s u r e has f o u r s i x t e e n t h notes on I n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n , t h e t o p l i n e i s first e m b e l l i s h e d
e v e r y beat. W h a t u n i f i e s a l l this m o t i o n ? Every w i t h a N , after w h i c h t h e space b e t w e e n 8 a n d 5 is
note plays a part i n expressing a b-triad. The filled w i t h P s .

Toccata i n e PACHELBEL

Mf J
i
m E

11

r *crr
i
99
 T h e second part o ft h e pedal begins w i t h t h e first b e a t o f 7_ a p o w e r f u l A # p u t s t h e b a s s E i n t o a
u p b e a t t o 3. H e r e t h e t e x t u r e c h a n g e s c o m p l e t e l y d i s s o n a n t p o s i t i o n , a n d finally i t h a s t o m o v e .
except for t h epedal note. T h e alto has a written- T h e s e c o n d p e d a l filis m i d - 2 0 - 2 2 ( s e e b e l o w ) . I t
out trill that embellishes 1 . S u r r o u n d i n g this, e m p h a s i z e t h e d o m i n a n t t h a t w i l l l e a d t o t h e final
soprano a n d tenor m o v e i n parallel lOths, animat- tonic. T h i s is a f a v o r i t e l o c a t i o n f o rpedal points,
i n g t h e t r i a d w i t h D N s a n d a p a r t l y filled 5 t h . for it's a n e f f e c t i v e w a y o f g i v i n g w e i g h t t o t h e final
cadenee.
DN DN
I n t h econcluding tonic pedal point Pachelbel
t a k e s t h e figure j u s t h e a r d w i t h i n d o m i n a n t h a r -
m o n y a n dw o r k s i tinto tonic h a r m o n y . T h e c o m -
10 10 10 10 10 10 6 6
5 t h
poser controls t h e musical energy purposefully,
DN
r e l a x i n g t h e tensin t o p r e p a r e t h e e n d . T h e m a j o r

m
r
In 5 the texture changes again for the third part
o f t h e p e d a l p o i n t . T h e t h r e e u p p e r voices toss
a r o u n d a figure o f t h r e e u p b e a t s i x t e e n t h s a n d a
d o w n b e a t n o t e . T h i s figure i s n e a t l y w o r k e d i n t o
the tonic triad.
A t t h e e n d o f 6 y o u h e a r t h e first c l u e t h a t t h e
tonic's c o n t r o l isa b o u t t o e n d . T h e last t h r e e notes
i n t h em e a s u r e , D - C i t - B , d o n ' t b e l o n g t o t h e e-
scale. T h e y a r e p a r t o f t h e b-scale, a n d t h e y l e a d
the ear away f r o m t h ekey o fe toward b. O n t h e
t r i a d , w i t h its P i c a r d y 3 r d , b r i n g s a sense o f finality
to the Toccata's e n d i n g .
Each pedal point played a n important role i n
s h a p i n g t h e p i e c e . T h e first s t a t e d t h e k e y a n d
gave i t t i m e t o establish itself i n t h elistener's ear.
T h e s e c o n d p r e p a r e d t h e final t o n i c a n d w a s i n
fact t h e cadential d o m i n a n t . T h e t h i r d e x t e n d e d
tonic h a r m o n y a n d gave i t emphasis t o conclude
t h e e n t i r e piece. T h i s s h o w s y o u h o w i m p o r t a n t
pedal points c a n be i narticulating t h e f o r m o fa
composition.
(CF W o r k s h e e t 3 1

w A0 #itp^r T100n0
rJJJ--J j 1

.
rV- 1i

J*^J. 0 O

-kWrP ^J-HJ
O o

100
 39
Some Free-Form Pieces
INTRODUCTION S o m e v e r y imaginative pieces
a r e n o t b a s e d o n a n y fixed p a t t e r n s o r e v e n f o r m s .
M a n y o f these g r e w out o f improvisadon, retaining
some o f t h e freshness a n d spontaneity o f their
o r i g i n a l i n s p i r a t i o n . I n s u c h pieces y o u m a y find
irregular phrases, uneven rhythms, varied tex-
tures, a n d unpredictable h a r m o n i c structure; tonal
unity m a y n o tb e emphasized. A n element o f
e x p l o r a t i o n m a y b e a strong factor i nthe general
character o ft h e piece. W e will consider t w o types
o f i n s t r u m e n t a l piece t h a t m a y b e called "free-
f o r m , " t h e p r e l u d e a n d t h e toccata. W e w i l l also
e x a m i n e t h e recitative, a type o faccompanied vocal
music.
PRELUDE T h e t e r m suggests something t o b e
p l a y e d b e f o r e s o m e o t h e r m u s i c , o r t h e first o f a
set o f pieces. T h i s is u s u a l l y w h a t i t m e a n s i n
B a r o q u e m u s i c . L a t e r , n o t a b l y i n the piano w o r k s
o f C h o p i n , Debussy, a n dRachmaninoff, the inde-
pendent prelude became the n o r m .
A B a r o q u e p r e l u d e is a s h o r t piece based o n a
s i n g l e i d e a . O f t e n y o u find a figure, j u s t a f e w
notes w i t h a character o f their own, from which
m u c h o reven all o f the melodic material derives.
T h e figure m a y b e v a r i e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e
p r e l u d e , o r i tm a y b erepeated with n ochange. I n
a n y case, t h e m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t o f t h e piece d e p e n d s
to a great e x t e n t o n t h e h a r m o n y , registral m o d o n s ,
a n d changing textures, rather than the melody.
A f a v o r i t e t e x t u r e i nB a r o q u e preludes is c r e -
ated b y arpeggiation. O r i g i n a t i n g o n the lute a n d
guitar, i t soon f o u n d its w a y t o the harpsichord,
a n d later t o t h ep i a n o . A s i m p l e example, |26A|, is
by a composer f r o m w h o m Bach learned af e w
t h i n g s , a Germn w i t h t h e m e l l i f l u o u s ame o f
J o h a n n Raspar F e r d i n a n d Fischer.
E v e n w i t h o u t t h e title o f t h e piece, the arpeggia-
t i o n isq u i t e a p p a r e n t b e h i n d the S A T B lines. T h i s
is f o u r - p a r t w r i t i n g w i t h a k e y b o a r d t e x t u r e .
A figure o f f o u r s i x t e e n t h n o t e s u n i f i e s t h e d e s i g n .
A l l t h e v o i c e s s h a r e i n s t a t i n g t h a t figure, w h i c h i s
h e a r d o n e v e r y beat u n t i l t h e v e r y end. Since t h e r e
are n o changes i n t h epattern, t h e melody, o r t h e
101
texture, w em u s t look t o t h e p o l y p h o n y a n d t h e
tonal m o v e m e n t f o r the musical interest.
T h e first f o u r m e a s u r e s a r e g r o u p e d o v e r a
pedal point. It's difficult t o describe a pedal p o i n t
w i t h r o m n n u m b e r s ; figured b a s s s h o w s t h e c h o r d
content a n d voice leading clearly.
-Ti
1 Ski , 9l2 4-2
%
5 6 7 5
3 4 5 3
T
The tonal m o v e m e n t isquite simple. After t h e
t o n i c i s s t a b i l i z e d {1-5) t h e r e ' s a m o t i o n t o w a r d
I V ( 6 - 7 ) a n d a return t o I .T h a t emphasis o n t h e
subdominant is balanced b y a n emphasis o n t h e
d o m i n a n t that includes Fjt, the leading note o f the
d o m i n a n t , i n 14. T h e d o m i n a n t is i n c o n t r o l f r o m
1 3 t h r o u g h 18. W h e n y o u h e a r t h e c o n c l u d i n g
tonic y o u r e a l i z e t h a t t h e bass h a s n ' t s o u n d e d a C
since t h e o p e n i n g p e d a l p o i n t . T h a t ' s o n e r e a s o n
that this s i m p l e piece succeeds i n h o l d i n g t h elis-
tener's interest.
Simple t h o u g h t h er h y t h m o fthis prelude m a y
be, a n i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t m a y b e o b s e r v e d : o n w h a t
level does t h e play o f dissonance a n d consonance
take place? C e r t a i n l y n o t w i t h i n a n y m e a s u r e , f o r
there are n ochanges t ob e f o u n d there. Pitch does
change f r o m o n e measure t o another, however.
T h e significant r h y t h m level i nt h e p o l y p h o n y is
t h e d o t t e d h a l f n o t e , t h e r h y t h m i c valu o f t h e f u l l
measure. Y o u have already observed strong a n d
weak measures, explained o n page 2 5 . I n this
prelude strong a n d weak measures altrnate
throughout. K n o w i n g this, y o uc a n understand
how dissonance a n d consonance interact i n t h e
piece.
T h e r e a r e t h r e e S U S s , i n 7 , 9 , a n d JJ.. T h o s e
are strong-beat m e a s u r e s . E a c h S U S is p r e p a r e d i n
the previous weak-beat measure a n d resolved i n
the following weak-beat measure. T h i s corre-
sponds exactly t o the n o r m a t i v e S U S procedure.
T h e r e a r e also t w o 4 t h s h e a r d against bass notes;
e a c h o n e i s d i f f e r e n t . I n J_3 t h e b a s s G filis t h e 3 r d
b e t w e e n A a n d Fjt, b o t h consonant. T h a t G is a n
P, i n a strong-beat m e a s u r e . I n t h e d o m i n a n t pedal,
1 5 - 1 8 , t h er e l a t i o n o ft h e o u t e r voices is 3 r d - 4 t h -
4 t h - 3 r d . T h i s ist h e ancient c o n s o n a n t 4 t h , b r o u g h t
back t olife once again.
A DIFFERENT PRELUDE A l t h o u g h arpeggia-
t i o n is a f a v o r i t e t e x t u r e i n B a r o q u e preludes,
o t h e r s a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d as well. O n e o f t - h e a r d
t e x t u r e is m a d e o f stepwise m e l o d i e s w o v e n together
o v e r a s l o w e r - m o v i n g bass. T h em e l o d y is o f t e n
given rhythmic coherence through t h e use o f a
figure. A n o t h e r p r e l u d e b y Fischer, |26B|, illus-
t r a t e s t h i s a p p r o a c h (see b e l o w ) .
T h e f i g u r e consists o ff o u r notes, t h r e e upbeats
and a downbeat, a standard pattern i n Baroque
music. T h e upbeats a r esixteenth notes; the d o w n -
beat m a y be longer. W h i l e the r h y t h m o f the figure
i s fixed, i t s p i t c h - s h a p e vares. H e r e a r e f o u r v e r -
sions o f the figure:
figure figure
inverted inverted
4 l u d e ; C o u p e r i n h a n d l e s i t flexibly. H e r e a r e s o m e
A f i n 5 a n d Ejj i n 6 lead t o a p e d a l p o i n t o n Fjt,
s t a r t i n g i n m i d - 6 . T h i s is t h e d o m i n a n t o f t h e
d o m i n a n t , a n u n u s u a l choice f o r a pedal note.
H o w t o g e t b a c k t o t h e t o n i c ? I n 8, A l ] i s r e s t o r e d ,
a n d t h e bass m o v e s g r a d u a l l y f r o m Fjt t o B . T h i s
t i m e there's n o d o m i n a n t pedal. T o prepare t h e
final c a d e n e e , a l a r g e c h r o m a t i c N i n t h e b a s s , A j t ,
e m b e l l i s h e s B t o crate tensin. O v e r A j t y o u h e a r
7 |
a n interesting chord, VII > o fV . I t intensifies t h e
d o m i n a n t a n d l e a d s t o t h e conclusin o f t h e e n t i r e
p i e c e . T h e final E i n t h e b a s s , a d o u b l i n g , i s t h e
lowest note o f the prelude.
A FRENCH PRELUDE W em o v e into a differ-
e n t w o r l d o f m u s i c t o s t u d y [24], o n e o f t h e p r e -
ludes that Francois Couperin w r o t e as a
d e m o n s t r a t i o n piece i n h i s b o o k o n playing t h e
h a r p s i c h o r d . I n g , i t ' s m i s s i n g o n e flat i n t h e k e y
s i g n a t u r e . T h e c o n v e n d o n o f l e a v i n g o u t o n e flat
i n m i n o r flat k e y s , i n m e m o r y o f t h e D o r i a n m o d e ,
lasted well i n t o the eighteenth century.
T h e r e ' s a s t e a d y flow o f e i g h t h n o t e s f r o m b e g i n -
n i n g t o e n d . T h a t m o t i o n is d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g all
t h e voices, t h e bass h a v i n g t h e least activity. T h e
t e x t u r e is b r o k e n . T h e n u m b e r o f voices h e a r d
varies f r o m t w o t of o u r , a n d the r h y t h m i c regular-
ity o f t h e F i s c h e r p r e l u d e s is absent.
O n e figure p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e p r e -
o f t h e f o r m s that i t takes:

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g t h e figure i s p r e s e n t e d a n d
i m m e d i a t e l y repeated a 3 r d lower. T h i s creates a
c h a i n o f e i g h t n o t e s w i t h a n i d e n d t y o f its o w n f o r
a b i t m o r e t h a n t w o measures. T h eeight notes
cover t h e s o p r a n o a n d alto registers. T h e tenor
imitates. A l l t h e registers o f t h e piece have been
opened u p over the tonic pedal.
N e x t , w e s e e t h e inversin o f t h e figure. T h i s i s
a way o fgetdng m o r e mileage out o fthe musical
material, a n dFischer does i twell i n 2 . T h e entire
e i g h t - n o t e c h a i n isi n v e r t e d a n d t h e n i m i t a t e d . T h e
figure i s t r e a t e d f r e e l y i n _3, t h e c h a i n m a k i n g i t s
final a p p e a r a n c e s first i n t h e i n v e r t e d f o r m , t h e n
in the original.
I n 5 t h e f o u r - n o t e figure s o u n d s i n a l l v o i c e s , i n
cise i m i t a t i o n . B o t h _5 a n d 6 a r e c l e a r e x a m p l e s
of broken texture. T h i s illustration shows other
v e r s i o n s o f t h e figure t h a t a r e h e a r d i n _5 a n d 6 .
T h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t is q u i t e clear. A s i n t h e
p r e v i o u s prelude, a tonic pedal provides the stabil-
ity n e e d e d f o rt h e o p e n i n g . B u t w i t h a n entirely T h e figure b e g i n s w i t h a n u p b e a t , w h i c h t h e c o m -
different texture, this pedal sounds quite different poser puts t o g o o d u s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e piece.
f r o m that o f the Prelude i n C. S o m e t i m e s t h e i n i t i a l n o t e is p r e c e d e d b y a rest, as

102
i n 1.. A t o t h e r t i m e s t h e h g u r e s i m p l y b e g i n s a f t e r
a s t r o n g beat. H e r e a r e s o m e o f t h e ways i n w h i c h
it is u s e d .
I n _1 t h e s i x - n o t e figure i s s t a t e d i n t h e t o p v o i c e
and i m m e d i a t e l y repeated a n dvaried in the inner
v o i c e . I n 3 t h e figure i s first s h o r t e n e d ( i n t h e
u p p e r voice), t h e n lengthened (in the lower voice).
I n 7 a s h o r t e n e d versin o f t h e figure, i n t h e
u p p e r p a r t , i s c o m b i n e d w i t h a l e n g t h e n e d versin
b e l o w . T h e m e t e r y o u actually h e a r i n 7 isn't 4 b u t
, f o l l o w i n g t h e g r o u p i n g s h o w n i n t h e s k e t c h ; t h i s
i s a h e m i o l a . T h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e figure a t t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f 8 i s v e r y cise t o t h e o r i g i n a l versin,
but f r o m that point o n y o u hear mostly the four-
note f o r m o f the figure, three upbeats and a d o w n -
beat. I t a p p e a r s i n i m i t a t i o n i n J O a n d is u s e d
freely thereafter.
T h e phrases o f t h e piece a r e n ' t at all regular,
w h i c h is o n e reason that t h e y a r e so interesting.
W e take a brief look at t h e phrase layout o f t h e
piece, t o g e t h e r w i t h the t o n a l m o v e m e n t .
T h e first p h r a s e e x t e n d s t o t h e d o w n b e a t o f 3,
i t s g o a l V*. T h e o p e n i n g G i n t h e bass i s a s h o r t
pedal p o i n t that serves t o stabilize t h etonic. T h e
l o w G is h e a r d again o n l y a t t h e v e r y end.
T h e second p h r a s e starts i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e
d o w n b e a t o f 3 ( t h e u p b e a t figure s e r v e s t h e p u r -
p o s e a d m i r a b l y h e r e ) a n d contines t o t h e d o w n -
beat o f 6. T h e tonal center m o v e s t oIII, confirmed
by a n imperfect authentic cadenee.
N o s o o n e r i s Bt> h e a r d a s t o n i c t h a n t h e m u s i c
moves o n . T h e third phrase heads for V , a n d d
s o u n d s as t o n i c i n 9 . T h e p h r a s e ends w i t h a
s e m i c a d e n c e o n t h e first b e a t o f 1 0 .
F r o m m i d - 1 0 t h e m u s i c is i n g again, b u t w i t h
l i t t l e e m p h a s i s o n t h e t o n i c . T h e fifth p h r a s e e n d s
with a deceptive cadenee i n mid-J3. It'si nt h e
n a t u r e o f deceptive cadenees that they may almost
pass u n n o t i c e d , a n d this o n e attracts little a t t e n -
tion.
T h e deceptive cadenee does provide a j u m p i n g -
o f f p o i n t f o r t h e c l i m a x o f t h e p i e c e . T h e l o n g final
phrase extends f r o m mid-13 t o the end o f t h e
p r e l u d e . J 3 is t h e h i g h p o i n t o f t h e piece. T h e
m e l o d y reaches its highest n o t e , G .A long, elegant
descent t h r o u g h a n octave follows. Reaching t h e
l o w e r G i n J 7 , t h e m e l o d y d o e s n ' t yet come t oa n
e n d b e c a u s e t h e r e ' s n o G i n t h e bass t o m e e t i t .
O n l y i n t h e l a s t m e a s u r e d o e s t h e bass a r r i v e a t G
t o c o m p l e t e t h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t . I n t h e final m e a -
s u r e , a l l t h e tensin i s r e l e a s e d . T h e s u s p e n d e d C
i n t h e a l t o , i m p l i e d d u r i n g t h erest, resolves t o t h e
m a j o r (Picardy) 3 r d a n d t h e bass returns t o t h e
same l o w G that began the piece.
W r i t t e n as a practice piece, Couperin's prelude
is a c o n c i s e e x a m p l e o f m a n y o f t h e b e s t f e a t u r e s
of the French Baroque: graeeful melody, artful
u s e o f d i s s o n a n c e , b r o k e n t e x t u r e partcularly s u i t e d
to t h e h a r p s i c h o r d , a n d a full s o n o r i t y w i t h rela-
tively f e w notes.
BACH'S FIRST PRELUDE T h e famous prelude
t h a t o p e n s The Well-Tempered Clavier, [ 3 3 ] ( c l a v i e r
means a keyboard i n s t r u m e n t ) shows that Bach's
idea o f a p r e l u d e was t h e s a m e as his c o n t e m p o r a r -
ies', a l t h o u g h t h i s p i e c e i s l o n g e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s
we've studied a n d m o r e developed i n some ways.
A s i n g l e figure a h a l f m e a s u r e l o n g d o m i n a t e s
the prelude. Since it doesn't change, w e look t o the
polyphony a n d t h e registral m o v e m e n t f o r t h e
piece's m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t .
T h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t is b u i l t o n a l o n g - r a n g e
bass d e s c e n t f r o m m i d d l e C t o l o w C . T h i s t w o -
o c t a v e s p a n i s c o v e r e d i n a v e r y delibrate w a y t h a t
makes t h e m o s t o f arrivals a t t e m p o r a r y goals. O n e
o f these divides t h e descent i n t w o . T h e C i n 19
provides a m o m e n t a r y p a u s e , a f t e r w h i c h t h e bass
moves again. A decisive p o i n t is t h e arrival a t G i n
24, beginning a d o m i n a n t pedal. O v e r that a p o w -
e r f u l c l i m a x l e a d s t o t h e final C i n 32, w h e r e
there's s o m u c h e n e r g y left t h a t B a c h takes f o u r
measures t ow i n d d o w n .
T h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t s h o w n b y t h e bass l i n e is
the f o u n d a t i o n o f the piece. Closer t o t h e surface,
a significant feature is t h e play o fdissonance a n d
consonance. M o r e t h a n h a l f the measures include
a dissonant relationship o f o n e k i n d o r another.
T h e tensinrelase a c t i o n p u s h e s t h e m u s i c f o r -
ward f r o m o n e short-range goal t o t h enext. B u t
every dissonance isn't f o l l o w e d i m m e d i a t e l y b y a
consonance. I n particular, t h e eight measures o f
d o m i n a n t p e d a l a r e c o m p l e t e l y d i s s o n a n t , w h i c h is
w h y t i m e is n e e d e d a t t h e e n d t o reach stability
again.
T h e prelude may be divided thus:
1-4 s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e t o n i c , extensin o f I
5-11 motion toV
12-19 m o t i o n back t o I
20-32 t h e longest phrase, including t h e d o m i n a n t
pedal 2 4 - 3 1
32-35 t h e concluding tonic, extended over a pedal
p o i n t ( t h e d o w n b e a t o f 3 2 is b o t h t h e e n d o f
the fourth phrase a n d t h e beginning o f t h e
fifth)
While these divisions will help y o u t o grasp t h e
shape o f t h e prelude, they aren't emphasized i n
the m u s i c ; t h e piece is c o n t i n u o u s . A single figure,
repeated w i t h o u t r h y t h m i c c h a n g e , is a p o w e r f u l
forc f o r m u s i c a l u n i t y . V a r i e t y i s g a i n e d b y t h e
m o t i o n s away f r o m the tonic a n d back, the registral
m o v e m e n t that's s h a p e d b y t h e bass, a n d t h e e v e r -
changing interplay o f dissonance and consonance.
T O C C A T A L i k e t h e p r e l u d e , t h e k e y b o a r d toc-
cata o r i g i n a t e d i n i m p r o v i s a d o n . T h e I t a l i a n w o r d
toccare m e a n s t o t o u c h o r p l a y . A t o c c a t a i s a t y p e
o f piece that is o f t e n brilliant a n d virtuostic; i t is
n o t a f o r m . N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , m a n y toccatas w e r e
w r i t t e n b y c o m p o s e r s w h o w e r e also p e r f o r m e r s ,
usually organists.
Girolamo Frescobaldi began writing music in the
late Renaissance, utilizing the h a r m o n y a n d coun-
terpoint that was his heritage. Before long, h o w -
ever, h e began i n v e n t i n g n e w techniques and n e w
s o u n d s . H i s T o c c a t a , [16|, is a m a r v e l o u s e x a m p l e
o f the early Baroque, full o f fantasy a n d always
doing the unexpected.
T h e m u s i c is i n t h e " m o d e r n " k e y o f a, estab-
l i s h e d less t h a n a c e n t u r y b e f o r e . T h e r e ' s n o t r a c e
o f a n y m o d e h e r e a n d n o s i n g l e figure i s i n c o m -
m a n d . O n e figure i s i m i t a t e d a t t h e o u t s e t , b u t
t h e n d i s a p p e a r s . A n o t h e r figure i s i m i t a t e d i n _ 5 -
8, b u t i t t o o m a k e s n o f u r t h e r a p p e a r a n c e s . O n e
chain o fsixteenth notes follows another, but t h e
m e l o d i c aspect o f t h e m u s i c isn't h i g h l y organized.
T h e piece begins w i t h a n a r p e g g i a t i o n that opens
u p the registers o f the i n s t r u m e n t . T h e extended
tonic is answered b y a n e x t e n d e d d o m i n a n t . T h e
leading note, Gjt, doesn't resolve, h o w e v e r ; it's
canceled as t h e t o p line m o v e s t h r o u g h to F |
a n d V\. T h e s u b d o m i n a n t , d , a n d i t s s u b d o m i n a n t
a r e i n t h e f o r e f r o n t f r o m 5 t h r o u g h 8. T h e r e s t o f
the piece m o v e s back a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n tonic a n d
s u b d o m i n a n t , w i t h v e r y little d o m i n a n t . O n l y i n J 3
do y o u hear a strong V * . O n e o f the ways in which
it's s t r e t c h e d o u t t h r o u g h t h e m e a s u r e is w i t h t h e
consonant 4th in the tenor.
A n i m a g i n a d v e detail isp r o v i d e d by the E i n the
top line f r o m J J , into J 3 . It's elaborated b y a
s i x t e e n t h - n o t e F . T h e E c h a n g e s i t s m e a n i n g as
y o u hear it: 5th o f the A-triad, then root o f the E-
t r i a d ( t h e 3 r d is i n t h e bass), t h e n 5 t h o f t h e A -
t r i a d a g a i n ( n o w t h a t c h o r d ' s 3 r d i s i n t h e bass).
T h e h a u n t i n g effect is e n h a n c e d b y t h e distance
between t h e retained E a n d t h e sounds below.
W h e n t h e l i n e finally d e s c e n d s f r o m t h e E i t ' s a
signal t h a t t h e e n d is near.
Frescobaldi's toccata gives the i m p r e s s i o n o f o n e
large musical gesture. It's n o t a t all regular i n
phrase structure, a n di n d e e d t h elistener doesn't
t h i n k o f phrases i n this m u s i c . T h e effect is a l m o s t
improvisatory, one idea following the next i n a way
that's unpredictable b u t e n t i r e l y convincing.
104
P A C H E L B E L T h e T o c c a t a b y P a c h e l b e l , [21], h a s
already been discussed i n terms o f the three pedal
points that m a r k t h e beginning a n de n do f t h e
piece. A b r i e f o v e r v i e w o f t h e e n t i r e piece follows.
A s y o u m i g h t expect, there's u n b r o k e n c o n t i n u -
ity f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o end. T h e r e ' s n o c o m m a n d -
i n g figure a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , b u t a figure d o e s
emerge i n J 4 , immediately after t h e downbeat.
T h i s figure i s t o s s e d b a c k a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n t h e
u p p e r voices, s u p p o r t e d b y t h e bass i n s l o w e r
m o t i o n . T h i s divisin o f l a b o r e x t e n d s t h r o u g h t h e
d o m i n a n t pedal that begins i n mid-_20 a n d e v e n
into the concluding tonic pedal.
L o o k i n g a t t h e piece as a w h o l e , y o u see t h e
importance o f t h e three pedal points. T h e first
stabilizes t h e tonic, c r e a t i n g a p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e
f o r the t o n a l m o v e m e n t . T h e second, o n V , focuses
t h e energies o f t h e m i d d l e o f t h e piece, d i r e c t i n g
t h e m o t i o n t o w a r d t h e final t o n i c . T h e t h i r d p e d a l
reasserts the tonic a n d completes the tonal m o v e -
m e n t o f the piece.
T h e r e ' s a v a r i e t y o f t e x t u r e s i n this piece. A f t e r
the o p e n i n g gesture, m o v i n g f r o m t h e highest t o
t h e lowest notes i n t h e toccata, d i f f e r e n t u p p e r -
voice textures are heard over the pedal. T h e n u m -
ber o f voices shifts back a n d f o r t h between three
a n d four, c h a n g i n g t h e music's density. T o w a r d
the m i d d l e o f the piece the t e x t u r e isorganized b y
i m i t a t i o n , c o n t i n u i n g t o t h e e n d . T h e bass a l w a y s
stands apart, m o v i n g m o r e slowly t h a n the other
voices.
L o n g e r t h a n Frescobaldi's toccata, Pachelbel's is
m u c h t h e s a m e i n its a p p r o a c h : i r r e g u l a r g r o u p s
o f m e a s u r e s , a v a r i e t y o f m u s i c a l ideas, t h e sense
o f one large gesture, and the quality o f improvisa-
d o n a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e g e n r e t h a t w e k n o w as t h e
toccata.
RECITATIVE T h e Italian musicians a n d liter-
ary m e n w h o invented opera at the beginning o f
the seventeenth century created ecitative, a sim-
ple, declamatory k i n d o fmusic, lightly accompa-
nied, t o carry t h e dialogue o fthe singing actors.
T h u s a singer c o u l d tell a story, express feelings,
p o n d e r t h euncertainties o ffate, all i n a k i n d o f
music that was, literally, a heightened f o r m o f
h u m a n speech. T h e music closely followed t h e
natural accent o f the words. I nt i m e the recitative
b e c a m e m o r e clearly d e f i n e d , as d i s d n g u i s h e d f r o m
the m o r e songful aria. S o m e recitadves w e r e
accompanied b yorchestra, but m a n y were accom-
panied only by the continuo.
O n e o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f a recitative is t o m o d u -
late f r o m the k e y o f the previous n u m b e r t o that
of t h e upcoming one. Composers took advantage W h e n t h e m e l o d y falls a 4 t h f r o m w e a k t o s t r o n g ,
o f t h i s o p e n h a r m o n i c field t o e x p l o r e d i s s o n a n t the skip is shifted t o t h es t r o n g beat.
and chromatic harmonies. Some highly imagina-
written = sung
tive strokes a r e t o be f o u n d i n t h e recitatives o f
B a c h a n d H a n d e l . A n d since there's n o t o n a l u n i t y ,
t h e r e is o f t e n n o k e y signature i nt h e recitative.
M a n y o f t h e devices o f o p e r a soon f o u n d their
Another convention that contradiets what's
w a y i n t o s a c r e d m u s i c , s o y o u m a y e x p e c t t o find
printedas every musician k n e w at t h e timeis
recitatives i n oratorios a n d cantatas.
the vocal cadenee t h a t m u s t b e c o m p l e t e d b e f o r e
Certain conventions about the notation a n d per-
the i n s t r u m e n t cadenees, n o m a t t e r h o w t h e notes
f o r m a n c e o f recitatives w e r e i n place before t h e
are a l i g n e d o n t h e p a g e . T h u s a c a d e n e e w r i t t e n as
beginning o f t h e eighteenth century. Y o u must
(a) i s p e r f o r m e d a s i f i t w e r e w r i t t e n ( b ) .
k n o w t h e m t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w s u c h m u s i c is p e r -
formed.
(a). (b)
A t a c a d e n e e , w h e n t h e m e l o d y falls a 3 r d f r o m written sung
h
w e a k t o s t r o n g , t h e 3 r d i s filled w i t h a n P . S o m e -
t i m e s t h e P is i n d i c a t e d w i t h t h e s m a l l n o t e that's frrr\ 13
' Q | J J -

t h e t r u e a p p o g g i a t u r a , b u t u s u a l l y isn't. Continuo

written

C F Worksheet 32

105
Dance in the open air, o i l p a i n t i n g b y Nicols L a n c r e t ( 1 6 9 0 - 1 7 4 5 ) . T h e f a m o u s b a l l e r i n a , L a C a m a r g o
surrounded by musicians and courtly admirers.
 PART SIX
BINARY FORM
40
Introduction
Before studying binary f o r m we'd d o well t o ask
what musicians m e a n b y a "form." Sometimes,
w h e n people speak o fa f o r m , i t seems that they
are talking about a rigid outline w h i c h t h e com-
p o s e r follows d u t i f u l l y . B u t g o o d music isn't simply
p o u r e d into ready-made molds; a piece o f music
g r o w s o u t o fm u s i c a l ideas. T h o s e ideas a r e devel-
oped into various shapes, determined b yt h e con-
ventions a n dpractices o f t h e period. T h e m o r e
original composer will use those conventions; t h e
less o r i g i n a l w i l l s i m p l y f o l l o w t h e m .
T h e r e a r e t w om a i n aspects t o f o r m i n tonal
music:
h a r m o n i c m o v e m e n t m o t i o n away f r o m t h etonic and
back;
melodic designfigures, themes, motives, a n d their
development.
O t h e r elements that play a role i n shaping musical
f o r m m a y i n c l u d e t e x t u r e , t h e uses o f musical
space, t o n e color, t h e dissonanceconsonance
interaction, and r h y t h m .
107
BINARY F O R M W e say t h a t a piece isi n b i n a r y
f o r m i f all the f o l l o w i n g a r e true:
It's i n t w o s e c t i o n s ; e a c h i s u s u a l l y r e p e a t e d .
T h e first s e c t i o n n o r m a l l y e n d s o n V ( p o s s i b l y I I I , i f i n
minor).
T h e second section r e t u r n s t o I .
T h e same m e l o d i c m a t e r i a l is h e a r d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
piece.
Since b i n a r y f o r m is flexible, w e a d d a few obser-
vations:
T h e first s e c t i o n m a y e n d w i t h a s e m i c a d e n c e , o r t h e r e
may be a m o d u l a t i o n t o a cadenee i n V ( e x p l a i n e d i n
Chapter 42).
T h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n m a y m o v e t o a n intermedate c a d -
enee i n a k e y o t h e r t h a n I o r V .
As a result, t h e s e c o n d section m a y b e l o n g e r t h a n t h e
first.
T h e e n d i n g o f t h e first s e c t i o n m a y b e f o u n d , t r a n s p o s e d
to t h e t o n i c , a s t h e e n d i n g o f t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n .
Most o ft h e m o v e m e n t s o fB a r o q u e suites a n d
partitas a r e i n b i n a r y f o r m . S e v e r a l s u c h m o v e -
ments a r e included i n t h e A n t h o l o g y , together
w i t h a piece that's p a r t o fa cantata. T h e w o r k s i n Bach Air
binary forra are: Handel Courante
Scarlatti Sonata in E
19 Pezel Sarabande Kirnberger Bourre
23 Purcell Duet
I n order t ounderstand what follows, y o u must be
25 Couperin La Lgubre
27 Mattheson Sarabande and Double f a m i l i a r w i t h this m u s i c . Play t h e pieces, listen t o
30 Bach Allemande t h e m , a n d have their sound i ny o u r m i n d . T h e n
31 Bach Gigue you'll be ready t o follow the discussion.

41
Motion away from the Tonic

S i n c e t h e u n d e r l y i n g forc t h a t s h a p e s t o n a l m u s i c
is m o t i o n a w a y f r o m a n d b a c k t o t h e t o n i c , w e m u s t
t a k e a cise l o o k a t h o w t h a t i s a c h i e v e d . I n t h e
simplest sense, a n y c h o r d o t h e r t h a n I represents
s o m e m o v e m e n t a w a y f r o m t h e t o n i c . I n t h e basic
motion tonicsubdominantdominanttonic, t h e
s u b d o m i n a n t c h o r d moves away f r o m t h e tonic,
a n d t h e d o m i n a n t points the w a y back t oit. T h e r e
are stronger ways o f m o v i n g away f r o m t h e tonic
t h a t g r e w o u t o f t h e d e s i r e t o crate l a r g e r m u s i c a l
forms. I n order o fincreasing strength, motions
away f r o m the tonic are:
secondary tonics (and d o m i n a n t s and subdominants);
m o d u l a t i o n to a cadenee;
long-range modulation.
A secondary tonic i s b u i l t o n a n y s c a l e d e g r e e o t h e r
t h a n 1. I t m a y h a v e its o w n d o m i n a n t a n d s u b d o m -
inant chords. Secondary tonics oceur w i t h i n a phrase
a n d d o n o t shape t h e direction o fthe h a r m o n y i n
the long range. T h e y are explained i nPart Seven.
W h e n a phrase begins i no n e key a n d ends i n
a n o t h e r , w e s p e a k o f modulation to a cadenee. T h i s i s
the subject o f t h e n e x t section, a n d i t plays a n
important role in binary form.
Long-range modulation, f o u n d i n l a r g e f o r m s s u c h
as s o n a t a - a l l e g r o , m e a n s t h a t t h e r e ' s a n i m p o r t a n t
key shift that extends beyond a single phrase. T h e
tensin c r e a t e d b y s u c h k e y s h i f t s a n d b y t h e
expectation o fa r e t u r n t o t h e tonic provides t h e
psychological u n d e r p i n n i n g f o r t h egreat instru-
m e n t a l w o r k s o fH a y d n , Mozart, a n d Beethoven.
A discussion o fsonata-allegro f o r m will b e f o u n d
i n Gradus, B o o k T w o .

108
 42
Modulation to a Cadenee

M o d u l a t i o n m e a n s change o f key. T h e r e are three A n i m p o r t a n t bit o fm u s i c a l s h o r t h a n d is i n t r o -

ways o f effecting such a change: duced here: I / I V . Read i t " O n e becomes four."
This way o fshowing t h etwofold meaning o fa
by using a pivot c h o r d ;
p i v o t c h o r d i s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t Gradus.
b y a r r i v i n g a t a g o a l c h o r d i n t h e first k e y , t h e n s t a r t i n g
afresh i n the second; T h e p i c t u r e isa bit d i f f e r e n t i n t h e m i n o r - m o d e
t h r o u g h a p r o g r e s s i o n that leads f r o m one key t o t h e modulation from I toV .
other without a pivot chord.
first key second key

PIVOT C H O R D A pivot chord i s e x a c t l y w h a t t h e I IV

ame i m p l i e s : a c h o r d u p o n w h i c h t h e t o n a l i t y II not a diatonic chord
swings f r o m o n e key t oanother. T h e pivot chord III VI
m u s t h a v e a c l e a r f u n c t i o n i n t h e first k e y ; t h e n i t ' s IV not a diatonic chord
interpreted i n the second key. V I
VI not a diatonic chord
Since a pivot chord must be c o m m o n t o t w o
VII III
keys, w e b e g i n b y asking: w h a t c h o r d s are there i n
c o m m o n b e t w e e n t w o m a j o r keys a perfect 5 t h
Here are t w o examples
apart?

first

I
II
III
key

is

is
s
I V
second

not a diatonic chord

V I
key i
^ 4 *

f
IV is not a diatonic chord i/rv
V
VI
s
s
I
I I 3
VII not a diatonic chord

r Jj
Y o u s e e t h a t I , I I I , V , a n d V I i n t h e first k e y a r e
diatonic chords i n t h esecond. T h u s they m a y all
serve as p i v o t chords. T w o a r eillustrated below.
\* r m 0-0
DI/VI

While the most c o m m o n modulation i n t h e major

fe Ti m o d e isf r o m I t oV , t h e m o s t c o m m o n m o d u l a t i o n

m wm
in the m i n o r m o d e is f r o m I t oI I I . H e r e is a list o f
the diatonic p i v o t chords i n that m o d u l a t i o n :

I/IV V: cadenee i n V

J first

I
key

is V I
second key

^ 1 II is not a diatonic chord

9 0 III s I
IV s I I
3 ff V
VI
III
IV
VI/HV cadenee i n V VII s V
Here aretwo examples: squarely i n f. T h e second p h r a s e begins w i t h a n F -
t r i a d , w h i c h iss t e e r e d t o c i m m e d i a t e l y . P a r t o f t h e
ascending C-scale is i n t h e i n n e r voice ( A B C ) ,
helping t oestablish the second key.
W h i l e b o t h o f these b i n a r y pieces m o d u l a t e d t o
a c a d e n e e i n V a t t h e e n d o f t h e first s e c t i o n , t h e y
u s e d d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f m o v i n g . T h e Bourre uses
a pivot chord t o make a smooth transition from
tonic t o d o m i n a n t : t h eSarabande, h a v i n g stated
t h e tonic, s i m p l y starts t h e second phrase i n t h e
dominant.
A pivot chord m a y b e disguised b y elaborative
notes a n d still serve itsp u r p o s e . C o u p e r i n ' s Sara-
b a n d e , | 2 5 | , m o v e s f r o m c t o g i n i t s first h a l f . T h e
p i v o t c h o r d i s o n t h e first b e a t o f 6 . I t ' s a c - t r i a d ,
elaborated b y t w oSUSs. B y t h e time D a n d F
r e s o l v e , t h e bass h a s m o v e d o n t o C , a ni n n e r voice
W e n o w look f o rexamples o fm o d u l a t i o n t o a
says A , a n dt h em u s i c is i ng . A l t h o u g h t h e c-triad
cadenee i n t h e b i n a r y pieces o f t h e A n t h o l o g y ,
is n e v e r h e a r d p l a i n l y , i t i s t h e p i v o t c h o r d : I / I V .
f o c u s i n g o n t h o s e c a d e n e e s t h a t c o n c l u d e t h e first
V is also t h e g o a l i n H a n d e l ' s C o u r a n t e , |35|. I t
s e c t i o n o f a p i e c e ; l a t e r w e ' l l find o t h e r s .
begins w i t h three measures that circle a r o u n d t h e
T h e Bourre b y c o m p o s e r - t h e o r i s t K i r n b e r g e r ,
tonic, after w h i c h v e r y little is h e a r d o f I . T h e
|41|, is a clear a n d s i m p l e e x a m p l e o f b i n a r y f o r m .
sense o ftonic is g r a d u a l l y w e a k e n e d s t a r t i n g i n 4 .
I t ' s i n D ; a t t h e m i d p o i n t y o u find a c a d e n e e i n A .
N o p i v o t c h o r d is a p p a r e n t . T h e p r o g r e s s i o n m o v e s
W h e r e is t h e p i v o t c h o r d ? B y t h et i m e y o u h e a r A
smoothly from I t oV , through III, arriving at the
as t o n i c ( 6 - 8 ) t h e p i v o t c h o r d h a s d o n e i t s w o r k .
n e w d o m i n a n t i n 12. T o m a k e i t c l e a r t h a t b i s t h e
T h e p i v o t c h o r d i s i n 5. B e f o r e t h a t m e a s u r e ' s V I
goal, t h e d o m i n a n t is t h e n e x t e n d e d f o r seven
c h o r d o n t h e t h i r d beat (it's h e a r d f o r o n l y a
measures.
m o m e n t , b u t it serves its p u r p o s e ) D ist o n i c . A f t e r
O t h e r m o d u l a t i o n s (always t o a cadenee) a r e
the V I , A is tonic. T h e p i v o t c h o r d : V I / I I .
f o u n d i n t h e second sections o fs o m e pieces a n d
M a t t h e s o n ' s S a r a b a n d e , |27|, isi n f. I tt o o arrives
will b eexplained w h e r e those w o r k s a r e discussed.
a t t h e d o m i n a n t a t t h e e n d o f t h e first s e c t i o n , b u t
by different means. I t w o u l d be futile t o look for a
p i v o t c h o r d h e r e . T h e first f o u r m e a s u r e s a r e

43
Binary Form

A M O D E L F o r a s i m p l e m o d e l o f a b i n a r y piece H A R M O N Y T h e general plan o f t h e tonal

w e t u r n b a c k t o C h r i s t o p h e r S i m p s o n ' s Compen- m o v e m e n t is:
dium. A b r i e f e x a m p l e f o r t w o v i o l s a t t h e t o p o f 1- 4 tonic stability, p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e
the next page shows the m a i n outlines o f the form. 5- 8 modulation to m o t i o n away f r o m tonic,
T h e piece isb i n a r y i n t h e m o s t literal sense o f t h e cadenee i n V arouses expectation o f r e t u r n
w o r d . T h e t w o sections a r eequally l o n g a n d quite 9 - 12 in I I I postpones the expected
similar i n m e l o d y , r h y t h m , a n dt e x t u r e . W e ' l l dis- r e t u r n , m a i n t a i n s tensin
c u s s t o n a l m o v e m e n t first, t h e n t h e m e l o d i c a s p e c t . 11-16 back t o I satisfies e x p e c t a t i o n

110
Didactic piece SIMPSON

Wr f f = = PPP
m
4
10 15

Y o u see t h a t i n o u t l i n i n g t h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t w e
also o u t l i n e t h e f o r m o f the music. T h e outline
s h o w s t h e i n n e r f o r m o f t h e piece, t h e h a r m o n i c
d r i v e that makes the music w o r k . W h a t about the
organization o f the phrases?
T h e first s e c t i o n b e g i n s w i t h a f o u r - m e a s u r e
p h r a s e t h a t establishes d, a i d e d by the m e l o d y i n
w h i c h a c o m p l e t e d - s c a l e is s t a t e d . T h e s e c o n d
phrase begins w i t h the pivot chord, i m p l i e d by the
two Ds: I / I V . T h e phrase modulates to a cadenee
inV.
A f t e r t h e t w o p h r a s e s o f t h e first s e c t i o n a r e
repeated, they are answered by the pair o f phrases
t h a t c o m p r i s e s t h e s e c o n d section. I t w o u l d be
p o s s i b l e t o r e t u r n t o I i n t h e first o f t h o s e p h r a s e s ,
b u t that w o u l d leave the f o u r t h phrase w i t h no
place t o go. M r . S i m p s o n puts o f f the r e t u r n to the
t o n i c as l o n g as p o s s i b l e , w i t h a d e t o u r t h r o u g h
I I I . T h e t h i r d p h r a s e , 9 1 2 , is i n t h e r e l a t i v e
m a j o r a n d t h e r e t u r n t o I is a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h o u t
a pivot chord. A progression i n v o l v i n ga few chro-
m a t i c n o t e s leads f r o m I I I t o I , w i t h t h e voice
leading:
> t h i r d p h r a s e starts w i t h t h e s a m e r h y t h m , b u t n e a r
13 N
T h i s is t h e b a s i c t o n a l p l a n o f b i n a r y f o r m . O n l y
i n a v e r y s i m p l e p i e c e , s u c h as P e z e l ' s S a r a b a n d e ,
| T 9 ] , w i l l t h e first h a l f e n d w i t h o u t a m o t i o n t o V .
M o s t b i n a r y pieces m o v e to V at t h e e n d o f t h e
first s e c t i o n , w h i c h i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t m a k e s y o u
w a n t to hear the second section.
MELODIC DESIGN B a r o q u e melodies are often
b u i l t o n s h o r t figures w o v e n i n t o a c o n t i n u o u s f l o w .
T h i s was t h e case i n t h e p r e l u d e s y o u s t u d i e d , a n d
y o u ' l l a l s o find i t t o b e s o i n b i n a r y p i e c e s . S i m p -
son's m e l o d y is m o r e r e g u l a r t h a n m o s t m e l o d i e s
i n s u i t e s . T h e r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n fits n e a t l y i n t o t h e
four-measure unitalmost.
T h e first m e a s u r e s p r e s e n t t h e t w o m a i n figures
o f t h e m e l o d y , a a n d b.
a b
ff
T h e s e c o n d figure i s v a r i e d s l i g h t l y a t o n c e , i n 3.
T h e n the m e l o d y o f the second phrase repeats the
r h y t h m o f t h e first w i t h b u t o n e s m a l l c h a n g e . T h e
its e n d , t h e f o u r - m e a s u r e f o r m a t i s b r o k e n . T h e
first n o t e i n 12 i s t h e l a s t n o t e o f t h e t h i r d p h r a s e .
N o t i c e t h a t it's n o t a h a l f n o t e , b u t o n l y a q u a r t e r .
S i m p s o n starts the f o u r t h phrase o n e beat early,

t h e n p u s h e s o n to t h e h i g h p o i n t o f t h e piece. P a r t
o f t h e d r i v e i s d u e t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e figure i s
6 shifted ahead within the measure. T h i s throws an
u n e x p e c t e d emphasis o n the second beat, h e l p i n g
W e h a v e a d d e d figures t o s h o w t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f
to m o v e t h e m u s i c f o r w a r d .
f t r i a d s , t h e t h i r d o f w h i c h is q u i t e d i s s o n a n t . I t
falls i n t o place because o f t h e p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h the a 1Q b
o t h e r c h o r d s . A l l i n a l l , t h e f o u r t h p h r a s e is t h e
P F* |J
m o s t d i s s o n a n t (active) o f t h e piece, a n d y o u will
s o o n see t h a t it's also t h e m o s t active m e l o d i c a l l y . r T y rp
T o s u m u p t h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t o f the piece: b b 15 melodic cadenee
A pi ii i1 ii _ ' ~ . i i nrz:

p J f-fTinr r- gjT i
establishment o f a key
m o t i o n away f r o m the tonic
return to the tonic r
n i
 T h r o u g h o u t t h e piece h a r m o n y a n d m e l o d y w o r k
t o g e t h e r . T h e first p h r a s e h a s a m e l o d y t h a t
expresses t h e t o n i c w i t h a c o m p l e t e d-scale. W i t h
t h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t t o a, t h e m e l o d i c center shifts
f r o m D t oA . T h e t h i r d phrase centers a r o u n d I I I ,
a n d t h e m e l o d y e m p h a s i z e s C a n d A w i t h t h e bass
F. W h e n t h e f o u r t h phrase introduces chromatic
n o t e s a n d m o r e tensin, t h e m e l o d i c figure p u s h e s
a c r o s s t h e b a r l i n e a n d a d d s tensin o f i t s o w n . A l l
44
More Modulations in Binary Pieces
M o d u l a d o n s i nt h e second section o f b i n a r y pieces
a r e n ' t a s p r e d i c t a b l e a s t h o s e i n t h e first. T h e t o n a l
movement must return toI , buthow? There are
m a n y different answers t o that question. B y
exploring some o f t h e m y o u can learn m o r e about
modulation.
T h e simplest second section is that o f K i r n b e r -
g e r ' s B o u r r e , [41~]. A f t e r t h e r e p e a t , t h e d o m i n a n t
is e x t e n d e d f o r f o u r m e a s u r e s . T h e t o n i c t h e n
follows, t h o u g h n o t i n root position. There's n o
s t r o n g D i n t h e bass u n t i l t h e last m e a s u r e . C o m -
p a r e the cadenees o f the t w o sections.
T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f M a t t h e s o n ' s S a r a b a n d e , [27],
has a m o r e interesting tonal j o u r n e y . 9 begins w i t h
V*, w h i c h doesn't r e t u r n t oI b u t moves o n t h r o u g h
f t o F , t h ed o m i n a n t o fI V . There's a m o d u l a t i o n
to a cadenee i nI V , w i t h o u t pivot chord, 1 0 - 1 2 .
T h a t emphasis o n t h e s u b d o m i n a n t balances t h e
earlier emphasis o n t h e d o m i n a n t a n d prepares
the way for a n immediate r e t u r n t o t h e tonic. Just
as t h e r i s i n g s c a l e f r a g m e n t i n 5 l e a d s t o t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c, s o d o e s a r i s i n g s c a l e f r a g m e n t
in 1315 ( D - E - F ) lead t othe concluding cadenee
in f. A quick r e p e t i t i o n o f that s a m e p a t t e r n i n t h e
i n n e r voice i n 1 5 helps t oc o n f i r m f. T h e d e t o u r
t h r o u g h I V adds t ot h e h a r m o n i c interest w i t h o u t
l e n g t h e n i n g the second section.
I n t h e M a t t h e s o n , t h e V * t h a t e n d e d t h e first
section w a sfollowed b y t h e same c h o r d t o begin
the second, t h esimplest c o n n e c t i o n possible. C o u -
p e r i n takes a d i f f e r e n t course i n h i s Sarabande,
112
these tensions a r e released w h e n h a r m o n y a n d
m e l o d y a r r i v e a t t h e t o n i c , o n t h e last n o t e .
C O M M E N T T h e S i m p s o n piece will serve as a n
example o fbinary f o r m i f y o u remember that n o
g o o d piece follows a n y m o d e l slavishly. Y o u c a n
see t h e m a i n o u t l i n e s o f t h e f o r m i n t e r m s o f t o n a l
m o v e m e n t , design, a n dtheir interaction. T h e s e
aspects o f f o r m a r e f o u n d i n all b i n a r y pieces, b u t
all g o o d pieces are d i f f e r e n t f r o m each other.
O* W o r k s h e e t 3 3
[25|. Y o u k n o w t h a t V m a y b e a g o a l c h o r d , a n d
that's t r u e w h e t h e r a p h r a s e e n d s w i t h V o f t h e
m a i n k e y o r V as t h e goal o f m o d u l a t i o n t o a
cadenee. O n c e a goal is reached, t h e c o m p o s e r is
free t o u s ea n y chord i n t h ekey. Rather than
e m p h a s i z e c o n d n u i t y , as M a t t h e s o n d i d , C o u p e r i n
t a k e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o crate a s t r o n g c o n t r a s t .
T h e second section starts w i t h I I I . T h i s s t r i k i n g
c h a n g e o f h a r m o n i c color gives the sense o f a fresh
start t o t h e n e wsection. Clearly there's n o pivot
chord. H a v i n g reached o n e goal i n 8, t h e music
s t a r t s a n e w i n 9 i n t h e r e l a t i v e m a j o r . Y o u first s a w
this p h e n o m e n o n , a goal V followed b yI I I , i n a
B a c h chrale, o n p a g e 7 1 .
T h e e n t i r e p h r a s e 916 isi n I I I , e n d i n g w i t h a
perfect authentic cadenee. T h ethird phrase r e -
turns t oI with the aid o f a pivot chord: I / I I I . T h e
basic p o l y p h o n y :
1
T3
-i
<):> r
i/m
Because o ft h e length o ft h e phrase i n I I I , t h e
second section o f the piece is twice as l o n g as t h e
first.
A first l o o k a t B a c h ' s c e l e b r a t e d A i r , [ 3 2 ] , s h o w s
that here, too, t h e second section is l o n g e r t h a n
t h e h r s t . T h i s suggests t h a t t h e second section
i n c l u d e s a m o d u l a t i o n t o a c a d e n e e w h o s e g o a l is
n e i t h e r I or V . W h a t is t h a t goal? A clear cadenee
i n 1 0 s h o w s t h a t t h e t o n a l j o u r n e y is t o t h e r e l a t i v e
m i n o r , V I . T h e m o d u l a t i o n t o a c a d e n e e i n V I is
accomplished t h r o u g h a leisurely progression that
d e p e n d s o n n o p i v o t c h o r d . T h e m o d u l a t i o n is
e x t r e m e l y s m o o t h , t h e steady e i g h t h notes o f the
bass l e a d i n g t h e l i s t e n e r f r o m o n e p o i n t to a n o t h e r
effortlessly.
A n u n u s u a l d e t a i l m a r k s t h e c a d e n e e i n _10. T h e
D a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d b e a t is a dissonance. I f
it w e r e a n P i t w o u l d resolve t o C j :
B u t Cfl is n e v e r h e a r d , a n d D takes a shorteut
directly t o B .
T h e tonal m o v e m e n t t h e n proceeds through A ,
6
U-12, a n d b a c k t o D , w i t h I a t t h e s t a r t o f J 3 .
T h e c h r o m a t i c notes i n 1 3 - 1 4 a r e Ps a n d don't
45
Melodic Design in Binary Form
T h e m e l o d i e s o f t h e b i n a r y pieces we have studied
d i f f e r f r o m e a c h o t h e r : s o m e a r e b a s e d o n figures,
s o m e aren't. M o s t g r o w o u t o fdance models. A
b r i e f s u r v e y s h o w s s o m e o f t h e possibilities o f
m e l o d i c i n v e n t i o n i n B a r o q u e b i n a r y pieces.
T h e piece t h a t m o s t closely follows a dance model
is Peze's S a r a b a n d e , | 1 9 | . T h e s t a n d a r d r h y t h m i c
p a t t e r n f o r t h a t s l o w d a n c e is t w o measures long:
I J J. J>|J J
I n t h e first s e c t i o n o f t h e p i e c e t h e p a t t e r n i s
f o l l o w e d l i t e r a l l y . I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f , t h e first m e a -
s u r e takes o n a n i d e n t i t y o f its o w n a n d dominates
the m e l o d i c design. A t t h e every end, a melodic
c a d e n e e b r i n g s t h e p i e c e t o a conclusin.
B y c o n t r a s t t h e m e l o d y o f K i r n b e r g e r ' s Bourre,
|41|, goes itsc h e e r f u l w a y w i t h o u t relying o n a n y
s p e c i f i c figure. H o w e v e r , t h e m e l o d i c c a d e n e e a t
t h e e n d o f t h e first s e c t i o n i s r e p e a t e d a t t h e e n d
113
i m p l y a n y m o d u l a t i o n . T h e y h a v e t h e s a m e r o l e as
the chromatic Psi nt h e S i m p s o n example o n page
81.
W h e n w e seethat the second section o f Handel's
C o u r a n t e , [35|, is n i n e m e a s u r e s l o n g e r t h a n t h e
first s e c t i o n , t h e r e a s o n i s n o t h a r d t o find. S e v e r a l
measures i n I I I a d d t o t h e l e n g t h o ft h e section,
w h i l e k e e p i n g t h e t o n a l i t y a w a y f r o m I . T h e sec-
o n d section begins w i t h the same c h o r d that ended
t h e first. V * d o e s m o v e t o I , b u t i t c o n d n u e s t h r o u g h
t h e t o n i c t o t h e r e l a t i v e m a j o r . A s i n t h e first
section, there's n o pivot chord, b u t rather a pro-
gression that starts i n e a n d ends o n t h e d o m i n a n t
o f G . T h e same pedal p o i n t that established V at
t h e e n d o f t h e first s e c t i o n i s n o w t r a n s p o s e d t o
establish I I I . T h e g o a l r e a c h e d in_33 is c o n f i r m e d
as f a r a s . 3 8 . I n t h a t m e a s u r e t h e r e ' s a m o d u l a t i o n
f r o m G t o e; t h e p i v o t c h o r d : I I / I V . T h e d o m i -
n a n t pedal, n o w p o i n t e d a t t h e tonic o ft h e piece,
follows.
O " Worksheet 34
o f the second, transposed t othe tonic.
W h i l e t h e s t a n d a r d r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n is t o b e
f o u n d i n M a t t h e s o n ' s S a r a b a n d e , [27], i t d o e s n ' t
c o n t r o l t h e m e l o d y as i t d i d i n t h e Pezel. T h e
melodic cadenees o f 8 a n d 16 a r equite similar,
balancing the binary f o r m nicely.
T h e traditional sarabande r h y t h m does, h o w -
e v e r , p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n C o u p e r i n ' s La
Lgubre, | 2 5 | . T h a t ' s w h y w e r e f e r t o t h e p i e c e a s a
sarabande even t h o u g h that w o r d doesn't appear
in the title. T h e p a t t e r n isn't f o l l o w e d slavishly, f o r
C o u p e r i n m i x e s i t w i t h other r h y t h m i c shapes.
T w o variants o fthe pattern, which appear i n t h e
eloquent closing measures, areelaborations o f the
m e l o d y o f 2 0 2 2 . T h e s a r a b a n d e p a t t e r n is s h o w n
above the variants.
* T J
_ J
- ^ , ^ * * *
 T h e c o n t i n u o u s " s p i n n i n g o u t " ( G e r m n : Fort-
spinnung) o f a m e l o d y b y t h e r e i t e r a t i o n o f figures
is e x a m p l i f i e d i n t h e s o n a t a m o v e m e n t b y B a c h ,
[ 3 T | . A t first g l a n c e t h i s m u s i c m a y s e e m t o b e l i t t l e
m o r e t h a n a m e c h a n i c a l series o f s i x t e e n t h notes.
But a closer l o o k shows that there a r e t w o m a i n
figures a n d o n e o t h e r associated o n l y w i t h cadenees.
Presented i na great variety o fways, those figures
are the u n i f y i n g elements i nt h e melody.
(a) (b)
( C )
^
M r J B
0 -
a but i tc a n cover a good deal o f musical territory,
N o t i c e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n figures ( a ) a n d ( b ) .
W h i l e (a)consists o f e v e n notes, ( b )plays o f f six-
46
The Allemande from Bac h's
French Suite No. 3, 30
T h e o p e n i n g m o v e m e n t o f Bach's T h i r d F r e n c h
Suite is i n b i n a r y f o r m , as a r eall t h e m o v e m e n t s o f
t h e suite. A n a l l e m a n d e is a d a n c e i n m o d e r a t e l y
fast t e m p o , w i t h f o u r beats t o t h e m e a s u r e a n d a
s t e a d y flow o f s i x t e e n t h n o t e s . T h e u p b e a t i n t h i s
piece is typical.
E a c h section o f t h e piece is twelve measures
l o n g , w i t h o n e figure h e a r d t h r o u g h o u t . D e s p i t e
these constant elements, t h e r e a r ealso c e r t a i n dif-
ferences b e t w e e n sections, w h i c h will become
a p p a r e n t as w ee x a m i n e t h e music.
W e m a y describe t h etexture as elaborated t w o -
p a r t c o u n t e r p o i n t . T h i s tells y o u that each part
m a y have polyphonic implications. T h e listener
has t h e i m p r e s s i o n o fseveral voices i n action, n o t
just two. A fairly h i g h level o f dissonance does
m u c h f o rt h e musical interest a n d t h e f o r w a r d
m o m e n t u m o f t h e piece.
T O N A L M O V E M E N T T h e harmonic motioni n
outline:
114
teenths against eighths. H e r e a r esome o f the ways
in w h i c h B a c h w o r k s o u t t h e pitches w i t h i n t h e
r h y t h m o f ( a ) : _]_, a r i s i n g s c a l e ; 3, e l a b o r a t i o n o f
o n e n o t e ( N p l u s S P ) ; 5, c h o r d o u t l i n e ; 8 , e l a b o -
r a t e d 3 r d ; 9 , d e s c e n d i n g scale. F i g u r e (b) i s h e a r d
less o f t e n a n d u s u a l l y h a s a f a l l i n g i n f l e c t i o n . F i g -
u r e (c), r e s e r v e d f o rc a d e n e e s a n d a l m o s t a l w a y s
repeated, isi n 5-16, 2 3 - 2 4 , a n d 3 1 - 3 2 . O u t o f
t h r e e s h o r t figures t h e c o m p o s e r c r e a t e s a m e l o d y
full o f energy and interest.
T h e m e l o d y is p o l y p h o n i c t h r o u g h o u t . T o be
sure, a violin can't express t h e full S A T B range,
a n d i n B a c h ' s h a n d s i t d o e s . I n t h e first m e a s u r e ,
t h e span o fa 1 2 t h is c o v e r e d , a n d i n m a n y o t h e r
measures the range exceeds a n octave.
first section
12. establish the tonic
36 brief motion to I I I
79 n o sooner back t o I t h a n m o d u l a t i o n t o a cad-
enee i n V
10-12 extensin o f V w i t h m a j o r t r i a d a t g o a l
second section
13-16 m o t i o n t o I V w i t h o u t a cadenee
17-24 return to I
T h e o n e c l e a r m o d u l a t i o n i s i n t h e first s e c t i o n . A t
t h e b e g i n n i n g o f .7, I / I V , h i d d e n b y a S U S . T h e
r e s t o f t h e s e c t i o n is i n V (f(t).
O n e f e a t u r e a b s e n t i n t h e first s e c t i o n b u t i n t r o -
d u c e d i n t h esecond is t h e r e l a x a t i o n o f h a r m o n i c
a c t i v i t y i n J_5, i n s t r o n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e r e s t o f t h e
music. U p t o that point, t h esixteenth-note m o t i o n
implies s i xt oeight chords i nmost measures. B u t
i n J_5 y o u h e a r t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a s i n g l e c h o r d ,
t h e e - t r i a d . T h i s c r e a t e s a f e e l i n g o f stasis a m i d s t
the r h y t h m i c drive o f t h e other measures. T h e
s a m e m u s i c , t r a n s p o s e d t o b , filis 2 1 a n d p r e p a r e s
the ending.
T h e piece m i g h t have e n d e d i n mid-,22 i f t h e
bass h a d g o n e F f l - B . B u t i n s t e a d t h e bass m o v e s
F t t - G , s u p p o r d n g a deceptive cadenee. After that
the music gains r e n e w e d energy a n d pushes o n t o
t h e final c a d e n e e .
MELODIC DESIGN A fascinating aspect o f the
piece is t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e m e l o d y is w o r k e d o u t .
W h i l e i t s e e m s e f f o r t l e s s , it's c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h c o n -
s u m m a t e s k i l l . T h i s is as t r u e o f t h e l o w e r m e l o d y
as t h e u p p e r ; t h e y a r e e q u a l . A s i n g l e figure,
c o n s i s t i n g o f t h r e e u p b e a t s a n d a d o w n b e a t , is
h e a r d i n a l m o s t e v e r y m e a s u r e . T h e figure's u p b e a t
propels the music forward f r o m beginning t o end.
W h i l e t h e r h y t h m o f t h e figure i s c o n s t a n t , i t s
intervallic c o n t o u r is v a r i e d i n a great m a n y ways.
A b o v e a r e s o m e o f t h e s h a p e s t h e figure t a k e s i n
t h e a l l e m a n d e . I n m o s t o f t h e s e y o u find t h a t a
skip i n o n e d i r e c t i o n is f o l l o w e d b y a smaller m o t i o n
in the opposite direction. So, a l t h o u g h the melodic
shapes aren't identical, they d o have a n i m p o r t a n t
feature in c o m m o n .
I n t h e o p e n i n g m e a s u r e t h e figure i s s t a t e d i n
the upper melody and immediately imitated int h e
lower. T o start t h e second section, f u r t h e r imita-
tion creates t h e sense o f a n e wbeginning. T h i s
i m i t a t i o n i s b a s e d o n a f r e e inversin o f t h e figure's
original contour: unity a n d variety at t h e same
time.
T h e r e is a p a r t i c u l a r l y effective use o f t h e figure
i n .6. H e r e t h e h a r m o n y q u i c k l y r e a f f i r m s I a n d
g a t h e r s m o m e n t u m as i t m o v e s t o V . T h e sense o f
a c c u m u l a t i n g e n e r g y i s g e n e r a t e d b y cise i m i t a -
t i o n , t h e figure a p p e a r i n g f o u r t i m e s w i t h i n t h e
m e a s u r e . T h e m e l o d y r i s e s , a t th s a m e t i m e , i n
each o f the parts.
A t t h e d e c e p t i v e c a d e n e e i n 22 t h e m e l o d y t a k e s
a marvelous leap o f a major 7th, conveying t h e
sense o f f r e s h e n e r g y as i t does. I n s u b s e q u e n t
m e a s u r e s t h e figure's first i n t e r v a l i s c o n t r a c t e d i n
p r e p a r a t i o n f o rt h e end. T h e same process (con-
traccin o f t h e i n i t i a l i n t e r v a l ) h a d h e l p e d p r e p a r e
t h e first c a d e n e e , i n J O . T h e c o m p l e t e l a c k o f a n y
melodic skip i n J 2 a n d 2 4 diminishes t h eactivity
within the elaboration o f the goal chord.
115
C o m p a r i n g J 2 w i t h 2 4 w e find B a c h o n c e a g a i n
creating u n i t y a n d v a r i e t y a t t h e s a m e t i m e .T h e
s a m e lines a p p e a r i n b o t h t h o s e m e a s u r e s a n d b o t h
a r e the e l a b o r a t i o n o f a m a j o r t r i a d . B u t t h e p o s i -
tion o fthe i n n e r voices o fJ 2 is i n v e r t e d i n 2 4 .
T h i s bit o f d o u b l e c o u n t e r p o i n t p r o v i d e s u n i t y ( t h e
s a m e lines) a n d v a r i e t y ( i n a d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ) .
A n d now w e see w h y there's a two-octave range i n
2 4 , t h o u g h t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e o c t a v e i n 12: t h e
i n n e r voices n e e d t h e s p a c e i n w h i c h t o p l a y t h e i r
game.
M U S I C A L S P A C E T h e total range available o n
Bach's h a r p s i c h o r d m a y s e e m s m a l l t o u s , b u t i t
constituted t h e w h o l e k n o w n w o r l d a t t h e t i m e ,
a n d h e m a d e t h e m o s t o f i t . B o t h p a r t s fill t h e
space w i t h c o n t i n u o u s a c t i v i t y . W i t h i n e a c h m e a -
s u r e the c o m b i n e d r a n g e i s u s u a l l y t w o o c t a v e s o r
m o r e . W h e n t h e p a r t s d r a w cise t o g e t h e r s o t h a t
t h e i r total r a n g e is o n e o c t a v e , as i n _ 1 2 , it's a s i g n a l
t h a t the a c t i o n i s c o m i n g t o a n e n d .
C O N S O N A N C E - D I S S O N A N C E O n e reason that
Bach's m u s i c h o l d s o u r i n t e r e s t b e t t e r t h a n t h a t o f
his contemporaries is t h e level o f dissonance h e
a c h i e v e s . T h e r e ' s m u c h m o r e tensin b e t w e e n t h e
voices i n B a c h ' s w o r k t h a n i n m o s t B a r o q u e m u s i c .
T h e dissonanceconsonance interaction plays a n
important role: dissonance propels t h emusic for-
ward, seeking resolution, w h i l e consonance p r o -
vides m o m e n t a r y r e s t i n g p o i n t s . T h e s e are g e n e r a l
statements; t h e best w a y t o l e a r n w h a t B a c h d o e s
w i t h dissonance is t o l o o k closely a t s o m e interest-
i n g places i n t h e s c o r e .
H o w c a n w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e first E i n t h e u p p e r
part?
A l t h o u g h it's a p p r o a c h e d a n d left b y s k i p , t h e E is
clearly a P , since t h r e e l i n e s a r e i n p l a y , n o t t w o .
T h e upper p a r t is a p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y . T h e skips
seprate t h e t w o s t r a n d s o f t h a t m e l o d y . T h e s k e t c h
shows the t h r e e l i n e s .
All o f the I N s i n 2 aren't the same. T w o S U S s a r e h e a r d . O n e is b e t w e e n t h e i n n e r
l i n e a n d t h e bass, t h e o t h e r b e t w e e n t h e u p p e r l i n e
IN N
I N
a n d t h e bass.
I n 1 0 , t h e extensin o f V u s e s d i s s o n a n c e o n t w o
r h y t h m i c levis. T h e N s o n t h e s i x t e e n t h - n o t e l e v e l
are plain t o see. R e d u c t i o n shows t h e Ps o nt h e
quarter-note level.

T h e first, B , f o l l o w s i t s m a i n n o t e , o n a w e a k p a r t
4+ 4
JSjr
o f t h e beat. T h e s e c o n d , G , p r e c e d e s its m a i n n o t e ,
again o n t h e w e a k part o f the beat. T h e t h i r d , B ,
p r e c e d e s its m a i n n o t e b u t is o n t h e s t r o n g p a r t o f
the beat a n d is a n I N . m
A g a i n , i n 7, t h e u p p e r m e l o d y i m p l i e s t w o l i n e s .
T h e dissonant r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m is s h o w n
here:
C O M M E N T A l t h o u g h e v e r y d e t a i l is w o r k e d o u t
w i t h t h e u t m o s t care a n d t h o u g h t , t h eoverall effect
o f t h e a l l e m a n d e is o n e o f ease a n d smoothness.
4-3 B a c h w a n t e d t o w r i t e a n attractive piece o f m u s i c ;
he used a sophisticated technique i n its construc-

m tion, a n dthe result was exactly w h a t h e intended.

116
 PART SEVEN
FURTHER STUDIES
IN HARMONY,
COUNTERPOINT,
AND FORM
47
Introduction
I n Part Seven y o u will complete t h estudy o f dia-
tonic h a r m o n y a n d counterpoint. B ydiatonic w e
u s u a l l y m e a n p r e d o m i n a n t l y diatonic, since v e r y
little m u s i c ism a d e o f o n l y the seven diatonic notes
o f a m a j o r o r m i n o r scale. A n d w h i l e t h e m u s i c
t h a t f o r m s t h e b a c k g r o u n d o fthis study is largely
diatonic, i t also includes a few chromatic notes that
o p e n u p interesting possibilities.
In Part Seven y o u will study dissonant chords o f
m a n y types. T h u s f a ry o u have seen t h e interplay
o f dissonance a n d consonance i n terms o f single
d i s s o n a n t n o t e s w h i c h elabrate c o n s o n a n t s o u n d s .
T h a t s i m p l e a p p r o a c h t o consonance a n d disso-
117
nance is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f R e n a i s s a n c e m u s i c . Y o u
will n o w s e e h o w l a t e r c o m p o s e r s f o u n d w a y s t o
attach d i s s o n a n t n o t e s t o c o n s o n a n t c h o r d s , g e n -
erating d i s s o n a n t c h o r d s .
T h o s e a c t i v e c h o r d s a r e first s h o w n i n c a d e n e e s .
Then you study their role i n chord extensions,
focusing o n t o n i c a n d d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y . T h e
c o n c e p t o f c h o r d extensin h e l p s y o u t o u n d e r -
stand t h e g r o u p i n g o f c h o r d s i n t o c o h e r e n t u n i t s
within phrases. I t will also h e l p i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
large-scale t o n a l m o t i o n s .
In Part S e v e n y o u will s t u d y t h e ways i n w h i c h
a n y scale d e g r e e c a p a b l e o f s u p p o r t i n g a m a j o r o r
m i n o r t r i a d m a y a c t as a t e m p o r a r y (secondary)
tonic. T h i s procedure opens u p rich harmonic
resources i n v o l v i n ga few chromatic notes. Second-
ary tonics a n d d o m i n a n t s play a n i m p o r t a n t role
i n t h e m u s i c o f t h e great masters o f the Classical
style, i n t r o d u c e d i nthis section.
A n o t h e r l o o k a t b i n a r y f o r m , as f o u n d i n s h o r t
w o r k s b y early Classical composers, offers b o t h a
s u m m a r y o f Part Seven's material a n d a n oppor-
t u n i t y t o see specific techniques i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
complete compositions.

48
The Dominant 7th Chord

B A C K G R O U N D T h e evoluton o f V
o f its o r i g i n s : a t r i a d p l u s a P .
y
7
reveis o n e course o f t h e piece, H a n d e l h a s g i v e n t h e d o m i -
n a n t m o r e p o w e r t h r o u g h the use o f the dissonant
7th, eventually incorporating itinto the dominant

-e-
ll 8
c h o r d itself.

7
VOICE LEADING W e consider the V a disson-
8-7 ant chord because i t includes t w o dissonant inter-
vals.

o ^diminished 5th
i
7

v v V
T h e P b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e c h o r d as e a r l y as t h e
minor 7th\
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Y o u ' l l find s c a t t e r e d u s e s o f
o
7
V i n B a r o q u e pieces, b u t o n l y i n t h esecond h a l f
of the eighteenth century did V become the nor-
mative chord i n cadenees and chord extensions.
7
I
Resolution o f t h e dissonant intervals guides t h e
7 resolution o fthe chord. T h e diminished 5th a n d
E V O L U T I O N O FA V T h e historical develop-
7 i t s inversin, t h e a u g m e n t e d 4 t h , n o r m a l l y r e s o l v e :
m e n t o f V is r o u g h l y p a r a l l e l e d b y t h e cadenees
i n H a n d e l ' s Passecaille, [34]. A s t h e piece p r o c e e d s
8
the composer reaches f o rstronger a n d stronger
statements o f d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y , and V 7
emerges
as t h e c h o r d b e s t s u i t e d t o t h e p u r p o s e . R e f e r t o
i
T h e n o r m a l r e s o l u t i o n o f a d i m i n i s h e d 5 t h is i n w a r d , t o
the score as y o u s t u d y t h e n e x t p a r a g r a p h s : y o u
a 3rd.
m a y w a n t t o m a r k places that are discussed.
T h e n o r m a l r e s o l u t i o n o f a n a u g m e n t e d 4 t h is o u t w a r d ,
I f y o u l o o k a t t h ebasic p o l y p h o n y o n page 95,
to a 6 t h .
y o u w i l l seet h a t t h e last t w o c h o r d s a r e s i m p l y V
I . I n t h e v e r y first v a r i a t i o n H a n d e l i n t r o d u c e s C , A n o t h e r v i e w : t h eleading note resolves u p t o t h e
t h e 7 t h o v e r t h e bass, i n t h e d o m i n a n t . H e r e C is a t o n i c , w h i l e t h e7 t h resolves d o w n stepwise, as a P
N ; i n t h e t h i r d v a r i a t i o n it's a P . S i n c e t h e f o u r t h would.
v a r i a t i o n i s t h e inversin o f t h e t h i r d , t h e p a s s i n g All o f these observations apply t o t h e m i n o r
C is h e a r d i n t h ebass i n 1 6 . C is m e n t i o n e d a g a i n m o d e as w e l l as t h e m a j o r .
in 3 2 and_36. U p t o this p o i n t , t h e 7 t h has been a n W e start the discussion w i t h root-position chords
embellishing note, not a chord member. (other positions a r e explained later). T h e r e a r e
I n 52 t h e 7 t h b e c o m e s p a r t o f t h e c h o r d , a n d several n o r m a l voice-leading pathways f r o m V t o 7

7
y o u h e a r V f o r t h e first t i m e . I t a p p e a r s a g a i n i n I. T h e differences are caused b ydifferent soprano
5 5 . T h e last t w o cadenees o f t h e Passecaille a r e 7
p o s i t i o n s i n t h eV . T h e r e ' s also t h e fact t h a t V is 7

7
strengthened b y t h e direct use o f V . Over t h e o f t e n h e a r d w i t h o u t its 5 t h , l e a d i n g t o a c o m p l e t e
118
 (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
<K> LE

o 3E 321

7
I . I f a c o m p l e t e V is h e a r d , i t w i l l p r o b a b l y lead to (h) T h e t o p l i n e descends 2 1 . T h e t h r e e u p p e r voices
a n i n c o m p l e t e I . T h i s isd e m o n s t r a t e d i n the exam- m o v e t o g e t h e r , w h i l e t h e bass m o v e s c o n t r a r y t o
p l e s a b o v e . T h e r h y t h m i c p l a c e m e n t y o u ' l l find t h e m . A l l voices m o v e stepwise.
7
m o s t o f t e n i s u . (i) H e r e ' s o n e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h V r e s o l v e s d i f f e r e n t l y
in the major and i nthe m i n o r . I nthe major exam-
(a) T h e s o p r a n o m o v e s 2 1 , as i t f r e q u e n t l y d o e s i n the
ple, (h), t h e alto m o v e s d o w n a w h o l e step t o t h e
perfect authentic cadenee. T h e tritone (augmented
next note. I nthe m i n o r , i f the alto were to m o v e t o
4 t h ) b e t w e e n alto a n d t e n o r resolves to a 6 t h . Soprano
the next note, the melodic interval f o r m e d w o u l d be
a n d a l t o c o n v e r g e o n t h e unisn C . T h e absence o f
a n a u g m e n t e d 2 n d . T h i s is n o t acceptable i n stan-
t h e 5 t h i n I d o e s n ' t d e t r a c t f r o m t h e c h o r d i n any
dard voice leading, so the alto m u s t m o v e 7 - 8 . T h e
w a y . T h e r o o t o f I is t r i p l e d . O b s e r v e t h e contrary
3 r d o f V I is d o u b l e d as a r e s u l t . S o p r a n o a n d t e n o r
m o t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r v o i c e s . T h e c h o r d pair is
7
m o v e i n p a r a l l e l 6 t h s . A g a i n s t t h e m , a l t o a n d bass
i n cise p o s i t i o n . A c o m p l e t e V l e a d s t o a n i n c o m -
move in parallel lOths.
plete I .
( b ) I n o p e n p o s i t i o n , 21 i n t h e s o p r a n o i s m e t w i t h 7 - (j) W h e n t h e t o p l i n e m o v e s 4 - 3 , t h e 3 r d o f V I is
d o u b l e d . R e s o l u t i o n o f t h e t r i t o n e is n o r m a l .
8 i n t h e t e n o r , f o r m i n g a n o c t a v e . T h e r o o t o f I is 7
(k) T h e n o r m a l r e s o l u t i o n o f V leads t o a n o t h e r V I
tripled here, t o o . T h e tritone (diminished5th)
w i t h d o u b l e d 3 r d . T h i s is t h e o n l y e x a m p l e i n w h i c h
b e t w e e n alto a n d t e n o r resolves t o a 3 r d . Soprano
7 s o p r a n o a n d bass a r e i n p a r a l l e l m o t i o n . A g a i n s t
a n d bass a r e i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n . A c o m p l e t e V
their r i s i n g lOths, alto a n d t e n o r step d o w n i n 3rds.
leads t o a n i n c o m p l e t e I .
(C, V l a c k s a 5 t h , t h e o n e n o t e t h a t h a s n o s t r o n g
7

7
t e n d e n e y . T h e r o o t o f V i s d o u b l e d . T h e aug- N o w that y o u have seen t h estandard V - I a n d 7

m e n t e d 4 t h b e t w e e n s o p r a n o a n d a l t o resolves out 7
V V I motions i n simplest f o r m , y o u a r e prepared
t o a 6 t h . B e t w e e n t h e o u t e r v o i c e s y o u find s i m i l a r
to study ways i n w h i c h they a r e elaborated. T h e
m o t i o n . T h e c h o r d p a i r is i n o p e n p o s i t i o n . A n
7 best w a y t o d o that is t o l o o k a t m u s i c a l examples,"
i n c o m p l e t e V resolves t o a complete I .
each o f w h i c h o f f e r s a d i f f e r e n t v i e w o f t h e basic
( d ) T h i s i s a s t a n d a r d p a t t e r n i n t h e C l a s s i c a l style.
T h e r e ' s c o n t r a r y m o t i o n b e t w e e n s o p r a n o a n d bass. motion.
7
A c o m p l e t e V leads t o a n i n c o m p l e t e I . T o prove that alld o m i n a n t 7 t h chords aren't
(e) T h e 7 t h m a y l o o k as i f i t r e s o l v e s u p , b u t t o t h e ear f o u n d i n cadenees, here's a n e x a m p l e that begins
7
i t d o e s n ' t . T h e d o w n w a r d n o t e o f r e s o l u t i o n , E , is V -I.
h e a r d i n i t s e x p e c t e d p l a c e b u t i n a d i f f e r e n t voice
f r o m t h e 7 t h that precedes i t . B o t h V a n d I are
complete. Symphony No. 41, I I I MOZART
( f ) T h e c o m m o n n o t e b e t w e e n V a n d I is 5 ( G ) . H e r e
it's i n t h e t o p v o i c e a n d d o e s n ' t m o v e . T h e t r i t o n e
b e t w e e n t h e i n n e r voices resolves t o a 3 r d . Between
J
s o p r a n o a n d bass y o u h e a r o b l i q u e m o t i o n . A n
7
i n c o m p l e t e V leads t o a complete I .
(g) T h e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e 7 t h is p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r because
7
it's i n t h e t o p l i n e . A n o p e n - s p a c e d c o m p l e t e V
leads t o a n i n c o m p l e t e I w i t h t r i p l e d r o o t .

7 7
V VI W h e n V d o e s n ' t resolve t o I it's most
likely t o m o v e t o V I . B o t h chords a r e normally
c o m p l e t e . H e r e a r e t h e s t a n d a r d v o i c e - l e a d i n g pat-
terns.

) (k)
ra:
8 o
8 te

119
 7 7
A s i n example ( d )above, V is complete a n d I is Here's o n e w a yto have both a complete V a n d
7
incomplete. a c o m p l e t e I : u s e five p a r t s . T h e a d d e d v o i c e i n V
is a d o u b l e d E , t h e c o m m o n n o t e , w h i c h r e t a i n s i t s
Gentle A n n i e , |47[ FOSTER p o s i t i o n i n I . T h e r o o t is d o u b l e d i n t h e c o m p l e t e
7 7
V . T h u s V h a s five p a r t s a n d I h a s f o u r . S u c h
5
differences i nt h e n u m b e r o fnotes f r o m o n e c h o r d
to another a r e often f o u n d i n piano music.
d
0 4
Thou wilt come no more, gen-tle An-nie, Like a

"When O u r Dear Child," Op. 80, No. 1, [45]

3 20 WEBER

=6" c<-5

7
I V I E
C
Clearly this is n o t a cadenee. B u t w h a t is t h e
7
V 7
V I
m e a n i n g o f t h e V between t w o statements o f I?I t
7
is a n e l a b o r a t i v e c h o r d . H e r e V s u p p o r t s t w o
elaborative notes: F , a P, i n t h e melody (ithas its T h e t w odominanttonic motions come from
o w n t i n y N , E\>) a n d D , a N , i n t h e p i a n o p a r t . the same song. B o t h a r e authentic cadenees, b u t
7
T h u s V is subordnate t o I . T h i s is a t y p e o f t o n i c t h e i r m u s i c a l e f f e c t i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . T h e first
extensin. c o m e s f r o m a n i n t e r i o r cadenee, t h a t is, a m o m e n -
7
H o w m u c h music canbe made o u to f V I? t a r y p a u s e w i t h i n t h e m u s i c . I n 34 y o u h e a r a n
i m p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e , t h e t o p l i n e r i s i n g 2
Waltz, Op. 18, No. 6 SCHTJBERT 7
3 o v e r V I . T h e c h o r d p a i r i s i n five p a r t s . T h e
7
r o o t o f V is d o u b l e d , w h i l e i n I b o t h r o o t a n d 3 r d
Tlf
5
are doubled. T h eu p w a r d infiection o ft h e t o p line
[Jgfra , . l r r t e l l s y o u t h a t t h e c a d e n e e is j u s t a b r e a t h i n g p l a c e ,

11 r If
a n d m o r e is t o c o m e .

( l * f- rH
I n 20, t h e final c a d e n e e , t h e t o p l i n e d e s c e n d s
*PT

w-t 21 a n d t h e cadenee is perfect a u t h e n t i c . T h e t w o

--0i
j .2.
s t e m s o n C s h o w t h a t i t ' s a t e n o r - b a s s unisn. B o t h
Cs m o v e t o F s i n contrary m o t i o n . I nt h e goal
c h o r d t h e r o o t is t r i p l e d .
r
- 0 ^ ' f

_
^ 7
DOMINANT PREPARATIONS A c a d e n t i a l V
l 1 f (root position) is usually p r e p a r e d b y a c h o r d that

|
directly precedes i t .O f t e n that c h o r d is s u b d o m i -
-# -
J nant. T h eillustrations a t t h e t o p o fthe facing page
7
s h o w typical progressions i nw h i c h V is p r e p a r e d
7
V a n d I a r e t h eo n l y t w ochords heard. B u t o n l y by various chords. N o r m a l d o m i n a n t preparatory
t h e last p a i r f o r m s a cadenee. M o s t o f t h e p h r a s e 6
chords i n t h emajor are I V , I V , I I ,I I , a n d V I . 6

simply rocks back a n d f o r t h between tonic a n d N o r m a l dominant preparatory chords i n t h e m i n o r

d o m i n a n t , m a k i n g a h a u n d n g l y beautiful effect as 6
are I V , I V , I I a n d V I . 6

it d o e s s o . I n each progression, t h e second chord has t w o

roles. First, i t moves away f r o m t h e tonic. Second,
Piano Sonata K . 331, I , [43 MOZART it leads t o (prepares) t h e d o m i n a n t . Clearly, these
are i m p o r t a n t factors i n t h e musical flow.
0 H 7
T o b e s u r e , i t ' s o n l y t h e cadenal V t h a t r e q u i r e s

1 t
7
preparation. Other V chords are subordinate i n
4 o n e w a yo ranother, a n dt h e question o f prepara-
tion doesn't arise.

V I O" W o r k s h e e t 3 5

120
 , MAJOR

XE 3
Z S5
Z

SE 3E
7
> i rv v i i n v 6 7
i i n v 7
i i vi v 7
i i rvs v 7
i

/MINOR

3 XE OI XE
8

3E
7
i rv v i i n 6
v 7
i i 6
rv v 7
i I V I V 7
I

O T H E R POSITIONS O F T H E DOMINANT THE i POSITION W h e n t h e bass n o t e is t h e 5 t h

7TH I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r o o t p o s i t i o n , t h e d o m i - of the c h o r d y o u hear these intervals over it: 6th,
' 6
n a n t 7 t h c h o r d m a y a p p e a r i n t h r e e o t h e r posi-
4 t h , 3 r d . T h e c h o r d is V | , c u s t o m a r i l y a b b r e v i a t e d
t i o n s , w i t h a n y m e m b e r o f t h e c h o r d s e r v i n g as
bass n o t e . I n t h e o r y , all t h r e e p o s i t i o n s a r e t o b e V | . T h e i p o s i t i o n o f t h e d o m i n a n t 7 t h is also a
c o n s i d e r e d as " i n v e r s i o n s " o f t h e r o o t - p o s i t i o n V . 7 linear chord.
I n p r a c t i c e , e a c h p o s i t i o n is b e s t u n d e r s t o o d as a (e) (f)
l i n e a r c h o r d , t h a t is, a c h o r d g r o w i n g o u t o f n e i g h - XE XE
bor a n dpassing m o t i o n .

XE
T H E i POSITION W h e n t h e l e a d i n g n o t e is i n
t h e bass y o u h e a r these i n t e r v a l s above it: 6 t h , 5 t h , I 6
I V | I 6

3 r d . T h e c h o r d ' s c o m p l e t e figure i s V j j . T h e c u s -
t o m a r y a b b r e v i a t i o n is Vjj. T h e t o p n o t e m a y b e ( d ) Bass a n d s o p r a n o , i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n , m o v e t o a n d
the root, 5th, o r 7th o f the chord. f r o m N s . T h e t r i t o n e is h e a r d b e t w e e n s o p r a n o a n d
tenor.
(e) H e r e t h e bass D is a P , m e e t i n g t h e s o p r a n o ' s N . I n
(b) (c) 6
t h e I t o w h i c h t h e V | m o v e s , t h e 3 r d is d o u b l e d .
XE ( f ) S o p r a n o a n d bass m o v e i n p a r a l l e l l O t h s . T h e d i -
minished 5 t h between alto a n d soprano moves t o a
p e r f e c t 5 t h . T h i s is n o t c o n s i d e r e d a case o f p a r a l l e l
5ths.

i vjj I I 6
I v 5
I I n a d d i t i o n , V3 m a y b e h e a r d i n t h i s c o n t e x t :

(a) T h e t o p l i n e m o v e s 3 - 4 - 3 . N s i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n J* (8)
XE
b e t w e e n s o p r a n o a n d bass g u i d e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n . 31
T h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h o s e N s is a t r i t o n e , w h i c h g 8
comes f r o m and returns t o a 3rd. T h e alto moves in
parallel 3rds w i t h the soprano, while the tenor holds
t h e c o m m o n n o t e . Y o u find t h e s a m e t h r e e u p p e r
lines, w i t h octave transpositions, i n t h e next t w o 1 v 1
examples.
(b) A g a i n y o u h e a r c o n t r a r y m o t i o n b e t w e e n s o p r a n o (g) H e r e t w o p o s i t i o n s o f t h e d o m i n a n t 7 t h a r e h e a r d i n
a n d bass. B e t w e e n t e n o r a n d bass, 3 r d - d i m i n i s h e d s u c c e s s i o n . T h i s s o u n d s less l i k e a c h o r d c h a n g e t h a n
5th-3rd. a s h i f t o f bass n o t e s w i t h i n a c h o r d , c o m p a r a b l e t o
6
(c) W i t h t h e c o m m o n n o t e i n t h e s o p r a n o , t h e t r i t o n e is the m o v e f r o m I t o I . I n t h e illustration, V shows
h e a r d b e t w e e n a l t o a n d bass. S o p r a n o a n d bass a r e d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y , w h i l e figures b e t w e e n t h e s t a v e s
in oblique motion. indcate t h e m o t i o n w i t h i n t h a t h a r m o n y .

I n a l l t h r e e i l l u s t r a t i o n s , V j j is a n e i g h b o r c h o r d t o THE | POSITION W h e n t h e 7 t h o f V is i n t h e 7

I. bass, t h e i n t e r v a l s o v e r i t a r e : 6 t h , 4 t h , 2 n d . T h e
121
 2
c h o r d isV | , o rs i m p l y V . T h i s f o r m o f the chord, T h e n a N i n t h e bass s u p p o r t s V f , , w h i c h also
too, originated i n linear motion. r e t u r n s t o I . V i s r e a c h e d a t t h e mdpoint o f t h e
phrase. B u t t h e bass doesn't descend a 5 t h ; it steps
W ^ 0) XE
2
d o w n , c o n t i n u i n g t h e l i n e a r m o t i o n . V filis t h e
XE second half o f 4 . T h e latter part o fthe phrase
7
moves t o a cadential V , t h eonly root-position
appearance o f the chord.
XE XE W h e n the violin picks u p the phrase the poly-
3 - p
p h o n y changes v e r y little, b u t t h e t e x t u r e changes
I vf 16 I V 2
I 6

6 t h e c o m p l e t e p o l y p h o n y . T h e bass is d o u b l e d i n
( h ) 1 V I , e l a b o r a t e d w i t h a P i n t h e bass.
(i) T h e P replaces t h e c o n s o n a n t n o t e f r o m w h i c h i t
o r i g i n a l l y carne.
A B e e t h o v e n excerpt b e l o w shows all f o u r posi-
7
tions o f V i n a single phrase. T h e p i a n o plays the
eight-measure unit, repeated b y t h eviolin with
piano accompaniment.
I n t h e first s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p h r a s e , t h e h a r m o n y
is s h a r e d b y t h e p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y a n d t h e l e f t -
h a n d a c c o m p a n i m e n t . T h e first t w o m e a s u r e s s h o w
6
V | connecting I and I , followed by a return to I .
a l o t . T h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t is t h i c k e n e d a n d i n c l u d e s
octaves t o i n c r e a s e t h e s o n o r i t y . W h e r e t h e bass
l i n e r e t u r n e d t o 1 i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f 2, i t
r e m a i n s o n 3 i n _10. T h a t c h a n g e s t h e n e x t n o t e ,
Cf, f r o m a N t oa n I N , a change o f emphasis but
not o f meaning. T h e V atthe midpoint remains i n
root position a bit longer, another slight change o f
emphasis. I n b o t h statements, observe h o w t h e
7
cadential V I ise l a b o r a t e d w i t h t h r e e s u s p e n d e d
notes.
O * Worksheet36

Violin Sonata, O p . 12, No. 1, I I I BEETHOVEN

Allegro
 49
4 Chords
W h i l e t h e d o m i n a n t 7 t h is a n i n d e p e n d e n t c h o r d
with a definite h a r m o n i c function, the next disson-
a n t c h o r d w e w i l l s t u d y , t h e %, d e p e n d s f o r i t s
meaning u p o n t h e chords that precede and/or
follow i t . It'sa purely linear chord; that is, it's
f o r m e d b y p a s s i n g a n d n e i g h b o r m o t i o n s . f. c h o r d s
have n o roots; t h e r e a r e better ways t o describe
t h e m t h a n b y t h e u s e o f romn n u m b e r s .
POSITIONS OF T H E T R I A D T h e r e a r e t h r e e
p o s i t i o n s o f a n y t r i a d , a n d it's i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r -
stand t h emusical differences between t h e m . Each
position is n a m e d f o r t h eintervals h e a r d o v e r t h e
bass. W h e n t h e t r i a d ' s r o o t is i n t h e bass, i t is i n %
or "root position"; with the 3 r d o f the chord i nt h e
b a s s , y o u h e a r t h e 3 p o s i t i o n o r " f i r s t inversin";
t h e 5 t h o f t h e t r i a d i n t h e bass gives u s t h e 4
p o s i t i o n o r " s e c o n d inversin."
T h e n o d o n that all three positions a r e "inver-
sions" o f t h e same c h o r d has been i n circulation
for a long time. B u t i fw e examine t h e musical
function o f each position, rather than just listing
t h e i r n o t e s , w e find t h a t t h e 4 p o s i t i o n o f t h e t r i a d
is s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o t h e r s . T h a t
d i f f e r e n c e lies i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e 4 t h a n d i t s
relation t o t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t voice i n shaping
t o n a l m u s i c , t h e bass.
THE | AND f POSITIONS B o t h | a n d % p o s i -
tions o fthe tonic triad (major o r minor) a r e con-
sonant. T h e 4ths that they m a y include a r e heard
between t w o o f the u p p e r voices and don't involve
t h e bass. B o t h p o s i t i o n s c o m e u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g
o f tonic h a r m o n y . Y o u have already seen h o w a n
extensin o f t o n i c h a r m o n y m a y b e g i n w i t h I a n d
6 mally, stepwise d o w n .
e n d w i t h I (see p . 5 7 ) . C l e a r l y , t h o s e t w o p o s i t i o n s
o f the triad are closely related.
THE % POSITION W h e n a 4 t h is h e a r d o v e r t h e
bass, t h e s a m e n o t e s t h a t f o r m e d a c o n s o n a n t c h o r d
i n t h e first t w o p o s i t i o n s n o w f o r m a d i s s o n a n t
chord. T h enote that was t h e root i n the other
positions is n o w a dissonance a n d c a n n o l o n g e r
serve as a r o o t . T h e fact t h a t t h e s a m e notes a r e
used i n a l l t h r e e positions is irrelevant; what's
123
decisive is t h e r e l a t i o n o f the u p p e r voices t o t h e
bass, t h e g u i d i n g l i n e i n t o n a l m u s i c .
C o m p a r e t h e placement o fthe 4 t h i n t h e three
positions o f the triad.
-*5>4th-
\4th ^4th
ZSSZ
T T
T h e crucial difference between the 4and the other
t w o p o s i t i o n s lies i n t h e d i s s o n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
t h e bass.
RESOLUTION OF T H E % CHORD I n y o u r study
o f counterpoint y o u learned that t h e dissonant
i n t e r v a l o fa perfect 4 t h m a y b e t r e a t e d as a P , N ,
o r S U S . A l l t h r e e t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s e d t o genrate
4 chords.
m
(c)
i '5 6 '5
3 4 3
m
n v6
1 rv v v
( a ) T h e 4 t h b e t w e e n a l t o a n d bass i s a P . I t r e s o l v e s t o a
3 r d . T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e o t h e r voices p r o v i d e s a
7
V t o f o l l o w t h e %.
( b ) T h e p r e p a r e d d i s s o n a n c e is a S U S . I t r e s o l v e s n o r -
(c) T h e d i s s o n a n t n o t e i s a N i n t h e a l t o . T h e s o p r a n o
moves i n parallel 3rds w i t h the alto.
T h e example above shows h o w4 chords a r e
d e s c r i b e d t h r o u g h o u t Gradus. T h e m a i n c h o r d i s
s h o w n b y a romn n u m b e r u n d e r t h e bass. T h e
m o t i o n o v e r t h a t b a s s i s s h o w n i n figures b e t w e e n
t h e staves. T h i s tells y o u t h a t a c h o r d takes i t s
m e a n i n g f r o m the c h o r d i tleads to, or, w h e n % is a
neighbor chord, f r o m the surrounding main chord.
 S CHORDS IN DOMINANT HARMONY \
C h o r d s a r e u s e d m o s t o f t e n as p a r t o f d o m i n a n t
h a r m o n y . T h e r e s o l u t i o n o ft h e 4 t h t o a 3 r d is t h e
resolution o fa dissonant note t o t h eleading note.
T h e 4 may be followed b y either V o r V . Illustra- 7
d o n s (a), (b), a n d (c) above a l ls h o w 6
chords i n
dominant harmony.
Y o u m a y have noticed that w e d i dn o tuse t h e
6
t e r m " I . " T h e r e ' s a g o o d reason. T h elabel " I "
says t h a t a c h o r d is t o n i c i n i t s f u n c t i o n , b u t t h e
6
c h o r d s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d " I " is a c t u a l l y d o m i n a n t
i n f u n c t i o n . C o n v e n t i o n a l h a r m o n y uses t h e e r r o -
neous label, l o o k i n g at o n e c h o r d at a t i m e a n d
listing its content i n a literal way. W e prefer t o
previous measures: F A - C . Y e t there's a definite
sense o f h a r m o n i c c h a n g e . W h y ? B e c a u s e t h e bass
m o t i o n f r o m 1 t o 5 sets u p a d i s s o n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h t h eC above it. H o w t o u n d e r s t a n d that disso-
n a n c e ? S i n c e t h e F w a s p r e p a r e d i n t h e first t w o
m e a s u r e s , w e i d e n t i f y t h e dissonance as a S U S o n
the half-note level.
T h e e x c e r p t f r o m The Magic Flute g a v e y o u a n
opportunity to compare 3 a n d 4 chords. A f e w
measures f r o m a Romantic song show all three
positions o f t h e triad, i n a n unusual r h y t h m i c
context.
Sapphic Ode BRAHMS

listen t o t h e chord's c o n t e x t w h e r e i t carne f r o m

a n d w h e r e it's g o i n g .
m i |J i ,1 1 j j 'n
r 1 1 1
J

A COMPARISON T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e
positions o f t h e t r i a d is a m u s i c a l o n e , n o t j u s t a fe
theoretical one. T w o examples, widely different in
style, illustrate t h e s a m e p o i n t . T h e y also r e m i n d
y o u o f t h e bass's p o w e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m e a n i n g
of a chord. 3 l
T h e M a g i c F l u t e , Act I I MOZART
r.
'i ' I i' t i
r1 1

p
fe ; 1 }\ ,J| c
1

;
sus"
8
6
f5
J 3-6 4 3
VH"
* 0 0 0 0
V

I n 2., w e h e a r t h e b a s s a r p e g g i a t i n g d o w n F

m
C - F ; t h e r e ' s n o | c h o r d i n t h e first m e a s u r e . T h e
m a i n n o t e i n t h e bass is F f o r t w o m e a s u r e s , b u t
w h e n t h e bass m o v e s f r o m F t o A t h e m a i n h a r -
^4- -0-^0- m o n y d o e s n ' t c h a n g e . T h i s is t o n i c h a r m o n y , t h e
6
f a m i l i a r I - I . B u t t h e bass m o v e t o C , i n m i d - . 3 ,
0t
brings a change f r o m tonic t o dominant. T h e dif-
0 4 0 0 6
f e r e n c e b e t w e e n f a n d is as c l e a r as c a n b e . W h a t
VI V I t y p e o f d i s s o n a n c e is i n p l a y h e r e ?
K n o w i n g that w e m u s t always investigate t h e
H o w l o n g i s t o n i c h a r m o n y i n c o n t r o l ? T h e first r h y t h m i c aspect o fdissonance, w e l o o k f o r strong
two measures show m o t i o n within the chord i nt h e a n d w e a k b e a t s . S o m e h o w , t h i s m u s i c d o e s n ' t fit
u p p e r voices, b u t n o c h a n g e i n t h e bass. H e n e e into the barlines. W h a t y o u hear isn't w h a t y o u see.
there's n oc h a n g e i n h a r m o n y . A t the beginning o f T h e n o t a t e d m e t e r is 0 a n d t h e h a l f n o t e r e p r e -
3 t h e b a s s m a k e s i t s first m o v e . W h e n i t s k i p s t o C 6
sents o n e beat. T h e c h o r d appears t o fall o n a
t h e p i t c h c o n t e n t o f t h e c h o r d is t h e s a m e as i n t h e w e a k beat, y e t it's n e i t h e r t h e r e s u l t o f passing o r
124
neighbor m o t i o n . I t sounds like a S U S . B r a h m s (Bl>) is a N : i t ' s n o t p a r t o f a c h o r d a n d i s n ' t
has l e a r n e d a b o u t h e m i o l a s f r o m h i s s t u d y o f six- represented i nt h e figures.
teenth- a n d seventeenth-century music. Here h e The cadential 6
became a n o r m a l part o f t h e
i n v e n t s h i s o w n h e m i o l a . L i s t e n a g a i n t o t h e first vocabulary i n t h em i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h cen-
t h r e e m e a s u r e s , w h i c h s o u n d as i f they w e r e writ- tury. T e l e m a n n ' s u s e o f i t reflects h i s positioni n
ten. the transition f r o m B a r o q u e t o Classical styles.
Each o f t h e t w o phrases t h a t c o m p r i s e B e e t h o -
Notated in triple meter, piano part simplified ven's C o n t r a d a n s e i n C , | 4 4 A | , u s e s a 4 c h o r d t o
s t r e n g t h e n t h e c a d e n e e . T h e first p h r a s e m o d u -
lates t o a c a d e n e e i n V . T h e c a d e n t i a l m o d u l a t i o n
is s w i f t b u t c o n v i n c i n g . I t s u c c e e d s m a i n l y b e c a u s e
o f the p o w e r o ft h e 4 c h o r d t o tell y o u t h a t D is
now the d o m i n a n t .
A 4 c h o r d is u s e d i n a d i f f e r e n t w a y i n t h e s e c o n d
7
p h r a s e . F i r s t , 9 - 1 2 a r e filled w i t h V . T h e n t h e
bass m o v e s t o F , w h i c h i s a N b e t w e e n t w o G s . F
6
supports I I , h e r e a n e i g h b o r c h o r d . W h e n t h e
bass r e t u r n s t o G t h e d o m i n a n t i s e l a b o r a t e d w i t h
6
a chord. T h edissonant C isa nP . T h em o t i o n t o
and f r o m t h a t n o t e ism o s t clearly seen i n t h e oboe
R e b a r r i n g shows t h e natural accent o ft h e music part. A sketch s h o w s t h e p o l y p h o n y o f t h e s e c o n d
and explains t h etreatment o ft h e chord. T h e 6 phrase.
dissonance is a S U S o nt h ehalf-note level. A n d i t
resolves, as a g o o d S U S s h o u l d , o nt h e n e x t w e a k Basic p o l y p h o n y
beat.
13 15
- O o
CADENTIAL | T h e%c h o r d that's part o f t h e ZTZ
ZTSZ
d o m i n a n t m a yb e used wherever d o m i n a n t har- 3E
6 7
m o n y i s h e a r d , i n c l u d i n g t h e c a d e n e e . T h e caden- N 5
4
3
tial 4 j o i n s t h e c a d e n t i a l V o r V t o c o n c l u d e a
7
O 1
phrase. T h ec o m b i n a t i o n o fa cadential 6-5 over 5 u n 3T 3
33C
is a s t a n d a r d p a r t o f t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f C l a s s i c a l
and Romantic music. > v 7
n 6
v 1

A clear example o f a c a d e n t i a l % i s h e a r d a t t h e
e n d o f a n eighteenth-century song f o rvoice a n d P A S S I N G A N D N E I G H B O R % Still within t h e
6

c o n t i n u o . I n t h e e x a m p l e , t h e v o i c e p a r t , bass, a n d realm o f d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y , o t h e r uses o f g r o w

figures are t h e composer's; t h e i n n e r voices a r e a out of neighbor a n d passing motions.

m
realization o ft h e figures.
(a) (b)

To S l e e p , [ 2 9 B ] TELEMANN
-0
6 5 5 6
4 3 3 4

V - u _ u V V

i 6 5 (a) H e r e t h e 4 is a n e i g h b o r c h o r d b e c a u s e t h e d i s s o n a n t
T h e figures s h o w t h a t \ r e s o l v e s t o jj. T h e r h y t h m
o f t h i s e x c e r p t i s i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e t w o levis a r e
i n p l a y a t t h e s a m e t i m e . W h i l e t h e jdj p r o c e e d s o n
t h e q u a r t e r - n o t e l e v e l , t h e bass m o v e s i n e i g h t h s .
6
O n t h e q u a r t e r - n o t e l e v e l t h e d i s s o n a n c e i n t h e is
a S U S . O n t h e e i g h t h - n o t e l e v e l t h e t h i r d bass n o t e
note, C , is a N .
(b) M o t i o n w i t h i n t h e V l e a d s t o a p a s s i n g 4. T h e d i s s o n -
ant C is a P .
A teasing p h r a s e f r o m a w a l t z m a k e s g o o d u s e
6
of a neighbor within d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y . H o w -
ever, there's n o l a w c o m p e l l i n g t h e d o m i n a n t t o
move tot h e tonic a tall times.

125
Waltz, O p . 33, No. 15 se H U B E RT Prelude No. 3, [24] COUPERIN

i 4
v

fr-f ftfTr'. PfTp

t
i
m: I
7
6
V

W i t h the help o fthe% chord, dominant harmony
is e x t e n d e d f o r five m e a s u r e s . T h e d i s s o n a n t F i s a
N . W ekeep waiting f o r t h e tonic t o answer, b u t i t
n e v e r does, T h e C i nt h e bass is t u r n e d i n t o 3o f
A t , a n dt h ephrase modulates t oa cadenee i n I I I ,
w i t h o u t a |.
A n earlier e x a m p l e stretches o u t d o m i n a n t har-
7
m o n y b y m o v i n g w i t h i n V , i n c l u d i n g % as a n
elaboration.
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f J3, t h e d o m i n a n t b e g i n s ,
7
w i t h V . T h e n a P ( D , t e n o r ) a n d a n I N (B!>,
s o p r a n o ) c o m b i n e t o f o r m a m o m e n t a r y %. T h e
soprano's A is shifted d o w n a n octave as w e hear
7
V again. % appears once m o r e o n t h e f o u r t h (strong)
beat. The 4th i n the t e n o r i s a n N , t h e 6 i s e l a b o -
rated w i t h a D Ni neighth notes. Finally t h e 4 t h
resolves clearly t o a 3 r d , a n d y o u hear V o n t h e 7
l a s t b e a t o f 5. T h e m e a s u r e c o m e s a t t h e e n d o f a
cadential m o d u l a t i o n t o I I I ( B t ) a n d results i na
considerable emphasis o nthe n e w dominant.
A larger gesture is f o u n d i nthree measures o f
the early B e e t h o v e n piano sonata below. Passing
motion within dominant harmony, generating a4
c h o r d , c o m b i n e s w i t h extensin i n m u s i c a l s p a c e .
T h e result is quite d r a m a t i c .
T h e r e a r e t h r e e levis o f a c t i v i t y , e a c h m o v i n g
at a d i f f e r e n t speed. I n t h e highest register, t h e
melody built o n a n arpeggiation o f t h e chords
animates t h e m with Ps a n d N s . This melody has
the largest n u m b e r o f notes t o t h e beat. T h e i n n e r
p a r t rises against i t , i nc o n t r a r y m o t i o n . I t m o v e s
in 3rds t h r o u g h t h e d o m i n a n t ; y o uhear 3 - 4 I 5 . I n
an instrumental doubling, t h e left-hand part
includes grace notes that contain t h e complete
p o l y p h o n y . T h e r e p e a t e d A i n t h e bass tells y o u
plainly that t h e entire three measures a r et obe
h e a r d as d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y . T h e4c h o r d plays its
r o l e as passing c h o r d w i t h i n t h a t d o m i n a n t .

Piano Sonata, O p . 10, No. 3, I I BEETHOVEN

n i1
d: V

3 F
i3 i
126
f I N SEMICADENCE T h u s f a r y o u h a v e seen % IN T O N I C H A R M O N Y O n eo fthe early i n n o -
the 4 c h o r d i n authentic cadenees. T h e dissonant vations o f t h e Classical style w a s a s i m p l e w a y o f
c h o r d m a y also b e part o ft h e V that's t h e goal o f a extending t h e tonic using a pair o fNs. T w o upper
semicadence. M a n y antecedent phrases e n d with voices m o v e i n p a r a l l e l 3 r d s o r 6 t h s o v e r a s t a t i o n -
such a cadenee, followed b y a consequent phrase ary bass n o t e . T h i s m o t i o n g e n e r a t e s a n e i g h b o r %
concluding w i t h a n authentic cadenee. C o m p a r e chord.
b o t h uses o f 4 i n t h e next e x a m p l e .
XE
Piano Sonata K . 331,1, 43
=8=
MOZART

1 5
3
6
4
5
3
5
3
6
4

XE XE

A AAA
lili m 1 A f a m o u s e x a m p l e is i n a n e a r l y H a y d n w o r k
below. T h i s m o v e m e n t is s o m e t i m e s called " S e r e -
nade." T h e c o m p l e t e v o i c e l e a d i n g i s i n t h e t h r e e

w
lower i n s t r u m e n t s . T h ep o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y o f t h e
first v i o l i n a l s o c o n t a i n s m o s t o f t h e h a r m o n y . T h e
basic p o l y p h o n y o f t h e first t w o a n d o n e h a l f

m
measures is s h o w n .
6 5
4 3
i JJJ The same motion, i n a different elaboration,
begins t h e t h i r d p h r a s e o f t h e M o z a r t s o n a t a s e e n
earlier.
fie V

P:8 7
JJJ 6 5
4 3

PV
The m e l o d y starts o n 5 a n d m o v e s 5 - 6 - 5 . T h e N
T h e first p h r a s e Q4) i s p u n c t u a t e d b y a s e m i c a - F U , 6 , i s i t s e l f e l a b o r a t e d w i t h a filled 3 r d . T h e
d e n c e . I n 4 t h e g o a l c h o r d i s e x t e n d e d w i t h ; t h e upper line o f t h e l e f t - h a n d part reinforces t h e
SE I - I
dissonance is a n P .T h e second phrase ends w i t h a melody at t h e octave, a f o r m o fi n s t r u m e n t a l d o u -
perfect authentic cadenee. I n8 a (suddenly quiet) bling o f t e n f o u n d i n p i a n o m u s i c . O b s e r v e t h e
4 begins d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y . A s i n 4 , t h e disso- semicadence, w i t h a n o t h e r % w i t h i n d o m i n a n t h a r -
n a n c e isa n P . mony.

String Quartet, Op. 5, No. 2, I I HAYDN

ifiv ru"- L
' r _

Basic polyphony

-JF N > r m n r 3E-~-

' m
^

- J ^J ^J ^J ' * *
J * * t
5 6 5
Va. 3 4 3
--J Ji
"tm.
a * (
-
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d
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Ve.
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-'): r i = F = i --T , j , - I
r { e *- t- r
I 1
127
A R P E G G I O 4 H o w to understand the4th between
bass a n d u p p e r v o i c e i n t h i s e x c e r p t ?
E c o s s a i s e , O p . 1 8 , N o . 1 , [46]
0- m *
1 Lp-
B 1
ers. A c t u a l l y t h e h a r m o n y c h a n g e s s l o w l y , as i n
m a n y s i m p l e p i e c e s . T h e first t w o m e a s u r e s a r e
b u i l t o n t o n i c h a r m o n y ; t h e t h i r d is a l l d o m i n a n t .
SCHUBERT H e r e t o o t h e s k i p is w i t h i n t h e c h o r d . T h e f o u r t h
measure returns to t h e tonic.

\T V
4 1
= 4
0:,hu% - *
i V
D o e s t h e h a r m o n y c h a n g e w h e n t h e bass skips back
and f o r t h between 1 a n d 5? Clearly i t does n o t ;
t h i s bass m o t i o n is p u r e l y m e l o d i c . T h e E t is a n
e l a b o r a t i o n o f A k S i n c e t h e bass s k i p is w i t h i n t h e
f r a m e w o r k o f t h e tonic triad, w e m a yconsider it a
f o r m o f a r p e g g i a t i o n . T h i s i s t h e arpeggio %, t h e
" o o m - p a h " o f band marches, beloved o f tuba play-
W H E N IS A 4 N O T A | ? S o m e d m e s w h a t a p p e a r s
6
to b e a c h o r d i s n ' t t h a t a t a l l . I f t h e n o t e s o f t h e
t o n i c t r i a d a r e s t a t e d s o t h a t t h e bass is h e a r d last,
-
y o u ' l l see a %o n t h e page f o r a m o m e n t . B u t w h e n
t h e bass e n t e r s , t h e t o n i c c h o r d is c o m p l e t e d a n d
I you realize that t h e r e w a s i n fact a n arpeggiated \
c h o r d . T h e first m e a s u r e o f t h e s o n g d i s c u s s e d o n
p a g e 1 2 4 is a g o o d e x a m p l e .
T h e bass C i n m i d - J . d o e s n ' t r e p r e s e n t a c h o r d
change but an arpeggiation o f I . W h e n the l o w F
is r e a c h e d i n t h e n e x t m e a s u r e t h e c h o r d h a s b e e n
stated completely.
O" Worksheet 37

50
Diatonic 7th Chords

We will n o w consider all the diatonic 7 t hchords i n In building 7 t h chords i n the m i n o r mode w e
major a n d minor. A s y o u saw i n the study o f the i n c l u d e t h e l e a d i n g n o t e i n t h e t w o places w h e r e i t
7
V , 7 t h chords result f r o m passing o r neighbor n o r m a l l y occurs:

p y i n ''8 0 4
notes that became attached t o triads. T h e most
7
u s e f u l f o u r - n o t e c h o r d is V , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e
n o r m a l f o r m o f d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y i n t h e latter
part o f t h e eighteenth century. B u t 7 t h chords i 7
n 7
m 7
rv 7
v 7
v i 7
v n 7

m a y b e b u i l t o n a n y d e g r e e o f t h e m a j o r scale b y
In theory, a n y o f these chords m a y appear i n
a d d i n g a 3 r d t o t h a t scale degree's t r i a d .
a n y o f t h e f o u r possible positions, w i t h a n y m e m -
b e r o f t h e c h o r d s e r v i n g as bass n o t e . I n p r a c t i c e ,
o n l y a f e w o f t h e diatonic chords listed have p r o v e n
useful. B e f o r e l o o k i n g at t h e i r uses, h o w e v e r , let
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
u s r e v i e w t h e t y p e s o f 7 t h c h o r d s t h a t xistin t o n a l
i n m rv v v i v n
m u s i c a n d c o m p a r e t h e i r s t r u c t u r e (see b e l o w ) .

type of 7th chord interval content in m a j o r vn m i n o r

major 7th M3rd, m3rd, M3rd 7

I , IV 7
III , VI 7 7

minor 7th m3rd, M3rd, m3rd 7

II , III , VI 7 7 7
I , IV 7

dominant 7th M3rd, m3rd, m3rd V 7

V 7

half-diminished 7th m3rd, m3rd, M3rd VII 7

II 7

diminished 7th m3rd, m3rd, m3rd not d i a t o n i c VII 7

A comparison of the five types with C as root

i major 7th

W e group t h ediatonic 7 t h chords b y harmonic

minor 7th dominant 7th half-diminished m i n o r 7th diminished 7th

Observe h o w each c h o r d has the d u r a t i o n o f o n e

usage: measure until b .T h e n M o z a r t speeds u p t h e rate
of chord change with a hemiola. T w o measures i n
S i n c e a l l 7 t h c h o r d s a r e d i s s o n a n t , n o n e c a n h a v e a stable
4 ( 5 a n d 6.) a r e h e a r d a s o n e m e a s u r e i n . N o w t h e
(tonic) function.
7 7
I I a n d I V , i n a n y position, m a y have subdominant chords change o nt h ehalf note, so that y o u hear
function. three chords i ntwo measures. M o z a r t makes t h e
7
V I I i s a l e a d i n g - n o t e c h o r d . J u s t as t h e l e a d i n g n o t e hemiola clear w i t h his d y n a m i c m a r k i n g s .
p o i n t s t o w a r d t h e tonic note, so does t h e 7 t h chord
built o n that leading note point t o t h e tonic chord. SUBDOMINANT 7 T H CHORDS T h r e e 7 t h
7
V I I normally moves to I . chords a r euseful i nexpressing subdominant har-
7 7
I I I a n d V I a r e m i l d l y dissonant, w i t h n o s t r o n g har- 7
mony: Ilf,II , and I V . 7

m o n i c tendeney.
II5 B y f a r t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e i s I l f , w h i c h c o m e s
IN ONE MOTION T h e n e x t e x a m p l e s h o w s most into existence n o t b y a process o f " i n v e r t i n g " a
7
o f the diatonic 7th chords i no n elong motion.I root-position chord but b y a linear technique, t h e
i s n ' t i n c l u d e d , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t it's n o t u s e f u l i n this SUS.
style. Y o u m a y r e c o g n i z e t h ebass m o t i o n i n 5ths,
a typical eighteenth-century pattern. F u n e r a l M u s i c f o r Queen Mary PURCELL

Piano Sonata K . 332, I MOZART > 0

<>
c
r ~ \ - s -
Q
t
-tf
i c
-0-0
5 5 SI JS

, \, fi :
/ p / p 11
f

3 n
5 I
- 9

c: I rv 7
vn 7 Following t h er h y t h m markings, y o u find that t h e
soprano C is p r e p a r e d o na w e a k beat; i tenters a

m j P
0 0 s
f
*
-0
P
--
J *
f
-
P
dissonant relationship with t h e tenor o n t h e next
(strong) beat; a n d i t resolves t h e dissonance b y
m o v i n g d o w n stepwise o n t h e n e x t (weak) beat.
m *f T h e intervals between soprano and tenor a r e 6th
): t>
w 7 t h 6 t h . T h i s i s t h e elassie S U S p r o c e d u r e , a n d
'\>\ L
1 -
1 7
here i t generates t h e dissonant c h o r d w e cali I l f .
I n t h eprogression, this chord prepares t h ed o m i -
ni 7
vi 7
v
nant. O n ereason that I l f is such a n effecdve
d o m i n a n t p r e p a r a t i o n is t h a t t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e
7th ( o r 2nd) is t o t h eleading note, a vital part o f
dominant harmony.
W h i l e the Purcell example shows the dissonance
as a 7 t h , a n o t h e r w i l l s h o w t h a t d i s s o n a n c e a s a
2nd.

T h e basic p o l y p h o n y is e l a b o r a t e d w i t h S U S s . T h i s Chrale No. 85 BACH

e x a m p l e shows a n intensification o fthe S U S pro-
c e d u r e . N o s o o n e r is a S U S r e s o l v e d i n o n e voice
t h a n a n o t h e r is h e a r d i n a d i f f e r e n t voice. A sa

m
r e s u l t , d i s s o n a n c e i s c o n t i n u o u s f o r five m e a s u r e s :

si
y o u hear a succession o f diatonic 7 t h chords.
H e r e t h eintervals between soprano a n d alto i n t h e Plein Jeu DE GRIGNY
S U S a r e 3 r d - 2 n d - 3 r d . I l g is Bach's n o r m a l w a y
of preparing V .
17
T h e m o v e I l f - V ist y p i c a l o f B a r o q u e m u s i c . B y
the latter part o fthe eighteenth century composers

4
7
w e r e interested i n V as t h ecadential d o m i n a n t .
The pattern grew t o become IlfV(4 )I. N o w 7

f rT I
the dissonance i n I l f isn't a p r e p a r e d S U S , b u t is
entered m o r e directly. 1

Contradanse in E t , |44B[ BEETHOVEN

i- Vf i r v 7
vfofvvtt
d o m i n a n t . It's f o l l o w e d b ya n even stronger d o m i -
ll
Y
13 n a n t p r e p a r a t i o n , V f o fV (seepage 157).
fes LEADING-NOTE CHORDS T h e l e a d i n g n o t e is

i
a n active scale m e m b e r ; t h e 7 t h c h o r d b u i l t o n that
n o t e is also a v e r y active (dissonant) c h o r d . I n t h e

m ca i
i m a j o r m o d e i ttakes t h ef o r m o f a h a l f - d i m i n i s h e d
7th chord. I n t h e m i n o r it'sa diminished 7 t h

ns
6
I v chord. T h o s e t w o chords a r et h e most dissonant i n
the vocabulary o f Classical a n d early R o m a n t i c
T h e r i s i n g bass l i n e , 3 - 4 - 5 , d r i v e s o n t o w a r d t h e music, a n dthey g r o w i n importance i n t h e later
cadenee. O v e r 4 , I l f h a st h e typical subdominant R o m a n t i c style.
function o fm o v i n g away f r o m t h etonic a n d pre- T h e l e a d i n g note o f t e n f u n c t i o n s as a N b e t w e e n
paring the dominant. two statements o ft h e tonic note. Similarly, V I I 7

may be a neighbor chord between t w o statements

7
II T h eroot position o f t h e 7 t hchord built o n 2
a p p e a r s o n l y i n a sequential p r o g r e s s i o n (such as
the o n eo npage 129) until t h e nineteenth century.
T h e n i tf o u n d its w a y i n t o t h et o n a l v o c a b u l a r y as
yet a n o t h e r d o m i n a n t p r e p a r a t i o n . I n t h e e x a m p l e
7
b e l o w y o u h e a r I I as p a r t o fa l o n g s u b d o m i n a n t
f i
that also includes I V a n d I V . ( T h e s u b d o m i n a n t
is a b b r e v i a t e d S . )
o f I . Since this is as t r u e o f t h e m a j o r m o d e as o f
the m i n o r , w eshow b o t h i n t h eexample a tt h e t o p
of page 131. T h e m a j o r - m o d e illustrations, (a) a n d
7
(c), s h o w V I I a s a h a l f - d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h c h o r d . I n
m i n o r , (b), (d), a n d (e)a r ed i m i n i s h e d 7 t h chords.
I n b o t h (a) a n d(b) t h e best w a y t o a v o i d parallel
5ths is t o d o u b l e t h e 3 r d i nt h e t o n i c t r i a d . W h e n
t h e t o p l i n e starts o n 1 , i n (c)a n d (d), t h e r o o t is
7

7
IV T h i s c h o r d israrely heard, b u t i tc a n b e used
to g o o d effect. A b o v e is t h e e n d o f a B a r o q u e
o r g a n p i e c e b y D e G r i g n y . B e f o r e t h e final c a d -
e n e e , a p r e l i m i n a r y cise V f - I b r i n g s t h e t o p l i n e
to 3 , w i t h t h e a l t o s u s p e n d e d o n E. A s i t m o v e s t o
D , t h e bass d r o p s a 5 t h , c r e a t i n g a S U S w i t h t h e
7
top line. T h e S U S c h o r d is I V , w h i c h m o v e s t h e
h a r m o n y away f r o m t h e tonic a n d toward t h e
d o u b l e d . (e) s h o w s a d i f f e r e n t u s eo f V I I : t h e bass
D is a P , a n d t h e c h o r d over it, V l l f , conneets I
6
and I .
7
J u s t as i n t h e case o f t h e V c h o r d , t h e r e s o l u t i o n
o f t h e d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h c h o r d is g u i d e d b y t h e
r e s o l u t i o n o f its t r i t o n e s . M o s t o f t e n :
T h e d i m i n i s h e d 5 t h contraets t o a 3rd.
The augmented 4th expands toa 6th.

MENDELSSOHN
Violin Concert, I

Solo violin
ffiffffif fi
P 10

8
I32Z
=8= o o

6
.IV rv n 7
v 7

130
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-ff-j p=
-
9
C )
t, 1 J j o
d 1
*>
1 =8=|
g

8
^ f'
fe
^8
-T=N 5"
2. 2_
IT" -o-
ti

I
H - -NT !

> I \TI
7
i v n 7
I i v n 7
I i v n 7
i i v n f 16

Y o u o c c a s i o n a l l y find a n a u g m e n t e d 4 t h m o v i n g
to a perfect 4 t h , i n similar m o t i o n .
P e r h a p s t h e first c o m p o s e r t o s e e t h e d r a m a t i c
possibilies o f t h e d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h c h o r d w a s G l u c k .
Y o u m a y o b s e r v e b o t h t h e tensin a r o u s e d b y t h e
c h o r d a n d t h e n o r m a l ways o f preparing a n d
r e s o l v i n g the dissonance i n a celebrated excerpt.
Orpheus, A c t I
V l l f is a n e i g h b o r c h o r d t h a t c o m e s f r o m a n d
6
returns to I . T h e augmented 4th between tenor
a n d bass c o m e s f r o m a n d r e s o l v e s t o a 6 t h . B u t
s i n c e t h e c o m p o s e r w a n t e d t h e m e l o d y t o f a l l El
DC, t h ea u g m e n t e d 4 t h between soprano a n d
alto moves t oa perfect 4 t h .
A l l o f 7 ist a k e n u p w i t h V l l f , a n e i g h b o r c h o r d
6
to the I that precedes a n dfollows it. T h e tritones
GLUCK resolve n o r m a l l y , a n d b o t h statements o f I include 6

d o u b l e d 3 r d s . T h e r e p e t i t i o n o f V l l f i n 9 is v a r i e d
i
tl
in o n eway: soprano a n d tenor exchange their

P notes.
All in all, G l u c k derives a great deal o f expressiv-
ity o u t o f t h e m o t i o n s t o a n d f r o m t h e several
7
positions o fthe d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h c h o r d , V I I . T h a t
d i s s o n a n t c h o r d g i v e s t h e h a r m o n y a tensin a n d
vi i 6
i vn 7
i t h e a t r i c a l i t y t h a t a r e h i g h l y appropriate for the
dramatic situation.
A l t h o u g h scored f o r chorus a n d orchestra, this

1
e x c e r p t still falls i n t o t h e S A T B f o r m a t . T h e c o m -
p l e t e p o l y p h o n y is i n t h e c h o r u s , w i t h t h e o r c h e s t r a
simply d o u b l i n g t h e lines. B e y o n d t h eS A T B for-
m a t , a d i f f e r e n t u s e o f t h e d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h c h o r d is
f3 heard in a piano sonata.
6 6
i vn!*1 vnf
P i a n o S o n a t a K . 332 MOZART

r- r
6 6
vnf i n vn fvvt 0

T h i s noble music expresses t h e grief o f Orpheus

at t h edeath o fhis beloved Euridice. M u c h o f the
power o ft h e music comes from thediminished
7th chords.
7
T h e c h o r d i s first h e a r d i n 4 , w h e r e V I I a c t s a s
a n e i g h b o r c h o r d t o I . O b s e r v e t h a t o n t h e last beat
o f j$ G l u c k h a s p r e p a r e d t h e d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h c h o r d f p p p
w i t h a tonic triad that includes a doubled root. T h e
d o u b l i n g is b e t w e e n t h e alto a n d tenor. T h e tri-
16
E x t e n d e d b o t h i n m u s i c a l t i m e a n d space, t h e
tones resolve normally. motion I - V I l f - I occupies s i xmeasures, taking
T h e m o t i o n f r o m 5 t o 6 isn't quite t h e same advantage o falmost t h eentire range available o n
because different positions o f the chord are heard. Mozart's piano. H e r e t h ediminished 7 t h chord
131

links t h et w o positions o ft h e tonic triad. Interest-
ingly e n o u g h , t h epassage begins w i t h a l o u d u n i -
sn; l e a d i n g n o t e t o t o n i c . T h e l e a d i n g n o t e i n t h e
d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h chord, a n i n n e r voice, will certainly
follow t h e same path. T h et r i t o n e C f l - G resolves
o u t t othe 6 t h D - F , w h i l e the t r i t o n e B t - E resolves
in tothe 3rd A - F .
The M a g i c Flute MOZART
f 0 P
7
In themajor mode V I I , a half-diminished 7 t h
c h o r d , r a r e l y appears. O n e b r i e f e x a m p l e is i n t h e
finale t o a C l a s s i c a l o p e r a .
T h e h a l f - d i m i n i s h e d 7 t hc h o r d resolves normally.
T h e t r i t o n e b e t w e e n t h eo u t e r voices, a d i m i n i s h e d
5th, contracts t oa 3 r d (lOth). T h e contrary m o t i o n
o f t h e f e m a l e voices, descending i n parallel 6ths,
against t h e m a l e voices, ascending i n parallel 3rds,
leads t oa triad w i t h d o u b l e d 3 r d .

O* Worksheet 38

7
El>: Vn

51
Cadenees 2

I n C h a p t e r 2 5 w eintroduced cadenees, using con- (a) P e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e , t y p i c a l o f t h e B a c h ch-

sonant triads only. L e tu s n o w take a second look
at c a d e n e e s , putng i n t o a c t i o n t h e d i s s o n a n t c h o r d s
we've studied since t h e n .
I n c a d e n e e s , d i s s o n a n t c h o r d s crate a g r e a t e r
sense o f p u n c t u a t i o n t h a n consonant ones. F o r that
7
reason, b o t h t h e % c h o r d a n d V carne t o play a n
i m p o r t a n t part i n t h e Classical style. H a y d n , M o z a r t ,
and Beethoven looked f o rways t o define phrases
a n d sections m o r e decisively. S t r o n g cadenees, w i t h
active elements i n t h echords, served t h e purpose
a d m i r a b l y . Let's e x a m i n e s o m e o ft h e possibilities
in authentic cadenees a n d semicadences.
A U T H E N T I C CADENCE I n t h e most usual
authentic cadenees i n m a j o r a n dm i n o r , subdomi-
nant h a r m o n y prepares t h ecadential d o m i n a n t .
r a l e . T h e p r e p a r a t o r y I l f is a S U S c h o r d , w h o s e
r e s o l u t i o n i s t o t h e l e a d i n g n o t e . T h e 7 t h a p p e a r s as
a P , n o t as a c h o r d m e m b e r .
(b) P e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e , t y p i c a l o f t h e Classical
7
style. T h e % c h o r d is o n t h e s t r o n g beat, a n d V
f o l l o w s . B y u s i n g figures w e c a n s h o w t h e c o m p l e t e
voice leading.
(c) I m p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e . T h e f o r m o f t h e d o m -
7
i n a n t isn't V b u t V . t h e t o p l i n e rises t o 3 . T h u s
t h e r e i s less s e n s e o f finality t h a n i n t h e p e r f e c t
cadenee.
S E M I C A D E N C E T h e semicadence has V ( n o t
7
V ) as its goal. H e r e % m a y p e r f o r m itsf u n c t i o n o f
inidadng dominant h a r m o n y a n dleading smoothly
to t h e goal.

y rP
rfa ')a
vn r j
6 5
4 3
v m- *>
/ f-
6
> n v

132
As t h em e l o d y comes t o a t e m p o r a r y resting point
o n 2 , t h e h a r m o n y comes t o a t e m p o r a r y resting
p o i n t o n V . T h e combination o ftop-line 2 and V
a t t h e s e m i c a d e n c e i s o n e t h a t y o u ' l l o f t e n find. I t
creates a sense o f t e m p o r a r y closure, with more to
c o m e , s o it's p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l a t t h e e n d o f a n
antecedent phrase.
O n e m o r e l o o k a t a f a m o u s e x a m p l e below will
enable y o u t o compare t h emusical meaning o f
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f c a d e n e e . T h e r e a r e five c a d e n e e s
in t h et h e m e . N o t w o a r e quite alike.
(a) S e m i c a d e n c e i n 4 , t h e t o p l i n e d e s c e n d i n g t o 2. T h e
4 c h o r d e a s e s i n t o d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y . T h e u ef-
fect is e n h a n c e d by M o z a r t ' s slur.
(b) P e r f e c t authenc c a d e n e e i n 8, b a l a n c i n g t h e p r e -
v i o u s semicadence. T h e t o p l i n e descends 3 - 2 - 1 .
W h i l e t h e 4 is i n a s t r o n g r h y t h m i c position, it's
p l a y e d s o f t l y . T h i s d e c i s i v e c a d e n e e e n d s t h e first
section o f the theme.
(c) A n o t h e r s e m i c a d e n c e i n _12. T h e d o m i n a n t is p r e -
6
p a r e d b y its o w n l e a d i n g - n o t e c h o r d , V I I o f V . T h e
top line descends 3 - 2 .
(d) I f t h i s w e r e a n o t h e r p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c cadenee t h e
piece w o u l d b e over. M o z a r t adds s o m e t h i n g extra,
e x t e n d i n g t h e phrase w i t h a n imperfect authentic
c a d e n e e i n _16. T h e t o p l i n e a s c e n d s 2 - 3 , a n d t h e
m e l o d y still has someplace t o go.
(e) T h e p h r a s e a n d t h e t h e m e c o m e t o a cise w i t h a
p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e i n 1 8 . T h e t o p l i n e descends
3 2 1 . T h e 4 c h o r d , n o w f o r t e , h a s its 4 t h b e t w e e n
s o p r a n o a n d bass, w h e r e it's m o s t e f f e c t i v e .
STRONG-BEAT A N D WEAK-BEAT ENDINGS
A n o t h e r difference between cadenees i n t h e
M o z a r t example is i nt h e r h y t h m i c placement o f
the goal c h o r d . I n ( a ) , (c),a n d( d )that goal is
r e a c h e d o n a w e a k b e a t . T h e e f f e c t is less f o r c e f u l
t h a n i n (b) a n d (e), w h e r e t h e g o a l c h o r d is r e a c h e d
on a s t r o n g beat a n d is m o r e conclusive.
S U R V E Y O F C A D E N C E S Y o u will n o w survey
cadenees i n several f a m i l i a r pieces. W e ' r e i n t e r -
ested i n the type o f cadenee, the voice leading, a n d
the c h o r d content i n each. Refer t o the A n t h o l o g y .
P u r c e l l D u e t , [ 2 3 ] , 1 4 - 1 5 . T h e first s e c t i o n o f
the piece ends w i t h a perfect authentic cadenee,
l e a d i n g (first) t o a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e section a n d
( s e c o n d ) t o t h e n e x t s e c t i o n . A t t h e e n d o f 14,
w h e n t h e bass a r r i v e s a t 5 , t w o voices a r e a 6 t h a n d
a 4 t h above it. I nthe r e s o l u t i o n o f the % chord, t h e
first a l t o m o v e s d o w n a s t e p , s o t h a t t h e 6 t h m o v e s
b e f o r e t h e 4 t h . T h e l a s t s i x t e e n t h i n t h e first a l t o
p a r t is a nA N ( a n t i c i p a t i o n ) o f t h e u p c o m i n g t o n i c
note. T h a t A N , D , coincides w i t h t h e C f that
results f r o m the second alto's r e s o l u t i o n o f the 4 t h .
T h e clash a d d s zest t o t h e c a d e n e e .
C o u p e r i n , P r e l u d e , 24,17-18. The entire two
measures constitute a cadenee, w h i c h is perfect
a n d a u t h e n t i c . T h e d o m i n a n t o f 17_ i s consierably
e l a b o r a t e d , b u t t h e bass is c l e a r l y u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l
of 5 . T h i s m i n o r - m o d e piece ends w i t h a m a j o r
triad, another example o f the Picardy 3rd.

P i a n o S o n a t a K . 3 3 1 , I , [43] MOZART
(a)
A n d a n t e grazioso

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LIS *
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t- esa -
1
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P r
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P
 C o u p e r i n , La Lgubre, [ 2 5 ] . T h e s a m e p e r f e c t
a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e is h e a r d t h r e e t i m e s i n this piece.
I t a p p e a r s o n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p i t c h levis, e a c h t h e
g o a l o f a p h r a s e . T h e first e n d s i n V ; g i s t h e g o a l
o f the perfect authentic cadenee. T h e next phrase
is i n t h e r e l a t i v e m a j o r o f V , a n d 1 6 i s a p e r f e c t
a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e i n B t . T h e final c a d e n e e r e t u r n s
t o t h e t o n i c ; t h e last p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e is
( t h e o n l y o n e ) i n c.
R a m e a u , G a v o t t e , [28]. T h e g a v o t t e consists o f
f o u r p h r a s e s . T h e first t w o a r e f o u r m e a s u r e s
each; t h eo t h e r t w o , eight. E a c h phrase ends w i t h
a c a d e n e e . T h e first f o u r m e a s u r e s a n n o u n c e t h e
basic f u n c t i o n s o f a, e n d i n g w i t h a perfect a u t h e n -
7
tic c a d e n e e t h a t i n c l u d e s V . T h e s e c o n d p h r a s e
e n d s w i t h a s e m i c a d e n c e . T h i s l e a d s first t o a
repetition, then t o the second section.
A f t e r t h e d o u b l e b a r t h e h a r m o n y starts o f f i n
I I I . 1 5 - 1 6 a r ea perfect authentic cadenee i n t h e
relative m a j o r . T h e last p h r a s e r e t u r n s t o the m a i n
tonic, a n d t h e last c a d e n e e , p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c , c o n -
firms a.
H a n d e l , C o u r a n t e , .35. A g a i n three cadenees
m a r k t h e d i v i s i o n s o f t h e m u s i c . T h e first s e c t i o n
o f this b i n a r y piece ends i n V , w i t h a perfect
a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e i n 1 8 - 1 9 . T h e c a d e n e e is i m m e -
d i a t e l y r e p e a t e d , s t r e n g t h e n i n g B as t o n i c . T h e r e ' s
a n element o f surprise i n t h e cadenee, f o r t h e
music heard u p t othis point has been m i n o r , while
t h e g o a l c h o r d is m a j o r .
N o t surprisingly, t h enext phrase moves to III.
I n 2 2 - 2 3 t h e p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n e e is n o w
t r a n s p o s e d t o G . W h e n t h e t o n a l i t y r e t u r n s t o e,
there's another double cadenee, similar t o the one
t h a t c o n c l u d e d t h e first s e c t i o n , c o n v e y i n g a s t r o n g
sense o f finality.
S c a r l a t t i , , S o n a t a i n E , [38], T h e o r i g i n a l i t y o f
Scarlatti's h a r m o n i c t h i n k i n g is seen i n h i s treat-
m e n t o f phrase a n d cadenee. T h emusic spends
very little t i m e i nt h etonic, m o v i n g quickly t o t h e
d o m i n a n t . I n B , _17 e n d s w i t h a s e m i c a d e n c e . S o
d o e s 21, a n d s o d o e s _ 2 5 ; i n t h e l a t t e r t w o , t h e
s u s p e n d e d 4 t h resolves u p a step, a characterisde
o f t h e composer. A perfect authentic cadenee i n
3 0 3 1 c o u l d easily e n d t h esection. I n s t e a d , Scar-
latti i n v e n t s a n o t h e r series o f m o t i o n s , e n d i n g w i t h
yet another semicadence i n 4 6 . Following that
the listener has n o idea w h a t t o expect nextthe
measures that stabilized V ( 2 6 - 3 1 ) a r e repeated
( 4 7 - 5 1 ) . b u t t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e cadenee is dif-
ferent. W h e r e t h e r e was a full stop after t h e cad-
enee i n 3 1 , t h ecadenee i n 5152 does not signal
the end. T h e eighth notes rush o nand the cadenee
is r e p e a t e d , r e a c h i n g i t s final g o a l i n 5 6 . T h e l a s t
five m e a s u r e s a r e a n e x t e n s i n o f B a s t o n i c .
C . P . E . B a c h , S o n a t a m o v e m e n t , [39]. T h i s e a r l y
Classical piece is m a d e o f phrases o f d i f f e r i n g
lengths, a n ddifferent cadenees m a r k phrase end-
ings i n different ways. T h e o p e n i n g eight-measure
phrase, lightly punctuated at its m i d p o i n t , ends
with a n imperfect authentic cadenee. A chain o f
sixteenth notes moves t h r o u g h t h ecadenee, f r o m
8 t o 9. 16 arrives at I I Iwith a n imperfect authen-
tic c a d e n e e , b u t t h a t w o n ' t d o t o e n d t h e section; a
second cadenee, perfect a n d authentic, follows a t
once i n a l o w e r register, very softly.
T h e second h a l f o f the piece begins b y stabilizing
I I I , ending with a n imperfect authentic cadenee in
2 2 . T h e n e x t p h r a s e finds i t s w a y b a c k t o I , e n d i n g
w i t h a semicadence that could lead quickly t o t h e
conclusin. I n s t e a d t h e c o m p o s e r s t r e t c h e s o u t t h e
music w i t h a m o t i o n t h r o u g h I V , getting back t o
V i n 3 3 . T h a t doesn't e n dt h e piece either, f o r i n
35 w e have a deceptive cadenee. It's n o t until t h e
last phrase, w h i c h begins l o u d , t h a t t h e piece e n d s
w i t h a perfect a u t h e n t i c cadenee, v e r y soft. L i k e
t h e M o z a r t t h e m e , [43], t h i s p a g e o f m u s i c is a s t u d y
in ways t o m o v e t h r o u g h cadenees while using
them for punctuation.
W e b e r , song, |45|. T h e m u s i c e n d s w i t h t w o
cadenees, both perfect authentic, b u tdifferent i n
t h e i r t i m i n g . T h e first, 1 6 1 8 . e x t e n d s t h e d o m i -
n a n t i n a teasing fashion w i t h chromatic Ps a n d
INs. A f t e r the delaying action, the second cadenee
e n d s b r i s k l y w i t h t h e last t w o c h o r d s o f t h e song.
B r a h m s , " H o w D a r k l y t h eW a t e r Flows," |49A|.
T h e piano a c c o m p a n i m e n t t o this folksong moves
in eighth notes t h r o u g h o u t . W h e n t h e m e l o d y
r e a c h e s i t s g o a l o n t h e first b e a t o f 8 t h e h a r m o n y
reaches I . B u t t h e f o r w a r d m o t i o n doesn't stop,
because t h e eighth notes push o n .T h a t m o t i o n ,
combined with t h etwofold S U S , moves t h e music
t h r o u g h the cadenee. W h e n the piano part reaches
its g o a l y o u h e a r a s e m i c a d e n c e , V p r e c e d e d b y its
o w n V I L A t the very end, t h eprepared d o m i n a n t
resolves t o a tonic i n a perfect authentic cadenee.
E v e n here there are three dissonant notes over the
bass. T h e i r r e s o l u t i o n o n a w e a k beat c o n c l u d e s
the song.
Brahms, " H o w D a r k l y t h eW a t e r Flows," |49B|.
I n t h e c h o r a l versin o f t h e s a m e f o l k s o n g , t h e r e ' s
n o p i a n o p a r t t o continu t h e a c t i o n a f t e r t h e
m e l o d y has r u n itscourse. T h e perfect authentic
c a d e n e e is p r e c e d e d b y a n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d q u i t e
beautiful dominant preparation, colored bya S U S
between soprano and alto.
O* W o r k s h e e t 3 9
 52
A Repertory of Basic Polyphonic Motions
B y polyphonic motions w e m e a n a c h o r d g r o u p o r
p r o g r e s s i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e s o p r a n o a n d bass t h a t
c o n t r o l t h e flow o f t h e c h o r d s . C e r t a i n o f t h e s e
m o t i o n s a r eh e a r d i n m u s i c quite frequently. I n
l e a r n i n g t h e m y o u w i l l b e c o m e f a m i l i a r w i t h spe-
c i f i c p a t t e r n s f o u n d i n m a n y t o n a l pieces
B A S S IN 5 T H S A f u n d a m e n t a l progression i n
t o n a l m u s i c is b u i l t o n bass m o t i o n i n descending
5ths. T h e progression includes all the diatonic
c h o r d s o f a k e y . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e b a s s m a y altrnate
f a l l i n g 5 t h s w i t h t h e i r inversin, r i s i n g 4 t h s . A l l t h e
bass i n t e r v a l s a r e p e r f e c t w i t h a single e x c e p d o n i n
each m o d e : i nthe major, the interval between 4
a n d 7 is a tritone; so i s t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n 6 a n d
2 i n t h em i n o r . I n itsdiatonic form, explained
here, the progression was w i d e l y used in the eigh-
t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A c h r o m a t i c versin o f t h e s a m e
) progression, as it was h e a r d i n nineteenth-century
m u s i c , i s e x p l a i n e d i n Gradus, B o o k T w o .
Bass progression in 5 t h s
Major
4 T h e t o p l i n e starts w i t h 5, t h e c u s t o m a r y p o s i t i o n
i r v v n m v i n V
Minor
I i n s t u d y i n g t h e p i e c e , ? p o s i t i o n s o f t h e t r i a d s
f
^ i rv v n ni v i n v i i
T h e p r o g r e s s i o n m a y b e d i v i d e d into t w o ele-
m e n t s : first t h e r e ' s a l o n g m o t i o n a w a y f r o m t h e
t o n i c b e g u n b y I V a n d c o m p l e t e d by I I . I I also
p r e p a r e s t h e d o m i n a n t . T h e s e c o n d e l e m e n t is t h e
a u t h e n t i c cadenee. T h u s t h e progression begins
w i t h t h e tonic, m o v e s a w a y f r o m it, and returns t o
it w i t h a cadenee. T h e p r o g r e s s i o n i n 5ths is a
model o fthe fundamental m o t i o n o ftonal har-
mony.
Notice that the t r i t o n e is treated differently i n
m a j o r a n d m i n o r . I n m a j o r , V I I i s t o l e r a t e d i n 2,
i n w h i c h t h e bass skips u p a n a u g m e n t e d 4 t h . B u t
6
I I i n t h e m i n o r is v i r t u a l l y u n k n o w n . I I takes its
place i n the progression, b r e a k i n g the chain o f 5 t h
i n t h e b a s s . I n m i n o r , t h e l e a d i n g n o t e is o b l i g a t o r y
at t h e c a d e n e e : t h e d o m i n a n t is V .
I n m u s i c a l w o r k s t h e p r o g r e s s i o n i n 5 t h s is e l a b -
orated i nthe ways that y o u studied i n Part Five
a n d l a t e r s e c t i o n s o f Gradus. A s i m p l e e m b e l l i s h -
m e n t o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n is f o u n d i n t h e o p e n i n g o f
this B a r o q u e h a r p s i c h o r d piece.
Sarabande, [271 MATTHESON
ff
3 3
that facilitates c o n t r a r y m o t i o n between the o u t e r
voices. A s m a l l a m o u n t o f e m b e l l i s h m e n t is all
t h a t ' s n e e d e d t o crate a n a t t r a c t i v e m e l o d y . T h e
perfect a u t h e n t i c cadenee is e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h a
S U S , w h o s e r e s o l u t i o n is t h e l e a d i n g n o t e .
T h e progression itself constitutes the c h o r d con-
t e n t o f H a n d e l ' s P a s s e c a i l l e , 34]. A s y o u o b s e r v e d
replaced positions f r o m time to time. T h i s means
t h a t t h e bass l i n e c h a n g e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e
composition, but the chord progression did not.
Basic Polyphony of the Handel Passecaille
i
vn m vi vtt i
Concert for Two Violins VIVALDI

r\ - -,w 0 0 0 W

O n e type o f elaboration frequently applied t o Another Mozart elaboration o fthe progression

t h e p r o g r e s s i o n is a c h a i n o f S U S s . V i v a l d i uses has quite a d i f f e r e n t t e x t u r e .
this device i n m a n y o f his w o r k s . T h e excerpt a t
t h e t o p o f the page is typical. B e h i n d all t h e elabo- P i a n o S o n a t a K . 533, I I I MOZART
r a t i v e n o t e s i s a b a s i c p o l y p h o n y i n f o u r a n d five
parts.
-sr- 0 5 *t0 ril
fff
1 -0

- m . 1
-0-
#-L

f 7
f: I rv 7
vn 7
m" vi 7
n' V 7
1

A n e n t i r e p h r a s e is m a d e o f t h e progression i n
A s o n e S U S resolves, a n o t h e r is f o r m e d i n a d i f f e r - 5ths. Y o u hear a n accompanied duet, t w o inter-
ent voice. T h u s t h epassage is dissonant t h r o u g h - t w i n e d m e l o d i e s a b o v e a w a l k i n g bass. A l l t h e
o u t . T h e first a n d l a s t c h o r d s , i n f o u r p a r t s , a r e diatonic chords o f f a r e included except I . I t 7

the o n l y consonant ones. Y o u saw a similar proce- seems t h a t a l t h o u g h M o z a r t is u n w i l l i n g t o u s e I I ,

dure i n the M o z a r t example o n page 129.
V i v a l d i ' s figured b a s s s h o w s t h e 7 t h s i n v o l v e d i n
the SUSs, b u t they don't show t h e resolutions,
w h i c h a r e i m p l i e d . O b s e r v e that n o tall t h e notes
i n d i c a t e d b y t h e figures c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e s t r i n g
parts. F o r example, i n 2 o f the excerpt, the 7 t h o n
t h e first b e a t , B , i s p l a y e d o n l y b y t h e c o n t i n u o a n d
does n o t a p p e a r i n the score.
7
he will include I I i n a sequential progression.
A g a i n , a c h a i n o f S U S s provides c o n t i n u o u s disso-
nance, f r o m the second c h o r d t o the d o m i n a n t .
A n earlier example shows a thicker keyboard
t e x t u r e . I nC o u p e r i n ' s piece below, t h e 5ths i n t h e
bass o c c u r i n t h e m i d d l e o f a p h r a s e . T h e bass
w o r k s its w a y u p t o G i n m i d - J 4 (seet h e a r r o w )
a n d o n that note t h e progression begins. H e r e G

COUPERIN

136
sounds n o t as tonic, b u t as the d o m i n a n t o f I V , t h e
second c h o r d i n t h e series. T h i s gives t h e b e g i n -
n i n g o f t h e m o t i o n a n e x t r a mpetus. T h e S U S s i n
t h e a l t o a r e i n effect despite t h e rest, because t h e
ear retains t h e alto n o t e t h r o u g h t h e brief silence.
L o o k i n g again a t t h e w h o l e piece, y o u see w h e r e
t h e p r o g r e s s i o n i n 5 t h s fits i n t o t h e o v e r a l l s c h e m e .
It starts a t t h e c l i m a x o f t h e piece a n d leads t o t h e
conclusin o f t h e p r e l u d e .

8 - 5 - 6 - 3 - 4 - 1 T h e s e a r e t h e scale d e g r e e s o f a
bass l i n e t h a t u n d e r p i n s a c h o r d p a t t e r n f r e q u e n t l y
heard i n eighteenth-century music. T h e chord
sequence is I V V I I I I I V I . W h e n h e a r d i n a
piece, i t is o f t e n f o l l o w e d b y a cadenee t o c o m p l e t e
t h e p h r a s e . T h e p r o g r e s s i o n h a s a n i d e n t i t y o f its
own, w h i c h i tretains even w h e n the chords a r e i n
f p o s i t i o n a n d t h e bass is d i f f e r e n t . W h e n a l l c h o r d s
a r e i n 3 p o s i t i o n t h e bass f o r m s a scale. W h e t h e r T h i s is f o u r - p a r t w r i t i n g i n cise p o s i t i o n . T h e t w o
t h e c h o r d s a r e i n o r f p o s i t i o n , a specific succes- u p p e r voices s t a n d o u t , m o v i n g m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n
sion o f i n t e r v a l s u n f o l d s , u s u a l l y i n t h e o u t e r voices. t h e lower voices. T h e o n l y d i s s o n a n c e s h e a r d a r e
T h e discussion b e l o w iso r g a n i z e d b ythose i n t e r v a l Ns, which sound r a t h e r p r e t t y i n 3rds.
successions. I n thee x a m p l e b e l o w , J . S. B a c h elaborated
e v e r y other bass n o t e w i t h a N , u s i n g t h a t n o t e t o
support anembellishing f chord. T h e progression
10THS-12THS W h e n t h e t o p l i n e starts w i t h 3
is f o l l o w e d b y a c a d e n e e .
and all chords are i n | position, the intervals between
s o p r a n o a n d bass a r e , a l t e r n a t e l y , l O t h s a n d 12ths.
P A R A L L E L 10THS T h e s a m e c h o r d p r o g r e s -
s i o n is o f t e n h e a r d w i t h i n a f r a m e w o r k o f d e s c e n d -

10

12
o
10
u i
12 10 12
i n g scales a l O t h a p a r t . | - a n d f - p o s i t i o n t r i a d s
altrnate. T h e i l l u s t r a t i o n i s i n t h r e e v o i c e s .
J
ZSJZ

3 E ZTSZ
o
10 10 10 10 10 10

J
o-
W> 8
10
-O-

12

10

12

10 12 w
Ten J3Z
10 10 10 10 10 10

3 E
O
O u r first e x a m p l e i s t a k e n f r o m a n e a r l y B a r o q u e
k e y b o a r d piece b y Sweelinck:

Prelude No. 21 from The Well-Tempered C l a v i e r , Book I BACH

*
 T h e first h a l f o f P e z e l ' s S a r a b a n d e , [ 1 9 ] , i s b u i l t concert [ m o v e m e n t ] o n p a g e 1 3 9 . T h e m e l o d y i s
entirely o n this progression. C o m p a r e this reduc- shared b y t w o solo violins, answering each other
t i o n w i t h t h e score o f t h e piece. w i t h one-measure motives until t h e cadenee. I n t h e
first m e a s u r e t h e p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y c o v e r s a l m o s t
t w o octaves, lightly a c c o m p a n i e d b yt h e solo cello.
T h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t provides t h enotes that a r e
zsxz missing f r o m the h a r m o n y implied bythe melody.
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 T o p l i n e a n d bass m o v e i n p a r a l l e l l O t h s .
3 E
T h e progression runs, t w ochords t o t h e mea-
s u r e , t h r o u g h _3. A t t h a t p o i n t w e m i g h t e x p e c t a
cadenee a n d t h e e n d o ft h e phrase. B u t H a n d e l
extends t h ephrase b y p u t t i n g o f f t h e cadenee.
10
15
T w i c e t h e solo line m o v e s 7 - 8 . B u tu n d e r that t h e
ro o bass m o v e s n o t 51 b u t 56, s o t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t
3 E
resolves deceptively. Finally, o n t h e upbeat t o6 ,
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
t h e f u l l e n s e m b l e ( t u t t i ) j o i n s i n , e n d i n g t h e sus-
~Cf~ pense a n d concluding t h e phrase with a perfect
3 L
cr authentic cadenee, forte.
A n o t h e r e l a b o r a t e d versin o f t h e s a m e p r o g r e s -
It's easy t o see t h a t t h e bass l i n e o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o n s i o n i s i n t h r e e p a r t s , y e t filis a s u b s t a n d a l a m o u n t
is p l a y e d b y t h e l o w e s t i n s t r u m e n t . T h e n o t e s o f o f m u s i c a l space.
the t o p line a r en o t played b ya n y o n e instrument,
but are distributed a m o n g the upper three. Octave French Suite No. 5, Gavotte BACH
s h i f t h e l p s elabrate t h e t o p l i n e .

0 L 1. 2. 1. 2. 2. Al
rr-
(o) *>

o.
3.
11. O'

3.
J
1 M .* o* " mi
A n example below by M o z a r t shows h o w simplic- i
ity a n d p r o f u n d i t y m a y g oh a n d i nh a n d i naw a y
that is, truly, magic. H e r e t h eparallel lOths a r e
T h e basic p o l y p h o n y :
h e a r d b e t w e e n t h e bass a n d a l t o . T h e o u t e r voices
are i na different interval relationship, alternating
5 t h s a n d 6 t h s . A t t h e last, t w o n o t e s o f t h e p r o g r e s -
sion, E t - D o f t h e t o p line, a r e shifted u pa n octave
to t h emelody. A d o m i n a n t chord follows, so that 10 10 10 10 10
the phrase ends with a semicadence.
T h e p r o g r e s s i o n is e l a b o r a t e d i nm u s i c a l space
in a n imaginative w a y a t t h e start o f t h e H a n d e l

T h e M a g i c F l u t e , T r i o from Act I MOZART

T h r e e Ladies
m S \\ hA
r i r' l
p T
J3
j t i - J>| Js A .N i > > j n\ j . i

Orchestra
Concert G r o s s o , O p . 6 , N o . 12, I I HANDEL
Allegro

Violin 1

Violin 2

Violin 1

Violin 2

Viola

Celli

Continuo

Soli

Tutti

Cont

O n c e a g a i n t w o i n t e r v a l successions u n f o l d s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y : p a r a l l e l l O t h s b e t w e e n t h e bass a n d t h e
alto, alternating 5ths a n d 6ths between t o p line
a n d bass. T h e p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y draws o n notes
f r o m b o t h s o p r a n o a n d a l t o o f t h e basic p o l y -
p h o n y . T h o s e n o t e s a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h Ps, u s e d t o
crate t h e r h y t h m i c m o t i v e .
T h e progression persisted into early nineteenth-
century music.
T h e parallel l O t h s a r e c o n d e n s e d i n t o t h e p a r a l l e l
3rds which c o m p r i s e the l e f t - h a n d part. T h e r i g h t
h a n d has a p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y , m a d e u p o f n o t e s
f r o m different voices. T h e m u s i c is o r g a n i z e d
rhythmically b ya t w o - m e a s u r e m o d v e , h e a r d twice.
2
I I I - V | I T h i s basic p o l y p h o n i c m o t i o n o p e n s
a famous piece.

8 8

as
P i a n o Sonata, Op. 79, I I I BEETHOVEN

m o

m T h i s is t h e c o m p l e t e p o l y p h o n y o f t h e first f o u r
m e a s u r e s o f t h e first p r e l u d e f r o m B a c h ' s Well-
139
Tempered Clavier, B o o k 1 , [ 3 3 ] . T h e c h o r d s a n d t h e " n o r m a l register"
o
bass l i n e a r e t h e essential i n g r e d i e n t s o ft h e p r o - 33= =t*t o o
gression: t h e u p p e r lines a r e variable. T h e pro- 5 5
gression m a y also b e described i n t e r m s o f figured 3 3

bass.
o

B u t there's a ni m m e d i a t e leap u pto h i g h A . I n the

d e s c e n t b a c k t o A , t h e o c t a v e i s p a r t l y filled. T h e
T h e p o w e r f u l s t a t e m e n t t h a t begins a p a r t i t a is
last n o t e o f t h e m e l o d y , B t , is i n t h e n o r m a l regis-
also built o n the f o u r - c h o r d progression.
t e r a n d is n o t e l a b o r a t e d . T h u s t h e m e l o d y is b u i l t
o n t h e ascending line 1-2-3, supported b y t h e
Partita No. 6 for Harpsichord BACH
four-chord progression. Rameau's imaginative
register shifts contribute m u c h t o the expressivity
u. of the melody.

Air from Orpheus GLUCK

'k m
2 3

A s t r i k i n g aspect o f this m u s i c is the registral shift

a t m i d p o i n t . N o t i c e a l s o t h e S U S s t h a t elabrate
the second a n d f o u r t h chords, raising the level o f
i
dissonance.
T w o excerpts f r o m eighteenth-century operas p m- ^ T ^ " f ^
demnstrate s o m e o f the. d r a m a t i c u s e s t o w h i c h < L-l <
the progression m a y be put. Both a r e i n t h e m i n o r ,
a m
the "darker" mode.

Castor and Pollux, excerpt

* j m
J.i.

T h i s m e l o d y rises 1 - 2 - 3 o v e r t h e f o u r - c h o r d

>' l i progression. O n e a d d i t i o n : i nthe t h i r d chord, A t

is s u s p e n d e d o v e r t h e b a s s B l ) , d e l a y i n g t h e c o m -

mm pletion o f t h e chord a n d adding a momentary

diminished 7th chord. Notice the voice exchange
between m e l o d y a n d i n n e r voice.

rr m.
I n all examples seen thus far, the f o u r chords o f
t h e p r o g r e s s i o n h a v e fitted i n t o a c o m p l e t e m u s i c a l
s t a t e m e n t . A t t h e t o p o f p a g e 1 4 1 , t h e r e is a p h r a s e
m in which t h e four chords a r e only a part o f a
s t a t e m e n t . T h e p r o g r e s s i o n is c o m p l e t e d o n t h e
A reduction above right explains the melody and s e c o n d s i x t e e n t h n o t e o f 3. T h e m u s i c m o v e s o n
voice leading. T h e m e l o d y starts arrestingly w i t h w i t h o u t pause, c o n t i n u i n g tonic h a r m o n y with I . 6

h i g h G, a n octave above the n o r m a l posidon ( s h o w n T h e polyphonic m e l o d y expresses both soprano

i n t h e last t h r e e notes o f t h e sketch). T h e n G is a n d alto lines.
e l a b o r a t e d w i t h a m e l o d i c t r i a d , p a r t l y filled. T h e
melody's n e x t note, A ,is i n t h en o r m a l register. O* W o r k s h e e t 4 0
140
P i a n o Concert K . 4 8 8 , I I MOZART

53
More Extensions of Tonic
and Dominant Harmony

INTRODUCTION I n seeking a broad view o f T h e illustration shows six chords b r o u g h t into one
harmony w e find t h e c o n c e p t o f chord extensin u n i t , a n extensin o f t o n i c h a r m o n y .
particularly useful. I f you understand h o w a main
c h o r d c a n b e p r o j e c t e d i n m u s i c a l t i m e y o u c a n get P A R A L L E L 10THS T h e s a m e c h o r d c o n t e n t m a y
b e y o n d a note-by-note approach a n d begin t o grasp be g r o u p e d i n t h e s a m e w a y , w i t h e i g h t c h o r d s i n
larger musical structures. I n this section y o u will the u n i t .
c o n t i n u t h e s t u d y o f c h o r d extensin i n t r o d u c e d
J
in Chapter 2 6 . Y o u r vocabulary n o w includes a =oc
n u m b e r o fd i s s o n a n t chords, w h i c h m a k e possible
m a n y m o r e chord extensions.
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
T h e methods b y which chords may be extended
-o- o
aren't seprate from e a c h o t h e r . W h i l e t h e y a r e
e x p l a i n e d o n e a t a t i m e , y o u ' l l find t h a t i n m a n y
pieces m o r e t h a n o n e w a y is u s e d t o u n i f y a c h o r d
group around a main chord.
5
M a n y o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s s t u d i e d i n p r e v i o u s sec- SE 3 C
tions a r eseen again here, b r o u g h t together under
t h e h e a d i n g o f c h o r d extensin. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h r e e 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

m
o f t h e basic p o l y p h o n i c m o t i o n s o f C h a p t e r 5 2 a r e o- o
reconsidered here.

10THS A N D 12THS A n o t h e r l o o k a t t h i s i n t e r - 2
I I I V i I T h eneighbor m o t i o n i n t h e outer
val succession s h o w s t h a t it's f r a m e d b y I , a n d t h a t
voices is t h e c l u e t h a t t h i s g r o u p , t o o , is c e n t e r e d
t h e s o p r a n o a n d bass b o t h m o v e w i t h i n t h e tonic
a r o u n d I a n d i s a t o n i c extensin.
triad.
J
8
8 8

j 8
o
5 4 6 5
10 12 10 12 10 12 3 2 5 3
-O- -O- ^ -O^

T
141
PEDAL POINT O n page 9 9 t h e use o f pedal ARPEGGIATION T h etriad i nt h em e l o d y pro-
point t oextend a chord i ntime was demonstrated vides a w a y o fo r g a n i z i n g that m e l o d y w i t h i n tonic
in early Baroque organ music. N o w w econsider i t h a r m o n y . T h e notes o f t h etriad m a y themselves
u n d e r t h e heading o f tonic a n d d o m i n a n t har- be embellished.
m o n y , f o rthose a r e t h echords most often f o u n d
i n pedal points. T h e reason issimple: a pedal p o i n t Piano Sonata K .331, I I I MOZART
is a n e f f e c t i v e w a y t o p r o j e c t a m a i n h a r m o n y . T w o
examples a r e quite d i f f e r e n t stylistically b u t b o t h
are built o nt h esame principie.

P r e l u d e N o . 4 f r o m The Well-Tempered Clavier

BACH

as
5
3
e
4
i l

3

1 J 1

I n t o n a l p o l y p h o n y t h e bass is a l w a y s r i g h t . I f t h e
bass says t o n i c , t h e p r e v a i l i n g h a r m o n y is t o n i c n o
m a t t e r w h a t t h e u p p e r voices say. B a c h places Di n
t h e bass, a n d D is t h e t o n i c . T h e u p p e r voices m o v e
through tonic-subdominant-dominant-tonic.
T h o s e chords are allbrought within t h e orbit o f
t h e t o n i c . T h e e n t i r e p e d a l p o i n t i s a n extensin o f
tonic harmony.
Exactly t h esame technique was used a century
later b y Schubert (see below). A complete eight-
m e a s u r e p h r a s e is b u i l t o v e r a pedal p o i n t . T h e
u p p e r voices m o v e t h r o u g h t o n i c - s u b d o m i n a n t -
d o m i n a n t - t o n i c . A l l o f those a r e subordinate t o
t h e bass.
I n this c h e e r f u l m u s i c , t h e a - t r i a d is s p r e a d o v e r a
lOth. T y p i c a l o f t h e Classical style, t h e r h y t h m o f
t h e m e l o d y is m u c h faster t h a n t h e r a t e o f c h o r d
change. T h e s a m e is t r u e o f t h e n e x t e x a m p l e ,
e v e n t h o u g h t h e t e m p o is slow.
T h e r e a r e only three chords i nt h eC . P. E . Bach
e x c e r p t a t t h e t o p o f p a g e 1 4 3 , I , V, a n d I . T h e
m e l o d y i n 1 - 4 is b u i l t o n a n a r p e g g i a t i o n o f t h e
t o n i c t r i a d . N s , I N s , a n d P s elabrate t h e t r i a d
notes. T h e s m a l l notes a r e appoggiaturas, all dis-
sonant. V is projected o v e r 5 - 7 , i n ways that a r e
s i m i l a r t o t h e first m e a s u r e s b u t n o t i d e n t i c a l . Y o u

Waltz, O p . 18,N o . 2 SCHUBERT

i 1 1 e s
m -mB- a F 3 1
ja
142
Piano Sonata in F , I I , [ 3 9 J C. P. E . BACH phrase. T h e linear m o t i o n within d o m i n a n t har-
m o n y i s i n d i c a t e d w i t h figures b e t w e e n t h e s t a v e s .
Larghetto ( b ) T o n i c h a r m o n y is e x t e n d e d w i t h a n e i g h b o r 4. T h i s
f o r m u l a begins m a n y phrases i n the music o f H a y d n
and Mozart.
(c) A 4 c h o r d c o n n e e t s t w o p o s i t i o n s o f t h e t o n i c t r i a d .
T h e dissonant c h o r d is u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f tonic

w. I P
harmony.

ALTERNATIONS O F I AND V T h e s i m p l e
alternation o fI a n d V , i nr o o t position, is a con-
vincing w a y o fe x t e n d i n g a m a i n h a r m o n y . B u t i f
there a r e o n l y t w o chords, h o w t od e t e r m i n e w h i c h
is t h e m a i n c h o r d a n d w h i c h i s subordnate? A
passage f r o m a Classical s t r i n g quartet will help
lead t o t h e answer.

D
String Quartet, Op. 18, No. 4, I B E E T H O V E N

h e a r t w o i n t e r e s t i n g c h r o m a t i c notes: D)t ( I N ) a n d -0
Fjt ( P ) . I n 4 t h e b a s s i s f o r c e d a w a y f r o m t h e D b y
1 i J'i /VA i1 > u J > -
the inner-voice E ,i na dissonant SUS chord.
W h i l e arpeggiation is m o s t often heard i n t h e
0 *3=H
m e l o d y , i t m a y a l s o b e h e a r d i n t h e bass. _^. * a
L_C CI
0- t i - * -
Sonata in F
0 0 J
SCARLATTI
T r) i

#^ Tf
0~f~*
> m i r i*^ i=4=F
U--
* I n t h e first t w o m e a s u r e s t o n i c h a r m o n y i s i n
control; i n t h e n e x t t w o , t h e m a i n h a r m o n y is

t i
9-
d o m i n a n t . W h y ? The same chords are heard in

5 1
both measures, sochord content won't provide a n
--9*
9
f i -J-j- 1

e
1 answer. T h e d i f f e r e n c e lies i n t h e r h y t h m . I n t h e
For t w o measures t h emelody hardly moves. D u r -
i n g t h a t t i m e t h e bass a r p e g g i a t e s t h e t o n i c t r i a d
d o w n w a r d . T h e n t h e m e l o d y steps d o w n , w r a p p e d
a r o u n d t h eF - t r i a d t osuch a nextent that even t h e
cadenee seems p a r t o fthe t r i a d i nthe m e l o d y .
I CHORDS A n o t h e r l o o k a t % chords shows t h a t
t h e y a r e a l l p a r t o f s o m e c h o r d extensin. % c h o r d s
a l w a y s elabrate m a i n h a r m o n i e s , u n d e r w h o s e
romn n u m b e r t h e y a r e i n c l u d e d .
first t w o m e a s u r e s I i s o n t h e s t r o n g b e a t s , V o n
the w e a k beats. T h i s m a k e s i t clear that t h e t o p -
l i n e C is t h e m a i n n o t e a n d Bt] is a N . T h e s i t u a t i o n
is r e v e r s e d i n t h e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h m e a s u r e s , w h e r e
V is t h em a i n chord. I n this example, t h e r h y t h m
is d e c i s i v e i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h i s t h e m a i n c h o r d
a n d w h i c h is s u b o r d i n a t e .
7
I - V - I ( w i t h o r w i t h o u t V ) is a f o r m u l a t h a t
o f t e n s u p p o r t s t h e m e l o d i c r i s e 123. T h e b e g i n -
n i n g o fa p o p u l a r A m e r i c a n s o n g is a g o o d e x a m -
ple.

(a) (b)
Gentle A n n i e , \47\ FOSTER

12 ti
L0-4

o \] ( n i -t~ d n lir - > 1 1r ^r

* l
J L - i t
i n 6
v i * * r f -
W -

(a) I n t h e s t a n d a r d C l a s s i c - R o m a n t i c c a d e n e e , d o m i -
n a n t h a r m o n y b e g i n s w i t h a f a n d contines w i t h
7 -0-
1

zt '--
- ^
1

>J >
r
ri
*8 1 ~
--S
V . T o g e t h e r t h e y m a k e a s t r o n g statement o f clo- 1
1
sure, a d m i r a b l y suited t o t h e purpose o f e n d i n g a

143
 7
j _ V - V - I ( w i t h o r w i t h o u t V ) is a c o m m o n The M a g i c Flute, A c t I I MOZART

o p e n i n g m o v e i nClassical pieces. T h e f o u r c h o r d s j t. Adagio

i
work together t o extend tonic harmony. A simple
e x a m p l e is t h e b e g i n n i n g o f o n e o f D a n i e l G o t t l o b
Trk's d i d a c t i c pieces. P3 pi

f
z*z
w
10 r F^f 1
S 2 . r i f o
1 i i
TTTS i "

m
-i D
t j
J

f
P

O n a l a r g e r scale, t h e f o r m u l a I - V V I is c o m -
6
bined with themotion to I i nthe example at the
b o t t o m o f t h e p a g e . T h e first f o u r m e a s u r e s a r e
b u i l t o n I V V I , t h e m e l o d y r i s i n g 123. T o n i c
6
h a r m o n y contines i n j, w i t h I V t h e l i n k b e t w e e n
6
I a n dI . T h e n i n 6 subdominant harmony moves
away f r o m t h e tonic a n d prepares t h e cadential
dominant. Brackets show both chord extensions,
as w e l l a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e first five m e a s u r e s a r e
under tonic control.
In t h e pattern I - V - V - I a n y o f those chords
may b e e x t e n d e d . S u c h extensions stretch t h e pat-
t e r n t o s i x measures, a c o m p l e t e phrase, i nt h e
e x a m p l e f r o m The M a g i c F l u t e . I n t h e s e c o n d a c t
two mysterious m e n i n a r m o r sing a remarkable
duet, preceded b y this brief orchestral introduc-
tion. I n o n e s h o r t phrase M o z a r t tells y o u that
s o m e t h i n g s o l e m n is a b o u t t o h a p p e n . T h e phrase
is l i g h t l y p u n c t u a t e d i n t h e m i d d l e , s o t h a t t h e r e
are t w o units o f three measures each. E a c h u n i t
b e g i n s w i t h a s t r o n g unisn, a n s w e r e d b y s o f t
chords. T h e basic c h o r d p a t t e r n iss l i g h t l y c h a n g e d
i n t h a t t h e first V i s r e p l a c e d b y V l l f .
After the unisn states C as t o n i c , t h e t r i a d i s
extended f o r another measure, moving toI
t h r o u g h V i T h e second h a l f o f t h e phrase begins
ZM1Z
\> 4- 4
D T
w i t h a s t r o n g 5 a n s w e r i n g t h e o p e n i n g 1. D o m i -
n a n t h a r m o n y is e x t e n d e d t h r o u g h 5 . T h e I i n
t h a t m e a s u r e doesn't f u n c t i o n as a t o n i c , b u t as a
s u b o r d n a t e c h o r d w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t extensin.
A weak-beat e n d i n g concludes t h e phrase.
O T H E R C H O R D G R O U P S Simple soprano and
bass m o d o n s i n v o l v i n g p a s s i n g a n d n e i g h b o r m o t i o n
h a v e b e e n u s e d t o genrate subordnate c h o r d s
s i n c e R e n a i s s a n c e t i m e s . Y o u s t u d i e d e a r l y exam-
p l e s o f s u c h extensin t e c h n i q u e s i n C h a p t e r 2 6 .
Later composers developed those techniques even
f u r t h e r . O n e s u c h c o m p o s e r was J . S. B a c h , w h o s e
chrale h a r m o n i z a t i o n s h a v e p r o v i d e d g e n e r a t i o n s
of music students with marvelous examples o f har-
m o n y a n d v o i c e l e a d i n g . P h r a s e s f r o m chrale
settings have been used t o illustrate certain points,
and others a r e n o wused t o s h o w extensions o f
t o n i c h a r m o n y . C o m p l e t e chrales a r e s t u d i e d i n
d e t a i l i n Gradus, B o o k T w o .
R e m i n d e r : i n these examples, figures between
6
staves r e f e r t o i n d i v i d u a l c h o r d s . B r a c k e t s b e l o w
show extensions o fm a i n chords.

S y m p h o n y N o . 6, V BEETHOVEN

237
' *

4 *

z &
^ 4 -

l z &

144
Chrale No. 32 BACH Chrale No. 36 BACH
11

J
r r r r
J J J
rrr 9 r
S
j
i 4 J i
3 4 J-j j

M a i n n o t e m a i n c h o r d ; subordnate n o t e s u b -
ordnate c h o r d : t h a t ' s t h e p r i n c i p i e b e h i n d t h e
s h o r t phrase. T h e m e l o d y consists o f a m a i n note,
a N , a n d t h e m a i n n o t e a g a i n ; t h e h a r m o n y is I
u n d e r t h e m a i n n o t e , I V u n d e r t h e N , a n d I again.
T h e m u s i c a l i n t e r e s t lies i n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e
m a i n c h o r d s , m o s t o f w h i c h is i n t h e bass. T h e r e ,
t w o P S (passing note f o l l o w e d b ya skip back to the
m o t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r v o i c e s s h a p e s t h e flow
o f t h e subordnate c h o r d s . T h e c a d e n e e a t t h e e n d
o f t h e p h r a s e c o n t i n e s t h e t o n i c extensin.
T h e t o p line has a limited range, sounding A
f o u r times as i t marches d o w n a n dback u p again.
T h e bass h a s a m o r e a d v e n t u r o u s l i f e : i t d e s c e n d s
a full octave, b u t n o t i n a straight line. A f t e r
reaching C f i t steps back u p t o D .T h i s puts i t i n
v

m a i n n o t e ) crate a c t i v i t y . A l t h o u g h t h e r e ' s n o position f o ra S U S with t m e l o d y . T h eA-scale is

c h o r d c h a n g e a c r o s s t h e first b a r l i n e , t h e o c t a v e one expression o fthe ; nic; t h e triad i nt h e m e l o d y
e a p i n t h e b a s s p r o v i d e s t h e mpetus t h a t g e t s t h e is a n o t h e r . T o g e t h e r t h e y f r a m e t h e e n t i r e e x t e n -
music going. sin. A g a i n , t h e t w o c h o r d s o f t h e c a d e n e e s e e m
like a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f tonic h a r m o n y .
Chrale N o . 2 0 6 BACH

SP Chrale No. 287 BACH

i i i i 1=

m
I n most o f this phrase y o u hear contrary m o t i o n
T h e m e l o d y consists o f a S P w i t h i n t h e tonic
between t h e o u t e r voices. First, t h e y exchange notes,
t r i a d . B a c h c o u n t e r p o i n t s t h a t w i t h a N i n t h e bass.
passing t h r o u g h t h e octave B as t h e y d o . T h i s is a
I t ' s t h e l e a d i n g n o t e , w i t h t h e c u s t o m a r y task o f 6 6

6
typical s i t u a d o n i n w h i c h V I I connects I a n d I .
supporting V .
W h e n t h e s o p r a n o m o v e s back t h r o u g h B , t h e bass
I n a d d i t i o n t o s u c h s i m p l e c o n t r a p u n t a l tech-
does n o t . Instead i t skips d o w n a d i m i n i s h e d 4 t h
n i q u e s as those above, t h e r e a r e m a n y others that 6
to t h e leading note; V leads back t o I i n a n
are useful i n building chord extensions. e x a m p l e o f parallel m o d o n b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r voices.
T h e extensin o f t o n i c h a r m o n y e n d s h e r e .
Chrale No. 29 BACH

6
I . . . I Y o u h a v e s e e n t h i s t o n i c extensin i n
short, s i m p l e f o r m s . H e r e ' s a n e x a m p l e that's a b i t
longer, built o n t h e same principie.

,r3 A A
Chrale No. 233 BACH

2*5 T y* J J J J

I f y o u h a v e h e a r d B as t h e m a i n n o t e o f t h e
s o p r a n o ( f i l l e d 3 r d p l u s N ) , y o u a r e r i g h t t o expect
p=W-
t h a t t h e t r i a d u n d e r B is t h e m a i n c h o r d . C o n t r a r y
S i 1

145

T h e m a i n n o t e o f t h e s o p r a n o , C f ,is elaborated
w i t h a filled 3 r d . A g a i n s t t h i s m i n i m a l m e l o d i c
m o t i o n t h e bass travels i n g i a n t steps. T h e c h o r d
v o c a b u l a r y is rich: s i xd i f f e r e n t c h o r d s a r e h e a r d
w i t h i n t h e t o n i c extensin; a l l a r e i n t h e o r b i t o f
tonic h a r m o n y . C h o r d types a r e varied w i t h i n t h e
extensin, t o o . A t t h e s e m i c a d e n c e , 2 i s t h e m e l o d i c
goal, V the h a r m o n i c goal.
I n Chrale N o . 2 3 3 t h e b a s s g a i n e d r o o m t o
maneuver b y descending a 6 t hf r o m 1 t o 3. It's
also possible f o r t h e bass t o m o v e u p a 3 r d s l o w l y
a n d t h u s b u i l d a l o n g e r t o n i c extensin. H e r e y o u
6
see t h a t w h i l e V I I is t h e simplest c o n n e c t i o n
6
between I a n dI , i tisn't the o n l y one.
6
A n o t h e r versin o f I . . . I t a k e s u p m o s t o f a
p h r a s e f r o m t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y piece below.
T h e s i m p l e m e l o d y rises f r o m 1 t o 6 i n t w o m e a -
sures, t h e n falls g r a d u a l l y t o I i n 6 . B r a h m s d i d n ' t
w a n t t h e h a r m o n y t o arrive at its goal i n 6 , w i t h
t w o m e a s u r e s y e tt o g o . H e a v o i d e d 1 i n t h e bass
6
w i t h 3 , s u p p o r t i n g I . T h e h a r m o n y o f t h e first s i x
6 6
m e a s u r e s is f r a m e d b y I . . . I . T h e bass o f I is
only a 3 r d above t h estarting 1.B u t B r a h m s finds
a n i n t e r e s t i n g w a y t o t r a v e l f r o m t h e first t o t h e
l a s t o f t h o s e n o t e s , first d r o p p i n g t h e b a s s , t h e n
skipping u p so that i tarrives o nthe 3 f r o m above.
7
V P O S I T I O N S T h e jj,i a n d positions o f t h e 2

d o m i n a n t 7 t h chord lend themselves t o tonic har-

P i a n o S o n a t a K . 332,1 MOZART m o n y extensin. L i n e a r c h o r d s , t h e y c a n s e r v e
e i t h e r as e l a b o r a t i o n s o f a s i n g l e c h o r d o r as t h e
connections between t w o versions o f the tonic. T h e
illustrations s h o w the m o s t frequent usage.

(b) (c)

m
(d)

c r r r n
0 ^ m T i
71

(a) Vf is n e i g h b o r c h o r d t o I .
(b) Vj, another neighbor chord to I .
6
(c) V$ is t h e l i n k b e t w e e n I a n d I .
2 6
(d) V connects I a n d I another way.

Ffrf W e can n o wtake a longer view o f a phrase

m.
% * -
JL
0
studied earlier. A l l f o u r positions o f the d o m i n a n t
7 t h c h o r d a r e h e a r d h e r e . H o w l o n g is t o n i c h a r -
f 0 m o n y extended? I nthe e x a m p l e at the top o f page
0 * 147, t h e i c h o r d (1), t h e % c h o r d (3), a n d t h e \
chord ( 4 )a r e all elaborating t h e tonic h a r m o n y .
W h e n V a r r i v e s i n 4 its m e a n i n g is a b i t u n c e r t a i n ;
T h e chords are e x t e n d e d i n musical space t h r o u g h does the phrase end here w i t h a semicadence? N o ,
a d r a m a t i c arpeggio. T h e y a r e also e x t e n d e d i n says t h e bass. I t m o v e s stepwise t h r o u g h G , g e n e r -
2
time, t w o measures each. Y o u studied t h e chord ating V and easing o u t o f V into a continuation o f
vocabulary o f this passage o n page 1 3 1 . N o w y o u t h e t o n i c . T h e t o n i c i s i n c o n t r o l f o r five m e a s u r e s .
6
s e e t h a t t h e e n t i r e s i x m e a s u r e s a r e a n extensin T h e n t h e first s u b d o m i n a n t c h o r d , I I , m o v e s a w a y
7
of tonic harmony. f r o m t h e tonic. A l l f o u r positions o fthe V have

How Darkly the Water Flows, [ 4 9 B | BRAHMS

rff 7?
7
146
V i o l i n S o n a t a , Op. 12 BEETHOVEN V l l f , t h ed i m i n i s h e d 7 t h c h o r d w h o s e s o u n d is s o
characteristic o f this music.
Allegro ,
T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e t o n i c extensin b e g i n s i n
6
5 w i t h E t as bass n o t e a n d I as m a i n c h o r d . T h e
bass n o t e i s e l a b o r a t e d q u i t e s i m p l y , w i t h t w o N s .
Both support positions o f the diminished 7th chord.
T h i s p a r t o f t h e extensin p e r s i s t s t h r o u g h t h e
first h a l f o f 1 0 . T h e n t h e first s u b d o m i n a n t c h o r d ,
6
I I , moves the h a r m o n y away f r o m the tonic toward
the goal V .
ww T h i s survey o ftonic a n d d o m i n a n t extensions
. concludes w i t h t h e exciting music that begins t h e
# H ;
*J sf
* first o f B e e t h o v e n ' s s o n a t a s i n t h e k e y o f c ( s e e

w
p a g e 1 4 8 ) . I n s t a t i n g t h e first t h e m e , t h e m u s i c
4

0
5
m a k e s m u c h o f t h e extensin o f t h e m a i n h a r m o n y
b o t h i n t i m e a n d space.

Phrase outline:

i- opening phrase
9-16 continuing phrase
17-22 first c o n c l u d i n g p h r a s e
22-31 second concluding phrase

3 t o n i c extensin a n d a c a d e n e e .
p e r f o r m e d t h e i r n o r m a l r o l e s i n this phrase, i n -
cluding the cadential V . 7
A n o t h e r l o o k a t a Classical p h r a s e shows h o w
t o n i c h a r m o n y m a y b e p r o j e c t e d o v e r a consider-
able t i m e t o g o o d effect (see b e l o w ) . T h e chord
vocabulary a n d voice leading w e r e explained o n
page 1 3 1 . B u t w e w a n t t o g e t b e y o n d a chord-by-
c h o r d v i e w o ft h e music. W h e r e ist h etonal unity
i n these eleven m e a s u r e s ?
T h e l a r g e r v i e w : n i n e a n d o n e h a l f measures
c e n t e r a r o u n d t h e t o n i c , t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f J_0
moves away f r o m t h etonic a n d approaches t h e
d o m i n a n t , a n d t h a t goal h a r m o n y occupies 11.
W e d i v i d e t h e t o n i c extensin i n t o t w o p a r t s . I n
1 - 4 , 1 c o n t r o l s t h e bass. C is e l a b o r a t e d with a PS,
t h e n a N . T h a t N s u p p o r t s t h e h i g h l y dissonant
T h e h a r m o n y c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a l o n g tonic
extensin a n d a c a d e n e e , f o l l o w e d b y a s h o r t e r
X8: T h e a r p e g g i a t i o n i n t h e m e l o d y a n d t h e
m a n y r e g i s t e r c h a n g e s elabrate t h e c h o r d s i n w a y s
t h a t a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f B e e t h o v e n ' s piano writ-
ing. T h e essential voice leading, h o w e v e r , is step-
6
wise, as t h e r e d u c t i o n s h o w s . T h e m o t i o n I . . . I
t a k e s e i g h t m e a s u r e s . O n e w a y i n w h i c h t h e first
chord is elaborated, octave shift, combines w i t h
another, contrast o f dynamics. T w o connecting
6
chords lead f r o m I t o I .
9-1J3: I nt h e c o n t i n u i n g phrase, tonic h a r m o n y
6
persists, w i t h I t h em a i n c h o r d . I t ' s e l a b o r a t e d
o v e r t h e bass N s w i t h d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h chords. T h e
bass d e s c e n d s t o C , t h r o u g h w h i c h i t passes a t t h e
6
e n d o f J_5. T h e p h r a s e e n d s o n V . T o n i c h a r m o n y
isn't o v e r yet.
1 6 2 2 : T h i s s i x - m e a s u r e p h r a s e e n d s t h e first
t o n i c extensin (_17) w i t h a n e w r h y t h m i c m o t i v e
and goes o n t o a cadenee. T h e m u s i c could stop

Orpheus, A c t I GLUCK

m
Y
PE m
JA t
T

147
P i a n o S o n a t a , Op. 10, N o . 1,1
A l l e g r o m o l t o e c o n bro , ,
here, b u tBeethoven will push o n with o n e m o r e
concluding phrase.
Y o u m a yw o n d e r h o w a section m a d e o f t w o -
m e a s u r e bits c a n a d d u p t o t h i r t y - o n e measures.
T h e s o l u t i o n : 22 i s i n t w o p h r a s e s a t o n c e . I t ' s t h e
l a s t m e a s u r e o f o n e p h r a s e a n d t h e first m e a s u r e
o f t h e n e x t o n e . I t ' s t h i s o v e r l a p t h a t prevens t h e
action f r o m being completed at the cadenee in 2 1 -
22.
2 2 - 3 1 : T h e final p h r a s e b l u n t l y r e a f f i r m s t h e
tonic and ends w i t h a perfect authentic cadenee. A
s e c o n d , b r i e f t o n i c e x t e n s i n , a r e v i e w o f t h e first
6
t w o p h r a s e s , u s e s o n l y t h e c o n s o n a n t V t o elab-
148
BEETHOVEN
rate t h e m a i n chord. T o n i c h a r m o n y ends att h e
6
e n d o f 21 w i t h I . A s u s u a l , t h i s i s t h e s t e p p i n g - o f f
point for what's t o come next, m o t i o n away f r o m
the tonic. T h e phrase concludes with preparatory
6
I I , cadential dominant, a n d tonic. Each sounds
for o n e measure. T h e fourth measure (31) com-
pletes t h e p h r a s e w i t h silence; it's a n i n t e g r a l p a r t
of the music.
All i n all, Beethoven has extended tonic har-
m o n y b o t h i n t i m e a n d space t o begin h i s sonata
with a p o w e r f u l utterance.
O" W o r k s h e e t 4 1
 54
Secondary Tonics and Dominants

T h e h a r m o n y o f a m u s i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n isc o n - n o t e that's a n e l e m e n t o f t h e s e c o n d a r y d o m i n a n t
stantly i nm o t i o n . Y o u r study is based o nways o f isn't a c h r o m a t i c n o t e , t h e 7 t his. O t h e r c h r o m a t i c
understanding musical motions o f m a n y kinds. notes m a yb e n e e d e d t o construct certain second-
C e r t a i n m o t i o n s revolve a r o u n d a single chord; ary dominants.
those a r e extensions o fa m a i n harmony. Other
types o f p o l y p h o n i c activity m o v e away f r o m ( a n d SECONDARY V 7
T h e f o r m that secondary
back to) t h etonic. W em a y s u m m a r i z e m o t i o n away dominants take m o s t o f t e n is V . H e r e t h e same 7

f r o m t h e t o n i c as: 7
secondary V - I m o t i o n s i n t h em a j o r m o d e . A l l
chords are i n root position.
m o d u l a t i o n t o a cadenee (short-range);
modulation (long-range); > . A . ata -a- *
secondary tonics a n d dominants. J. L. JL te
:3
Y o u will n o w study secondary tonics, their d o m -
inants, a n d their subdominants.
m
A n y c h o r d that isn't t h e tonic represents m o t i o n
away f r o m t h e tonic t osome extent. T h e strength
7 7

o f that m o t i o n m a y be heightened b y m a k i n g o f V I V j ^ J V J _ I V J _ J V MV J _ I V I
s u c h a n o n t o n i c c h o r d a t e m p o r a r y o r secondary n m rv v vi
tonic. A n y s c a l e d e g r e e t h a t c a n b e t h e r o o t o f a 7
V - I is t h e m o d e l . T h a t c h o r d p a i r , m a y b e t r a n s -
c o n s o n a n t t r i a d m a y serve as a secondary tonic, i n
posed t o a n y scale d e g r e e t h a t c a n serve as t o n i c .
m a j o r o r m i n o r . S u c h a small-scale tonic m a y have
T h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s h o w s t h e s a m e romn n u m b e r s
its o w n ( s e c o n d a r y ) d o m i n a n t , a n d , f o r t h a t m a t t e r ,
u n d e r each bracket, i n d i c a t i n g t h e d o m i n a n t - t o n i c
s u b d o m i n a n t and/or leading-note chords.
relationship between each t w o chords. T h e n u m -
ber u n d e r t h e bracket identifies t h e secondary
TONICIZATION T h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h a scale tonic.
d e g r e e o t h e r t h a n 1 is m a d e t o f u n c t i o n as tonic is
T h e bracket also shows t h e d u r a t i o n o ft h e t o n i -
c a l l e d tonicization. T h e t e r m a l s o r e f e r s t o t h e g r o u p
cization. A t t h e i r simplest, tonicizations i n c l u d e
o f chords u n d e r t h econtrol o fthe secondary tonic. o n l y t w o chords, as i n t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n . E x a m p l e s
from theliterature m a y be longer.
TONICIZATION VERSUS MODULATION
Here are a group o f secondary dominanttonic
There's a ni m p o r t a n t difference between toniciza-
c h o r d pairs i n t h e m i n o r m o d e .
tion a n d modulation. T h e y d o have something i n
c o m m o n : both are ways o fm o v i n g away f r o m the
tonic, a n d both m a yuse t h e same chords. B u t the
identity o f t h e chords isn't as i m p o r t a n t as t h e w a y
i n w h i c h they a r e used. Specifically, tonicization

I
and m o d u l a t i o n m e a n different things i n relation
to t h e musical phrase. I na modulation a phrase Zt
begins i n o n e k e y a n d ends i n another. T h u s
c: v 7
i YJLi Yl_J Y L i Y_L v i 7

m o d u l a t i o n shapes t h e tonal direction o fa phrase. m rv v vi vn

Tonicization, however, oceurs within a phrase. It's
a detail, possibly a very expressive one, b u t i t does
n o t control t h e h a r m o n i c goal o f t h e phrase.
CHROMATIC NOTES A l l s e c o n d a r y V c h o r d s 7
i n c l u d e a t least o n e c h r o m a t i c note. I f t h e l e a d i n g
W e must payattention t o t h e placement o f t h e
leading note i n t h e secondary d o m i n a n t , since it's
a n active n o t e . I n t h e last t w o i l l u s t r a t i o n s t h e
leading notes w e r e i n t h e t o p line. A s a result, i t
was (almost) a c h r o m a t i c scale. T h e l e a d i n g n o t e s

149
m a y appear i na n y voice. I nt h en e x t illustrations Gentle A n n i e , j47| FOSTER
t h e y a r e i n t h e bass, a n d t h e s o u n d is d i f f e r e n t .
5
Major

4 P=R :

i 2 3=

^ 1
Y_J Y l i YLi v S
1
YLJ S V 1
i ff
nt U J 11 ]J\n* i I *
1 1
n m rv v vi + W : J - -
Minor
: E t a - f - 19" V\ o f V V
3
After t h e opening tonic t h e phrase moves t o a
s e m i c a d e n c e . O n i t s w a y d o w n f r o m 8 t o 5 t h e bass
4e stops a t 6. Y o u have o f t e n heard V Iover that 6.
3=B=
B u t here a m o r e colorful chord pushes o n t o t h e
Vf I vf I vf I Vf I vf I vf I d o m i n a n t , V3 o f V .
m rv VI T h e half-step difference between Ilf, a n d V f o f
V , e x p l a i n e d i n (c) a b o v e , is p a r t o f a s t r o n g bass
T h e most i m p o r t a n t musical applications o f ton- line i n t h e following familiar example.
icization a r e explained i n t h e following discussion.
V i o l i n S o n a t a , O p . 12, N o . 1, I I I BEETHOVEN
D O M I N A N T O FT H E D O M I N A N T V o f V is
Allegro
different f r o m a l l other secondary dominants
b e c a u s e V i s not u s u a l l y a s e c o n d a r y t o n i c . I t s r o l e
in a p h r a s e is d o m i n a n t , a n d it'st o o active t o b e a
p o i n t o fstability. V o f V is m o s t o f t e n h e a r d as a
dominant preparation, l e s s o f t e n i n a t o n i c i z a t i o n o f
V. S o m e i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e n o r m a l u s e o f t h e
dominant o fthe dominant are shown below.
( a ) W i t h t h e l e a d i n g n o t e o f t h e d o m i n a n t i n t h e bass,
V f o f V moves decisively away f r o m t h e tonic a n d
prepares the dominant.
(b) H e r e I V is t h e c h o r d t h a t m o v e s a w a y f r o m t h e
tonic, w h i l e V f o f V prepares t h e dominant. Observe
t h e r i s i n g c h r o m a t i c bass l i n e , w h i c h d r i v e s t o w a r d
the dominant.
(c) T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n I I j j a n d V f o f V i s o n l y o n e
s e m i t o n e ; h o w i m p o r t a n t a h a l f step c a n be! O n c e
a g a i n t h e bass 4 4 | 5 s p e a r h e a d s t h e p u s h t o t h e
dominant.
(d) T h e l e a d i n g n o t e o f t h e d o m i n a n t i n t h e t o p line, i n
c o n t r a r y m o t i o n w i t h a d e s c e n d i n g bass, g e n e r a t e s
V | of V.

A t y p i c a l u s e o ft h e d o m i n a n t o ft h e d o m i n a n t is
heard i n a popular nineteenth-century song.

1
(a)

8
6
7
5
8
(b)

(c)

6
4
7
4 3

150
A f t e r the h a r m o n y hascircled a r o u n d t h e tonic in
the hrst half o fthe phrase, t h e I i n b heads for 6
the d o m i n a n t . I l f moves away f r o m t h etonic and
begins t o p r e p a r e V . V f o f V is a n e v e n stronger
d o m i n a n t preparation, so that there's a powerful
p u s h t o w a r d V . T h e r i s i n g bass l i n e 3-44(1-5
p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n b u i l d i n g t h e tensin.
IN DECEPTIVE CADENCE O n e way o f playing
o n t h e listener's e x p e c t a t i o n is t o m o v e f r o m a
7
c a d e n t i a l V t o a c h o r d o t h e r t h a n I ; w e cali this
c a d e n e e d e c e p t i v e , a l t h o u g h i t s p u r p o s e isn't so
m u c h t o deceive as t o e x t e n d t h e m u s i c a l impulse.
V I o f t e n serves as t h e g o a l c h o r d i n deceptive
cadenees. B u t t h ed o m i n a n t o fthe d o m i n a n t may
serve as w e l l , a n d it's m o r e active t h a n V I . T o w a r d
the e n d o fa n animated symphonic movement, a
s t r o n g d o m i n a n t creates t h e expectation o f a n
authentic cadenee, w h i c h m i g h t have ended the
Symphony N o . 92, I
220
151
entire piece, i f t h e c o m p o s e r h a d n o t h a d a s u r -
prise i n s t o r e f o r his listeners (see b e l o w ) . I n s t e a d
of the expected authentic cadenee, w ehear a p o w -
e r f u l d e c e p t i v e c a d e n e e , w i t h V3 o f V , i n 2 2 0 . A n
entire f o u r - m e a s u r e p h r a s e is b u i l t o n t h a t c h o r d
alone. First violins play t h e m a i n t h e m e , i m i t a t e d
by t h e o b o e , a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e rest o f t h e o r c h e s -
tra playing the c o m p l e t e p o l y p h o n y .
I n s u m m a r y , V o f V is usually a d o m i n a n t p r e p -
aration rather t h a n part o fa tonicization. I t m a y
also b e u s e d f o l l o w i n g V , i n a d e c e p t i v e c a d e n e e .
Other secondary dominants m a y be part o f ton-
icizations.
D O M I N A N T O F I V Since m a n y t o n a l pieces
emphasize t h e t o n i c - d o m i n a n t relationship, a cer-
tain balance can b e achieved b y s o m e emphasis o n
I V . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y valuable near t h ee n do f a
w o r k . T h e Bourre b y K i r n b e r g e r , [47], p r o v i d e s a
HAYDN
g o o d e x a m p l e . L i s t e n i n g a g a i n t o t h e first s e c t i o n ,
with its m o d u l a t i o n t o a cadenee i n V ,y o u hear
h o w t h e m e l o d y reaches w h a t seems t o be a goal,
A , i n 7 . B u t t h e bass is Fjt, w h i c h k e e p s t h e m u s i c
m o v i n g i n search o fa n octave between t h e outer
voices. T h e F f o p e n s u p the p h r a s e e n d i n g ; some-
thing different c a n happen here. T h e something
d i f f e r e n t i s a b r i e f t o n i c i z a t i o n o f I V . I n _7 ( t h e k e y
is A ) y o u h e a r I V p r e c e d e d b y its d o m i n a n t . S i m i -
l a r l y i n _15, I V i s p r e c e d e d b y i t s d o m i n a n t . E a c h
I V leads t oV , a perfect authentic cadenee, and the
a g r e e m e n t o f a n octave b e t w e e n bass a n d s o p r a n o .
S i n c e t h e final p h r a s e i s t h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f t h e
intermediate one t o t h e tonic, 1516 do just what
7 8 did. T h e tonicization o fI V balances the large
emphasis o n t h e d o m i n a n t heard earlier.
A secondary d o m i n a n t with a m o r e complex
t e x t u r e a n d p o l y p h o n y is h e a r d near t h e e n do f a
f a m o u s piece.
Suite No. 3, A i r , [32]
m
#|
m n- r V p , r
ir
R"l 1 Jl
ifffftt f
-sss-H
::
- I , I V , a n d V a r e e a c h preceded b y their dominants.
1 F i r s t y o u h e a r I p r e c e d e d b y its o w n V f , t h e m o d e l
A t _15 t h e h a r m o n y h a s a r r i v e d b a c k a t I a f t e r a
considerable tonal j o u r n e y i nwhich t h e dominant
p l a y e d a l a r g e r o l e . N o s o o n e r d o e s t h e bass reach
152
D t h a n i t p a s s e s o n t o C^, t h u s b e g i n n i n g a t o n i c i -
z a t i o n o f I V t h a t l a s t s f o r five b e a t s . C f i s r e i n s t a t e d
i n .17, t h e t o n a l balance is r e s t o r e d , a n d t h e m u s i c
p r o c e e d s s e r e n e l y t o t h e final c a d e n e e .
I n t h e m i n o r m o d e t h e l e a d i n g n o t e o f 4 is a
c h r o m a t i c n o t e . P l a c e d i n t h e bass, i t m a k e s a
s t r i k i n g e f f e c t i n C o u p e r i n ' s La Lgubre, | 2 5 | . T h e
first m o v e , f r o m I t o I V , i s e l a b o r a t e d w i t h V f o f
I V . T h e Et] i n t h e b a s s i s a s u r p r i s i n g n o t e , m o v i n g
t h e h a r m o n y a w a y f r o m t h e t o n i c as e a r l y as t h e
second m e a s u r e o f t h e piece.
DOMINANT O F I V AND V C a n a piece begin
with a secondary dominant?
Waltz, Op. 9, No. 16
T h e r i s i n g bass l i n e 3 4 - 4 f 5 u n d e r p i n s t h e
6
p h r a s e . B u t 3 i s n ' t t h e bass o f I h e r e ; it's t h e bass
o f V f o f I V . T h e m u s i c begins i n m i d - a i r , as i t
were, w i t h o u t a n o p e n i n g tonic b u twith a tonici-
z a t i o n o f I V . T h e n V is t o n i c i z e d ; w e h e a r i t as a
tonic b y analogy with t h etonicization o f I V . T h e
e x t e n d e d V t h a t f o l l o w s takes its c u s t o m a r y r o l e o f
d o m i n a n t t ocomplete the phrase.
A d i f f e r e n t bass l i n e s u p p o r t s t w o tonicizations
in t h e Baroque example at t h e t o p o f page 153.
T h i s is t h e c o n c l u d i n g p h r a s e o f a suite m o v e m e n t .
f o r t h e rest o f t h e phrase. T h e n I V is similarly
t o n i c i z e d . T h e bass d o e s n ' t p u s h o n u p t o F f , b u t
drops t o D ,t h e root o fV o fV . B u t then F f does
appear, i n a l o w e r register, p o i n t i n g at G . It's
difficult t o keep t h eleading note o fthe d o m i n a n t
o u t o f t h e bass.
 Sarabande FISCHER S o n g without Words, O p . 3 0 , N o . 3
MENDELSSOHN

351 5
rffr= ra
k
m 16 5
S I
\
-&
-*
i
3 rv- 1 5 v n 6

M3 i
6 5
- & I J -yJ>J 4-
9 L
-w6

m o m e n t t o discover that t h eb-triad is part o f a

D O M I N A N T O F I I I Im a yb e a secondary tonic tonicization o fI I . T h e bracket shows that there a r e
i n t h e m a j o r b u t n o t i n t h e m i n o r . V - I o f I I is four chords i nt h egroup. T h esecondary tonic has
often followed b y V I . its o w n s u b d o m i n a n t , a n d t h a t ' s t h e r o l e o f t h e b -
triad. O fcourse I I has its o w nd o m i n a n t , too. A n
Piano Sonata K ,2 8 1 , I I I MOZART i n t e r e s t i n g d e t a i l is t h e i n n e r - v o i c e p e d a l n o t e w i t h i n
t h e t o n i c i z a t i o n , Fjt, 2 . T h e large I I i s a preparation

#74 1 1
fffrr >U1|-
for the cadential dominant.

t D O M I N A N T O FI I I I I Iis rarely tonicized i n t h e

major. W h e n such a tonicization occurs it's proba-
--s
ft a bly p a r t o f a sequential c h a i n o f s e c o n d a r y d o m i -

r rr
-
nant-tonic motions.
J
^
Piano Sonata, O p . 14,N o . 2 , I I BEETHOVEN
T w o tonicizations o fI I a r e h e a r d i n this phrase 16

Symphony No. 94,I

T h e first V o f I I I I i s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w e d b y V -
I , s o that t h e f o u r chords f o r m a g r o u p that ends
w i t h t h etonic. T h e s e c o n d I I is a d o m i n a n t prep-
aration, extended f o rsix eighths.
O n e o f t h e c h o r d s t h a t m a y f o l l o w V w h e n it's a
goal is I I . T h a t c h o r d is tonicized i n t h e next
e x a m p l e i nw h i c h a lyric two-measure phrase ends I n t h e m i n o r , I I I is a n i m p o r t a n t c h o r d ( t h e
w i t h a semicadence. I m m e d i a t e l y after the B-triad relative m a j o r ) that's easily tonicized. S u c h a t o n i -
y o u h e a r a b-triad, p r o v i d i n g a h a r m o n i c surprise cization m a y f o l l o w t h eV that's a goal c h o r d i n a
w h o s e m e a n i n g m a y n o t b e c l e a r a t first. I t t a k e s a s e m i c a d e n c e ( s e e t o p o f p a g e 1 5 4 ) . T h e V * i n _54

153

IIA.CIOHAL D E M U 8 I C &
. r i n T B f , A.
 MOZART
P i a n o Concert K . 5 0 3 , I

Ob.

Bns

Vln. I

comes f r o m I b u tdoesn't lead directly back t o it. S t a r t i n g i n , t h e first h a l f o f t h e p h r a s e i s b u i l t o n

Instead, I I Ifollows. M o z a r t smoothes t h eway with
a chromatic line i n t h e oboes, starting f r o m t h e
leading note that w e expected t o m o v e u p a n d
directing it down. T h i s prepares the ear f o r E t ,
whose V 3 (over F) begins t h econtrol o f I I I . T h e
t o n i c i z a t i o n o f I I I is b u i l t o n t h e t o p - l i n e a s c e n t 1 -
6
2 - 3 over I - V - I . I n t h e second half o f 55 I I
reinstates c a n d a perfect authentic cadenee fol-
lows.
Since t h eroots o fI a n dI I Ia r eo n l y a 3 r d apart,
i t ' s p o s s i b l e t o fill t h a t 3 r d w i t h a P , t a k i n g t h a t
n o t e as t h e bass o fa c o n n e c t i n g c h o r d .
" A h ! fors' l u i " f r o m L a t r a v i a t a , A c t I VERDI
5
a tonic pedal. T h e n t h eh a r m o n y moves away f r o m
t h e t o n i c , t h e bass a s c e n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e l e a d i n g
note o f 3. A perfect authentic cadenee follows
i m m e d i a t e l y after I I I . T h e c o m p l e t e p o l y p h o n y is
in t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t , as usual, w h i l e t h e poly-
p h o n i c m e l o d y uses notes f r o m v a r i o u s lines
A s e c o n d a r y t o n i c is u s u a l l y p r e c e d e d b y its o w n
dominant. B u t imagine that t h e model f o r t h e
c h o r d p a i r is n o t V - I b u t I - V . I f t h e d o m i n a n t is
the second c h o r d o f t h e pair, t h e results m a yb e
q u i t e i n t e r e s t i n g (see t o p o fp a g e 155). T h e m o d e l
I - V is t r a n s p o s e d u p a 3 r d , t o n i c i z i n g I I I . T o h e l p
the e a r follow that m o t i o n , there's a connecting
l i n k i n t h e b a s s . I n _5, I V b e c o m e s a t e m p o r a r y
tonic, b e f o r e f a l l i n g back t o I . A d e s c e n d i n g bass
leads t o a semicadence. B u t t h e music doesn't
c o m p l e t e l y stop, because t h e r e is a n o t h e r three-
n o t e c o n t i n u a t i o n i n t h e bass.

** B T h e s e c o n d p h r a s e b e g i n s a s t h e first d i d , b u t i t
contines i n a d i f f e r e n t w a y . A f t e r I - V * a n d I - V
of III, t h e tonicization o f I V melts into another
tonicization o f I I I . T h e n t h e h a r m o n y returns t o

m mm its t o n i c . M u c h o f t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h i s m u s i c lies i n
t h e t o n i c i z a t i o n s , w h o s e m o t i o n s a w a y f r o m I cr-
ate expectations o fr e t u r n , n o t always i m m e d i a t e l y
satisfied.

1 t t i D O M I N A N T O F V I I n the major mode, y o u

4-
4 = h a v e h e a r d V I as a l i n k b e t w e e n I a n d I V .

\i\\> K s ?V" 0J1_

P:
r
1

44
F \

8t5 & 8

ir-
-)- V 1 rb v i ) 35

vf v 7
Pi 3E
1
VI
vi VI
 Suite in D minor, Sarabande HANDEL

\>' \ \ n
9
= 2 5^-^= :&5 = ^
66-

d: I vf vn 16

rv

I n (a), 6 divides t h e5 t h between 8 a n d4 while Waltz, Op. 9, No. 3 SCHUBERT

s u p p o r t i n g V I . I n (b), 7 bisects t h e 3 r d b e t w e e n 8
a n d 6 . A g a i n s t t h e d i a t o n i c P i n t h e bass there's a
c h r o m a t i c P i n t h e s o p r a n o . T h elinear c h o r d that
r e s u l t s i s V3 o f V I .

Piano Sonata, O p . 14, No. 2, I I BEETHOVEN

ff r VI
:
N :
1 1i -
\
-= 0 j i f "
' ^ L ^"TT"

p
Idk
)
' 7



-W- [ 1

n r
' 1 fe
I 6
V | I V\ I TONICIZING T H E PIVOT CHORD A p i v o t
VI chord i n a modulation m a y be emphasized by
making ita secondary tonic.
7
T o b e sure, V o f V I m a y a p p e a r i n r o o t posi-
Contradanse in C , [44] BEETHOVEN
t i o n , t o o . ( S e e S c h u b e r t e x a m p l e a b o v e . ) T h e first
half o f t h e waltz is completely diatonic, w i t h n o
s e c o n d a r y t o n i c s . T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e piece
begins w i t h a decisive m o t i o n away f r o m t h e tonic
7
in trie f o r m o f V o f V I . A s that secondary d o m i -
n a n t resolves t o its tonic t w o Ps s m o o t h t h e way.

-i M
T h e c h o r d p a i r i s t h e n t r a n s p o s e d d o w n a step, c t
= = r
7
c r e a t i n g a t o n i c i z a t i o n o f V . T h i s is f o l l o w e d b y V
and t h e cadenee. vi vi/n
155
String Quartet, O p . 18,N o .1, I I I
SCHERZO
Allegro molto
I n t h eClassical l a n g u a g e , a f a v o r i t e p i v o t c h o r d is
V I / I I . T h e e x a m p l e a b o v e s h o w s h o w V I is g i v e n
a bit o fe x t r a attention, b e c o m i n g a secondary tonic
for three eighth notes. T h e n i t does itsj o b o f
linking I a n d V ,a n d t h e cadential m o d u l a t i o n
proceeds.
As i n t h e example o npage 153, a tonicization o f
I I is f o l l o w e d b y a t o n i c i z a t i o n o f I I I . B u t i n this
example, instead o fa n i m m e d i a t e r e t u r n t o I , I I I
turns into a pivot chord, quite unexpectedly. I n
the cadential m o d u l a t i o n t o V , t h e pivot c h o r d is
I I I / V I . I I I i s t o n i c i z e d f o r five b e a t s , f o l l o w e d b y
t w o beats o f rest. F r o m t h e r e o n , C is tonic. Per-
haps because t h er o u t e t o V is so unexpected, t h e
cadenee i n V is h e a r d twice, once i neach o f t h e
registers ill play. As a result, t h e p h r a s e i s t e n
measures long.
TONICIZATION O V E R A PEDAL POINT O n
page 1 4 2y o u f o u n d t h eprogression I - I V - V - I
o v e r a t o n i c pedal. W e described this as a tonic
extensin, b e c a u s e t h e c h o r d s o f t h e u p p e r v o i c e s
w e r e subordnate t o t h e t o n i c n o t e i n t h e bass.
That procedure m a y be pushed a bitfurther by
t a k i n g t h e i n i t i a l t o n i c as t h e d o m i n a n t o fI V as i n
t h e e x a m p l e f r o m The We-Tempered Clavier b e l o w .
P r e l u d e N o . 3 f r o m The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 2
156
BEETHOVEN
O v e r t h ereiterated pedal note t h echords change
twice each measure. N o sooner is I h e a r d t h a n a
7 t h is added, m o v i n g t h e upper-voice p o l y p h o n y
t o w a r d I V . A f t e r I V , a s t r o n g Bjt t u r n s t h e u p p e r
7
voices t o V . I follows t o c o m p l e t e t h e o p e n i n g
gesture o f t h e prelude. A sixteenth-note figure
involving b o t h soprano a n d alto registers includes
a N that adds j u s t a t o u c h o f dissonance. A longer
dissonance is t h eD # that's suspended across t h e
second barline, o n t h e half-note level.
T h e e x a m p l e f r o m t h e Classical p e r i o d o n t h e
t o p o f p a g e 1 5 7 reveis a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s t y l e :
t h e t e x t u r e , t h e u s eo fm u s i c a l space, t h e w a y i n
w h i c h t h e pedal note isstated, t h e r h y t h m , a n d t h e
entire character o ft h e music a r ei n complete con-
trast w i t h t h e B a c h e x a m p l e . B u t t h e o r g a n i z i n g
principie ist h e same.
T h e s o n a t a ' s first t h e m e b e g i n s w i t h a f o u r -
measure phrase, answered b y a n eight-measure
phrase. T h e polyphonic m e l o d y reaches over a n
octave b yt h e t h i r d measure. T h e inidal tonic quickly
7
grows into V o f I V , continuing t o I Vover t h e
u n c h a n g i n g bass. I t ' si n t e r e s t i n g t o see h o w t h e
first s o u n d i n 4 , a n o c t a v e , i s t r e a t e d a s a d i s s o -
nance. I t ' sa n P , dissonant w i t h t h ei n n e r voices
that aren't h e a r d y e t b u ta r e about t obe. Stability
BACH
Piano Sonata K . 332, I MOZART a n s w e r s t h e first w i t h a n o t h e r d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h c h o r d ,
7
V I I , heard i nt w o positions.
Allegro
A good example o fa leading-note chord within
a tonicization o f I I occurs after a m o d u l a t i o n t oa
cadenee i n V .

Song, Op. 80, No. 1 WEBER

m nf
M -J -
I

fiff
i
i i
\

ase
m -J
As= 1

i :
9*

i n t h e f o r m o f t h e t o n i c is r e s t o r e d t o all voices a t
t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 5..

F:
S E C O N D A R Y L E A D I N G - N O T E CHORDS A
secondary tonic m a y have n o t o n l y its o w n d o m i -

z^-j
nant, b u talso i t s o w n leading-note chord. T h i s
t o p i c i s e x p l a i n e d i n d e t a i l i n Gradus, B o o k T w o ,
b u t tWO i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e s a r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e . 1 ' ' -
D o m i n a n t p r e p a r a t o r y . c h o r d s studied thus f a r
include s u b d o m i n a n t chords a n d V o f V . Here's
one more: V I I o fV . 7
7

A )1 ffj :
p j " ' -

Piano Sonata, Op. 13 BEETHOVEN

1 b
^ rrp' 1 1
1

I n 11 12 y o u h e a r a perfect a u t h e n t i c cadenee.
T h e n , instead o f r e t u r n i n g d i r e c t l y t o I , t h e r e is a
s h o r t d e t o u r t o t h e s e c o n d a r y t o n i c I I , w h i c h filis
1 3 - 1 5 . T h e v e r y first c h o r d i n t h e t o n i c i z a t i o n ,
VII3 o f II, moves the harmony away from V a n d
7
vn v i
of v toward I I . Notice t h es m o o t h voice leading into
the diminished 7 t h chord. A t t h e e n d o f 15, t h e
6
T h e m u s i c begins w i t h a p o w e r f u l statement o f tonicization ends o n I I , which then assumes its
t o n i c h a r m o n y . T h e n t h e bass skips a d r a m a t i c n o r m a l role o fd o m i n a n t preparation.
tritone, t o t h e leading note o ft h e dominant, w h i c h
7
supports V I I o f V . T h a t is a d i m i n i s h e d 7 t h
c h o r d , m a d e o f N s t o V * . T h e second measure O* Worksheets 42, 43

157
 55
Another Look at Binary Form
P a r t S e v e n o f Gradus c o n c l u d e s w i t h a s e c o n d l o o k
at b i n a r y f o r m . H e r e t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e p r e v i o u s
sections will b e p u t t o u s e i n several complete
pieces, all i n early Classical style. T h e s e w o r k s a r e
modest i n scope, f o r binary f o r m was used o n l y f o r
short pieces i n t h elatter part o f t h e eighteenth
c e n t u r y . T h e b r e v i t y a n d s i m p l i c i t y o fthese pieces
makes t h e m well-suited f o ro u rpurposes. T h e
pieces w ewill n o w study are:
Trk t h r e e s h o r t p i a n o p i e c e s , [42J
C.P.E. Bach s l o w m o v e m e n t f r o m a p i a n o s o n a t a , [39]
Beethoven three contradanses, |44|
Schubert t h r e e w a l t z e s a n d a n cossaise, [46]
T R K O n e o f t h e first k n o w n p i a n o p e d a g o g u e s
w a s D a n i e l G o t t l o b T r k . H i s p i e c e s , |42~], s h o w t h e
carefully o r g a n i z e d f o r m o f t h e Classical style i n
m i n i a t u r e . E a c h o n e b e g i n s w i t h a t o n i c extensin
as t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a c l e a r m o t i v i c s t a t e m e n t .
M o t i o n a w a y f r o m t h etonic always takes t h e f o r m
of a modulation t o a cadenee i n V .After t h e
7
d o u b l e bar, V s o o n leads the w a y back. T h e y each
end with a perfect authentic cadenee.
The three short works a r e different i n texture,
r h y t h m , a n d d y n a m i c s . I n t h e second piece, t h e
h e m i o l a a t t h e final c a d e n e e i s s h o w n b y t h e o m i s -
sion o fa barline, a device w h i c h c o u l d also have
been used atthe intermediate cadenee.
T h e s e pieces a r e small-scale m o d e l s o f the prac-
tice o f t h e i r t i m e i n respect t oh a r m o n y a n d voice
l e a d i n g , t e x t u r e a n d r e g i s t e r , c h o r d extensin,
m o d u l a t i o n , p h r a s e c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d m o t i v e , as
w e l l as k e y b o a r d usage. W r i t t e n as p i a n o exercises,
t h e y a r e studies i n s i m p l e c o m p o s i t i o n as well.
THE CONTRADANSES Beethoven's light-
ieared country dances, [ 4 4 ] , are i n b i n a r y form.
Each o ft h e three i n t h e A n t h o l o g y moves t o its
i n t e r m e d i a t e cadenee i n a d i f f e r e n t way. W e start
b y c o m p a r i n g t h e t o n a l m o v e m e n t i n t h e first h a l f
o f each dance.
T h e first p i e c e m o d u l a t e s t o a c a d e n e e i n V . T h e
tonicization o f t h e pivot chord V I / I I , was e x -
plained o npage 155.
T h e first p h r a s e o f t h e s e c o n d d a n c e e n d s w i t h
a s e m i c a d e n c e . T h e r e is n o m o d u l a t i o n .
T h e t h i r d dance comes t o a perfect authentic
c a d e n e e a t t h e e n d o f t h e first h a l f . O n l y t h e
r h y t h m o ft h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t a n d o u r expecta-
tion o f an answering phrase keep the music going.
Since t h e m i d p o i n t punctuations a r e all differ-
ent, t h epathways o fthe second halves a r e differ-
ent t o o . B u t each leads t o a perfect authentic
c a d e n e e a t t h e conclusin o f t h e p i e c e . W e w i l l
consider t h e second section o f t h e pieces.
I n t h e first d a n c e , d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y i s e x -
6
tended b ya n e i g h b o r i n g I I . I n the second dance a
d o m i n a n t extensin c o n s i s t s o f a s i m p l e r e i t e r a t i o n
7
o f V , e n d i n g o n a fermata. T h e 7 t h doesn't resolve
in t h e t o pline, w h e r e i tmoves u p chromatically.
B u t t h e e x p e c t e d G d o e s s o u n d i n t h e bass, s o t h a t
t h e r e s o l u t i o n is s h i f t e d d o w n t h r e e octaves. I n t h e
t h i r d dance t h e second phrase picks u p w h e r e
t h e first l e f t o f f , g o i n g o n w i t h d o m i n a n t - t o n i c
until t h e reappearance o f I V that prepares the ca-
dential V .
B e e t h o v e n uses his small orchestra effectively t o
crate a f u l l , b r i g h t s o u n d . T h e a b s e n c e o f v i o l a s
means that t h e second violins a r e kept very busy;
t h e i r p a r t i s w o r t h cise s t u d y . W i n d s a r e u s e d f o r
color, b u t also t o p o i n t u p details a n d a d d a f e w
comments o ftheir o w n . T h e complete polyphony
is i n t h e . a c c o m p a n i m e n t a t a l l t i m e s . N o t a l l t h e
notes o f t h e p o l y p h o n y a r e i n t h estring parts, so
you m u s t consider t h e winds a n d horns i n deter-
m i n i n g the h a r m o n y and voice leading.
T h e m o t i v i c aspect o ft h e m u s i c is q u i t e clear.
E a c h d a n c e is b u i l t o n a s h o r t m o t i v e ( t w o o r f o u r
m e a s u r e s ) , w h i c h i s d e v e l o p e d i n simple ways t o
p r o v i d e all t h e m e l o d i c m a t e r i a l o f the piece.
As is usual i n B e e t h o v e n ' s music, d y n a m i c s a n d
a c c e n t s a r e i m p o r t a n t . I n t h e first d a n c e t h e o f f -
b e a t a c c e n t is a f e a t u r e o f t h e m o t i v e . I n t h e s e c o n d
dance the contrasts o f l o u d a n d soft are a n integral
part o fthe music. Part o ft h ec h a r m o ft h e third
d a n c e lies i n t h e sly p c a d e n e e t h a t f o l l o w s a cre-
scendo, in both phrases.
S C H U B E R T DANCES S c h u b e r t c o m p o s e d a
g r e a t m a n y s h o r t d a n c e s , m o s t l y waltzes, f o r p i a n o ;
t h e e x a m p l e s i n t h e A n t h o l o g y , [46], a r e t y p i c a l . A l l
f o u r o f these pieces a r e i n b i n a r y form; each con-
sists o f t w o p h r a s e s , a n d e a c h p h r a s e is r e p e a t e d .
The first p h r a s e e n d s w i t h a perfect a u t h e n t i c
c a d e n e e i n t h e t o n i c . A f t e r t h e repeat, the m o t i o n
a w a y f r o m the tonic isusually through secondary
tonics. T h einevitable r e t u r n t o the m a i n tonic
f e a t u r e s a n o t h e r p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c cadenee t o e n d
t h e piece.
M o t i v e s a r e s h o r t a n d clear, their d e v e l o p m e n t
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . R e g i s t r a l l y , t h e r a n g e is f a i r l y w i d e .
S c h u b e r t is f o n d o f t h e h i g h register o f the p i a n o
a n d m a k e s g o o d use o f it i n the third waltz and the
cossaise.
C. P. E . B A C H T h e m o s t a m b i t i o u s o f t h e
A n t h o l o g y ' s Classical g r o u p o f b i n a r y pieces is n o t
a d a n c e . It's the slow m o v e m e n t o f a piano sonata,
-|39|, b y a k e y figure i n t h e e m e r g i n g s t y l e , t h e
e l d e s t s o n o f J . S . B a c h . A l t h o u g h the repeat signs
t h a t d i v i d e d a n c e f o r m s i n t o t w o sections a r e m i s s -
ing, t h e piece is clearly b i n a r y . T h e t w o sections:
1-18 a n d 19-38.
T h i s expressive m u s i c begins w i t h an eight-mea-
sure phrase built o n I - V I . T h e arpeggiation o f
t h e m e l o d y w a s e x p l a i n e d o n p a g e 143. T h e s e c o n d
p h r a s e , 916, m o v e s t h r o u g h a l e i s u r e l y p r o g r e s -
sion, a m o d u l a t i o n w i t h o u t a pivot chord. B e h i n d
t h e e l a b o r a t i o n s i s a c h a i n o f f t r i a d s . W h e n t h e
l i n e a r m o t i o n h a sr e a c h e d i t s goal a clear ( b u t
q u i e t ) c a d e n e e c o n f i r m s I I I . T h e cadenee is set o f f
f r o m w h a t carne before b y its placement i n t h e
l o w e r register o f the piano.
Basic polyphony, 9-16
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 6
3 E
6 6 6 sive d e t a i l , i n c l u d i n g d y n a m i c s , t o g i v e each p h r a s e
8 & 8
ft 8 8 Classical style. H a y d n , M o z a r t , a n d B e e t h o v e n
T h e second section will r e t u r n toI , b u t how?
First, t h emusic centers a r o u n d I I I f o ra four-
m e a s u r e phrase, repeating t h e melodic material,
but not the h a r m o n y , o f the opening. T h e n a rising
bass l i n e l e a d s a w a y f r o m 3 t o 5 i n a s h o r t b u t i n t e r -
estingjourney.
22 23 24 25 26
Jf Lfrfi_ 4 _ Z
-t-
- 0 u^ o - - t "
6 7
5
\ tt
4)- o to
1 >\> *
m v
T h e t w o c h r o m a t i c n o t e s i nt h e bass are, a t t h e
same t i m e , Ps a n d leading notes. Fjt, w h i c h m o v e s
decisively a w a y f r o m F , supports a f c h o r d , a
secondary d o m i n a n t l e a d i n g t o a g-triad. G | is t h e
root o f a n even stronger chord, V I I o f V . W h e n 7
V isreached i t w o u l d b e possible t oconclude t h e
entire piece w i t h a cadenee.
But that w o u l d leave a very short second h a l f t o
the piece. T h e c o m p o s e r m a i n t a i n s t h e m u s i c a l
m o m e n t u m , returning t o tonic h a r m o n y only
g r a d u a l l y . T h e q u i e t V * o f .26 i s e l a b o r a t e d b y a
n e i g h b o r d i m i n i s h e d 7th, l o u d , i n 27. Instead o f a
r e t u r n t o V, t h e r e ' s a 4 c h o r d , s t i l l v e r y m u c h
d o m i n a n t but not part o f a cadenee. Rather than a
skip, B a c h uses a s t e p w i s e d e s c e n t i n t h e bass f r o m
5 t o 1. O n i t s w a y d o w n t h e b a s s p a u s e s a r o u n d G
i n 30-31- T h i s u n d e r p i n s a t o n i c i z a t i o n o f I V .
T h e music also keeps g o i n g because o f the decep-
t i v e c a d e n e e i n .34, w i t h a n e x p r e s s i v e I N i n t h e
melody.
T h e piece ends w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n g f o u r - m e a s u r e
phrase. I t e x t e n d s t h e t o n i c w h i l e k e e p i n g t h e bass
6
o f f D o n a n y s t r o n g b e a t . A t t h e e n d o f 36 I I
prepares the cadential dominant. T h e even stronger
6
d o m i n a n t preparation, V o f V , follows, softly
l e a d i n g i n t o t h e final c a d e n e e .
T h e firm c o n t r o l o f h a r m o n i c d i r e c t i o n a s t h e
f o u n d a t i o n o f musical f o r m a n d the use o f expres-
a definite character a r ei m p o r t a n t features o f the
learned a great deal f r o m t h epiano sonatas o f C .
P. E . B a c h .
O * W o r k s h e e t 44
159
 INTERLUDE T W O
A LOOK BACK
E v e n t h e simplest e x a m p l e o f polyphonic music
that w e have studied thus far shows a h i g h l y devel-
o p e d t o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . A l l the sounds are related
to the t o n i c i n a n e t w o r k o f interactions; the same
i n t e r v a l s t h a t c o n t r o l t h e v e r t i c a l aspect also shape
t h e h o r i z o n t a l ; d i s s o n a n c e a n d c o n s o n a n c e a r e used
c o n s i s t e n t l y t o a c h i e v e tensin a n d relase; p h r a s e s
have clear shapes that are m o l d e d by r h y t h m i c and
t o n a l i m p u l s e s ; p h r a s e e n d i n g s w i t h v a r y i n g degrees
o f c l o s u r e e n a b l e t h e m u s i c t o flow f r o m o n e t h o u g h t
to another a n d t o build overall continuity, while
o v e r t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t o n a l m o v e m e n t t h e surface
o r design o f a piece m a y take shape i n infinitely
v a r i e d w a y s , e x p a n d i n g i n t o m u s i c a l s p a c e t o cr-
a t e v a r i e g a t e d t e x t u r e s . S u c h s o p h i s t i c a t e d resources
did n o tcome into being overnight. Centuries o f
effort b y countless musicians brought t h e a r t to the music was created.
the p o i n t at w h i c h w e began t h e study o f poly-
phonic music. E v e n a brief survey o f their work
w i l l b e o f valu a t t h i s p o i n t .
H o w p o l y p h o n i c music first developed remains
a fascinating, i f largely unanswered, question. H e r e
we c a n o n l y p o i n t o u t that f r o m t h e n i n t h t o t h e notation o f M e d i e v a l music. E v e n the pitches are a
twelfth centuries musicians were learning slowly
a n d w i t h g r e a t e f f o r t h o w t o c o m b i n e m e l o d i c lines
in r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r t h a t is, h o w t o write
c o u n t e r p o i n t . T h e earliest w o r k s discussed here
b e l o n g t o w h a t is c a l l e d t h e N o t r e D a m e s c h o o l ,
w h i c h flowered i n Pars i n t h e l a t e t w e l f t h a n d
early t h i r t e e n t h centuries. E v e n these are built o n
the results o f the e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n o f the previous
three centuries.
161
Before looking at any music, t w o points must be
emphasized. First, i t w o u l d be a mistake t o con-
s i d e r a n y o f t h i s m u s i c as p r i m i t i v e , m e r e l y t h e
precursor o f later music w h i c h , being m o r e sophis-
ticated, m u s t b e better. E a c h piece is a w o r k o f a r t
i n i t s o w n r i g h t a n d m u s t b e h e a r d o n its o w n
t e r m s t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e m o d e r n l i s t e n e r is a b l e .
W o r k s o f art, u n l i k e w o r k s o f technology, d o not
become obsolete. T h e y become m o r e r e m o t e , w h i c h
makes i t difficult f o r us t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m ; b u t
only an impatient person w o u l d t h r o w t h e m away.
N o doubt we m u s t m a k e a n effort i f we are t o get
anything o u t o f this music. T h i s usually means
suspending j u d g m e n t f o ra while, exposing our-
selves t o t h e s o u n d s i n a n o p e n - m i n d e d w a y , a n d
learning what w e can about t h econtext i n which
T h e s e c o n d p o i n t is t h a t t h e f u r t h e r b a c k i n t i m e
w e g o , t h e less c e r t a i n w e c a n b e a b o u t o u r a b i l i t y
to decode t h e symbols w e read. Despite a g o o d
d e a l o f t h o u g h t a n d r e s e a r c h , w e a r e still n o t a b l e
to answer all o f t h e questions t h a t s u r r o u n d t h e
p r o b l e m , since p l a i n c h a n t n o t a t i o n was n o t codi-
fied u n t i l t h e m i d - t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . M o r e p r o b l e -
matical y e t is r h y t h m , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e
c o o r d i n a t i o n o f p a r t s is s o m e t i m e s i n d o u b t , t o o .
Since t h e r e a r e n o t e m p o m a r k i n g s , w e c a n o n l y
m a k e e d u c a t e d guesses a b o u t t h e speed a t w h i c h
t h e m u s i c is t o b e p e r f o r m e d , t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d -
e r a t i o n s u c h f a c t o r s as t h e size o f t h e c a t h e d r a l s i n
w h i c h t h e m u s i c w a s first h e a r d , t h e r i t u a l f u n c t i o n
the piece served, a n d t h e forces f o r w h i c h i t w a s
i n t e n d e d . A sf o r dynamics, i tisgenerally assumed
that t h e r e was little c h a n g e o flevel i n a piece. W e
k n o w that the distinction between vocal and instru-
m e n t a l m u s i c , as styles o f w r i t i n g , d i d n o t exist.
Most music appears t o bevocal, but contemporary
paintings, documents, a n d letters i n f o r m u s that
the s a m e m u s i c that was s u n g c o u l d j u s t as well b e
played.
F r o m singing o n e melody t o having two melo-
dies s u n g a t t h e s a m e t i m e is o n e o f the great leaps
of t h eh u m a n imagination, creating a n entirely
n e w dimensin i n m u s i c . N a t u r a l l y , t h e r e i s n o
w r i t t e n r e c o r d o fsuch a m o m e n t i n o u r history;
p o l y p h o n y was i m p r o v i s e d b ysingers l o n g before
it w a s w r i t t e n d o w n . J u s t h o w p o l y p h o n i c m u s i c
began will always b e a matter o fsome conjecture.
But i f y o u have ever listened t oa g r o u p o f untrained
v o i c e s s i n g i n g i n w h a t t h e y t h o u g h t w a s unisn y o u
m a y have observed that they were actually singing
in parallel 5ths o r other intervals. People are inclined
to s i n g i n t h e r a n g e t h a t is m o s t c o m f o r t a b l e f o r
t h e m . O n t h eaverage, h i g h voices sing a 4 t h o r a
5th h i g h e r t h a n l o w voices. S i n g i n g t w o versions o f
the same m e l o d y isn o t p o l y p h o n y , but i tm a y well
have led t o p o l y p h o n y as t h esingers began t o p u t
the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n r a n g e s t ouse. T h e earliest
t w o - p a r t m u s i c w e have consists o f a c h a n t a n d a
second line o f music above the chant, m o v i n g m o r e
o r less p a r a l l e l t o i t . T h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e
voices is u s u a l l y a 4 t h o r a 5 t h . I n t i m e , musicians
discovered other ways i n w h i c h t o m o v e , that is,
contrary and oblique motion.
W h e n w e l o o k a t M e d i e v a l music, w e realize that
m a n y o f the pieces a r e built o npreexisting m e l o -
dies w h i c h a r ec h a n t o r f r a g m e n t s o f chant, a n d
t h e t e x t s , i n m o s t cases, a r e t r a d i t i o n a l o n e s . W e
m a y d r a w a parallel w i t h Medieval painters, w h o
based t h e i r w o r k o n f a m i l i a r B i b l i c a l subjects,
returning t o t h e m over and over. Musicians o f the
M i d d l e Ages d i d n o t seek originalityo r self-expres-
sion; they sought t o glorify G o d b y embellishing
the chant, w h i c h was held t obe divinely inspired.
M e d i e v a l m a n s a w t h e w o r l d a s finite a n d b o u n d e d ;
t r a d i t i o n g o v e r n e d his artistic activities. Y e t , w i t h i n
w h a t m a y seem t o u s today as rather n a r r o w con-
fines, h e b u i l t t h e cathedrals w e still a d m i r e a n d
c r e a t e d t h e m u s i c t h a t filled t h e m . A f e w e x a m p l e s
of that music will b e discussed here. W e won't
u n d e r t a k e a complete analysis, b u tw e will survey
the factors that m a k e f o rtonal coherence a n d
c o m m e n t o n m a t t e r s r e l e v a n t t o o u r study as a
whole.
T h e e a r l i e s t t y p e o f t w o - p a r t m u s i c i s organum.
It is a style o fc o m p o s i t i o n (or, earlier, i m p r o v i s a -
162
tion) i n w h i c h a second voice is a d d e d above o r
below a given melody, usually a chant. T h e r e a r e
several kinds o fo r g a n u m , corresponding t o t h e
i n c r e a s i n g l y florid n a t u r e o f t h e a d d e d p a r t . T h e
n o t e s o f t h e c h a n t a r e u s u a l l y h e l d f o r a. n u m b e r
o f beats, a n d t h e v o i c e t h a t sings t h e c h a n t is called
t h e tenor ( L a t i n : tenere, " t o h o l d " ) . T h i s m e a n s t h a t
t h e w o r d tenor, i n M e d i e v a l m u s i c , d o e s n o t i n d i -
cate a particular vocal range. U s u a l l y i t is t h e
slowest, w h e r e v e r i tlies. T h e a d d e d part is called
t h e duplum.
A s h o r t e x c e r p t f r o m a l a r g e o r g a n u m , [57], is b y
t h e first m a s t e r o f t h e N o t r e D a m e s c h o o l , L e o n i n .
C o n s i d e r e d t h e greatest c o m p o s e r o f his day, L e o n i n
w r o t e this m u s i c as t h e Parisian cathedral w a s
rising and m a y have heard o rperformed i t within
the still-unfinished edifice.
T h e t e n o r h a s t h enotes o f a chant f r a g m e n t , i n
l a r g e vales. O v e r t h a t , t h e d u p l u m m o v e s i n
phrases o f varying lengths. F o r every long note o f
the chant t h e d u p l u m h a so n e o r m o r e o f these
p h r a s e s , e a c h a n extensin o f o n e o r t w o n o t e s .
T h e m a i n note o r notes o f each phrase o f t h e
d u p l u m f o r m a 4th, 5th, o roctave with t h e chant
n o t e , as t h e r e d u c t i o n b e l o w s h o w s .
It seems fair t oconclude f r o m this that for L e o n i n
the octave, 5 t h , a n d 4 t h w e r e stable intervals. T h e y
a r e t h e o n l y i n t e r v a l s o n t h e s t r o n g b e a t s t h a t is,
the beats that m a r k t h eb e g i n n i n g o feach note i n
the chant. O f t e n they a r eembellished w i t h N T s ,
but those notes a r e decorative, n o t structural.
Intervals used asdissonances i n c l u d e 3rds a n d 6ths
as w e l l a s 2 n d s a n d 7 t h s . O f t h e c o n s o n a n c e s , t h e
4 t h is u s e d least a n d m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e least
stable. P e r h a p s i t s later u s e as t h e least active
dissonance m a y n o t h a v e b e e n as drastic a s h i f t as
i t s e e m s a t first.
W h i l e m o t i v i c d e v e l o p m e n t is still a l o n g w a y o f f ,
e a c h m e l o d i c b i t is c a r e f u l l y s h a p e d , a n d o n e g r o w s
o u t o f t h e o t h e r i n a n a t u r a l w a y . T h e first t h r e e
melodic units a r esimilar, built o n t h e same four
notes centering a r o u n d D .T h e y a r e quite D o r i a n
i n flavor. T h e n e x t t h r e e p i c k u p t h e s k i p o f a 3 r d
w i t h w h i c h t h e first g r o u p e n d e d , s t r i v i n g u p w a r d
against t h e F u n t i l t h e c u l m i n a t i n g G is reached.
T h e n a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f m e l o d i c event is h e a r d .
T h e a-triad is u n f o l d e d m e l o d i c a l l y ; i t is inter-
r u p t e d b y t h e N , F , a n dr e t u r n s , leading into t h e
final p h r a s e . T h i s i s t h e l o n g e s t , a n d b r i n g s t o g e t h e r
aspects o f t h e e a r l i e r ones t o c o n c l u d e the section.
I n w h a t key is this music? T h e question implies
t h a t t h e r e is s u c h a t h i n g as a c e n t r a l t o n a l i t y i n t h e
excerpt as a w h o l e . B u t f r o m o u r point o f view
t h e r e is n o such t h i n g . E a c h s m a l l unit centers
a r o u n d o n e n o t e , b u t t h a t is as f a r as t o n a l o r g a n i -
zation goes. T h e r e is a m o t i o n f r o m D t o G i nt h e
first f o u r notes o f t h e chant, after w h i c h G is
e x t e n d e d . T h a t i s a l l . T h e final o f t h e c h a n t d o e s
not have t h eo r g a n i z i n g p o w e r o fa tonic i n later
m u s i c . E v e n a l o n g e r e x c e r p t , o r t h e e n t i r e piece,
w o u l d demnstrate t h a t t h e t o n a l u n i t y w h i c h g i v e s
c o h e r e n c e t o m u s i c o n a l a r g e scale h a s n o t y e t
evolved.
F r o m t h e point o fview o ftexture, the anony-
m o u s t w o - p a r t c o n d u c t u s , [58], i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t
f r o m t h e L e o n i n o r g a n u m . O r i g i n a l l y , conductus
was a style o f c o m p o s i t i o n used t o accompany
a c t i o n o r m o v e m e n t i n t h e c h u r c h service. T h u s i t
d i d n o t h a v e a l i t u r g i c a l t e x t , or d i d i t h a v e a
l i t u r g i c a l c h a n t t o s e r v e as i t s basis. C o n d u c t u s
w e r e m o n o p h o n i c ( o n e - v o i c e d ) a t first, t h e n c a r n e
to i n c l u d e c o m p o s i t i o n s i nt w o o r m o r e parts. I f
there ism o r e t h a n o n epart, they all m o v e i n note-
against-note fashion. A l o n g - s h o r t rhythm pre-
vails, t h e l o n g notes h e r e r e p r e s e n t e d byh a l f notes
a n d t h eshort ones b yquarter notes. T h i s implies
triple meter, t h eo n l y meter used u p t ot h e f o u r -
teenth century f o r t h e reason that i t symbolized
the H o l y T r i n i t y . O n c e w e a r e reasonably certain
o f t h e r h y t h m i c vales, w e c a n d i s c o v e r w h a t t h e
c o m p o s e r c o n s t r u e d as c o n s o n a n t a n d dissonant.
T h e stable s o u n d s a r e o n . t h e s t r o n g beats; n o t
surprisingly, these a r e u n i s o n s , 4ths, 5ths, a n d
o c t a v e s . T h e b a s i c c h o r d i s a n o c t a v e filled i n w i t h
a 4 t h o r a 5th, with n o 3rd. Between the main
s o n o r i t i e s t h e voices m o r e t h r o u g h such disso-
nances as 2nds a n d 7ths, 3rds a n d 6ths.
W h a t c a n w es a ya b o u t t h e t o n a l i t y o f this piece?
I n t h e first t w o l i n e s , t h e l o w e r v o i c e s r e l e n t l e s s l y
circle a r o u n d D , w h i l e t h e u p p e r voice moves back
a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n D a n d A . T h i s adds u pt o a
p r o l o n g a t i o n o f t h e basic s o u n d , D - A - D . T h e
subsequent part prolongs t h e 5 t hF - C , ultimately
r e t u r n i n g t o t h eo r i g i n a l t o n a l center. Connecting
links a r e f e w a n d short. T h e focus o nthe t w o 5ths,
w i t h D e m e r g i n g as t h ec o n t r o l l i n g note, brings a
r u d i m e n t a r y k i n d o f t o n a l u n i t y t o t h e e n t i r e piece.
Parallel, contrary, a n d oblique m o t i o n are used
indiscriminately. N o n e seems m o r e desirable t h a n
another, a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e o f v o i c e is n o t a p r i o r -
ity. A t t e n t i o n is focused, r a t h e r , o n t h e melodies
163
themselves, flowing w i t h i n a lose f r a m e w o r k
d e f i n e d b y t h ebasic consonances. P a r a l l e l 5ths,
octaves, a n d u n i s o n s a b o u n d . W em i g h t t h i n k o f
t h e m as the vestigial r e m n a n t s o f o r g a n u m .
T h e g r a n d s t y l e o f t h e P e r o t i n c o n d u c t u s , [59],
bespeaks a n advanced stage o f m u s i c a l develop-
ment. T h e successor t o L e o n i n a t N o t r e D a m e ,
P e r o t i n w a s k n o w n i n h i s t i m e a s optimus discantor,
w h i c h tells u s t h a t h e w a s c o n s i d e r e d t h e best
contrapuntist o fthe day. H i s conductus alternates
between syllabic settings a n dl o n g m e l i s m a s . T h e
e l e g a n t final m e l i s m a ( s e e p a g e 0 0 ) w a s k n o w n a s
t h e cauda, " t h e t a i l . " I t i s t e m p t i n g t o c o n c l u d e t h a t
the syllabic sections w e r e s u n g a n d t h e m e l i s m a t i c
sections p l a y e d , b u t t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t
s u c h a conclusin.
T h e o p e n i n g extensin o f a d - t r i a d s h o w s P e r o -
tin's m e t h o d i n a n u t s h e l l . A l l t h r e e l i n e s m o v e
s t e p w i s e i n s t r o n g a n d c l e a r c u r v e s . Optimus discan-
tor, i n d e e d . A l t h o u g h a l l t h e p a r t s a r e cise t o g e t h e r ,
voice crossing gives t h e m r o o m i n w h i c h t o m o v e .
T h e u p p e r v o i c e filis i n t h e 4 t h f r o m D t o A , a n d
reaches b e y o n d f o r t h e N , G , a n d itsN , F , circling
a r o u n d A ast h e center. T h e m i d d l e voice descends
f r o m A t o D , goes b e y o n d soast o s u r r o u n d the D ,
and comes t orest o n t h e D after passing t h r o u g h
it t w i c e . T h e bass e x t e n d s D w i t h w h a t w e n o w
think o f as a S P , t h eskip o f a 5 t h o p e n i n g u p t h e
space i n w h i c h t h e rest o f t h e l i n e w i l l w o r k . E a c h
l i n e i s b u i l t a r o u n d t h e 4 t h D A o r i t s inversin,
the 5 t h A D . T h e s a m e i n t e r v a l t h a t is set f o r t h as
the o p e n i n g a n d closing s i m u l t a n e i t y also guides
the d i r e c t i o n o f each line.
T h e large a n d r a t h e r c o m p l e x m o t e t [60]is b y
Guillaume d eMachaut, poet and composer o f the
l a t e M i d d l e A g e s . A t t h a t t i m e , a motet w a s u s u a l l y
a secular piece f o r voice(s) a n d i n s t r u m e n t ( s ) . E a c h
v o i c e h a s i t s o w n w o r d s ( F r e n c h : mot, " w o r d " ) .
A l t h o u g h t h e text deals w i t h c o u r t l y love, t h e t e n o r ,
h e r e t r a n s c r i b e d i n t h e bass r a n g e , is b a s e d o n
chant. M e d i e v a l m a n s i m p l y d i d n o t m a k e t h e
sharp distinction b e t w e e n sacred a n dsecular that
other times have taken f o rgranted. T h e barlines
a r e s u g g e s t e d b y m a r k i n g s in the original.
A s p e c i a l feature o f the m o t e t , c a r r i e d t o i t s
highest d e v e l o p m e n t i n w o r k s such as this, is that
o n e o r m o r e o f t h e v o i c e s i s isorhythmic. T h i s m e a n s
t h a t a fixed s e q u e n c e o f r h y t h m i c vales i s a p p l i e d
tO the notes o f the tenor part; other parts m a y a l s o
use s u c h r h y t h m r o w s . T h i s r h y t h m i c series i s
c a l l e d a talea. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e n o t e s o f the
t e n o r a r e i n a p i t c h s e r i e s , c a l l e d a color. T a l e a a n d
c o l o r f o r t h e Machaut motet in the Anthology, |60|,
are as f o l i o w s :
Talearhythm only
| |
/
a t\ * o *.. r. fj d t i n . I t is m o r e l i k e c h a m b e r m u s i c , m e a n t t o b e
Colorpitch only
Since there a r e m o r e "notes" i n t h e talea t h a n i n
the color, t h epitches will appear i ndifferent note
vales a s t h e y r e c u r d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e p i e c e .
L e n g t h s o ft h e t w o series a r es o calculated that
t h r e e r e n d i t i o n s o f t h e c o l o r t a k e t h e s a m e t i m e as
t w o o f t h e talea. A l t o g e t h e r , t h e talea is h e a r d f o u r
times, the color six.
T h e listener o fMachaut's day was not expected
to h e a r t h e talea a n d t h e c o l o r , j u s t as a listener
today is n o t expected t o follow t h e tone r o w i n a
serial composition. T h e purpose o f t h e i s o -
r h y t h m i c structure was t ogive the composer a way
o f o r g a n i z i n g h i smusic. T h e logic o f this k i n d o f
structure appealed particularly t oFrench compos-
ers, o f w h o m M a c h a u t was the m o s t r e n o w n e d .
Indeed, t h emelodies a r e highly organized, b u t
how d o they w o r k together? T h a t question is n o t
as d e c i s i v e a s i t w i l l b e l a t e r , f o r t h e e m p h a s i s i s
still o n t h e m e l o d i e s r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e s i m u l t a n e -
ities. T h e fact is t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e parts m o v e w i t h
a k i n d o f fluency t h a t w a s u n k n o w n a c e n t u r y
earlier, t h e c h o r d s t h e y p r o d u c e a r e m u c h a s t h e y
were. Octave a n d 5 t h a r e t h eprevailing conso-
nance; o n l y t h e 4 t h is l o s i n g g r o u n d . T h e t r i a d is
not entrusted with o p e n i n g o r closing a unit, b u t
d u r i n g t h ecourse o fa u n i t i t is h e a r d f r e q u e n t l y .
T h u s the 3 r d begins t o gain respectability.
T h e c h a n t f r a g m e n t o n w h i c h t h e m o t e t is b u i l t
centers a r o u n d F because o f t h e 5 t h , F - C , b u t also
centers a r o u n d C because o f t h e leading note B .
S h o r t sections o f t h e piece have their o w n tonality,
but there is n o overall tonal unity, a n d M a c h a u t
t h i n k s n o t h i n g o f e n d i n g t h epiece o n G . W h e n B
is p r o m i n e n t i n t h e t e n o r , F f m a y a p p e a r i n t h e
u p p e r v o i c e s ; w h e n F i s i n t h e t e n o r , Bl> m a y b e
heard above it. B o t h o f these cautious moves t o w a r d
chromaticism a r e brought about b y t h e avoidance
of the tritone.
T h e t w os i n g i n g voices (they m a y have been
replaced by instruments at times) m o v e rapidly i n
varied rhythms. While they seem t ob e cut from
t h e s a m e c l o t h , t h e r e is n o i m i t a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m ,
a n d t h e y r a r e l y cross. T h e t e n o r h a s n o t e x t a n d is
presumably instrumental. Again, t h etraditional
e l e m e n t is t h e chant, i nt h e tenor.
T h i s music was m e a n t f o r a s m a l l a u d i e n c e o f
knowledgeable aristocrats, a n d is m u c h l i g h t e r i n
t o n e than t h emassive w o r k s o f L e o n i n a n d P e r o -
h e a r d i n a castle, p e r h a p s i n a l a r g e r o o m , b u t s t i l l
i n m o r e intmate s u r r o u n d i n g s t h a n a c a t h e d r a l .
M a c h a u t ' s m o t e t t y p i f i e s t h e ars nova, i n w h i c h s u c h
r h y t h m i c novelties as d u p l e m e t e r a n d s y n c o p a t i o n
could bewritten d o w n , henee, composed, for t h e
first t i m e .
I f the French composers o f t h e M i d d l e Ages
c o n c e n t r a t e d o n e r e c t i n g elabrate m u s i c a l s t r u c -
tures, the Italians, f r o m t h e i r e n t r y o n t o t h e scene
in thefourteenth century, were captivated b y t h e
delights o fmelody. T h e exquisite ballata o f L a h -
d i n i , [6~T], s h o w s s o m e o f t h e s a m e f e a t u r e s a s t h e
Machaut, b u t m a n y stylistic differences, too. T h e
ballata, like M a c h a u t ' s piece, is c h a m b e r m u s i c , a
d u e t with i n s t r u m e n t a l a c c o m p a n i m e n t . T h e basic
s o n o r i t y o f 5 t h a n d octave is t h e s a m e , t o o . B u t t h e
entire feeling o f the m u s i c is q u i t e u n l i k e M a c h a u t ' s
courtly motet. A l lthree lines a r ecaught u pi n t h e
l y r i c flow, a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t i s n o d i f f e r e n t
f r o m t h e voice parts. T h e s y m m e t r i c a l l a y o u t o f
t h e p i e c e is r e a d i l y p e r c e i v e d b e c a u s e b o t h s e c t i o n s
e n d with the same m u s i c , t h e rise t o the h i g h p o i n t
(E) followed by the d e s c e n t past t h e t o n i c ( A ) , t h e n
a return to the concluding tonic. T h e elegantly
shaped upper line h a s t h em e l o d y t h r o u g h o u t . I t s
first p h r a s e c i r c l e s a r o u n d 1 , t h e s e c o n d p r l o n g s 5 .
T h e next two w o r k their w a y d o w n t h r o u g h t h e
octave t o t h e l o w e r 5 , after w h i c h t h e rise t o t h e
p e a k is p a r t i c u l a r l y e x p r e s s i v e . T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f
t h e m e l o d y has a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t s h a p e , g o i n g
a s h i g h a s F j t . B u t i t g r o w s t o r e s e m b l e t h e first
s e c t i o n as i t p r o g r e s s e s , a n d t a k e s u p t h e s a m e
concluding phrases t o balance t h e piece i na l o v e l y
way. T h e i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t weaves i n a n d o u t o f
t h e voice parts a n d is h e a r d b e t w e e n t h e m as o f t e n
as b e n e a t h t h e m . T h e e m p h a s i s i s s t i l l o n t h e l i n e s ,
t h e simultaneities b e i n g w o r k e d o u t i n a w a y that
r e l i e s o n t h e basic c o n s o n a n c e o f a 5 t h . C o n t r o l o f
t h e c h o r d a l dimensin h a s p r o g r e s s e d s o m e w h a t ,
b u t is s t i l l n o t as d e v e l o p e d a s c o n t r o l o f t h e l i n e a r
dimensin.
T h e m o d e is D o r i a n , h e r e t r a n s p o s e d t o A . A t
t h e e n d o f each s e c t i o n a l e a d i n g n o t e is h e a r d ,
helping the punctuation. T h eparticular melodic
t u r n at t h e cadenee, i n w h i c h 7 steps d o w n t o 6
b e f o r e a r r i v i n g a t 8 , i s o f t e n c a l l e d t h e Landini
cadenee, a l t h o u g h i t w a s i n u s e b e f o r e L a n d i n i w a s
born.
H o w did the t r i a d b e c o m e t h en o r m a t i v e sonor-
ity o f tonal music? A s t h e r e s u l t o f a l o n g , slow
process, n o d o u b t , w h i c h w a s i m p r o v i s e d m o r e
often than i twas w r i t t e n d o w n . F r o m t h e English
practice o f a d d i n g t o a m e l o d y a second part i n
3rds a n d 6ths carne the succession o f w h a t w e n o w
cali f - p o s i t i o n triads. T h e h a r s h s o u n d o f t h e 5th
gave way i nt i m e t o t h em o r e euphonious imper-
fect consonances; i n t h r e e - p a r t music, triads
resulted. T h e style i n w h i c h parallel | chords pre-
d o m n a t e i s c a l l e d fauxbourdon ( i n F r e n c h ) . T h e
D u f a y e x c e r p t , [62], i s w r i t t e n l a r g e l y i n f a u x b o u r -
don. Suddenly t h emusic sounds " m o d e r n , " much
m o r e like t h e music w e a r e accustomed to. T o be
sure, s o u n d s w i t h i n 3rds a r e still present, b u t they
are o u t n u m b e r e d b y the triads.
T h e first n o t e m a y b e t a k e n a s a n u p b e a t , f o l -
l o w e d b ya barline. T h e music will t h e n fall into \
W h y Study Counterpoint?
For centuries music students have been trained
in the techniques o f c o u n t e r p o i n t . I n a society that
d e e p l y r e s p e c t e d t r a d i t i o n , t h a t fact a l o n e w o u l d
have carried great weight i n persuading music
t e a c h e r s t o continu t e a c h i n g t h e s u b j e c t . B u t i n
t o d a y ' s w o r l d , m e r e forc o f h a b i t i s h a r d l y a
compelling reason for maintaining a n educational
practice.
Any intelligent answer must begin by dehning
the term. B u twriters o n music are notoriously
careless about t e r m i n o l o g y . W e hear about six-
teenth-century counterpoint, about Bach counter-
point, about harmonic counterpoint, about modal
and tonal counterpoint. W e hear about counter-
p o i n t as a d i s c i p l i n e o r as a m e a n s o f e x p r e s s i o n ,
as t r a i n i n g f o r c o m p o s e r s o r a s i r r e l e v a n t f o r c o m -
posers b u t essential f o r theorists. I sthere a defini-
tion that will guide us?
I n t h e m i d d l e o fthe sixteenth century a distin-
guished Italian musician, Gioseffe Zarlino, wrote a
t r e a t i s e o n m u s i c , Istituzioni armoniche ( V e n i c e , 1 5 5 8 ) ,
considered a milestone i n t h e development o f
musical t h o u g h t . T h et h i r d section o f t h e book,
" C o u n t e r p o i n t , " offers m a n y insights into t h e
m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . Z a r l i n o finds t h e
o r i g i n o f t h e w o r d i n t h e L a t i n punctus contra punc-
tum, " a n o t e a g a i n s t a n o t e . " M o r e g e n e r a l l y , h e
m e a n s line against line. Y e t that definition is n o t
c o m p l e t e e n o u g h t o cover e v e n t h eexercises i n
Zarlino's b o o k , f o r n o w h e r e does line m o v e against
line w i t h o u t regard f o r t h esounds that a r e heard
165
and 4 , m o v i n g back a n df o r t h between t h e two.
The rhythmic vocabulary noW includes both eighth
notes a n d triplets. W e m a y also observe that each
voice has its o w n r a n g e , a n d t h a t t h e r e is l i t t l e v o i c e
crossing.
T h i s b r i e f survey leaves o f f s o m e w h e r e near the
point at w h i c h Renaissance music began. Its pur-
pose h a s been t o p r o v i d e a f r a m e w o r k f o r d e e p e r
study o f t h e m u s i c a n dits h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . A l s o ,
t h i s o v e r v i e w m a y s e r v e t o crate a p e r s p e c t i v e i n
which t oseelater music. I tis i m p o r t a n t t o realize
that r e m o t e as this m u s i c is i n t i m e , i t still h a s a
great deal t o o f f e r today's m u s i c i a n a n d today's
listener as w e l l .
simultaneously. O nt h e contrary, Zarlino himself
gives t h e m o s t c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m a t t e r o f
consonance a n d dissonance, b y w h i c h the relation-
ship b e t w e e n lines is g o v e r n e d . A d e f i n i t i o no f
counterpoint, t h e n , m u s t i n c l u d e b o t h t h e l i n e a r
aspect a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e s i m u l t a n e i t i e s . I t is t h e
art o f c o m b i n i n g lines i nr e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r .
Composers a n d theorists after Zarlino built o n
the f o u n d a t i o n s h e h a dlaid. N o t e v e r y o n e agreed
with all o fhis theories, b u t his approach t o coun-
terpoint was widely studied a n d emulated. M e a n -
while, the language o f music was changing radically.
O n l y fifty y e a r s a f t e r t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f Z a r l i n o ' s
book, M o n t e v e r d i was t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e o l d e r style,
the "first practice," as against t h e n e wstyle, t h e
"second practice." B e f o r e l o n g , t h e i n v e n t i o n( o r
rediscovery) o f m o n o d y a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
figured bass, t h e c o n c e r t e d s t y l e , o p e r a , a n d t h e
many innovations o fthe Baroque h a d made t h e
music o fZarlino's t i m e seem very old-fashioned.
Yet c o u n t e r p o i n t w a s t a u g h t as i f n o t h i n g h a d
changed since t h e d e a t h o f Palestrina i n 1 5 9 4 . I n
r e t r o s p e c t , t h e r e a s o n i s n o t h a r d t o find. A l t h o u g h
the style o f secular a n d s o m e sacred m u s i c h a d
indeed changed considerably, music i nt h e Catho-
lic C h u r c h r e m a i n e d b o u n d t o t h e g r e a t t r a d i t i o n s
of the Renaissance a n d t h eC o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n .
Even composers w h o wrote for the Protestant wor-
ship felt o b l i g e d t o s t u d y t h e " l e a r n e d style." C o m -
posers w h o w e r e b u s y w r i t i n g o p e r a s a n d concertos
s t i l l f e l t t h e n e e d f o r t r a i n i n g i n t h e od m a n n e r o f
writing, a n d w h a t w a scalled counterpoint pro-
vided that training.
T h e classic f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e s a w t h e
light o f d a y i n 1725, w h e n J o h a n n Joseph F u x
p u b l i s h e d h i s Gradus ad Parnassum. A s k i l l f u l c o m -
poser himself, F u x organized the problems o f com-
b i n i n g lines i n a systematic way, isolating the various
techniques the better to master t h e m . Breaking the
subject d o w n i n t o m a n a g e a b l e pieces h a d been
a t t e m p t e d before, b u t F u x d i d it better. H e p u t his
exercises into a logical sequence, starting w i t h the
simplest a n d m o v i n g systematically t o t h e m o r e
c o m p l e x . A s a result, c o u n t e r p o i n t is everlastingly
associated w i t h h i s ame. I d e n t i f y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p b e t w e e n c o n s o n a n c e a n d d i s s o n a n c e as t h e
critical e l e m e n t i n t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f lines a n d
realizing that r h y t h m was closely b o u n d u p w i t h
dissonant usages, F u x d e h n e d h v e types o r species
o f c o u n t e r p o i n t exercises. T h e y are:
first s p e c i e s : n o t e - a g a i n s t - n o t e c o n s o n a n c e ;
second species: t w o notes against o n e , u s i n g Ps;
t h i r d s p e c i e s : f o u r n o t e s a g a i n s t o n e , u s i n g Ps a n d N s ;
f o u r t h species: S U S s ;
fifth s p e c i e s : florid c o u n t e r p o i n t , u s i n g a l l r h y t h m s a n d
all dissonant usages.
I n each exercise F u x h a s t h e student write a
m e l o d y o r melodies against a given melody, t h e
cantus firmus. T h e u s e o f a g i v e n m e l o d y , i n i t s e l f ,
was hardly new. A s a compositional procedure, i t
dates back t o t h e beginnings o f W e s t e r n poly-
p h o n y . Z a r l i n o w a so n l y o n e o f m a n y w h o h a d
prescribed such a n exercise, u s i n g c h a n t ast h e
given melody. B u t chant, n omatter h o w beautiful,
c a n p o s e m a n y p r o b l e m s t h a t c o n f o u n d t h e issues.
Fux's instinct for proceeding f r o m t h esimple t o
the c o m p l e x led h i m t ow r i t e short, clear melodies
that a r e m o r e appropriate f o rpedagogical pur-
poses t h a n chant, a l t h o u g h they can b e criticized
o n b o t h stylistic a n d s t r u c t u r a l g r o u n d s .
B y setting u p specific exercises t h a t o r g a n i z e d
the study o f b o t h pitch a n d r h y t h m , F u x was able
t o w r i t e a t r e a t i s e o f e n o r m o u s valu t o s t u d e n t s o f
the art. B r i n g i n g together teaching methods o f
p r o v e n usefulness, h e presented them i n a
m e t h o d i c a l w a y . H i s Gradus i s a s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n
b o o k ; w r i t t e n , like m a n y s u c h b o o k s i n t h e past, i n
the f o r m o fa dialogue between teacher and stu-
dent, it isstill v e r y m u c h w o r t h r e a d i n g today.
For F u x , o f course, t h e entire m e t h o d w a sa
means t oa somewhat limited end. A l lh e intended
to d owas to s h o w a systematic way o f learning h o w
to write like Palestrina. O n e wonders h o w m u c h o f
Palestrina's music F u x actually knew. T h e music o f
the Renaissance was largely u n k n o w n until i t was
rediscovered i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h century, a n d
whatever such music F u x heard, h eheard through
ears that w e r e a t t u n e d t o the late B a r o q u e a n d the
e m e r g i n g style galant.
I t is o n l y a h u n d r e d years since t h e rise o f t h e
discipline o f m u s i c o l o g y , w h i c h has l e d t o t h e dis-
covery o fso m a n y b u r i e d treasures. Fresh publi-
cations o f older music a n d m u c h valuable research
have m a d e it possible to study that music i n a m o r e
sympathetic way, which means that musicians have
begun t o m a k e a serious effort to hear older music
i n i t s o w n t e r m s r a t h e r t h a n as s o m e t h i n g t h a t
could b e dismissed as a "precursor." I nthe t w e n -
tieth century t h eD a n i s h scholar K n u d Jeppesen
defined the language a n d practice o f Palestrina i n
d e t a i l i n h i s m o n u m e n t a l b o o k The Style of Pales-
trina and the Dissonance ( 1 9 2 7 ) . J e p p e s e n w a s a b l e
to point out just h o w far F u x had been mistaken
o n m a n y stylistic matters, a n d t o s h o w that t h e
image o f Palestrina's style that h a d been projected
by Fux's 1725 b o o k was w i d e o f the m a r k . Subse-
quently Jeppesen wrote a counterpoint book which
did, i n a scholarly and thoughtful way, just what
F u x had thought h ewas doing.
T h e remarkable thing, f r o m o u r point o f view,
is t h a t F u x a c t u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d s o m e t h i n g q u i t e
different f r o m what h e intended. I n m a n y ways it
was something far m o r e important. F o r i n defining
the species o f c o u n t e r p o i n t , i n p i n p o i n t i n g t h e
interrelationships o fconsonance a n d dissonance,
i n m a k i n g specific t h e w a y s i n w h i c h r h y t h m inter-
acts w i t h p i t c h s t r u c t u r e s , F u x a r t i c u l a t e d m a n y o f
the basic factors t h a t m a k e t o n a l m u s i c w o r k . T h e
reasons that H a y d n , Mozart, Beethoven, C h o p i n ,
Brahms, and m a n y others fopnd F u x so valuable
had n o t h i n g t o d o with Palestrina, but had every-
thing t o d o with their o w n music. I n trying t o
explain h o w t owrite like Palestrina, F u x managed
to explain instead some o fthe f u n d a m e n t a l pro-
cesses o f m u s i c a l m o t i o n . T h e r e i n lies h i s i m p o r -
tance f o r u s . I n o n e w a y F u x m a y be likened t o
Columbus, w h o sought India and found the N e w
World.
M o s t o f w h a t F u x f o r m u l a t e d applies n o t o n l y t o
the music o f one composer t o one period, but to
all tonal music. T h e processes exemplified b y the
species can b e seen a t w o r k n o t m e r e l y i n t h e m u s i c
o f the sixteenth century, but i n t h e music o f the
fifteenth c e n t u r y as well, a n d the seventeenth, a n d
Fux's o w n eighteenth, a n d u p t o a n d including
t o n a l m u s i c w r i t t e n t o d a y . W h a t , t h e n , is s i x t e e n t h -
century counterpoint? I tseems t o m e a n the e m u -
lation o f the personal style characteristics o f one
composer. B u t unless w e a r e t o study each great
c o m p o s e r separately, it is essential that w e d e f i n e a
c o u n t e r p o i n t f o r a l l c e n t u r i e s . T h a t w i l l demn-
strate w h a t all composers have i n c o m m o n w h i c h
is t o s a y t h a t i t w i l l d e f i n e t h e n o r m s o f t o n a l m u s i c .
W i t h o u t a clear codihcation o fw h a t has been the
n o r m a t i v e p r o c e d u r e , t h e s t u d y o f m u s i c gets
bogged d o w n i n a q u a g m i r e o f details, d e v o i d of
u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e p t u a l basis. W i t h t h e a i d o f such
a f o r m u l a t i o n , h o w e v e r , i t b e c o m e s possible to
a p p r o a c h a n y n e w piece o f m u s i c i n a systematic
w a y ; w i t h specific tools a n d skills, o n e c a n both
u n d e r s t a n d w h a t gives t h e piece coherence and
u n i t y a n d relate i t t o o t h e r pieces.
T h e t h e o r i s t w h o first s a w t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
a p p l y i n g F u x ' s ideas o n a b r o a d e r scale w a s the
V i e n n e s e H e i n r i c h S c h e n k e r ( 1 8 6 8 1 9 3 5 ) . A prac-
tical m u s i c i a n as w e l l as a h i g h l y o r i g i n a l t h i n k e r ,
S c h e n k e r a s s i m i l a t e d t h e s p e c i e s c o n c e p t i n t o his
o w n comprehensive theory about t h estructure of
t o n a l m u s i c . A s y o u h a v e o b s e r v e d i n o n e piece
a f t e r a n o t h e r , b e n e a t h e v e n t h e m o s t elabrate
musical surface t h e listener m a y project a frame-
w o r k , t h e t o n a l structure, w h i c h c a nbe expressed
as n o t e - a g a i n s t - n o t e c o n s o n a n c e o r s o m e t h i n g cise
t o i t . T h e s t r u c t u r a l f r a m e w o r k i s r e v e a l e d by
m a k i n g a synopsis o fthe pitches, e m p h a s i z i n g the
i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e bass a n d s o p r a n o (because the
music does), a n d using t h e process o f reduction,
o n e o f S c h e n k e r ' s m a n y c o n t r i b u t i o n s . T h a t reduc-
tive p r o c e d u r e resembles n o t h i n g s o m u c h as the
species, b u t i n r e v e r s e o r d e r . T h e c o m p o s e r syn-
thesizes w h i l e t h e theorist analyzes. S c h e n k e r applied
t h e c o n c e p t o f s t r u c t u r a l levis t o m u s i c , a n d also
d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w each level was elaboratedpro-
l o n g e d , as h e called i t i n t o t h e n e x t . Schenker's
w o r k h a s b e e n c a r r i e d o n b y Flix S a l z e r , a m o n g
others, w h o has successfully applied the concept of
d i r e c t e d m o t i o n t o m u s i c o f b o t h e a r l i e r a n d later
e p o c h s t h a n S c h e n k e r . S a l z e r ' s Structural Hearing
( 1 9 5 2 ) i s a n e x c e l l e n t e x p o s i t i o n o f S c h e n k e r ' s ideas
Music and the Rules
A s a s t u d e n t y o u m a y h a v e b e e n t o l d , " Y o u have
to k n o w t h e rules before y o u c a n break them."
W h a t d o e s this m e a n ? W h a t is a r u l e i n music?
H o w c a n y o u b r e a k i t i f it is a r u l e ? D o composers
follow rules in writing music?
E v e r y m u s i c l i b r a r y i s filled w i t h b o o k s c o n t a i n -
i n g g r e a t n u m b e r s o f d o s a n d d o n ' t s m o s t l y (it
m u s t seem to a student) the latter. O n w h a t author-
ity c a n such directives be issued? T h e fact that a
in English.
C o u n t e r p o i n t , t h e n , is t h e a r t o f c o m b i n i n g lines
i n r e l a t i o n t o o n e a n o t h e r . T h i s r e l a t i o n is m a n -
aged b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o fconsonance a n d disso-
n a n c e . T h e l i n e s genrate i n t e r v a l s t h a t a r e h e a r d
simultaneously. T h e s e intervals m a k e u p the chords
that a r e o n e aspect o f t h e vocabulary o f tonal
music. M o s t c h o r d s i n a piece a r e c o n t r a p u n t a l
c h o r d s , w h e t h e r t h e p i e c e i s a chrale o r a f u g u e .
T h e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a chrale a n d a
f u g u e is i n t h e u s e o f m u s i c a l s p a c e w h i c h i s t o
say t e x t u r e . B u t t o c a l i o n e " h o m o p h o n i c " a n d t h e
o t h e r " c o n t r a p u n t a l " is t o miss t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e y
are b o t h the p r o d u c t o f lines m o v i n g t h r o u g h t i m e .
O u r definition o f counterpoint, taking a broad
view, i n c l u d e s m o s t o f w h a t is t a u g h t i n c o u r s e s
called " H a r m o n y . " W e m a i n t a i n that t o m a k e sense,
a pedagogical approach s h o u l d start w i t h musical
motion, not w i t h isolated m o m e n t s frozen f o r pur-
poses o f l a b e l i n g .
F o r music exists i n t i m e . L i n e s , melodies, r h y t h m s ,
even chord progressions m o v e i n t h e temporal
dimensin, n o t o n p a p e r . A s y s t e m a t i c a n d m u s i -
cally v a l i d m e t h o d o f s t u d y i n g t h e w a y m u s i c m o v e s
t h r o u g h t i m e is precisely w h a t w e h a v e called c o u n -
t e r p o i n t . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n h e r e is b r o a d e r i n scope
t h a n t r a d i t i o n a l c o u n t e r p o i n t , e v e n t h o u g h i t is
firmly rooted i nthat tradition. T h a t counterpoint
m u s t b e d r y a n d m e a n i n g l e s s is n o t a n i n e v i t a b i l i t y ;
it is s i m p l y a b a d h a b i t . I f c o u n t e r p o i n t is u s e d t o
study musical m o t i o n , both broad a n d detailed, it
b e c o m e s a t w o - e d g e d t o o l . F o r i t is b o t h a k e y
e l e m e n t i n t h e analysis o fm u s i c a n dalso t h e basis
for a c q u i r i n g t h e skills o f t o n a l c o m p o s i t i o n . A s
such, it is essential t o e v e r y p e r s o n w h o is s e r i o u s l y
interested i n studying the art o f music.
w e l l - k n o w n w r i t e r o r musician h a s stated a r u l e
does n o tguarantee t h e validity o f t h e statement.
W e m a i n t a i n that t h e o n l y a u t h o r i t y is t h e m u s i c
itself. W e l e a r n b y o b s e r v i n g w h a t h a p p e n s i n
pieces, t h e n b y g e n e r a l i z i n g a b o u t t h e m . W e h o p e
our generalizations a r einclusive e n o u g h a n d con-
sistent e n o u g h s o t h a t w e d o n o t h a v e t o s t u d y
every piece o f m u s i c e v e r w r i t t e n b e f o r e w e c a n
extraplate t h e n o r m s o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e .
For composers do not follow rules; the rules are
abstractions o f w h a t composers have already writ-
ten.
A l t h o u g h these observations a b o u t h o w pieces
w o r k are called rules, t h e y are actually closer to
instructions o f a " h o w to do it" nature. T h e t e r m
theory i s o f t e n a p p l i e d t o t h i s s t u d y ; i t c o n s i s t s , i n
fact, o f a m i x t u r e o f a little t h e o r y a n d a l o t o f
p r a c t i c e . M u c h o f t h e t i m e i t is a p r a c t i c a l i n v e s t i -
gation o f h o w sounds are organized into a coher-
ent, artistic w h o l e .
Rules fall i n t o t w o categories. O n e category
involves t h e basic o p e r a t i o n s t h a t m a k e a piece o f
tonal music intelligible, that govern the relation to
t h e tonic, t h a t s h a p e phrases, sections, pieces. T h e s e
are e m b o d i e d i n archetypes, w h i c h lie beneath the
surface o f e v e r y piece. T h e o t h e r category consists
o f rules t h a t g r o w o u t o f aesthetic choices. T h e s e
choices express n o r m s o f m e l o d i c shape, the rela-
tion o f dissonance and consonance, independence
o f voices, Since t h e n o r m s o f v a r i o u s styles m a y
differ o n some o f these points, these rules m a y
prove to be m o r e relative t h a n absolute. I n tenth-
c e n t u r y m u s i c t h e 3 r d is a d i s s o n a n c e ; n o t t o o
m u c h l a t e r , i t is a c o n s o n a n c e . T h e t w o l o w e r
v o i c e s i n a B a c h chrale w i l l n o t m o v e i n p a r a l l e l
octaves, b u t i n a H a y d n s t r i n g quartet they m a y
v e r y well d o j u s t that. I f y o u w a n t y o u r piece to
sound like Lasso or Bach, y o u should avoid parallel
5ths, but i f y o u w a n t y o u r music to sound like
Debussy or H i n d e m i t h , parallel 5ths are a means
to that end.
I f generalizations about a piece o f music are
accurate, w h a t sense does it m a k e to break the
rules? N o n e . T h e p r o b l e m stems f r o m the f o r m u -
lation o f rules that have little to d o w i t h real music
a n d that, at best, r e p r e s e n t a n a t t e m p t to k e e p
beginning students f r o m getting involved too soon
168
w i t h p r o b l e m s t h a t a r e b e y o n d t h e m . T h i s is p a r t
o f the reason f o r the artifical distinction between
h a r m o n y and counterpoint. W h a t we are attempt-
i n g h e r e is t o face t h e p r o b l e m s q u a r e l y b y s e t t i n g
f o r t h t h e basic p r i n c i p i e s o f t o n a l c o h e r e n c e f r o m
the b e g i n n i n g , m a k i n g n o "rules" that have to be
b r o k e n later o n . O n e o f the fascinating aspects o f
t o n a l i t y is t h a t t h e s a m e p r i n c i p i e s w o r k i n t h e
small detail and i n the large view, i n simple music
and i n the most complex. I f the rules embody
t h e s e p r i n c i p i e s , t h e r e is n o w a y t o b r e a k t h e m .
T h e s t a t e m e n t " t h e e x c e p t i o n p r o v e s t h e r u l e " is
nonsense. T h e exception disproves the rule.
C o m p o s e r s d o n o t f o l l o w r u l e s . or d o c o m p o s -
ers rely o n sheer i n s p i r a t i o n . T h e i r m i n d s are filled
with ways o f putting notes together, the n o r m s o f
c o m p o s i t i o n i n t h e i r day. T h e y use those n o r m s i n
the same way that w e utilize the n o r m s o f today i n
speaking and writing words. W e think o f what we
w a n t t o say a n d w e say i t ; t h e r e s u l t i n g s e n t e n c e
has a subject, a n object, a v e r b , at t h e least. C o m -
posers also use their g r a m m a t i c a l n o r m s to convey
their thoughts.
Finally, the fact that m a n y rules d e r i v e f r o m
aesthetic choice makes us realize that different
m u s i c s m a y h a v e d i f f e r e n t sets o f r u l e s . W e a r e
studying the music o f Western E u r o p e and A m e r -
i c a s i n c e t h e M i d d l e A g e s . N o less o r g a n i z e d is t h e
music o f other cultures, w h i c h we are just begin-
ning to study i n the rapidly g r o w i n g discipline o f
e t h n o m u s i c o l o g y . A n y o n e w h o has e x a m i n e d the
a r t m u s i c o f I n d i a k n o w s t h a t i t is h i g h l y c o d i f i e d .
T h e patterns o f Javanese gamelan music are pre-
cisely a r r a n g e d . T h e intricacies o f A f r i c a n d r u m
music bespeak an extraordinary degree o f organi-
z a t i o n . E a c h has its o w n rules, w h i c h d e f i n e t h e
style a n d m a k e it possible to h a n d d o w n a living
tradition f r o m one generation to another.
I

MUSICIANSHIP
AT T H E
KEYBOARD

)
PART ONE 3. V a r y t h e p o s i t i o n o f the notes i n t h e triads:
a. s o p r a n o m a y s t a r t w i t h r o o t , t h i r d , o r fifth; a l t o
1. P l a y a l l m a j o r a n d m i n o r scales i n t w o o c t a v e s . and tenor adjust accordingly;
2. F i n d a n y i n t e r v a l o n t h e k e y b o a r d q u i c k l y a n d a c c u - b . bass s t a r t s w i t h t o n i c i n e i t h e r h i g h e r o r l o w e r
rately. octave.
3 . P l a y o n t h e w h i t e k e y s t h e scale o f t h e D o r i a n , M i x o - 4. P l a y i n v a r i o u s m e t e r s , u s i n g r e p e a t e d c h o r d s t o
lydian, a n dPhrygian modes. crate a r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n .
4. T r a n s p o s e t h o s e t h r e e m o d e s u p a p e r f e c t 4 t h o r 5 . Altrnate h a n d s : " o o m - p a h " i n d u p l e m e t e r , " o o m -
d o w n a perfect 5th. pah-pah" in triple meter.
6. U s e a r p e g g i a t i o n i n o n e h a n d .
7 . A d d Ps, N s , a n d S U S s .
PARTS TWO, T H R E E , AND F O U R S i x p r o -
gressions a r e listed below. these a r e t ob e practiced
PROGRESSIONS
in a n u m b e r o f different ways. T h e purposes o f
this w o r k are: 1. I - V - I ( m a j o r ) ; I - V - I ( m i n o r )
2. I - I V - I
to l e a r n t h e b a s i c c h o r d v o c a b u l a r y o f d i a t o n i c m u s i c ; 3. I - I V - V - I
to practice h e a r i n g lines a n d c h o r d s a t t h e s a m e t i m e ; 4. I-H -V-I6

t o g a i n fluency i n finding t h e n o t e s o f f r e q u e n t l y u s e d 5. I - V I - I V ( I I ) - V - I 6

chord patterns; i 6. I - I V - I I - V - I ( m a j o r o n l y )
to l a y t h e foundaon f o r i m p r o v i s a t i o n .
Illustrations o fsome o ft h e ways i nw h i c h these
HoW t o practice: exercises m a y b e realized a r e g i v e n below. T h e s e
1. M e m o r i z e a p r o g r e s s i o n i n b l o c k c h o r d s i n a n y k e y . are n o t models t o be followed mechanically, b u t
2. T r a n s p o s e t o a l l m a j o r a n d m i n o r k e y s . R e m e m b e r suggestions t o s h o w a f e w o f the possibilities. M e m -
t h a t i n t h e m i n o r m o d e t h e l e a d i n g n o t e is u s e d i n o r i z i n g t h e s e i l l u s t r a t i o n s i s o f n o valu. R a t h e r u s e
V. t h e m tolearn h o w t othink atthe piano.

Progression 1.
Block chords
Soprano has root Soprano hasthird Soprano has fifth O t h e r ways

I
-e-
8 1
i
o

Progression 4.
Using repeated chords
Another way

4+ m <
~ft
- 9
I

5-
1M 3
i
1
" *
1
J
i
1
1
1 4*
F r f r
4
*-

m m i
n -&i i 9
hsI ^ _ ^=F= -s

fe -*

Progression 5.
Alternating hands i

170
P 3
Progression 6.
Arpeggiation

PARTS F I V E AND SIX

1. Play and memorize these pieces: Mozart, page 133
Mozart, page 157
Fischer, P r e l u d e i n C ,|26A|, a n d Prelude i n E, |26B|
Beethoven, page 147
M a t t h e s o n , S a r a b a n d e , [27] Gluck, page 147
R a m e a u , Gavotte, |28| Handel, page 155
On a m o r e a d v a n c e d level: 2. Play these progressions i n a l lkeys. T h e pre-
vious pages include suggestions f o r various ways
C o u p e r i n , La Lgubre, [ 2 5 ]
H a n d e l , C o u r a n t e , |35j of elaborating the chords. V m a y b e V .
Bach, A l l e m a n d e , |30|
a. C i r c l e o f 5 t h s ( s e e p a g e 3 2 0 )
2. Realize the continuo part i n the following: I _ I V - V I I - I I I - V I - I I - V - I (in minor, not I Ibut I I 6 )
b. lOths a n d 1 2 t h s
H a n d e l , T h r e e E n g l i s h R e c i t a t i v e s , [37] I - V - V I - I I I - I V - I plus cadenee
T e l e m a n n , Odes, | 2 9 |
I _ H 2 _ V f - I - Ilf-Vg-I
C o r e l l i , S o n a t a m o v e m e n t , |22|
I - V I - I V - I I - V (elaborated)-I (major mode)
precede V I , I V , and I I with their dominants
PART SEVEN I - V I I - I I I - I I 6 - V (elaborated)-I

1. Play f r o m m e m o r y t h efollowing examples i n Any minor-mode exercise m a y e n d w i t h a Picardy

the text: 3rd.

Illustrations o felaborated progressions:

(a) SUS

tfj4 i i4 m .0
0

(b) SUS and repeated notes

171
(c) Arpeggiation

A >,2
> 7
^ v ' ti = ^ */ * J y g
v
9
m v\>% 7 * 7 J *7 -4*- 1

0 0
\~ r i 9
j _

172
 INTRODUCTORY
EXERCISES
FOR SIGHT SINGING
 fe
174
3. M i n o r S c a l e s a n d M a j o r

8.
5 . N ( J. J>)

11.
6. D N ( J . J> f)

179
180
 8. S k i p s t o I N ( J ~ 7 J )
i.
182
10. Skips i n the I V C h o r d (J~j^)
 7
11. Skips i n the V Chord (Upbeats)
13. O c t a v e D i s p l a c e m e n t

186
14. P o l y p h o n i c M e l o d y

187
15. I n t e r v a l S t u d i e s

i
188
i

STUDIES IN MELODY
IMPROVISATION

)
1. B a s e y o u r m e l o d y o n a scale, a s c e n d i n g a n d
descending:

Choose a tempo.
Choose a meter.
B e a t t i m e as y o u s i n g .
T a k e t h e u p p e r t o n i c o r a n o t e n e a r it as y o u r i n t e r m e -
date g o a l .
N o t e s o f t h e scale m a y b e r e p e a t e d i n y o u r m e l o d y .
N s m a y b e u s e d t o elabrate scale n o t e s .
T h e octave m a y be exceeded b y o n e note i n either
direction.

Illustrations

i(- ^ # P p _
1-L- = J = J
J J -

(b)
0 i m = _ _ a 0
m. _
JJ =+^=
2

2. Base y o u r m e l o d y o n t h e progression IIV

V-I:
Choose a tempo.
Choose a meter.
B e a t t i m e as y o u s i n g .
U s e o n e c h o r d t o a m e a s u r e a t first.
W h e n y o u have had some experience i n this study, t h e
chord outlines may becarried over the barline.
P s m a y b e u s e d t o fill i n t h e c h o r d o u t l i n e .

Illustrations

(a)
-gt 1 ^
H'UF
3 ^"""""l

'-m \
- f l

(b) , . i t / ^ ^ b

190
3. B a s e y o u r m e l o d y o n a p a t t e r n o f s t r u c t u r a l
notes o n w h i c h y o u i m p r o v i s e p r o l o n g i n g notes:

Choose a tempo.
Choose a meter.
B e a t t i m e as y o u s i n g .
Sing the structural notes, one t oa measure.
Sing a m e l o d y built o n t h e structural notes.
U s e o n e o r t w o m a i n n o t e s t o t h e m e a s u r e a t first.
W i t h m o r e e x p e r i e n c e , t h e s t r u c t u r a l notes m a y be used
m o r e freely.

Patterns:

a. 1 - 2 - 3 - 2 - 1
b. 3 - 2 - 1
c. 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1
d. 3 - 4 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1

Illustrations

(a) 1 2 2 1
-1
J * JLJ_^J
i J

(b) ^ 3 2.
T T T : ii
-0
*'>l?fc}
,ft d' y-
Wf=ft=
9
0 0
- f f r
- pM --

More advanced: U s i n g a n y o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f w i t h 2 , 3 , o r 5 as t h e g o a l ; i n t e m p o , a n o t h e r
Studies 1 - 3 , o n e s t u d e n t sings a n antecedent phrase, student sings a c o n s e q u e n t p h r a s e e n d i n g o n 1 .

191
MUSIC ANTHOLOGY
195
 2
Innsbruck, I Now Must Leave Thee
(Innsbruck, Ich muss dich lassen) H e i n r i c h I s a a c (c. 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 1 7 )

Inns - bruck, I now must leave thee, This part - ing sad

This part - ing sad

Inns - bruck, I now must leave thee, This part - ing sad

Inns bruck, I , now must leave thee, thee, This part - ing sad

doth grieve To for - eign lands I go, My hap - pi - ness is

 3
Chanson, Men All Are Such Great Lovers
(Nous voyons que les hommes) J a c q u e s A r c a d e l t (c. 1 5 0 5 - 1 5 6 7 )

3E fi r.

J
Men all are such great lov - ers, Or so they do pro - claim, And wom-en are so

3E
SL
m
Men all are such great lov - ers, Or so they do pro - claim, And wom-en are so

f- , f-

Men all are such great lov - ers, Or so they do pro - claim, And wom-en are so

10

O
fool ish to put on Love the blame. But
'J

what seems right

g
for men -
folk for

T T
f * f
fool ish to put on Love the blame. But what seems right for men-folk for

SE
_ a O

fool ish to put on Love the blame. But what seems right for men - folk for_

15
\IH i J , i p' * i p 1' 1 J 1
r

J R r. P [
wom - en
r
leads to shame, And mis - er -y se \=
on
i
fol -

lows if
1
we leave t he

J
p
" P P r O pTr
i

1 -1
1
-5-*| U j
i i J
1 L -
wom - en leads to shame, And mis - er - y soon leave t he

-Vm
fol - lows if we

p 9 1
-o
r ^ f - f - O
1
| f p f~
r . 1.
wom - en leads to shame, And mis - er - y soon fol - lows if_ we leave

O r i g i n a l key: F. Barlines added. A l l measures are not equal i n length.

198
 20

H ?' f J J I
path of Hon Now why has Na - ture made us so full of

I
path of Hon or. Now why has Na - ture made _ us so full - of

Hon - or's path. Now why has Na - ture made so full of

25
A i I i -
jos 1
3 ^ 3 M i l 1^ =
and charm, Af - fec-tion - ate and friend - ly,
J
how

can
r
we
I ffl o J j
help_
d 1 ^
grace- but love?

m o
m
grace_ and charm,Af - fec - tion - ate and friend - ly,- how- can we help but love?

e 19 (9

grace and charm, Af - fec - tion - ate and friend - ly, how can we help but love?

199
Chanson, Happy I Dar Not Be
(Je n'ose tre conten) P i e r r e C e r t o n ( a c t i v e c. 1 5 4 5 )

o 19 P-
SI
2 4> r\ rFr&
Hap - py I dar not be. with all - my

S2 i P fm
Hap - py I dar not be with all-

10

19 P
&
hap i - ness, Not want-ing to de - sire_

lh 1 1 -5 =~f- | 1
1 *- J - r H
1
1 0 C s ^ T J - r, srJ-e 5=
in life a great

15

Ti - 1 1 l.CE

in life a great fJ I d j
er joy. For_ fear_ of
" O
los - ing

o cJ

jy- For fear of los ing what

have, For he who asks too

O r i g i n a l k e y : F . T h e h a l f n o t e is t h e b e a t , e x c e p t i n t w o m e a s u r e s i n w h i c h w o r d s a n d m u s i c s u g g e s t t h r e e w h o l e
notes.
200
 35 ^ ^
(?)
=g=tcu rrr J J

too rauch will change. pleas pain.

O
For he who asks too much will change pleas ure to pam.

201
 5
Bicinium, A Mighty Fortress Is Our God
(Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott) Raspar Othmayr (1515-53)

A might - y for - tress is. God, A good - ly

shield and wea pon. The od and e vil foe,

shield and wea pon. The od _ _ _ and e vil foe,

5
- r
Would ' now. work us woe, With might and deep gue, He plots his

m
Would now work us woe, With might and deep guile, He plots

202
Allemande
for four instruments C l a u d e G e r v a i s e ( a c t i v e c. 1 5 5 0 )

m r r p i -|9 -P ;3
-0 , i
-a
-F
====>
:
i'

'
T 1 i -TiI
| >
\T' J J 4

a
0J
=== -d o

)
-
tf=1 i
r r - 1

= ^
i
b =
1
<
N #=

da capo a d l i b i t u m
* J

J J JJ J J JJ i h-

f f f f

N o t e vales h a l v e d .
203
 7
Villanella, May She Rule in
Every Season B a l d a s s a r e D o n a t o ( a c t i v e c. 1 5 5 1 )

May she rule in ev - ery sea - son o'er the land and o'er the o

May she rule in ev - ery sea - son o'er the land and o'er the o

May she rule in ev - ery sea - son o'er the land and o'er the o

May she rule in ev - ery sea - son o'er the land and o'er the o

ceans, And may great Lib - ei - ty flour - ish, O great Queen of all the na

ceans, And may great Lib - er - ty flour - ish, O great Queen

~0 O -6( >
of all the na

ceans, And may great Lib - er - ty flour - ish, O great Queen of all the na

20

tions. In all times and in all plac - es, May her pov er grow for - ev

r

tions. I n all times and in all plac - es, May her pow er grow for - ev

tions. In all times and in all plac - es, May her pow er grow for - ev

204
 er, So that all men may ery out: Long life to Ve - nice, Long life to Ve - nice,

er, So that all men may ery out: Long life to Ve - nice, Long life to Ve - nice,

er, So that all men may ery out: Long life to Ve - nice, Long life to Ve - nice,

er, So that all men may ery out: Long life to Ve - nice, Long life to Ve - nice,

Queen of all. Long life to Ve - nice, Long life to Ve - nice, Queen of all.

Queen of all. Long life to Ve - nice, Long life to Ve - nice, Queen of all.

Queen_ of all. Long life to Ve - nice, Long life to Ve - nice, Queen_ of all.

Queen_ of all. Long life to Ve - nice, Long life to Ve - nice, Queen_ of all.

)
205
 8
Benedictus l 5 2 5 _94)
c
f r o m t h e M a s s Repleatur os meum laude Giovanni Pierluigi d a Palestrina ( -

Be - ne - dic - tus qui ve nit, be

\M Ja *
qui ve

B jJ rrri' ir ^
r

>^rr r r r
tus qui _ ve - nit, ne - dic-tus

15

,1 ,1 J j 1
ne - dic - tus qui ve nit, qui

dic - tus qui ve nit, qui ve

19-1

nit, be ne - dic - tus qui

206
 25
t ^ - i 5l_
= 4 = h ... J 1 -1 1
--S- -S
\ * 3 D
o
in no - i ni - ne Do mi - ni.
nit

TOo J ID m m P
rTf" mr
IB ni >
=M= in

:===
^=-
-O *1
, m f-jr
-1r-
nit
11-
mi - ne
in no

lrf=fr
id_
==r 0
ri a
o

ii - mi - in no - mi - ne
no

14 8 m 8
o -a -
h >
i -O |> P P P p-
e r ff
H
no - m - ne Dc> mi - ni
11
in Do

no-mi - ne
P * P
rrf- f
ii "
Do
r i- 1 - - - -
A *
mi - ni
X
m

207
Ver Snete Spiritus
(excerpt) G i o v a n n i P i e r l u i g i d a P a l e s t r i n a (c. 1 5 2 5 9 4 )

10
o o _ O*-
5 #p o g"
Ve - ni Spi - ri - coe - li lu - cis di

33 C o a
O
Ve - ni Spi - ri - mit - te coe - li lu - cis di
O O
o

Ve - ni Spi - ri tus, coe - li - lu - cis

SE
B o

Ve - ni sane-te Spi - ri - tus, et e - mit - te coe-li - tus lu - cis tu - ae ra - di

N o t e vales h a l v e d .

Blessing Before the Meal

(Bndiction avant le repas) C l a u d e le J e u n e ( 1 5 2 8 - c . 1600)

3SI
P = = =
Dear God, now bless do break this bread.

-e o -
Dear God, now bless I* us, do break

tn * o

Dear God, now bless do break this bread.

208
 -tf "

The which Thy dear, gra - cious hand be - stows.

3E

The
-a o
dear, _ cious hand be "stows.
na which Thy gra

The na which Thy dear, gra - cious hand be - stows.

(3
Cf XT

The which Thy dear, gra - cious hand be - stows.

I For
3E
this Thy hand doth stretch- from
o

high;

For this. Thy hand doth stretch from high;

fe fe
For this Thy hand doth stretch from high;

tfv l

For this Thy hand doth stretch. from high;

r' O ! c |r 1
1
J H

u' o
v
When i ve o ie Heav - ens.
ir eyes li ft n - to ti
i i 1 i ]

p "
When

P"ir-

v re

ri
o ir eyes ] [ft in

?
'. tn 1-1i

>e
O
Heav -
^
ens.
1
^ J
O 1I 1
r 0 H [
4 When t o ir eyes 1 ft un - to i e Heav - ens.

-i >: , , . . . . AI 19
When we our eyes lift
K
un -
U
to
r
| h - "
the
j
Heav -
h
ens.
1
i

B a r l i n e s a d d e d t o s h o w phrases.

209
210
Chanson, Good Day, My Heart
(Bon Jour, mon coeur) O r l a n d o d i L a s s o (c. 1 5 3 0 9 4 )

r - r i ; r i i
Good day my heart, Good day my dar ling, my sweet life!
Good day my eye, Good day my ver y ('car est love!

m
Good day my heart, Good day my dar ling sweet life!
Good day my eye, Good day my ver y dear love!

o
- r
Good day my heart, Good day dar ling, my sweet life!
Good day my eye, Good day my ver - y dear love!

2 ling, my sweet life!

Good day my heart, Good day my dar
Good day my eye, Good day my y dear love!

10

Ah! Good day my lit - tle pret - ty, My charm-ing sweet one, Good day you who

Ah! Good day my lit - tle pret - ty, My charm-ing sweet one, Good day you who

Ah! Good day my lit - tle pret - ty, My charm-ing sweet one, Good day you who

M r r
Ah! Good day my lit - tle pret - ty, My charm-ing sweet one, Good day you who
 pleas-ure sweet,my gen-tle lit - tle soft dove, My lit - tle bird, My lit - tle tur-tle dove, dear, Good

pleas-ure sweet.my gen-tle lit-tle soft dove, My lit - tle bird, My lit - tle tur-tle dove, dear, Good

i 8 pleas-ure sweet,my gen - tle lit-tle soft dove, My lit-tle bird,

f T r

My lit -
r r

tle tur -
r r

tle dove, my dear,

n ^

Good

f r
i i i r r i
pleas-ure sweet.my gen - tle lit-tle soft dove, My lit - tle dove, My lit - tle tur-tle dove, dear, Good

25

day my sweet lit-tle re - bel, Good day my sweet lit - tle re - bel.

j j j i y -> i
r " _ - m ,J
f M 1
day my sweet lit-tle re - bel, Good day. my_ sweet lit - tle re - bel.

j p p "l ^ . ,
r

m
day my sweet lit-tle re-bel, Good day my_ sweet lit - tle re - bel.

mi
day my sweet lit- tle re - bel, Good day my. sweet lit - tle re - bel.

212
 13
Ballata, Love's Pursuit
(Caccia d'Amore)

G i o v a n n i Gastoldi (active 1590)

" T o besung, played, and danced"

Canto
i(3 i 2 t l

Basso
Flee, for my blood flows hot, for my blood flows hot, O ye nymphs so

dain- ty, Fa la la la.

10

Flee, for my blood flows hot, for my blood flows hot, O ye nymphs so dain- ty, Fa

J J II-I
Flee, for my blood flows hot. for my blood llows hot. O ye iiymphs so dain- iv. la

Flee, for my blood flows hol, for my blood llows lint, O ye nymphs so dain- Iv, la

Fice, for my blood flows hot, for my blood llows hot. O ve nymphs so dain- ty, l'a

Used by permission of Heugel S.A.

 But if you do not fly a way, if you stay, then I

0 r J)
way, if you stay, then I tell you, But if you do not fly a- way, if you stay, then I

But if you do not fly a-

f P r
way,
PP
if you stay, then I
 But if you <lo nol llv a-

way. f \<mi stay. then I t l l you,

c O Love will wound your heart,

O I . o \ e w l l wound\our heart.
Ir r f
Fa i a i a la la la la la-

215
There Is a Rose
(Es ist ein Ros entsprungen) Michael Praetorius (1571-1621)

There
Just
r rr r the
rose that springs
an - cients told
3E
3E

up from
from
roots that
Jes - se
are
carne
so
this
sweet.
rose.

s
There
Just
a
the
rose that springs
an - cients told
up
us
o
from
from
roots
Jes-se
sweet.
rose.

32=
O
There rose that springs up from roots that are so sweet.
Just the an - cients told us from Jes - se carne. this rose.

o ~q~
There a rose that springs up from roots that are so sweet.
Just the an - cients told from Jes - se carne this rose.

3E

And brought a flow-er forth, In midst of chil - ly Win - ter at mid-night carne this flow'r.

o o e)o.
And brought a flow-er forth, _ In midst of chil - ly Win - ter at mid-night carne _ this flow'r.

1
a s> r- 7- n
1
u
isi"ofro P o t
1<P , - ng
1
O s1 5 o
i F " * R 41
And brought a flow-er forth In midst of chil - ly Win - ter at mid-night carne this flow'r.

m Vf ag
M
And brought a flow-er forth,
In midst of chil - ly Win - ter at mid-night carne this flow'r.

216
217
218
 16
Toccata
f r o m Fiori musicali Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1643)

-Jfp*i _P "Ta i "" 1 J'Vjl 1 , J- .jfc^ m I i v^. t 1 i1

Organ<

ir r er

J , j j f )
*i r m ^
> ' J t | J ,

* -p " w frf ,rr,f h

J "r-fJJ- 1
1- 11

! I

r
tfr rfi

219
Psalm 78 H e i n r i c h Schtz ( 1 5 8 5 - 1 6 7 2 )

fe
Peo - pie, give ear un - to my law, Heark - en to all I say to you,

Peo - pie, give ear un - to my law, Heark - en to all I say to yo

Peo - pie, give ear un - to my law, Heark - en to all I say to you,

For I will tell you strange things, I will now lift my voice in song,

will now lift my voice in song,

For I WD tell you strange things, I will now lift my voice in song,

For I will tell you strange things, I will now lift my voice in song,

I tell what we have heard and known, Tale that our fa - thers told

I tell what we have heard and known, Tale that our fa - thers told

I tell what we have heard and known, Tale that our fa - thers told

I tell what we have heard and known, Tale that our fa thers told

220
 18
Organ Bicinium
f r o m Tablatura nova Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654)

m IPrf-m I fe

10

==f f r n'ff r i [ ij i , f . , r , t f -
1
t t a - :
==F=

15

*jfrrrrrrrfra
p r. & 7

FFfrP JiJJ
JJJJ
<

--J-- i f YTT f ff mf m
o

#_
i

221
Sarabande
for brass i n s t r u m e n t s J o h a n n Pezel ( 1 6 3 9 - 9 4 )

j 'i r r r
2 O

O 73 E
*

e? - j J. J
o

3 P" (2 O PP * 1
5
su o- >

o
33G
O .

10 15
*'
=P=ti M P- p f

*H
3
-S- E r
=
1 h - 1 1
o si 1
-e?- J
< o

i i

'J 'i. m -6 <5^ p - f- i
-SI -S iM p - p O
-' ^-f-
4- 1- 1-

o. " r.
o . lo' o
T I - o

W h i l e t h e s p e c i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s a r e n o t i n d i c a t e d , t h e m u s i c is f o r five b r a s s .

222
 20
Chaconne
for organ (excerpt) J o h a n n Pachelbel (1653-1706)

mm
Manual

r r

Pedal
r
r

10 15

rff51 h i . _ Tm. .
j,W-
H

f*'
gg[V r rz
f r . f r r =f=f=f=

9&>

20
. j , .j-

30
fe S r r r

9 5S1

223
224
Organ Toccata in E minor J o h a n n Pachelbel ( 1 6 5 3 - 1 7 0 6 )

y. 14 fe

f
ate

# f ff ) f f

* *

Z
te
E

I
10

r r

J + ^7 ;
H
1
r
A

225
226
 22
Trio Sonata
O p . 4, N o . 2 , Preludio Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713)

Grave.
g j 1 , q
Violino I.
r

Violino I. 1 * 1 1 1
! 1 ' *

Violone > t H 1 J

e Organo. 6
\ i T r i i i 1
+ - 1 m # 1 1

b 5" 6
S
9 6 5 w
S

fe
g

tm

6 7 V 6
S j 1 6 ft
i 5
S 4 3
Duet
f r o m Come, Ye Sons of Art H e n r y Purcell (1659-95)

K * Alto

10

sound, sound, sound the trum-pet,till a - round

You make the

15 , q ; || 2 .
4-- - i V V
- bound. bound. O n the

f
*. 1 . I * '
-bound bound. On the spright - l y haut-boy, the

20

"spright - ~ yhaut-hoy.the prjjrht - - l y haut-boy play, A the uvilr ru-ments of joy,

rr~ _UI.. i i J_.I_U*I.. i All the in-itru-menta of

spright-ly haut-boy play, the sprijrtitly haut-boy, prlpht-ly haut-boy play,

Copyright Novello & Company Limited. Used by perniission.

228
 a l l , a l l , a l l , a l l the in-stru-menta of joy,

joy, a l l , a l l , a l l , a l l the m-stru-ments of joy, of joy That kil-ful num-bers can. em-ploy, To

229
Prelude No. 3
f r o m L'Art de toucher le clavecn Francois Couperin (1668-1733)

W~lT J 1 f | ~
1 ^^-n , 1 -m

1 LT
J J
W
1
it
-*-
PT^i I

U Ji-JJJb
f r '

i. r-- f

7 r x r r - ccf
Si 0
t r 1
r

1 ' X

L'Art de toucher le clavecn i s a n i n s t r u c t i o n b o o k o n p l a y i n g t h e h a r p s i c h o r d . T h e b o o k i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l m o d e l s o f

p r e l u d e s , o f w h i c h t h i s is o n e .
230
La Lgubre
f r o m The First Order of Harpsichord Pieces Francois Couperin (16681733)

5 i-

y t

t = 4

f W 'Vi
10

ir
i
r r ' r f
15
3 =

35 *sr i

fea
P
s i g

25
f
/O

6
7< ' ' w, 6-
1 t
-*
I jh-y--
r
=
S = 7
r
30

^5
-*i-

i r
A n " o r d e r " is a c o l l e c t i o n o f p i e c e s , f r o m w h i c h t h e p e r f o r m e r m a y c h o o s e t o p l a y as m a n y as d e s i r e d .
 2 6 A
Prelude in C
f r o m Partita for Clavier J o h a n n Raspar Ferdinand Fischer (1665-1746)

Praeludium harpeggiato
0
-m M\ 0 f . f \ . f . . f \ .. 0 . 0
5

11

i - #
s I

10

*= 1
a - /J 0%-0%4 J -W-i -S-Jl-J- # 1
= * H F w w\ C
:f f f * J
1 ]0

\S .,ffl.ffl.ffli * V 010 0 J J l J J l 4 4 -
W
J '/ J*
o

ft. L -4L

= 4 ^
ft. -< -o-
> 1> 11

232
 2 6 B
Prelude in E
for organ
f r o m Ariadne musicale J o h a n n Raspar F e r d i n a n d Fischer ( 1 6 6 5 - 1 7 4 6 )

f - ^ f i S r ~ tfif/Lr r =
. j 1 r f f fri

l !
i
,"trn r r * * J*-ss- [r t f p r

hn
s j j ^

^ b

8 1
-*HrA H J i 0
1
t

Ariadne musicale is a c o l l e c t i o n o f t w e n t y p r e l u d e s a n d f u g u e s i n v a r i o u s k e y s .

233
 27
i
Sarabande and Double Johann Mattheson (1681-1764)

10

|1
*4 ^ F4*
-
-i 2HfJ - . J r

i r
P i

L'^ r "
1 "i' ; 1

15

-B-)hnJ Fr=f=F Vi
r i 1 1 i & r i r
4-
!l

^^ p _ =

imeri

i.d 1
J li i T-l f\
T
^ r r i
C v 1 ,
cxx^j

fj j n i *
-
- ^ 1 *^ i - *
^ f r

0^
R e p r i n t o f the edition o f 1714.

i
X.
234
Gavotte and Variations
for harpsichord Jean-Philippe R a m e a u (1683-1764)

+
i 5" J V *

i-
r
10 154.
tr

i
20

+ ir 4
i
J
rr 'r ' l i i
-
IV Double

-,: l J 11.1
gf r 1 f - - **
m 1l f -
r

* - r r -
^ ' ^ F ~ ^ ~ ^ I
, i
 2 T Double
50
J
f=#=
^ 7 r- 0

55 69 r
-f
Ajj I H J J'J |
J i - 1
ri r
1
F

3"" D o u b l o
r J ^ L - - 75 i ! - ,
s N = f ^ *-*=-
n j i

^r=^ - j = J _iT/ 1, j J
r
r r 5
F
f


rlf < f , 1
1
P
i i X p1
r r

/ JL m
> mp t r r rij , > r r f = f H f P - 1 J J i

1 - J :
.1
J [ f

k.
- Ti
^1
105 +
^ci _

(U fc ::= =e .
rp- f

va.=t

r f
- 10 i i Ji Jn
W-=
237
6 . RO E
Double
150

m
155

U i H i

160

ri

a l

i 165
h,,r

P
m

239
 2 9 A
To Doris
Ode for Voice and Continuo Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767)

Sweetly

N o w first I learn to k n o w y o u r soul, Which I so l o n g h a v e l o v ' d a n d s t i l l love

N o w can I say to all temp-ta- tions, T h a t they m e a n n o t h - i n g t o m y glad h e a r t ;

1
4 3
6 6

240
 29B
To Sleep
Ode for Voice and Condnuo Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767)

Gently moving

F* a J
= EE-JH EE-
&' 1 r
yo P ' J 1 FH
God dream-ing, friend of Night! Cause of sweet- est pleas- ure!
No- ble
You who bring the h u m - b l e ' rest, when the L o r d op-pres- ses.

6 6b 6 6
b h H 5

10
r l ~ ' J - d
te ^ 1. i

-f-fP-f-f-fH LT-^ S-*#

r

i " r J J
' J r 1

y 1

M o r - p h e u s tar- ries n o t , When h e bears all-heal- i n g peace, E y e a n d h e a r t , t o com- fort. fort.

4J 6|| 6 6 b 6 7 6b6 53 4
*

)
241
Plain Cooking
Ode for Voice and Continuo Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767)

Lively

I am no friend of f a n - cy cook-ing, I l i k e p l a i n f o o d a n d lots of it.

Let oth-ers cook with sauce a n d gar-nish, I have n o need o f such fine stuff.

CONTINUO
7 6
IT P 6 6 7
*

When cook-ing's clev- er, b a k - ing's e l - e- I think it on- ly spoils t h e

2 6
m 6 + 6 6

10

taste. I am with sim- pie fare de- l i g h t - e d A n d I will glad- l y take pot luck.

242
 30
Allemande
f r o m French Suite N o . 3 J o h a n n Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)

fe*
3 ^

m .
m 1

r , f . 4, 4, ir .f \f
ft

f>

243
244
 31
Gigue
f r o m Sonata N o . 6 for Solo Violin J o h a n n Sebastian Bach ( 1 6 8 5 - 1 7 5 0 )

piano

7,
rrrmrr

5
i -
Air
f r o m Suite N o . 3 for Orchestra J o h a n n Sebastian Bach ( 1 6 8 5 - 1 7 5 0 )

Violino I m
Violino II PE
Viola m
Continuo t
r-mA-
Jefe

I J~
" C-^=j * f
1
7 6

_ ? 1
Va.
m-*rr' ' * r i r i r i f
*- m
c. -tfr-fa J j j
V

vi.

rp-m-P-
Va

m
246
VL

Va.
r r i r r - r s m

C.

15

f
c r r
B g f "
VI.
fU w*=t .m
mf f , P-P-|
j J i

|D< y -fr-frf -fi,: f " r r r r r r

B>
r
Va. 1 J
1 . g=5=fc

irr r f , r If
 33
Prelude No. 1
f r o m The Well-Tempered Clavier, B o o k I J o h a n n Sebastian Bach ( 1 6 8 5 - 1 7 5 0 )

(Muderatu. J

7
fM> tfLf

* t 0
f f
F"
i
? r
\^ 1 i i i J L. -

3-tfJ 7Pr^i^r^fl J i J J -
7
g> JP A _Z J gj 0
7J^_*J_f_. J * J 0 I * J0 -1
J * J

^1 F ^ 1

11 ^
m
0 0 J ' J - F - - JJJ IJ 7-t1 4
J jfc
*J^J

f
248
r
 - y J^b>J fJfc
) f r

. = ,

r H: * r>--vi *4> r - fJ^J

i
i 1

' r r Y r - r r

iJp_: 1 Ji =
j
ir

f+j: * A i * Jx- j
7 *
' r r ~ r r r
T
i -nU ^ >a .1

- J* jv j wV 7 7 # v
V L
r f 1
r r r r 1" r

i ?Jr
r -r 5j-T

i
249
 34
Passecaille
f r o m Suite N o . 7 George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)

m
1 = *
1
#

..
5 Var. 1 Var. 2
1

r F f H i

*Kr>- F f f f- T f ^#
r r f
1 1 1

* i ii r

10 Var. 3
15

Var. 4 20

-#-
5 P
Var. 5

ELE!?.

v ai. u i
- r j J - 4 -
-TJ jfl -
1 '

r r ,p_., toF-'g=
r

^ ^ 'i
250
251
252
Courante
f r o m Suite No. 4 George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)

Allegretto tranquillo A ^ .
U ST\\
r r ' e c f r

4> 1 N f f ^

A^.: A,

l i t t ^ T f r r r i - V
"3 dimtn.

^
ly f j
r - l

calando

r
* uJ
0.j~3i -wTT
) creso! CJF

H
3

4*\
%= - i
a
i
=:
P 1 0-
^&t=4
mm. mm mw

^
4
V acresc.
#

P B I-
P
Es

..t^J *- Ir i

= 4 J J J---
#= _H
A
i

y ~
\
cresc.
=>
r
i
'f
=4
i ^
ffrTl
. P UiJ^
L-<

253
 calando
v >- _
r* s
7T1 ii J Y J i 4 ^ i Ir
\ -
1'
1'
6
cresc. LLJ
-e -aP
f - 1
- -i

254
 36
"See, the conquering hero comes"
f r o m Judas Maccabeus George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)

wr~w pp

See, the con - qu'ring he - ro comes! Sound the trum - pets, beat
f ri the drums.
J

P
&
See, the con - qu'ring he TO comes! Sound the trum - pets, beat _ the drums.

pp p& 1

* T r j i r r ir Trn 1C1HT
See, the con - qu'ring he ro comes! Sound the trum - pets, beat. the drums.

See, the con - qu'ring he ro comes! Sound the trum - pets, beat the drums.

10 15

3E

Sports pre - pare, the lau - res bring, Songs of tri - umph to. him sing.

3E

a
00*d *
Sports pre - pare, the lau res bring, Songs . o tri - umph to him smg.
O
m
Sports pre pare, the lau res bring, Songs of tri - umph to. him smg.
o tn

m ri i
Q -S

i r r
Sports pre - pare, the lau - res bring, Songs of tri - umph to_ him sing.

20

See, the con - qu'ring. he ro comes! Sound the trum - pets, beat the drums.

See, the con - qu'ring

mi
he ro
331
comes! Sound the trum-pets, beat. the drums.

11'
See, the con - qu'ring he ro comes! Sound the trum-pets, beat

m i* r i T E ^ S
See, the con - qu'ring he comes! Sound the trum-pets, beat. the drums.

C h o r u s p a r t only; the orchestra doubles the chorus.

255
Recitative
f r o m Israel in Egypt George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)

Narrator

Now there a - rose a new king o-ver E -gypt,

u v r CJ
7
which knew not Jos - eph; and he set o - ver

Continuo

-#P-
Is-rael task-mas-ters toaf-flict them with burd-ens; and they made them serve with ri - gor.

256
 Recitative
f r o m Judas Maccabeus George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)

Judas
Maccabeus
Thanks to my breth-ren! but look up
r
to Heav'n! Xo

Heav'n let glo - ry and all praisc be

Continuo S e

^ 3
giv n. To Heav'n give your ap - plause, or add the sec - ond cause, As once your

V
S

ti

10

y
fa-thers did in Mi-dian, say-ing, "The sword of God andGid-eon." It was the Lord that

y
for His Is - rael fought, And this our won - der - ful sal - va - tion wrought.

m I U
tr

257
 3 7 C
Recitative
f r o m Solomon George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)

The Queen
of Sheba
From A - ra-bia's spic-y shores bound-ed by the hoar-y main, She-ba's queen these seats ex-

Continuo
7
4b
2

S i m
plores, tobe taught thy heav'n-ly strain. Thrice wel-come queen! with o-pen arms our court re-

hj n n
10 ^

,|J~] J l ^ J / \ihf^ rj S
ceives thee, and thy charms; the tem-ple of the Lord first meets your eyes, rich with the well ac-cept-ed

5
4+ 6b 5b
2 5b

15

3 = I fe
ri - fice. Here all our treas - ures free be - hold, where ce - dars lie, o'er - wrought with

7b 5b 6

gold. Next view a man-sion

3 s

fit for kings to

own,
m the for - est call'd
5
of tow'r-ing Le-ba-non, where

*> r 'r i 1
33T
i

art her ,
ut-most* skill
i_:it j : - - plays
dis _i ^^^^
and ev - 'ry ob - ject claims your praise.

258
 38
Sonata in E
for harpsichord Domenico Scarlatd (1685-1757)

tiff 1-

1ffi
rfl r r

H > m. m
J, S = r

Pr i
7 , ^^ =
fe r r r P T P {fp-p-P- P"T 1

a fe d =
g" r r T- 'r ' 11
 " 1 J .j.M_l =:

37
r r

- -f>
m f* m 0 , 0 m m 0 m
-r
m
1

JSlJ

_L J __jj 1w
J J

55
J l J -

w -m

260
 [*] te j O 1 ^ ^
rfn -hp. P P -

r^ 5

\ s Tff ''r - J <

i 5

61

S 7

te-

_ J I]* 'UiL^* 1
t *

- i h,r -
6YJ

i / P I I - n _ P " h, M 1 1 -p \r
J L I /

J .

| [
: r r

i r f f r f r f P-r
- >
?

1 J 1 1 J
- f|)* m
1'' j ~7

) 261
262
 39
Sonata in F
second m o v e m e n t
f r o m Second Set of Sonatas Cari Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-88)

Larghetto

r i - r*
1S1 Ji
i

r 1

r
l ^ r r r \ > \
I T IH L I / [ . J- * r
13<

1
p
-f
r P

ir p
= *r = -3 J
L i f r
**
FPr H
19I
r ~p

\^m4
p

263
 40
Air
f r o m Orpheus Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-87)

- n ir -i a * i
J

Piano

J4j4J=: iU 4

5 . 10 N

p p~
9 P
i * ' -p-f- 1

i u i

cresc.
p
*):,!> ,<*f g 4
P '

15
^ 3

i
1
3
fes

i
p p ~ i M PP- pi 1 M
r LT i
~P i i
1 ( j t r P f- 21 ) 4 1
Now e - ie - my, B r - ba-rou; this o fU i -

- ate is my
mT | f p ' 1
rP LT
f
- f ^
/
P P P

)!>, . j i |_ un irn
^ b> r
rt'i
* J " '

wy* rTn
c
1 1
rrrr T
T TJ

264
 L r r_r i r W
Lento 25 Allegro

ty! To give me back my life, and then to tor - ment

mm
me? Now Fate is my

t], p11 Lento r- I ,. .

m JZ\ h | j*1

f L.'
>1, J) ^ a a;

ne - my bar - ba-rous this cru - el - ty! To give me back my

in
m tac tac
0 0 0 *

35 40
0
m m^
m w

life, and then to tor - ment, To give me back my life, and then.

a M li 33
f
31 W0 0 mm
0 0

265
 Bourre
f r o m Dance Pieces Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1721-83)

w
b:
mm
10

i* 1 f i f
11 r J f | u
L l ! ! r r r r r 4

: . f f r r r j j r r J ,r r
=
J F^ # r J
1

15

F p y i P 5 r
i
\T. i r J P J T n
r ;i
$"' * L r f

_
Ji
J J J
T n r % r - i
Ji n 1 "
^9* J^J J
C o p y r i g h t B . Schott's S o e h n e , M a i n z 1935. C o p y r i g h t r e n e w e d . A l l R i g h t s Reserved. U s e d b y p e r m i s s i o n o f E u r o p e a n A m e r i c a n
M u s i c D i s t r i b u t o r a C o r p o r a t i o n , sol U . S . a g e n t f o r B . Schott's Soehne.

266
 4 2 A - C
Three Piano Pieces D a n i e l G o t t l o b Trk ( 1 7 5 6 - 1 8 1 3 )

Andante. Sieiliano
A
^8
T

# ( f t
i M-
fe
0
f ffrrr r P rjir

ij.j' r
imJTi i
r pr P - - J -

rirrlr f r f Ver- i*fh*ft

-

i* i*s J ^
J 1 i

A l l e g r o moderato, ma con 'uoco

B
ion.

P 7 1

3E

267
268
 43
Piano Sonata in A,
K. 331, theme Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91)

Andante g r a z i o s o

0 J> J J
S i l i m
Mi

w~P P-
1
> f~m P i'
1
1 - . a J'
4= -
sf sj r

m t ff
p r
V t

sf V

\*f ,rr,r ft J
Ji =4=f 1 J^J ...I.

? ' r T r ^ r r r r P j Jpr s * J
1 J

>J ^ rr'
f
1'/ r f r r=F-Nr r r f F rr Pn1rp.
p- s t

-pp-
-e-f
-* ~ \\ 1I
' 1 y
"
1 1
P T r

269
 4 4 A - C
Three Contradanses
for orchestra Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)

Kaxotti.

Violoncillo
< H a s s o .

li

T h e c o u n t r y dance o r contradanse was p o p u l a r i n E n g l a n d , France, and G e r m a n y i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

270
B

271
 c
Flauta.

F*OttO.

I orni in G .

Molino I .

Violino I I .

ViolonerUo

272
 4 5

When Our Dear Child Can Find No Rest

Op. 80, N o . 1 C a r i Mara v o n W e b e r (1786-1826)

Andantino
Voice
ir
When our
Jl
i
dear child
J,

can
i r P r PiQ_r Q P
find no rest with - in his lit - de erad - le, Then

Piano
m
P

V
i^r J'j
Moth - er speaks
Jl

and
ir H
com - forts him,
iij-
His weep - ing
L L r
she will
|

soon
J
J , J

stop
J | | J

with gen - tle

^cjp pow'r_ of

10

motn - e r " love. He qui - ets when she says: "My lit - tle child, Oh 1
ery

jI J)
1=
 46
Three Waltzes and an Ecossaise Franz schuben (1797-1828)

N ? l .
p
lil HifPlii lu hl M I 11
i

f i f
I I I

H
Trfr
A ti
\ mf , T

2.
M*
N i

f
1. 1 2.
r' T JT -1
F*=4 O * -


f 1 14 6
/
>
e -i1
i . J1.

r 1
>
J
?
-,J. K 7 ? .1 f 1 J
L

274
t
 s-
/ Jt \?\ I M H i --1 1 i

4-UJ-
^ 1
-m-

W i 9-

te
m i
* Un i

275
Gentle Annie Stephen Foster (1826-64)

Andante mosso

m m
Thouwilt come no more, gen.tle An.nie, Like a

m
g

r f
i flower thy spi.rit did de . p a r t ; Thou art gone, a . . las! like the

3=
?* # #

many
t Mr
That haye bloomed in the summer
^ ^ u of my heart.

276
 CHORUS.

Shall we ne .ver more be . hold thee; ne .ver hear thy winning voice a .

0^ i i
t
y
I I

1
rf
-W-4

277
 3. My grand-falh-er said tliat of those heconldhire, Sota ser - Yant so faith-ful he found; Por lt
4 It ran<* an a-larm in the dead of thenightAn a - larm that for years had been dnmb; Andwe

fcjj J" J1 fF T H I , I i i l ' F N JJ'|J. JJ

1. My grandfather's clock was too large fortheshelf,So it stood ninety years on the floor; Itwas
2. In watching its pen - du-lnm swing to and. fio, Ma-ny hours had he spent while a boy; Andin

wast - ed no timo, and had bnt one de-sire At the cise of each week to be wonnd. And it
taiew that his spir - it was plum-ing forflightThathis hour of de-partnre had come. Still the

1 9*
tall - er by half than the od man himself, Thongh it weighed not a pennyweighi more. It was
childhood and man-hood the clock seemed to know And to share both his grief and his joy. For it

5 1 H i 7
i
j j J j

O n e o f t h e m o s t p o p u l a r A m e r i c a n s o n g s o f its t i m e , Grandfather's Clock s o l d o v e r 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s .

278
 kept in its placenot a frownnp-on its face, And its hands nev-er hung by its side; Bnt it
clock kept the lime, with a soft and muffled chime, As we si - lent-ly stood by his side; Bnt it
9
l p ff 7~f 9
7: fr-f-

w ' ' ^ i : #' *

bonght on the morn of the day that he was born, And was al - ways his treasnre and pride; Bnt it
strnck twenty-four when he en-tered at the door, With a bloom-ing and bean - ti - ful bride; But it

3:
I P
95 1
stopp'd short nev - er to go a-gain When the od man died.
stopp'd short nev - er to go a-gain When the od man died.

stopp'd short nev - er to go a - gain When the od man died.

stopp'd short nev - er to go a - gain When the od man died.

i cari

C H O B U S .
A i M i m.

J h dh h
Nine-ty years, with-out slnmber-ing (tick, tick, tick, tick), His life - seconds num-ber-ing (tick, tick, tick, tick), It

ws i>
aa " 9*
=3=

i I f -
flrllr
i TI * 1 I # 0-

Nine-ty years, with-out slumber-ing (tick, tick, tick, tick), His life - seconds num-ber-ing (tick, tick, tick, tick), It

9y c c u ; ; n * 4

fe
i
I
 j > ' > : . - r - -Ppp *-^P 1 wm- 1 J I I
r-?--*-* V 1 * V I I
stopp'd short cev er to go a - gain When the od man die1.
-fi!, =j 1 m1 h h f> "5 1
S
i J K 1 H
-JMe**-=) "ia
fr-5- = -L 11

Lrfe==pr= m m rTH e 9
7 tS - - = 1]
j> * " s 1 * " ~ = " y. V H
rt nev - er to go a - gain Wh en the ol i ma n died.
stopp'd sho __K ,
f?
S S .
- >
f_
' II
^MJ 1 * ? * a P i <' 1 w w
1 <s
*-* II

H=
M
* f \< B r^-s rV- m f ' i n *- f - r n 'i i
7
i 1 1 1
* *
i 1 t ; <s
y 7
Y -* i \ A
1 l
-TS-

1
1 ' * Y
0-

7/o?> Darkly the Water Flows

(Da unten in Thale) for voice a n d p i a n o
Germn f o l k s o n g
A r r a n g e d by J o h a n n e s B r a h m s ( 1 8 3 3 - 9 7 )

Gently moving

VOICE S?
How dark-ly the wa- ter flows, down in our val-ley, and I nev- er will

d *
dim.

280
 L 4 . . T - ~1
m m 1

* * \

! 1

J * * 1 * -1
tell you how much I love you.

I
281
How Darkly the Water Flows
for chorus Germn f o l k s o n g
A r r a n g e d by Johannes B r a h m s ( 1 8 3 3 - 9 7 )

Gently moving
P
SOPRANO

ALTO

TENOR

the wa - ter flows, down in our

BASS

How dark - ly the wa - ter flows, down in our

S
val - ley, and I nev - er will tell you how much I love you.

val - ley, and I nev - er will tell you how much I love you.

ai
val - ley, and I nev - er will tell you how much I love you.

282
 50
Rumanian Dances
for piano Bla Bartk ( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 4 5 )

1. Stick Dance
Allegro moderato. (J:io*J ,8^_ ^ 8
8^_ 8
i r f m -0-
-tJ
pr
1
r n -T
:.
P i a n o . * /
t ) : i v i h - i LT
h
y 7
1 t^= J

V, - a
i 8
,
k

I I I I

283
2 . Waistband Dance
A l l e g r o . (Jzi84.)

2 8

i i
i i i i

( t a 2.volta-. poco ritard)

8 8 -i 8-

w V

I I I
i I
u J .
(25")

3. Dance in Place
Andante. (J = ne.)

m
 1 >
ffrC
_ 2

j J
pip
1 8

J J
j J ; 1 J
:
s 1 i
1' -
i 1
i

^8 8 8 rST~^
fe i

fe 11 1
! V

P
*3 J LU - _ J ! *
8 1 1

286
287
March
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)
f r o m Renard
R e d u c e d score b yL e o K r a f t

J= 126

Cym.
B.drum"

Reproduced by permission of J&W Chester/Edition Wilhelm Hansen London, Ltd.

288
289
A Swan
f r o m Six Chansons Paul Hindemith (1895-1963)
T e x t b y R a i n e r M a r i a Rke

Lento ( J = 60-66)
/ A P
Soprano
breast - ing- the flow All in him-self.
swan is

Alto
3* *P A l l
breast - ing- the flow in him
swan is

Tenor
*J
swan is .breast - _
ing- L-
the flow A l !
All in him
A

Bass *-? r - g IV r T ' r

breast - ing- the flow All in him
swan is

1
en-fold - pd Like a slow - mov - ing ta - bleau.

m
self en - fold - ed, A slow - mov - ing-
j ti M TO

bleau.

self en - fold - ed, A slow - mov - ing- ta - bleau. And so, at some

self en - fold - ed, A srow mov - ing- ta - bleau.

SMusic
f i Distnbutors ^ S o e hsol
S r i S ? Corporation,
; ' U.S. -agent
Copyright renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission of European American
SCh0 S ne t ainz
1
for B. Schott's Soehne.

290
 And so, at some time or place, A . loved one_ will be

P
1
j . p i ' t j V~r f i r . i u y O n i
time or place, some time or place, A loved
j j
one will be

mf = = P P

P-T- Pr ip p r p
And so, at some time or place, A loved one will be

rooW - ed To seem_ like a ml-frat-lng- space WIU

near us, float-lng- re . dou-bled As a swan on the

near us, fioat-ing- re - dou-bled As a swan on the

near us, float-ing- re-dou-bled As a swan on the riv

er
"Story of Our Town
f r o m Our Town Suite Aaron Copland (1900-)

Modrate, with calm

A trifle faster
10 ^
J
J ,

f #-p
J. TJ -<
^ 9 -9 - y
r
z -<-w

marA Me
9-

P
Ttip melody
n 6

Lf f 1Ps m -6M J

i^^5^ C
P l a n d ; R e n e W C d 1 9 7 2
- R e p n m e d b y P e r m i S S n
' f A a r o
" C
P- d
Boosey * Hawkes, Inc., sol

293
294
 54
Symphony for Strings
second movement
(excerpt) William Schuman (1910- )
P i a n o score by L e o K r a f t

^m

C o p y r i g h t by G . Schirmer Inc. All rights reserved. Used by permission.

295
Od Devil Moon
f r o m Finan s Rainbow M u s i c b y B u r t o n Lae
Lyrics b y Y i p H a r b u r g

Moderately

H = n

LLJ ^ = \ j .

look at you and sud - den ly, some - thing in your eyes I
got me fly - in' high and wide On a mag - ic car - pet

1 1 8 B U n n C P y r S h t @ 1 9 4 6 b y C h a P P e a n d C C t r e n e w e d A
S o ? permisSo ' ^ ^ " -' ^ P ^ ' ^ reserved.

296
 ra i
H J-QJ 1 r i ,
j mu

*
Stirs in th e night _ _ bla i - ing their light _ Can't hold a can - c le
:> >
3-
\
- i
J f
% 1r
ll ^ r
= m =r
'i
-4

f ^ 7

i r r 4
D.S. al Coda 4)-

3 ^
to your raz - zle daz - zle. Just when I think l'm. free as a

dove
Od Dev-il Moon deep in your eyes blinds me with love
3 i , ,
3 1
 Ba by's good to me yon know,_ She's hap py as can be,
you know,_ She tells. all the time,.
Ba - by saya she's mine, me

You know,_ She said. so

Yon know, She said. so

J J3-J J " ^

* u* f

f f 1

Words and music by John Lennon and Paul McCartney. Copyright 1964 Northern Songs, Ltd. All rights administered by Black
wood Music, Inc. under hcense from ATV Music (Maclen). All rights reserved. Used by permission.

298
I' m so glad that she's my lit-tle girl. She's so glad she's

tell-ing all the world_ That her ba - by bays her things- you know. He buys her dia-mond rings_

yon know, She said so. She's in love-with me and I Feel- Fine

1 = 1

She's in loye.with me_ and I Feel_ Fine.

299
 57
Two-part organum
(excerpt) Leonin (12th century)

300
 58
Conductus N o t r e D a m e s c h o o l (c. 1 2 0 0 )

301
f-Q 4r J 1 1

Sto - la can - di - da -

L> f -f - f .. - f - f : - r
r r
e=i:..gfj|r r - f . P ==;
E Z _! L_ 1
1I 4- 1 +-F r i r r
Sto - la can - di - da

-p-- ---2
cy--f--
p=r T r r ^ H
Sto - la can -
'-v-p
di - da
F=t
=1- r rr fT
rr r i '
p ?
1
r rr
i ,
f

tur.

303
Motet G u i l l a u m e d e M a c h a u t (c. 1 3 0 0 - 7 7 )

3 3 , 3 3 3 3 3

Heart de -nies it, myjudg-ment too de-nies it, but they say that I en - j o y _ the pleas - ures of sweet-Love.
3 3 .3 3 3 3^

Sad - ness and un-hap - pi-ness so great! Would that I had some com fort.

o-
Inst.
1
( 3 J J 5 3 3 3 3 3 3

They say that I do not tell the truth at all When I - sing of my . pain, and that I real-ly

1
3 3 .3 , 3
k 3 3 3

BLj-^ji>i^Vpf.f r o . - : . - ! - Ji>^ r
j
Would - I had. -some sol - ace now. Sad ness in the midst

f
" ,
2 - u n i d

3 3 3 3 3 3
7 7
> -JL<U 3^
do re - joice_ in the de - lights _ of gen - tle Love. A - las! for not
o 3 3
-^**
of hap ness, Mel - an - chol

3 3 ^ 3 , 5 3 3 3 j

day goes by which does not end in grief

For the L a - dy whom I love in faith
8 3 3 3 3
1.TZ
pass ev - 'ry day. and night,

2 ; f;

304
Tums her heart a-gainst me, Filis each day with sad - ness So keep ing me
3 3 3 3

Mer onme, my La - dy, pit

m r - y me.
<> Tum - ing a-gainst me
cy.

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

and in tears . And she turns . all my ef - fort a-gainst my-self.

tt

For tune, friends, and all

m who lov'd me. Have

fe

3 , 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6

Not a word! my La - dy nev - er does re-ward my heart,which ev-er thinks of noth - ing but her.
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
m
m~& p f*
~f~'
= . 3

or does she show.an-y pit-y formy woe. And e-ven though- she knows well that I spend my time inthoughtsof
J 3 3 ,.. , 3 j)t

does my plight grow eas -i - er.

her, theslaveofmyde - sire, my heart_en-trapp'd by Love, And

want no cure or pit - y un-less it come from her,

' S
3 9 tt
de Love And fair la
bring.

a-

305
306
307
308
 A P P E N D I C E S

o
 Music Notation

M u s i c n o t a t i o n is a m e a n s o fc o m m u n i c a t i o n . O n ep e r s o n uses a s e t o fw r i t t e n s y m b o l s i no r d e r t o c o n v e y
to a n o t h e r h o w t o p r o d u c e a specific g r o u p o f s o u n d s . E a c h s y m b o l is a n i n s t r u c t i o n , t e l l i n g h o w t o realize
o n e o r m o r e attributes o fthe desired s o u n d .
T o m a k e t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n as e f f e c t i v e as possible, t h e s y m b o l s s h o u l d b e u s e d as c o n s i s t e n t l y as
possible, a n d they s h o u l d b e w r i t t e n legibly. A neat, clearly written page transmits t h ewriter's intentions
far better t h a n a page that distracts readers b y f o r c i n g t h e m t o decipher a careless o r inconsistent script.
Guidelines for music notation:

T h e n o t e h e a d , , s h o u l d b e t h e size o fo n e space 5. S t e m s s h o u l d a p p e a r o n t h e s t a f f w h e r e v e r possible:

o n t h emusic staff a n d oval shaped.
2. T h e s t e m , | , s h o u l d b e o n eoctave l o n g f o r a single
note.
3. I f t w o o r m o r e s t e m s a r e c o n n e c t e d b y a b e a m t h e T h e spacing o f t h e notes should correspond
s h o r t e s t s t e m s h o u l d b e a t least o n e o c t a v e l o n g . approximately with their duration i n time. T h u s ,
T h e b e a m s h o u l d n o t cross m o r e t h a n o n e staff Une,
u tr a t n e r

so t h a t o t h e r s t e m l e n g t h s m u s t b e l e n g t h e n e d not J J 'k J J) J
accordingly: S l u r s , ties, a n d l e g a t o m a r k i n g s s h o u l d c o n n e c t t h e
h e a d s o f t h e n o t e s , n o t t h e s t e m s o r flags.
I n vocal music, dynamics a n d expression markings
are w r i t t e n above t h e notes, t h ew o r d s below.
I n instrumental music o n o n e line, dynamics a n d
4 . S h a r p s a n d n a t u r a l s i g n s s h o u l d fill t h r e e s p a c e s o n
expression m a r k i n g s a r ew r i t t e n below t h e notes.
t h e s t a f f ; fats, t w o s p a c e s : $ ^ \ 7

10. I n i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c o n t w o Unes, d y n a m i c s a n d
expression m a r k i n g s a r ew r i t t e n between t h e lines.

F i n d a t least o n e a p p l i c a t i o n o f e a c h o f these guidelines e i t h e r i n this b o o k o r i n m u s i c y o u a r e n o w

practicing.

310
 Continuo Music

BACKGROUND I n t h e seventeenth century o n l y t h r e e p a r t s , a n d a r e a l i z a t i o n i s n e e d e d t o fill

musical texture began t o polarize at the extremes out t h e s o n o r i t y . B a c h ' s A i r , [32], leaves n o t h i n g f o r
o f t h e r a n g e , e m p h a s i z i n g s o p r a n o a n d bass lines. the c o n t i n u o p l a y e r t o d o , since all f o u r parts a r e
I n n e r parts w e r e subordinated t o a large extent. present a n d , indeed, elaborated.
C o m p o s e r s w e r e interested i na clearly etched m e l -
o d y s u p p o r t e d b y a c o n t i n u o u s bass. T h o s e t w o THE FIGURES F i g u r e d b a s s i s a k i n d o f m u s i c a l
lines i m p l i e d chords. T o m a k e those implications s h o r t h a n d . S i n c e t h e figures d o n ' t i n d c a t e w h e r e
m o r e specific, figures were placed under (some- the potes a p p e a r , octaves will o f t e n b e a d d e d t o
t i m e s o v e r ) t h e bass part. T h er e s u l t i n g " f i g u r e d the s i m p l e i n t e r v a l s o f t h e figured bass b y t h e
bass" w a s a practical guide f o r t h e performer, player. or d o t h e figures tell t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h
s h o w i n g a t a glance what intervals t h e composer the notes a r e p l a y e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e bass. T h e
w a n t e d o v e r t h e bass. figure 6, m e a n i n g a 3 c h o r d , m a y b e r e a l i z e d w i t h
T h e i n t e r v a l s indcate w h i c h n o t e s a r e t o b e a t o p U n ethat h a s t h e 6 t h , t h e 3 r d , o r e v e n t h e
p l a y e d , n o tt h e i r register; t h a t is u p t o t h e player, doubled bass n o t e .
w h o s e t a s k i s t o m a k e t h e c h o r d s flow t o g e t h e r i n
a musical way. W e m a y describe t h ew o r k o f t h e
O 41
k e y b o a r d p l a y e r a s a " r e a l i z a t i o n , " t h a t is, t o m a k e PL *
a Q
r%
*>
ffh
r e a l all t h esounds indicated b y t h e figures. t
-o-
\. O r
C O N T I N U O T h et e r m itself is a s h o r t f o r m o f
t h e I t a l i a n basso continuo, t h e c o n t i n u o u s b a s s o f 3 m a y be realized 3 6 6 6 6
3 3 3 3
B a r o q u e m u s i c . T h e w o r d continuo i n s e v e n t e e n t h -
a n d e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s c o r e s i n d i c a t e s t h e fig- I t t a k e s o n l y a f e w figures t o d i s t i n g u i s h o n e c h o r d
u r e d bass line. I t ' s also t h e m u s i c f o r t h e l o w from another. T orealize a figured bass, y o u m u s t
i n s t r u m e n t s ( u s u a l l y s t r i n g s ) t h a t play t h e bass know t h e chord abbreviations that a r e normally
together with t h e lower part o f the keyboard used. (See table o n p a g e 3 1 2 . )
instrument. T h e harpsichord was the favored O n l y t h e notes o f t h e diatonic scale a r e p l a y e d
i n s t r u m e n t f o rrealization o f secular music, while in t h erealization, w h i c h m e a n s that t h ek e y signa-
the o r g a n accompanied sacred music. t u r e is f o l l o w e d e x c e p t w h e r e accidentis a r e p r o -
Among o t h e r t h i n g s t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p a r t vided.
m a r k e d " c o n t i n u o " tells y o u t h a t a l lt h e n o t e s o f I n general: play t h e bass w i t h t h eleft h a n d a n d
t h e p i e c e a r e n ' t w r i t t e n i nt h escore. T h e r e m a y b e the u p p e r parts w i t h t h e r i g h t h a n d . W h i l e f o u r -
n o trace o f i n n e r voices, w h i c h a r e left t o t h e part realization is t h e n o r m , t h e r e a r e times w h e n
c o n t i n u o player t o realize. Practice varied f r o m three parts a r e sufficient. Fast m u s i c needs f e w e r
o n e c o m p o s e r t o a n o t h e r a n d f r o m o n e lcale t o notes i n r e a l i z a t i o n t h a n s l o w m u s i c .
a n o t h e r , a s e x a m p l e s i n t h e A n t h o l o g y Ilstrate. I f y o u find a n o t e w i t h o u t a figure following
T h e s c o r e s o f t h e T e l e m a n n o d e s , [29], a n d t h e figured notes, that note is probably a P o r N . H o l d
H a n d e l r e c i t a t i v e s , [37], i n c l u d e o n l y s o p r a n o a n d the c h o r d i n t h e r i g h t h a n d w h i l e t h e bass n o t e is
b a s s . T h eC o r e l l i t r i o s o n a t a m o v e m e n t , [221, i s i n played. (See s a m p l e realizations o n t h en e x t page.)
 symbol meaning

no figure 3 position o ft h e t r i a d

3 position o ft h e t r i a d
6 %position o ft h e triad
4

7
or 5 position o f a 7 t h chord

5 position o f a seventh chord

| position o fa 7 t h c h o r d

2 4
| position o f a 7 t h chord
n r

or 2

4-3 4 t h resolves t oa 3 r d
9-8 9 t h resolves t oa n octave
7- 6 7 t h resolves t oa6 t h
8- 7 7 t h passes f r o m octave
4j( o r i s h a r p e n (raise) t h e i n t e r v a l indicated
by a h a l f step
4t flatten (lower) the interval indicated
by a h a l f step
I sharpen t h e3 r d
flatten t h e3 r d
c a n c e l a s h a r p o r fat i n t h e k e y s i g -
nature

Sample realizations
37A]

F O L L O W - U P I f y o u play a keyboard instru-

work is Thoroughbass Method by Hermann Keller.
m e n t , m o r e a d v a n c e d w o r k i n figured b a s s r e a l i -
In includes not only instructions and selections
zation c a n benefit b o t h y o u r theoretical a n d practical
from the writings of Baroque musicians, but also
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m u s i c n o t t o m e n t i o n y o u r skill
examples of continuo music in many styles.
as a p e r f o r m e r . A v a l u a b l e b o o k f r o m w h i c h t o

312
 Cantus F i r m i
1. Major

fc*
2. Major
o
^ o

a
"IT n x r
3. Major

o o o
o

4. Minor
:ct;
o o

5. Minor

6. Minor

7. Dorian or Minor

<1
o o
8. Dorian or Minor

o Q in- r i o
J o o o
9. Phrygian

a t i o 3 E

10. Phrygian

u o
iiO O O-
11. Mixolydian

a n

12. Mixolydian or Major

"O" n

313
 G L O S S A R Y
Words appearing in SMALL CAPS i n the definitions a r ethemselves defined in the
a cappella ( I t . ) : u n a c c o m p a n i e d ( c h o r a l m u s i c ) .
adagio ( I t . ) : v e r y s l o w , s l o w e r t h a n LARGO i n t h e e i g h -
t e e n t h c e n t u r y , n o t c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m LENTO
in later times,
affetuoso ( I t . ) : w i t h t e n d e r f e e l i n g .
allegretto ( I t . ) : f a i r l y f a s t , b u t n o t a s f a s t a s ALLEGRO.
allegro ( I t . ) : f a s t , l i v e l y .
allemande ( F r . ) : a d a n c e o r i g i n a t i n g i n G e r m a n y ; i n
B a r o q u e S U I T E S , u s u a l l y t h e first m o v e m e n t , i n m o d -
rate T E M P O a n d 4 t i m e .
alto: ( 1 ) t h e l o w e r f e m a l e v o i c e ; ( 2 ) ( F r . ) t h e v i o l a .
andante ( I t . ) : l i t e r a l l y , " w a l k i n g " o r " g o i n g " ; a m o d e r -
a t e l y f a s t TEMPO i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t a k e n
somewhat slower in the nineteenth.
andantino ( I t . ) : a b i t f a s t e r t h a n ANDANTE.
antecedent phrase: t h e first PHRASE o f a t w o - p h r a s e
g r o u p t h a t c o m p r i s e s a PERIOD.
aria ( I t . ) : a i r o r s o n g ; u s e d t o d e n o t e a SOLO n u m b e r i n
a n o p e r a o r a n i n s t r u m e n t a l piece i n the style o f such
an operatic number.
arioso ( I t . ) : i n t h e m a n n e r o f a n ARIA; i n a s i n g i n g s t y l e .
arpeggiation: a p r o c e d u r e i n w h i c h t h e n o t e s o f a c h o r d
are p l a y e d successively r a t h e r t h a n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
atonal: w i t h o u t a c e n t e r o f t o n a l i t y o r K E Y .
authentic cadenee: t h e V - I C A D E N C E .
ballata ( I t . ) : a l a t e M e d i e v a l I t a l i a n p o e t i c f o r m a s s o c i -
ated w i t h t h em u s i c o f L a n d i n i ; t h et e r m also applies
to the music sett osuch poems.
bicinium ( L a t . ) : i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a t w o - p a r t
piece w r i t t e n f o rvoices b u t o f t e n played b y i n s t r u -
ments as well.
bourre ( F r . ) : a F r e n c h d a n c e t h a t a p p e a r s o c c a s i o n a l l y
i n B a r o q u e SUITES; u s u a l l y i n , starting with a n
UPBEAT o f t w o e i g h t h n o t e s , a n d f a s t e r t h a n a GAV-
OTTE.
glossary.
bransle o r branle ( F r . ) : a p o p u l a r d a n c e o f t h e s i x t e e n t h
a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , w i t h l i v e l y TEMPO. T h e
b r a n l e simple i s i n d u p l e M E T E R , t h e b r a n l e gai i n t r i p l e
METER.
caccia ( I t . ) : p o e t i c a n d m u s i c a l g e n r e d e s c r i b i n g a h u n t -
ing scene, p o p u l a r d u r i n g late M i d d l e Ages.
cadence: m e l o d i c a n d / o r c h o r d a l m o v e m e n t t o a g o a l a t
the e n d o f a PHRASE. A n y SCALE DEGREE t h a t c a n
s u p p o r t a CONSONANT T R I A D c a n b e t h e g o a l o f m o t i o n
and o f the cadence.
canon: l i t e r a l l y , " r u l e " ; a m u s i c a l p r o c e d u r e w h e r e b y
IMITATION i s c a r r i e d o u t e x a c t l y f o r a n e n t i r e p i e c e o r
section. T h e t e r m is also used f o r a piece s o w r i t t e n .
cantabile ( I t . ) : i n a s i n g i n g s t y l e .
cantillation: a t e r m a p p l i e d b o t h t o t h e p r a c t i c e b y w h i c h
t h e Od T e s t a m e n t i s s u n g i n t h e J e w i s h s e r v i c e a n d
to the m u s i c itself.
canto ( I t . ) : s o p r a n o .
cantus firmus ( L a t . ) : a M E L O D Y w h i c h i s g i v e n a n d m a y
not b e a l t e r e d , s e r v i n g as t h ebasis o fa c o m p o s i t i o n
or exercise.
cauda ( L a t . ) : l i t e r a l l y , " t a i l " ; i n M e d i e v a l m u s i c , t h e v e r y
e n d o f a piece.
cmbalo ( I t . ) : h a r p s i c h o r d .
chaconne ( F r . ) o r ciaconna ( I t . ) : a B a r o q u e c o n t i n u o u s
v a r i a t i o n f o r m based o n a r e p e a t e d bass p a t t e r n , like
t h e PASSACAGLIA; u s u a l l y i n t r i p l e METER a n d s l o w
TEMPO.
chanson: ( 1 ) i n R e n a i s s a n c e m u s i c , a s e c u l a r c h o r a l
piece, o f t e n i n less t h a n f o u r p a r t s ; s o m e a r e c h o r d a l ,
others quite linear; ( 2 )t h e F r e n c h w o r d f o r "song,"
a l t h o u g h t h e p r o p e r t e r m f o r " a r t s o n g " i s mlodie.
chant o r plainchant: u n a c c o m p a n i e d MELODY o f t h e
Christian churches.
chrale: t h e w o r d s a n d / o r m u s i c o f a c o n g r e g a t i o n a l
h y m n associated w i t h the Protestara c h u r c h w o r s h i p .
chromatic: l i t e r a l l y , " c o l o r f u l " ; u s i n g t h e five P I T C H
CLASSES t h a t a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e DIATONIC SCALE
o f a given key.
circle of 5ths: a l i s t o f t h e MAJOR K E Y S , a r r a n g e d a
perfect 5 t h apart, w h i c h m a y b e d i a g r a m e d asa circle.
I f t h e circle is read clockwise, t h e 5ths a r e seen
ascending, w i t h a progression t h r o u g h each o f t h e
MAJOR K E Y S .
coda ( I t . ) : l i t e r a l l y , " t a i l " ; a c o n c l u d i n g s e c t i o n o f a
composition.
color ( L a t . ) : t h e p i t c h p a t t e r n t h a t u n d e r g o e s r e p e t i t i o n
i n a M e d i e v a l ISORHYTHMIC MOTET.
compound interval: a n I N T E R V A L l a r g e r t h a n a n o c t a v e .
A m a j o r l O t h ( a 3 r d plus a n octave) is a c o m p o u n d
INTERVAL.
con anima ( I t . ) : w i t h s p i r i t .
con fuoco ( I t . ) : w i t h fire; l i v e l y .
conductus (Lat.): a M e d i e v a l style o fc o m p o s i t i o n f o r
o n e t o t h r e e v o i c e s , n o t b a s e d o n a p r e - e x i s t e n t CHANT.
I n c o n d u c t u s o f m o r e t h a n o n e voice, the voices m o v e
i n r h y t h m i c unisn, a f a c t o r w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m
f r o m all other Medieval polyphonic compositions.
consequent phrase: t h e s e c o n d PHRASE o f a t w o - p h r a s e
g r o u p t h a t c o m p r i s e s a PERIOD.
consonant: c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o o r m o r e s o u n d s w h i c h a r e
i n a stable r e l a t i o n s h i p t o each o t h e r .
continuo: s h o r t f o r basso continuo (It.); t h e continuous
bass characteristic o f B a r o q u e m u s i c . T h e t e r m refers
b o t h t o t h e b a s s l i n e i t s e l f , figured o r u n f i g u r e d , a n d
to t h e i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t p e r f o r m it, a k e y b o a r d i n s t r u -
m e n t and low strings o r winds.
contradanse ( F r . ) : c o u n t r y d a n c e , p o p u l a r i n t h e e i g h -
teenth a n dn i n e t e e n t h centuries.
316
contrapuntal progression: a g r o u p o f c h o r d s w h o s e
m o v e m e n t is c o n t r o l l e d b y t h eb a s s - s o p r a n o r e l a t i o n -
s h i p , u s u a l l y STEPWISE, r a t h e r t h a n b y r o o t m o v e -
ments.
contrary motion: m o v e m e n t o f t w o v o i c e s i n o p p o s i t e
directions.
c o u n t e r p o i n t : t h e a r t o f c o m b i n i n g MELODIES i n r e l a t i o n
to each other.
courante ( F r . ) o r corrente ( I t . ) : a d a n c e m o v e m e n t ,
u s u a l l y t h e s e c o n d i n a B a r o q u e SUITE, i n a l i v e l y
TEMPO, w i t h t h e M E T E R w r i t t e n b u t o f t e n v a r y i n g
b e t w e e n 1 a n d 4.
da capo ( I t . ) : r e p e a t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g .
diatonic: u s i n g t h e s e v e n n o t e s w h i c h c o m p r i s e t h e
SCALE o f a g i v e n KEY.
diatonic semitone: a H A L F STEP s p e l l e d w i t h t w o d i f f e r -
e n t l e t t e r amese.g., E F o r B C .
direct o r similar motion: m o v e m e n t o f t w o v o i c e s i n t h e
s a m e d i r e c t i o n , b u t c o v e r i n g d i f f e r e n t distances.
dissonant: c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o o r m o r e s o u n d s w h i c h a r e
in a n unstable relationship t o each other. T h i s rela-
t i o n s h i p g e n e r a t e s activity t o w a r d a m o r e stable s o u n d .
dolce ( I t . ) : s w e e t , g e n t l e .
dominant: ( 1 ) t h e fifth d e g r e e o f a MAJOR o r MINOR
SCALE; i t i s a m o r e a c t i v e n o t e t h a n t h e T O N I C ; ( 2 ) t h e
RECITING TONE i n a M e d i e v a l mode.
Dorian: o n e o f t h e M e d i e v a l MODES, a l s o u s e d i n f o l k
song. I t c a n b e f o u n d o n t h e piano b y playing t h e
white keys, starting o n D , f o r o n e octave.
double ( F r . ) : a v a r i a t i o n .
double neighbor o r D N : a f o u r - n o t e g r o u p c o n s i s t i n g o f
a m a i n note, f o l l o w e d b y l o w e r a n dupper (or u p p e r
a n d l o w e r ) NEIGHBORS a n d t h e m a i n n o t e a g a i n .
downbeat: t h e s t r o n g , e m p h a s i z e d p u l s e t h a t o c c u r s o n
t h e first b e a t o f a MEASURE.
d u p l u m ( L a t . ) : i n ORGANUM, t h e p a r t d i r e c t l y a b o v e t h e
TENOR.
cossaise ( F r . ) : S c o t t i s h d a n c e .
enharmonic: change o f spelling without change o f sound
(in a system u s i n g e q u a l - t e m p e r e d t u n i n g ) . T h u s , G l
is Fjt s p e l l e d e n h a r m o n i c a l l y .
fauxbourdon ( F r . ) o r falso bordone ( I t . ) : o r i g i n a l l y , a
p e r f o r m a n c e practice i n w h i c h t h elowest o f three
lines w o u l d b e s u n g a n octave h i g h e r t h a n w r i t t e n ,
t u r n i n g w h a t a p p e a r e d t ob e a succession o f parallel
3rds i n t o a succession o fparallel 6ths; a m i d d l e voice
extemporized a 4 t h below t h etransposed voice c o m -
p l e t e d t h e s o n o r i t y o f p a r a l l e l f TRIADS. I n t h e l a t e r
M i d d l e A g e s , a s t y l e i n w h i c h p a r a l l e l FIRST-INVERSION
TRIADS a r e u s e d a s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t s o n o r i t y .
first inversin: t h e 6 o r 3 p o s i t i o n o f a T R I A D , o r t h e |
p o s i t i o n o f a SEVENTH CHORD.
gaillarde ( F r . ) : a l i v e l y d a n c e , u s u a l l y i n t r i p l e M E T E R ,
popular i n the Renaissance. I t often f o r m s a pair with
t h e s l o w e r PAVANE, u s i n g t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l .
gavotte ( F r . ) : a B a r o q u e d a n c e t y p e i n ,i n moderately
f a s t T E M P O , u s u a l l y b e g i n n i n g w i t h a n UPBEAT o f t w o
 q u a r t e r notes. T h e gavotte is n o t o n e o fthe "obliga-
t o r y " n U m b e r s i n a SUITE, b u t i s o f t e n a d d e d .
gigue ( F r . ) : o r i g i n a l l y a B r i t i s h s a i l o r s ' d a n c e w i t h a
triplet r h y t h m .
grave ( I t . ) : v e r y s l o w , s l o w e r t h a n L E N T O .
grazioso ( I t . ) : g r a c e f u l l y .
g r o u n d bass o r basso ostinato ( I t . ) : a r e p e a t e d b a s s l i n e
o n w h i c h a s e t o f c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a t i o n s is b u i l t .
h a l f cadenee: a t e r m u s e d b y s o m e t h e o r i s t s t o d e s c r i b e
a C A D E N C E o n a SCALE DEGREE o t h e r t h a n 1 .
half step o r semitone: t h e s m a l l e s t INTERVAL i n t h e
t e m p e r e d SCALEe.g.,E - F o r G j t - A .
h a r m o n i c progression: d e f i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y b y v a r i o u s
7
t h e o r i s t s , but h e r e t a k e n s i m p l y a s V - I o r V - I .
h a r m o n i c prolongation: t h e r e i t e r a t i o n o f I - V - I , s t a b i -
lizing t h e TONIC
harmony: ( 1 ) s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e V - I p r o g r e s s i o n o n a n y
SCALE DEGREE i n w h i c h t h e r o o t m o v e m e n t is i n c o n -
t r o l ; (2) i ng e n e r a l , a n aesthetic t e r m used t o describe
t h e w a y i nw h i c h chords and progressions sound in a
p i e c e e . g . , " W a g n e r ' s h a r m o n y is r i c h a n d c o l o r f u l . "
hemiola: a r h y t h m i c a l t e r a t i o n i n w h i c h t w o MEASURES
i n 4a r e p e r f o r m e d as o n e m e a s u r e o f |.
heterophony: a p e r f o r m a n c e p r a c t i c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
F a r E a s t e r n music, i nw h i c h different versions o f one
MELODY a r e s u n g a t t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h little r e g a r d
f o r the simultaneous sounds produced.
imitation: a way o f s e t t i n g f o r t h t h e v a r i o u s REGISTERS
b y i n t r o d u c i n g a m e l o d i c idea successively o n each
level.
i n c o m p l e t e n e i g h b o r o rI N : a two-note group consisting
o f a NEIGHBOR n o t e e i t h e r p r e c e d e d o r f o l l o w e d b y
the m a i n note.
interval: t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t w o n o t e s , d e r i v e d f r o m
SCALE DEGREES ( 2 n d , 3 r d )o r e x p r e s s e d b y t h e n u m b e r
o f SEMITONES c o n t a i n e d .
inversin: ( 1 ) t h e p r o c e d u r e b y w h i c h t h e l o w e r n o t e o f
a n INTERVAL i s r a i s e d a n o c t a v e o r t h e u p p e r n o t e i s
l o w e r e d a n octave; (2) t h e position o f a chord i n
w h i c h t h e bass is n o t t h e r o o t t h e | position o fa
T R I A D i s c a l l e d t h e FIRST INVERSIN, t h e f p o s i t i o n o f
a T R I A D i s c a l l e d t h e SECOND INVERSIN; ( 3 ) a t r a n s f o r -
m a t i o n o f a M E L O D Y i n w h i c h a l l a s c e n d i n g INTERVALS
b e c o m e d e s c e n d i n g INTERVALS o f t h e s a m e s i z e , a n d
a l l d e s c e n d i n g INTERVALS b e c o m e a s c e n d i n g NTER-
V A L S o f t h e s a m e s i z e : ( 4 ) a p r o c e d u r e u s e d i n ATONAL
m u s i c i n w h i c h a r o w o rseries iss o t r a n s f o r m e d that
e a c h INTERVAL i s r e p l a c e d b y its c o m p l e m e n t , f o u n d
b y s u b t r a c t i n g t h e n u m b e r o f SEMITONES i n t h a t
INTERVAL f r o m 1 2 .
isorhythmic: i n M e d i e v a l m u s i c , a p i e c e t h a t c o n t a i n s a n
e x t e n s i v e r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n ( T A L E A ) i n t h e TENOR,
w h i c h is e n t i r e l y r e p e a t e d a t least once i n t h e course
o f t h e piece, sometimes i n conjunction w i t h t h e repe-
t i t i o n o f a n e x t e n s i v e m e l o d i c p a t t e r n (COLOR) a s w e l l .
key: " i n t h e k e y o f X" m e a n s t h a t X i s t h e n o t e t o w h i c h
a l l o t h e r n o t e s i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e r e l a t e d ; X is t h e
TONIC
317
key signature: t h e a r r a y o f s h a r p s o r fats t h a t t e l l s w h a t
t h e KEY o f a p i e c e i s b y showng a s p e c i f i c g r o u p i n g
o f H A L F STEPS a n d W H O L E STEPS. T h e k e y s i g n a t u r e
c a n n o t s h o w t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n MAJOR a n d MINOR;
only the music can.
koto: a J a p a n e s e s t r i n g e d i n s t r u m e n t , p l a y e d b y p l u c k -
ing the strings.
Landini cadence: t h e m e l o d i c e n d i n g i n w h i c h t h e l e a d -
i n g n o t e , i n s t e a d o f m o v i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e TONIC, i s
elaborated b y m o v i n g t o 6, t h e n t o the TONIC
larghetto ( I t ) : n o t a s b r o a d ( s l o w ) a s LARGO.
larghissimo ( I t . ) : l i t e r a l l y , " v e r y b r o a d " ; b y i m p l i c a t i o n ,
very slow.
largo ( I t . ) : b r o a d , s l o w .
legato ( I t . ) : s m o o t h a n d c o n n e c t e d .
lento ( I t . ) : q u i t e s l o w , b u t n o t a s s l o w a s GRAVE o r ADAGIO
until t h enineteenth century, w h e n t h e distinctions
b e t w e e n t h e s e t e r m s b e c a m e less c o n s i s t e n t .
Lydian: o n e o f t h e M e d i e v a l MODES. T O find t h e L y d i a n
m o d e o n t h e p i a n o , p l a y a SCALE o n t h e w h i t e n o t e s ,
starting with E .
major scale: a p a r t i c u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f s t e p s w i t h
s e v e n d i f f e r e n t l e t t e r a m e s . T h e INTERVALS t h a t s p e l l
out the major s c a l e a r e WHOLE STEP, WHOLE S TE P,
H A L F STE P , WHOLE SEP, WHOLE STEP, WHOLE S TE P,
HALF STEP. A t t h e last INTERVAL, t h e initial PITCH
CLASS r e t u r n s , a n d t h e S C A L E i s c o m p l e t e .
measure: t h e u n i t o f t h e p r e d o m i n a n t , r e g u l a r g r o u p i n g
o f pulses f o u n d i n m o s t music, s othat w ec o u n t t w o ,
t h r e e , o r f o u r b e a t s a s a unit. What we hear as such a
u n i t is called a measure. Visually, t h e u n i t is repre-
sented b y the space between t w o barlines.
melisma: i n C H A N T , t h e g r o u p o f n o t e s s u n g t o o n e
sy Hable.
m e l i s m a t i c : a florid s t y l e o f C H A N T o r , b y e x t e n s i n , o f
melodic writing.
melody: a n i n f o r m a l t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a s u c c e s s i o n
o f notes w h i c h c a n b e perceived as a n aesthetic unit.
W e saythat t h e m e l o d y o ft h e piece is usually i n t h e
t o p line, voice o r i n s t r u m e n t , b u t bass lines a n d i n n e r
voices m a y also h a v e m e l o d y .
meter: t h e g r o u p i n g o f p u l s e s w h i c h w e h e a r a s a u n i t .
T h e most c o m m o n meters are two, three, a n d four
beats: these a r e s i m p l e meters. C o m p o u n d meters
i n c l u d e six, n i n e , a n dtwelve beats.
meter sign o r time signature: t h e r u b r i c w h i c h i n d i c a t e s
t h e M E T E R . T h e u p p e r figure s h o w s t h e n u m b e r o f
b e a t s i n a M E A S U R E , t h e l o w e r s h o w s t h e valu o f t h e
n o t e t h a t r e c e i v e s o n e b e a t . T h e o n l y METERS w h o s e
signs a r e n o tindicated i n n u m b e r s a r e C , w h i c h is
t h e s a m e a s a n d 0 , w h i c h i s t h e s a m e a s .
minor scale: d i f f e r s f r o m t h e MAJOR S C A L E i n i t s d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f WHOLE STEPS a n d HALF STEPS.
minuet: a d a n c e i n t r i p l e M E T E R , t h e T E M P O m o d e r a t e l y
fast. U n t i l a b o u t 1 7 6 0 t h e m i n u e t is i n b i n a r y f o r m ;
thereafter, it is i n r o u n d e d binary f o r m .
mode: a c o l l e c t i o n o f p i t c h e s i n a s p e c i f i c i n t e r v a l l i c
order.
 lode mixture: t h e u s e o f n o t e s f r o m m o r e t h a n o n e
MODE o v e r a g i v e n TONIC.
l o d u l a t i o n : a c h a n g e o f K E Y , m e a n i n g t h a t PHRASE e n d s
o n a d i f f e r e n t TONIC f r o m t h e o n e o n w h i c h i t b e g a n .
Large-scale t o n a l m o v e m e n t is o f t e n d e s c r i b e d as
modulation.
t o t e t : ( 1 ) I n M e d i e v a l m u s i c , a p i e c e b u i l t o n a TENOR
d e r i v e d f r o m CHANT, u s u a l l y i n t h r e e v o i c e s ; e a c h
voice m a yhave a different text; ( 2 )i n t h e Renais-
sance, a setting o f a sacred t e x t f o rvoices, o f t e n i n
imitative style.
otive: a s h o r t , c l e a r y r e c o g n i z a b l e m e l o d i c i d e a u s e d
as t h e b a s i s o f a p i e c e o r s e c t i o n o f a p i e c e . T h e p i t c h
and/or r h y t h m i c ascepts o ft h e m o t i v e a r e developed
into the melodic material o f the work.
eighbor note o r N : a n e m b e l l i s h i n g n o t e a SCALE s t e p
above o r below a m a i n melodic note,
eumatic: i n C H A N T , a s t y l e i n w h i c h u p t o f o u r n o t e s
( r e p r e s e n t e d i n CHANT n o t a t i o n b y o n e s y m b o l o r
n e u m e ) a r esung t o one syllable.
bbligato: n e s s e n t i a l i n s t r u m e n t a l p a r t . I n s o m e e i g h -
t e e n t h - c e n t u r y SONATAS f o r v i o l i n a n d p i a n o , t h e
violin iso p t i o n a l ; w h e n the c o m p o s e r w a n t e d t o e n s u r e
t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e v i o l i n p a r t , h e i n d i c a t e d i t as
"violin obbligato."
blique motion: t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o v o i c e s i n w h i c h
one moves while the other remains o none note.
rganum ( L a t . ) : a c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e i n w h i c h o n e
o r m o r e v o i c e s w e r e first i m p r o v i s e d , l a t e r c o m p o s e d ,
a g a i n s t t h e n o t e s o f a CHANT.
larallel major: t h e m a j o r K E Y b u i l t o n t h e s a m e T O N I C
as a g i v e n m i n o r KEY k n o w n a s t h e PARALLEL M I N O R
e.g., t h e p a r a l l e l m a j o r o f C m i n o r is C m a j o r .
>arallel minor: t h e m i n o r K E Y b u i l t o n t h e s a m e T O N I C
as a g i v e n m a j o r KEY k n o w n a s t h e PARALLEL MAJOR
e.g., t h e p a r a l l e l m i n o r o f D m a j o r i s D m i n o r .
arallel motion: t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o v o i c e s i n w h i c h
b o t h m o v e t h e s a m e distance i nt h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n .
mrtita ( I t . ) : see S U I T E .
lassacaglia ( I t . ) o r passacaille ( F r . ) : a c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a -
t i o n f o r m b u i l t o v e r a r e c u r r i n g b a s s , l i k e t h e CHA-
CONNE. T h e distincton b e t w e e n p a s s a c a g l i a a n d
CHACONNE w a s a p p a r e n d y o f n o s i g n i f i c a n c e t o B a r o q u e
musicians.
>assing note o r P: a n o t e filling t h e INTERVAL o f a 3 r d
w i t h STEPWISE m o t i o n . A P m a y b e CONSONANT o r
DISSONANT, o n a w e a k b e a t o r a s t r o n g b e a t ; i f t h e
latter, i tisa n accented P (P).
lavana ( I t . ) o r pavane ( F r . ) : a d a n c e o f t h e s i x t e e n t h
a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , i n s l o w TEMPO a n d d u p l e
METER.
>edal point: a n o t e ( p o i n t ) o r i g i n a l l y p l a y e d o n t h e p e d a l
o f the o r g a n , sustained w h i l e o t h e r voices m o v e o v e r
i t . B y extensin, a l o n g - h e l d n o t e , u s u a l l y i n t h e
lowest part o f any piece.
>entatonic scale: a S C A L E t h a t h a s five n o t e s t o t h e
octave.
318
p e r i o d : a g r o u p o f t w o o r m o r e PHRASES.
phrase: a c o m p l e t e u n i t o f m e l o d i c a n d c h o r d a l t h o u g h t ,
e n d i n g w i t h a CADENCE.
Phrygian: o n e o f t h e M e d i e v a l MODES. T O find t h e
P h r y g i a n MODE o n t h e p i a n o , p l a y a SCALE o n t h e
w h i t e notes, starting w i t h E .
piano ( I t . ) : s o f t l y , a b b r e v i a t e d p .
pitch class: a g r o u p o f a l l p i t c h e s w i t h t h e s a m e l e t t e r
ame.
pivot chord: a c h o r d t h a t i s u s e d t o m a k e a t r a n s i t i o n
f r o m o n e KEY rea t o a n o t h e r , h a v i n g a f u n c t i o n i n
both. I nthis book, the abbreviation for a pivot chord
reads " A major V I / E major I I , " meaning " V I i nA
major becomes I I i nE major."
polyphony: t h e a r t o f c o m b i n i n g t w o o r m o r e m e l o d i c
lines i na coherent m a n n e r , relating each part t o t h e
o t h e r s . T h e c h o r d s t h a t r e s u l t f r o m t h e flow o f s i m u l -
t a n e o u s MELODIES a r e p o l y p h o n i c c h o r d s .
prelude ( F r . ) : o r preludio ( I t . ) : i n B a r o q u e m u s i c , a
short introductory piece often based o n a single
melodic figuration. W h i l e C h o p i n ' s Preludes are not
i n t r o d u c t o r y , they r e t a i n t h en o t i o n o fa piece based
o n a single idea. T h e t e r m is also u s e d f o ra short
i n t r o d u c t o r y piece i n a n opera.
presto ( I t . ) : v e r y f a s t .
quinto ( I t . ) : i n R e n a i s s a n c e m u s i c , t h e fifth p a r t . U s u a l l y ,
it h a s t h e s a m e r a n g e as o n e o f t h e o t h e r f o u r voices,
w i t h w h i c h it crosses frequently.
recitative ( F r . a n d E n g . ) o r recitativo ( I t . ) : i n o p e r a a n d
in genres d e r i v e d f r o m i t , a style o f vocal w r i t i n g
designed m o r e for comprehension o f the words than
m e l o d i c interest: t h e r e is usually o n e n o t e t oa sylla-
ble, a n d t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t is simple. Recitative
a c c o m p a n i e d o n l y b y a CONTINUO i s k n o w n a s recita-
tivo secco; t h a t w h i c h i s s u p p o r t e d b y a n e n s e m b l e i s
k n o w n a s recitativo accompagnato. B o t h types may be
f o u n d i n t h e s a m e w o r k , a s i n M o z a r t ' s Don Giovanni.
reciting tone o r reciting note: t h e d o m i n a n t o r t o n e o f
t e n s i n i n a M e d i e v a l MODE.
reduction: (1) the process o f d e t e r m i n i n g the m a i n notes
o f a piece as d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e e m b e l l i s h i n g
n o t e s , a n d t h u s d e f i n i n g t h e TONAL S T R U C T U R E ; ( 2 )
the practice o fa r r a n g i n g a c o m p o s i t i o n scored f o r a
large n u m b e r o f instruments, such as a n orchestra,
for a smaller ensemble o r for piano..
register: a n i n f o r m a l t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i b e o n e s e g m e n t
o f the total compass o f pitches o f a piece; w e speak o f
"high register" a n d " l o w register" w i t h o u t usually
d e f i n i n g specific notes.
relative major: t h e m a j o r K E Y w h o s e T O N I C i s a m i n o r
3 r d h i g h e r t h a n that o fa g i v e n m i n o r w i t h the s a m e
KEY S I G N A T U R E e . g . , C m a j o r i s t h e r e l a t i v e m a j o r o f
A minor.
relative minor: t h e m i n o r K E Y w h o s e T O N I C i s a m i n o r
3rd lower than that o fa given major with t h e same
KEY S I G N A T U R E e . g . , D m i n o r i s t h e r e l a t i v e m i n o r
of F major.
rhythm: a t e r m i n c l u d i n g a l l a s p e c t s r e l a t i n g t o t h e flw
 o f m u s i c t h r o u g h t i m e , T E M P O a n d METER a r e i m p o r -
tant aspects o f r h y t h m .
ritardando ( I t . ) : s l o w i n g . T h i s s h o u l d b e a b b r e v i a t e d
ritard., b u t i s o f t e n a b b r e v i a t e d rit., i n w h i c h c a s e i t
m a y b e c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r RITENUTO.
ritenuto ( I t . ) : h e l d b a c k , s l o w e r . T h i s s h o u l d b e a b b r e -
v i a t e d riten., b u t i s o f t e n a b b r e v i a t a e d rit., i n w h i c h
case i t m a y b e c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r
RITARDANDO.
ritornello: a r e c u r r i n g r e f r a i n , u s u a l l y f o u n d i n s u c h
B a r o q u e g e n r e s a s o p e r a ARIA a n d c o n c e r t m o v e -
ments.
sarabande ( F r . ) : a s l o w d a n c e i n t r i p l e M E T E R , u s u a l l y
f o u n d i n B a r o q u e SUITES.
scale: a STEPWISE a r r a n g e m e n t o f a g r o u p o f n o t e s . T h e
DIATONIC s c a l e o f a g i v e n K E Y i s b u i l t o n t h e T O N I C o f
t h a t KEY. S c a l e s t h a t i m p l y n o KEY i n c l u d e t h e CHRO-
M A T I C a n d W H O L E - T O N E SCALES.
scale degree: t h e o r d e r n u m b e r o f a n o t e t h a t i s p a r t o f
a DIATONIC SCALE.
second i n v e r s i n : t h e \ p o s i t i o n o f a T R I A D , o r t h e
4 p o s i t i o n o f a SEVENTH CHORD.
semitone: see H A L F S T E P .
sequence: r e p e t i t i o n o f a M O T I V E o n a h i g h e r o r l o w e r
SCALE D E G R E E . S o m e t h e o r i s t s t a k e t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t a
s i n g l e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e MOTIVE d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e a
sequence, and t w o repetitions a r e required.
seventh chord: a f o u r - n o t e c h o r d b u i l t i n s u p e r i m p o s e d
3rds over the root.
siciliano ( I t . ) : a S i c i l i a n d a n c e i n % t i m e o f m o d r a t e
tempo.
similar motion: t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o v o i c e s i n w h i c h
both move i n the s a m e d i r e c t i o n b u t d o n o t c o v e r t h e
same distance.
simple interval: a n INTERVAL o f a n o c t a v e o r s m a l l e r .
skip o r S: d i s j u n c t m o t i o n t h a t i s , m e l o d i c m o t i o n
l a r g e r t h a n a WHOLE TONE.
S o l o . * literally, "one," "alone"; d e n o t e s a p a s s a g e p l a y e d
by a single i n s t r u m e n t o rs u n g b yo n e voice. T h e
soloists i n a p e r f o r m a n c e are t h e l e a d i n g p e r f o r m e r s .
sonata: a c o m p o s i t i o n i n m o r e t h a n o n e m o v e m e n t f o r
one o rt w o instruments. I nB a r o q u e music, a compo-
sition for one i n s t r u m e n t alone (rare), one instrument
a n d CONTINUO ( t h e " s o l o s o n a t a " ) , o r t w o i n s t r u m e n t s
a n d CONTINUO ( t h e " t r i o s o n a t a " ) . L a t e r , a c o m p o s i -
tion f o r piano o ro n e i n s t r u m e n t a n dpiano. T h e
t e r m implies a seriousness o f structure a n d concept.
sostenuto ( I t . ) : s u s t a i n e d .
stepwise: c o n j u n c t m o t i o n , m e l o d i c m o t i o n o f a SEMI-
TONE O r a WHOLE TONE.
suite: i n B a r o q u e m u s i c , a s e t o f s t y l i z e d d a n c e p i e c e s ,
all i n t h e s a m e KEY. T h e r e a r e f o u r m o v e m e n t s w h i c h
m a y b e called "obligatory" m o v e m e n t s , because they
are usually present i n suites o f B a c h , H a n d e l , a n d
Rameau: ALLEMANDE, COURANTE, SARABANDE, a n d
GIGUE. L a t e r , t h e t e r m i s u s e d i n f o r m a l l y t o d e s c r i b e
a w o r k i n s e v e r a l m o v e m e n t s t h a t i s m o r e l i k e a lose
collection o f pieces t h a n a closely k n i t entity. A n o t h e r
t e r m f o r s u i t e is partita.
suspensin o r SUS: a d i s s o n a n c e t e c h n i q u e w h i c h i n c l u d e s
t h r e e stages(1) p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e n o t e t o b e sus-
p e n d e d asa consonance, o nthe w e a k beat; (2) m o t i o n
o f a n o t h e r voice t o p u t t h e s u s p e n d e d voice i na
DISSONANT r e l a t i o n w i t h i t , o n t h e s t r o n g b e a t ; ( 3 )
resolution o f the suspended note t oa consonance, o n
the w e a k beat.
syllabic: i n C H A N T , t h e s t y l e i n w h i c h o n e n o t e i s s u n g t o
each syllable.
talea ( L a t . ) : i n a M e d i e v a l I S O R H Y T H M I C M O T E T , t h e
r e p e a t e d r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n o f a TENOR p a r t .
tarantella ( I t . ) : a l i v e l y I t a l i a n d a n c e , u s u a l l y i n %.
tema ( I t . ) : t h e m e .
tempo: t h e r a t e o f s p e e d .
tenor: ( 1 ) t h e h i g h e r m a l e v o i c e ; ( 2 ) i n M e d i e v a l m u s i c ,
t h e p a r t t h a t h o l d s ( L a t . , tenere) t h e n o t e s o f C H A N T
o n w h i c h a MOTET i s b a s e d .
tenore ( I t . ) : t h e t e n o r v o i c e .
ternary form: t h r e e - p a r t f o r m , i n w h i c h t h e m i d d l e p a r t
introduces n e wmaterial a n d t h e third part repeats
t h e first l i t e r a l l y o r i n v a r i e d f o r m .
time signature: see M E T E R S I G N .
toccata: i nB a r o q u e music, a piece f o r k e y b o a r d i n s t r u -
m e n t i n a free, o f t e n i m p r o v i s a t i o n a l style. I n t h e
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e t e r m isused f o r a brilliant o r
energetic piece f o r any i n s t r u m e n t a l c o m b i n a t i o n .
tonal: a p p l i e d t o m u s i c t h a t h a s a K E Y c e n t e r o r T O N I C
tonic: t h e n o t e i n a p i e c e t h a t a c t s a s t h e c e n t e r o f
gravity, t ow h i c h all others a r e related. I tis t h e m o s t
s t a b l e n o t e . M u s i c t h a t h a s n o t o n i c i s ATONAL.
tonicization: t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h a SCALE D E G R E E o t h e r
t h a n 1t e m p o r a r i l y functions asTONIC
transposition: m o v i n g t h e e n t i r e b o d y of a piece or
g r o u p o fnotes higher o rlower, while keeping their
relationship intact.
traverso ( I t . ) o r flauto traverso ( I t . ) : t h e t r a n s v e r s e flute
that is, t h e m o d e r n i n s t r u m e n t , w h i c h ish e l d h o r i -
z o n t a l l y , a s o p p o s e d t o t h e recorder, which is held
vertically.
triad: a t h r e e - n o t e c h o r d c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o s u p e r i m -
posed 3rds over a root.
tritone: t h e i n t e r v a l s o f a d i m i n i s h e d 5 t h o r a u g m e n t e d
4 t h , b o t h m e a s u r i n g six SEMITONESe.g.,F B .
tutti ( I t . ) : a l l , t h e e n t i r e e n s e m b l e .
upbeat: a n i n f o r m a l t e r m f o r t h e w e a k b e a t p r e c e d i n g
t h e s t r o n g o r DOWNBEAT t h a t b e g i n s a m e a s u r e .
vers m e s u r ( F r . ) : a F r e n c h R e n a i s s a n c e p o e t i c p r a c t i c e
in w h i c h each line o f verse follows a strict f o r m u l a o f
l o n g a n d s h o r t beats.
villanella ( I t . ) : a l i g h t c h o r a l p i e c e p o p u l a r i n t h e l a t e
Renaissance.
violone ( I t . ) : t h e l o w e s t m e m b e r o f t h e v i o l f a m i l y o f
i n s t r u m e n t s , u s e d f o r B a r o q u e BASSO C O N T I N U O p a r t s .
volta ( I t . ) : t i m e o r t u r n , a s i n prima volta, " t h e first t i m e . "
whole tone o r whole step: a n INTERVAL m a d e u p o f t w o
HALF S T E P S ; a m a j o r 2 n d e . g . , C - D .
whole-tone scale: o n e o f t h e t w o SCALES m a d e u p o f s i x
WHOLE TONES t o t h e o c t a v e .
 W O R K S H E E T S

>

i
 ame Date

Worksheet 1

1 . W r i t e a l l t h e A s t h a t y o u c a n find o n t h e p i a n o k e y b o a r d .

2. W r i t e t h e k e y s i g n a t u r e f o r e a c h o f t h e t w e l v e m a j o r s c a l e s b e l o w . S t a r t w i t h C m a j o r . P r o -
c e e d t o t h e k e y t h a t h a s as its s i g n a t u r e o n e sharp, w h i c h is m a j o r . I t s t o n i c is a
h i g h e r t h a n C . Continu t h e series b y a d d i n g o n e s h a r p f o r e a c h k e y . A t t h e e n d o f
the line, t h ekey signature o f sharps applies t o t h ekey o f major. Write t h e
ame o f each k e y u n d e r t h e staff. T h e s e (except C ) a r es o m e t i m e s called t h e s h a r p keys.

i C major
i i
A n o t h e r w a y o f s p e l l i n g F|t is \>. S t a r t t h e n e x t l i n e w i t h t h e k e y t h a t u s e s s i x fats i n
its s i g n a t u r e , m a j o r . C o n t i n u t h e s e r i e s w i t h t h e fat k e y s .

& _ i _ i

3 . W h a t a r e t h e c h r o m a t i c n o t e s i n t h e k e y o f A\> m a j o r ?
W h a t are the chromatic notes i n the key o f D major?
W h a t are the chromatic notes i n the key o f F major?
W h a t are the chromatic notes i n the key o f A major?
4. A b o v e e a c h n o t e w r i t e a n o t h e r n o t e t o c o m p l e t e t h e i n t e r v a l .

5. B e l o w e a c h n o t e w r i t e a n o t h e r t o c o m p l e t e t h e g i v e n i n t e r v a l .
major minor perfect perfect major perfect minor major major major
7th 2nd octave 4th 6th 5th 6th 2nd 3rd 7th

b* - = 3 ~ =
 i. A b o v e e a c h i n t e r v a l w r i t e i t s a m e .

7. S t a r t i n g f r o m a n y n o t e , w r i t e t h e f o l l o w i n g i n t e r v a l s :

perfect major major major augmented major minor diminished

minor
4th 3rd 2nd 6th 7th 4th 2nd 3rd 5th

8 . N e x t t o e a c h i n t e r v a l w r i t e i t s inversin. a m e t h e r e s u l t .

major minor perfect minor major minor

3rd 6th 4th 2nd 6th 3rd

E35

55
major major perfect diminished minor
7th 3rd 4th 5th 6th

9. T h e t h r e e n o t e s F G A m a y b e scale d e g r e e s tn m a j o r . T h e y m a y also

be scale d e g r e e s in major.
T h e t w o n o t e s F | G m a y b e scale d e g r e e s in m a j o r . T h e y m a y also b e
scale d e g r e e s in major.

T h e t w o n o t e s G - A m a y b e scale d e g r e e s in C major. T h e y m a ya l s o b e ( a s

m a n y as possible)-
10. C h a n g e e a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s i m p l e intervals i n t o c o m p o u n d i n t e r v a l s . I d e n t i f y b o t h .
minor minor
3rd lOth
0 " _

o 1~iz -*
1 #* 3
11. Reduce each o f the f o l l o w i n g c o m p o u n d intervals t o simple intervals. Identify both.

major major
9th 2nd \>m.
, m -* 1
-fim.n rA
\ w 0
1

i
 ame Date

Worksheet 2

1. A b o v e e a c h n o t e w r i t e t h e n o t e t h a t c o m p l e t e s t h e g i v e n i n t e r v a l .
major diminished minor augmented minor major diminished augmented minor
3rd 4th 2nd 5th 7th lOth 5th 4th 9th

2. B e l o w each n o t e write the n o t e that completes the given interval.

major augmented major minor diminished augmented minor perfect major

l9th 4th 7th 6th 5th 5th 7th 12th 9th
17 O
m
3 . N e x t t o e a c h i n t e r v a l w r i t e i t s inversin. a m e b o t h .

augmented diminished
5th 4th
JO X

4. W r i t e t h e s c a l e o f t h e D o r i a n m o d e , d e s c e n d i n g , s t a r t i n g o n G . A d d accidentis a s n e e d e d .

5. W r i t e t h e s c a l e o f t h e P h r y g i a n m o d e , d e s c e n d i n g , s t a r t i n g o n A . A d d accidentis a s n e e d e d .

6 . W r i t e t h e s c a l e o f t h e M i x o l y d i a n m o d e , d e s c e n d i n g , s t a r t i n g o n C . A d d accidentis a s n e e d e d .
Study these nine versions o f a 6 t h .
W r i t e as m a n y v e r s i o n s o f a 3 r d as y o u c a n . ame e a c h .
W r i t e as m a n y v e r s i o n s o f a 5 t h as y o u c a n . ame e a c h .

T h e relative m a j o r o f G m i n o r is ; the parallel m a j o r is

T h e relative m i n o r o f m a j o r is ; t h e parallel m i n o r is
T h e parallel m i n o r o f m a j o r is ; the relative m i n o r is
T r a n s p o s e The Ash Grove t o A\> m a j o r i n t h e b a s s c l e f .
 ame Date

Worksheet 3

1. O v e r e a c h n o t e o f t h i s c h a n t w r i t e R ( r o o t ) , 3 r d , o r 5 t h i f the n o t e is a m e m b e r o f t h e t r i a d
a n d N , I N , P, o r SP over the other notes.

Ag-nus De - i qui tol - lis pec-ca - ta mun - di mi - se - re - re no - bis.

2 . W h a t is t h e k e y o f t h e c h a n t a b o v e ? W h a t is t h e m o d e ?

3 . T r a n s p o s e Nobody Knows t o E m a j o r .

L h
m

ii#a
y ,

4. W r i t e t h e scale o f t h e D o r i a n m o d e , a s c e n d i n g , s t a r t i n g on E .

'ff =
W r i t e t h e scale o f t h e P h r y g i a n m o d e , a s c e n d i n g , s t a r t i n g o n B .

4
W r i t e t h e scale o f t h e M i x o l y d i a n m o d e , a s c e n d i n g , starting o n B
 ame Date

Worksheet 4

1. F i l l i n t h e b l a n k m e a s u r e s b e l o w w i t h t e n d i f f e r e n t r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e g i v e n
meter.

iisrrirri^ri i i i i i
H

U
U

i i r r r r ir r n r _ r r rj-r
i i i i

ii it l l / r_zr i LU r girjr_rpr
i i i

2 . H e r e i s t h e m e l o d y o f a f a m o u s chrale a s i t a p p e a r e d i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A s y o u c a n
see, t h e r e a r e n o b a r l i n e s a n d n o o v e r a l l m e t e r . T h e h a l f n o t e is t h e basic beat, i n d i c a t e d b y
t h e 2 f o l l o w i n g t h e k e y s i g n a t u r e . T h e final n o t e ^ is e q u a l t o t w o w h o l e n o t e s .
 S m a l l a r r o w s h a v e b e e n p l a c e d a b o v e t h e s t a f f t o indcate t h e g r o u p i n g o f w o r d s a n d m u s i c
o f t h e first l i n e . D r a w i n b a r l i n e s b e l o w t h e a r r o w s a n d c o n t i n u a d d i n g b a r l i n e s t h a t r e f l e c t
the n a t u r a l accent o f w o r d s a n d music. T h e g r o u p i n g s m a y c o m p r i s e t w o , three, f o u r , o r five
half notes.

The od and e - - vil foe, Would now work us woe, With might and deep guile,

* I n t h e A n t h o l o g y , t h i s m e l o d y is p a r t o f a t w o - p a r t b i c i n i u m , [|].

3 . H e r e i s t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e G a i l l a r d e s h o w n o n p a g e 217. Continu a d d i n g t h e m e t e r s i g n s ,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r a l a c c e n t s y o u find: \ w h e r e y o u f e e l t h r e e b e a t s t o t h e m e a s u r e , 4 w h e r e
y o u feel t w o b e a t s t o t h e m e a s u r e .

r r r r1 1 J JV~ "r # # F 4>

0 .
P 0 m1 r
e ^
1 r ^ - f l E
5.

331
3E u n
CF 7
I

Cpt.

6. C h o o s e a cantus firmus f r o m t h e list o n p a g e 0 0 a n d a d d a c o u n t e r p o i n t .

J
 ame Date

Worksheet 6

1 . T h e l i g h t h e a r t e d c h a n s o n b y C e r t o n , [ ? ] , c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e r e l i g i o u s b i c i n i u m . S t u d y t h e first
l i n e o f t h e f o r m e r a n d m a r k a l l i n t e r v a l s . C i r c l e t h e figures t h a t d e n o t e d i s s o n a n c e . Y o u w i l l
identify t h e m o na later W o r k s h e e t .

3E

2. W r i t e a c o u n t e r p o i n t i n w h o l e notes above the cantus firmus.

Cpt. fin 1

v 0 O r% o 2"^
Cf. 5
4 o VJP. Vf. O O

3. W r i t e a c o u n t e r p o i n t i n w h o l e notes b e l o w t h e cantus f i r m u s .

Cf 3
m H E 3E

Cpt.

4. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o u s e n o t e vales s m a l l e r t h a n w h o l e n o t e s i n c o u n t e r p o i n t e x e r c i s e s . I t i s a l s o
p o s s i b l e t o w r i t e t w o l i n e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , w i t h o u t a c a n t u s firmus. T w o e x a m p l e s o f t h i s a r e
g i v e n below. Indicate the intervals between the parts.
5. W r i t e f o u r s h o r t e x e r c i s e s i n n o t e - a g a i n s t - n o t e c o n s o n a n c e . Y o u m a y u s e t h e s a m e r h y t h m
vales a s i n E x e r c i s e 4, a b o v e . T h e r e i s n o c a n t u s firmus. W r i t e b o t h p a r t s a t t h e s a m e t i m e .
Suggestion: write each exercise away f r o m t h e piano. T r y t o hear all t h esounds i n y o u r
m i n d ' s e a r . T h e n c h e c k t h e r e s u l t s a t t h e p i a n o a n d m a k e a n y improvemnts y o u w i s h .

1.

N
2.

4 > r \> =
1 11
"r :
1 _____
-

fe*

\$=
i

II =
 ame Date

Worksheet 7

1 . T h e first t w o p h r a s e s o f t h e A r c a d e l t c h a n s o n , [3], a r e p r i n t e d b e l o w . I d e n t i f y a l l i n t e r v a l s
b e t w e e n voices.

J J | J el J
j
-g-,,
d^ J J
f s el
o rJ
o
3
a p 1J _ 1^19__
o - ,J
.. JjJ
p" rt f
1

8
a

pr
t ^ - -o -s mPP P
^fan - - P p r> r r-
r r r n i ii *
J
p n '
-^Ir* f~ 1 11 o

2. S t u d y t h e s e e x a m p l e s o f note-against-note c o u n t e r p o i n t i n three parts. I d e n t i f y all intervals

b e t w e e n voices.

_5S_
3T
5

m 3I_

Cf 7 (minor)
- 3 T

s
\ 12

V ^ C f 7 (Dorian)

1^
3. A d d t w o parts i n whole notes to each cantus firmus. Identify all intervalsb e t w e e n voices.

j A C f 2

3E o " ~ " o o o
3E

Cf 5
m e
CE

1
3
ame Date

Worksheet 8

1 . S t u d y t h e s e e x a m p l e s o f n o t e - a g a i n s t - n o t e c o u n t e r p o i n t w i t h m i x e d n o t e vales. T h e r e i s n o
c a n t u s firmus. T h e r e i s a c o n s o n a n t s k i p i n e a c h e x a m p l e . I d e n t i f y a l l i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e
voices.

3=_

m r r i'
(9 P>
1
3 ^ p r
f=#
-a 1 e

p 3

p -p
'j

i
f r i 1
f = - i
i
s

" i r =^
3

f r r P -e
o

2 . W r i t e t w o e x e r c i s e s i n n o t e - a g a i n s t - n o t e c o u n t e r p o i n t w i t h m i x e d n o t e vales. T h e r e i s n o
c a n t u s firmus. I d e n t i f y a l l i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e v o i c e s .
 ame Date

Worksheet 9

1 . R e f e r t o \7\, 1 1 6 . D e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r e a c h n o t e i n t h e s o p r a n o p a r t i s t h e r o o t , 3 r d , o r 5 t h
o f t h e t r i a d . M a r k t h e s o p r a n o part accordingly. D o n o t m a r k t h e quarter notes that a r e
dissonant.

3rd

3E

>\ i ' f r f 'i i ' f i " 'i r r ^ 33T

2. W r i t e t h e k e y signature, t h e n the t r i a d i neach measure b e l o w . I f t h e r e is n o arabic n u m e r a l

6
n e x t t o t h e romn n u m e r a l , 3 i s i m p l i e d ; w r i t e the r o o t p o s i t i o n . I f t h e r e i s a n e x t t o t h e
r o m n n u m e r a l , % i s i m p l i e d : w r i t e t h e first inversin. U s e d i a t o n i c n o t e s , e x c e p t f o r V i i n t h e
m i n o r m o d e , w h e r e t h e l e a d i n g n o t e is called for.
6 6
^ E major, I I I F minor, I I A bmajor, I V B major V I I G minor,

6 6
E\> m a j o r , V A major, I F | minor, IV6 B minor, V * D t major, I I

3 . N e x t t o e a c h c h o r d w r i t e i t s first inversin.

y n r
1 it "
11

4. N e x t t o e a c h f i r s t - i n v e r s i o n t r i a d w r i t e its r o o t position.

_ o
H :8
W
D e s c r i b e e a c h t r i a d as m a j o r , m i n o r , a u g m e n t e d , o r d i m i n i s h e d .
 ame Date

W o r k s h e e t 10

H e r e a r e f o u r c a n t u s firmi, e a c h i n a d i f f e r e n t v o i c e . W r i t e t h r e e v o i c e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e a g a i n s t
e a c h c a n t u s firmus, u s i n g w h o l e n o t e s o n l y .

Cantus firmus 5
rr < n
J-trh " r *> n

la-i-t,
| p _ t

Cantus firmus 4

1 o _ O e
a i =
O
i o

> 1
p
ltf>1
S_b

Cantus firmus 9

T t t o Q O n 1
fjK P n ^ * u o
 W o r k s h e e t 11

1 . W r i t e t h e m a j o r t r i a d i n r o o t p o s i t i o n o f w h i c h E is t h e root

thethird ^ - = E E = = ; the fifth ^ =

2 . W r i t e t h e m i n o r t r i a d i n r o o t p o s i t i o n , o f w h i c h C f ( D b ) is t h e r o o t ^

; the third ; the fifth

3 . W r i t e a n F - t r i a d i n r o o t p o s i t i o n , u s i n g at l e a s t f o u r d i f f e r e n t s p a c i n g s . D o u b l e r o o t , t h i r d , o r
fifth.

4 . T h e o p e n i n g o f [2] i s g i v e n b e l o w . B e l o w e a c h b a s s n o t e , w r i t e e i t h e r | o r 3 , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
p o s i t i o n o f t h e t r i a d . D o n o t m a r k figures u n d e r t h e q u a r t e r n o t e s t h a t a r e d i s s o n a n t . I n j 5 ,
p l a c e t h e figure i n t h e f o u r t h b e a t w h e r e t h e a l t o m o v e s t o E .

11 _
0 0 0
= 4 = ^

-BE HEZ

feE= 331 3_C

un

B 3E
5 . B e l o w i s a n e x c e r p t f r o m P s a l m 7 8 b y Schtz, \T7. I n d i c a t e w h e t h e r e a c h c h o r d i s m a j o r ( M ) ,
m i n o r ( m ) , d i m i n i s h e d ( D ) , o r i n c o m p l e t e (I). W r i t e y o u r a n s w e r i n t h e space p r o v i d e d above
t h e s o p r a n o p a r t . Indcate v o i c e c r o s s i n g w h e r e i t o c c u r s .

M
Q V O
G &
-G- JCE

G G -Q G O
i - Q & 35:

33 CL
z E r
33Z 3ZC
m 32C

331 33:
,]
r r * 32C

6. B e l o w is a n e x a m p l e o f c l e a r a n d s i m p l e f o u r - p a r t w r i t i n g . I t i s b y t h e Germn R e n a i s s a n c e
c o m p o s e r L e o n h a r d L e c h n e r . A s y o u see, i t i n c l u d e s o n l y o n e d i s s o n a n t c h o r d ; a l l o t h e r s a r e
consonant.
B e f o r e w r i t i n g y o u r o w n short f o u r - p a r t exercises i n t h eb l a n k systems p r o v i d e d o n t h e
f a c i n g p a g e , i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r e a c h c h o r d i n t h e L e c h n e r e x c e r p t is\ o r % (except f o r t h e t h i r d
c h o r d f r o m t h e e n d ) . T h e n begin t h e three exercises i n note-against-note consonance.

? ^ J
r i- niJ i

4 i . i
J J J ' id j J 1

-l J i J i ~

9- r1 1 1 . . 1 -P B B J I i i
v r. .... &

' ' r J = t

* 1
b -
= = N =
B b
 ame Date

W o r k s h e e t 12

1 . B e l o w a r e t h r e e e x e r c i s e s , e a c h i n t w o p a r t s . E a c h c a n t u s firmus h a s t w o c o u n t e r p o i n t s , o n e
a b o v e ( a ) a n d o n e b e l o w ( b ) . T h e c a n t u s firmi r e s e m b l e t h o s e u s e d p r e v i o u s l y , b u t t h e y i n c l u d e
s h o r t e r n o t e vales. S t u d y t h e e x e r c i s e s a n d a d d figures i n d i c a t i n g t h e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n t h e
parts. T h e n read t h r o u g h t h e c o m m e n t s that f o l l o w the exercises.

1
Cf

I 1

i [2) 3
(b)
-_t

n r
r rr BE

B.
J

o " rJ d r J 1 E

Cf

1 XE O

(b)
o
P 2 o

C
J
3E o
3
(a)
/ C f

I 32:
3E

(b)

Comments on the examples:
i.(a) T h e r e is o n l y o n e d i s s o n a n c e , a P o n t h e h a l f -
note level. T h e voices cross i n 2.
^ ( b ) T h e q u a r t e r n o t e s a d d t o t h e flow o f t h e l i n e s .
O n e o f t h o s e t w o n o t e s is d i s s o n a n t e a c h t i m e .
W h i c h o n e , i n e a c h case? T h e t w o octaves a r e
a p p r o a c h e d a n d left i n c o n t r a r y m o t i o n .
i ( a ) N o t i c e t h e v a r i e t y o f r h y t h m vales i n t h e c o u n -
terpoint.
B(b) W h y couldn't this c o u n t e r p o i n t start w i t h the
s a m e n o t e a s t h e c o u n t e r p o i n t i n 2(a).-'
C ( a ) I n m i n o r , w h e n 7 g o e s d o w n t o 6 it's t h e sub-
t o n i c , b u t w h e n 7 g o e s u p t o 8 it's t h e l e a d i n g
n o t e . I n b o t h cases t h e l i n e m o v e s a w h o l e s t e p .
T h a t ' s w h y B l ; is n e e d e d b e f o r e t h e C t t , a v o i d i n g
an augmented 2nd.
C ( b ) H e r e Bt; f o l l o w s C|t, again m o v i n g t h e l i n e by
step a n d avoiding the augmented 2nd.

2. W r i t e t w o counterpoints f o r each C F . W r i t e one above a n d one below the given melody. Use
P , P , a n d N t o w r i t e a l i n e t h a t is s m o o t h a n d g o e s w e l l w i t h t h e C F .

A.

(a)
Cf

te P H E

(b)

a)
Cf
-O-
HE
EE H E H E
H E
b)

c.

[a)
m Cf

teta H E
H E
b)
 ame Date

W o r k s h e e t 13

1 . A l l s i x S U S s i n O t h m a y r ' s b i c i n i u m , [5], a r e a n a l y z e d b e l o w . I n e v e r y o n e b u t t h e fifth, t h e

r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e S U S i s t o a l e a d i n g n o t e . T h e fifth S U S i s p a r t o f a P h r y g i a n c a d e n c e t r a n s -
p o s e d t o A . S t r o n g a n d w e a k b e a t s a r e m a r k e d a n d a l l figures a r e i n d i c a t e d . S t u d y t h i s e x a m -
ple carefully.

Jr - r f VJ I 1 1 - " h o a i J
-fmrv _/= c

i 6 @ 6 6 f 7 ) 6 3 ( 2 ) 3 6 ( 7 ) 6 8 @ 6 6
!

&l 19 r s , c > r

~ F - ** c 4

2 . U s i n g t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e a s a m o d e l f o r i n d i c a t i n g S U S s , s h o w a l l d i s s o n a n c e s i n t h e first
p a r t o f C e r t o n ' s c h a n s o n , [4], g i v e n b e l o w w i t h o u t t e x t . W r i t e a l l t h e i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n v o i c e s ,
c i r c l e d i s s o n a n t o n e s , a n d i n d i c a t e w h a t t y p e e a c h i n t e r v a l is.

3E i 22 _ _
CE

1 O 221

I
 W r i t e t w o counterpoints to each C F , one above and one below. T a k e advantage o f all the
types o f dissonance studied thus far. S h o w all intervals a n d indicate dissonances.

C.

=0
Cf

fez:

4 . L o o k a t t h e B e n e d i c t u s b y P a l e s t r i n a , [BJ. F i n d t h e f o l l o w i n g t r i a d s i n t h e m u s i c , l o c a t i n g t h e m
by m e a s u r e n u m b e r a n d beat.
minor triad in | position

major triad in 3 position

m i n o r triad in % position

major triad in f position

triad without a 3rd, I
ame Date

W o r k s h e e t 14

1 . L o o k a t t h e V i l l a n e l l a , \7\. 6 - 7 . a r e a h e m i o l a . R e w r i t e t h o s e t w o m e a s u r e s o n t h e s t a v e s b e l o w
a s o n e m e a s u r e i n \. M a r k s t r o n g a n d w e a k b e a t s o n t h e h a l f - n o t e l e v e l . W h a t t y p e o f d i s s o -
n a n c e is t h e bass n o t e C ? W h a t t y p e o f d i s s o n a n c e is t h e n e x t t o l a s t C i n t h e s o p r a n o ?

P
fe

I n 3 t h e t w o Ps are w i t h each other a n d

w i t h o t h e r voices.
I n _10, w h a t t y p e o f m o t i o n is h e a r d b e t w e e n s o p r a n o a n d t e n o r ?
W h a t i n t e r v a l d o t h e y pass t h r o u g h ? A r e there any dissonances?
Explain
I n _ 3 2 w h a t t y p e o f d i s s o n a n c e i s t h e first e i g h t h n o t e ?
W h a t t y p e o f d i s s o n a n c e is t h e s e c o n d e i g h t h n o t e ?
2. W r i t e f o u r exarnples o f t w o - p a r t c o u n t e r p o i n t w i t h o u t C F . M a k e the voices equally interest-
i n g , g i v i n g b o t h t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f r h y t h m i c a c t i v i t y . T h e C h a n s o n b y C e r t o n , g ] , is a g o o d
e x a m p l e t o f o l l o w . S o i s t h e L a s s o B e n e d i c t u s , Q T ) . T h e m o d e l b e l o w i s f r o m Z a r l i n o ' s Coun-
terpoint, w r i t t e n i n 1 5 5 8 . I t i l l u s t r a t e s i m i t a t i o n a t t h e i n t e r v a l o f a n o c t a v e . T h e u s e o f s u c h
i m i t a t i o n i n y o u r e x e r c i s e s is o p t i o n a l .

x_
\ = r r JrJ -i rrrf
Ir JJ J 1T-- 1
N
Ui sUL - I T " j
i - " JJo
-t=r-
9-

s L f t X J
T P - r' p
i H' ' 1
I

1
ame Date

Worksheet 15

1. L o o k a t t h e e x c e r p t b y I n g e g n e r i o n p a g e 3 5 i n o r d e r t o i d e n t i f y t h e d i s s o n a n t techniques
used i n this music.
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 5, w h a t t y p e o f d i s s o n a n c e i s u s e d ?
H o w is i t elaborated?
I n J O , w h a t t y p e o f d i s s o n a n c e is h e a r d between a l t o a n d bass?
2 . B e l o w , y o u w i l l find t h r e e e x a m p l e s o f t h r e e - p a r t c o u n t e r p o i n t w i t h C F . Indcate a l l i n t e r v a l s
b e t w e e n voices. T h e n read t h r o u g h the comment following the examples.

A.
Cf

o CE
4 3 ' 3 (2) 3 4 4 3 (2) 3 | 1

- Q -
o SUS ,

I 3E

5 6 8 ! 10 @ 15 5 3 4 (4 3
sus 1
Consonant 4 t h
v - 9 1 M ^
n
i 1
8 (9) 10 10 8
B.

-o-

Cf

1 7 O

<> O
v
331
i b 2
S
 Comments:
( a ) I n 1 , t h e b a s s h a s a S U S o n t h e h a l f - n o t e l e v e l ; i n 2 t h e a l t o ' s A is a P . I n 3 , t h e a l t o h a s a " c o n s o n a n t 4 t h , "
a l w a y s h e a r d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e bass. I n t h e s a m e m e a s u r e t h e r e is a S U S b e t w e e n s o p r a n o a n d a l t o , w h o s e
resolution provides the l e a d i n g note. Observe the c o n t r a r y m o t i o n b e t w e e n the o u t e r voices.
(b) A p a i r o f S U S s l e a d s i n t o t h e c a d e n c e . A g a i n , y o u h e a r c o n t r a r y m o t i o n b e t w e e n bass a n d s o p r a n o , f o r t h e
most part.
( c ) T h e l e a d i n g n o t e n e e d n o t b e s a v e d f o r t h e e n d o f a p h r a s e o r e x e r c i s e . H e r e 7 l e a d s t o 8 i n t h e first m e a s u r e .
T h i s w o u l d a t t r a c t n o a t t e n t i o n i f i t w e r e a d i a t o n i c n o t e i n t h e m a j o r m o d e , b u t h e r e i t is a c h r o m a t i c n o t e i n
t h e m i n o r . T h e s y n c o p a t e d r h y t h m i n t h e s o p r a n o i s t y p i c a l o f e x e r c i s e s i n S U S . T h e l a s t s o u n d is m a j o r . T h e
m a j o r 3 r d o v e r t h e bass ( P i c a r d y 3 r d ) is o f t e n h e a r d a t t h e e n d o f a m i n o r - m o d e p i e c e , a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f
mode mixture.

3 . W h e n w r i t i n g t w o l i n e s a g a i n s t a c a n t u s firmus, m a k e e v e r y e f f o r t t o i n v e n t b o t h a t t h e s a m e
t i m e . R e m e m b e r that t h e lowest n o t e h e a r d at the b e g i n n i n g a n d t h e e n d m u s t be the tonic.
 ame Date

W o r k s h e e t 16

1. S t u d y t h i s e x a m p l e o f i m i t a t i o n i n t h r e e p a r t s b y Zarlino a n d i n d i c a t e a l l i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n
voices. Y o u c a n s e e t h a t t h e i m i t a t i o n is c a r r i e d t h r o u g h o n l y a f e w n o t e s , y e t i t acts as a
u n i f y i n g e l e m e n t i n t h e e x e r c i s e . T h e a l t o l e a d s , t h e s o p r a n o f o l l o w s i n cise i m i t a t i o n , a n d
t h e bass w a i t s f o r t h r e e m e a s u r e s b e f o r e e n t e r i n g . T h e exercise is i n t h e P h r y g i a n m o d e .

3
JO o

m m i p
15 HE
33J

10

2. B e f o r e d o i n g N o . 3 b e l o w , r e v i e w t h e exercise b y Morley o n page 4 5 a n d t h e e x c e r p t b y

P a l e s t r i n a o n p a g e 4 6 . T h e d i s s o n a n t t e c h n i q u e s i n those e x a m p l e s a r e y o u r s t o u s e w h e n
w r i t i n g exercises i n t h r e e parts.
C h o o s e y o u r o w n keys a n d meters. B esure t ovary them.
T h e t w o e x e r c i s e s b y Z a r l i n o t h a t f o l l o w m a y s e r v e as m o d e l s f o r y o u r w o r k . S t r o n g a n d
w e a k b e a t s a r e m a r k e d i n t h e first; m a r k t h e m a s w e l l i n t h e s e c o n d .
- U - U - U - U - U - / .

zssz 32C 3X1

I 3E

TfJZ p-~-p
33C

3. W r i t e t h r e e exercises i n t h r e e voices, f o l l o w i n g t h e examples a l r e a d y c i t e d . T r y t o i n v e s t e a c h

p a r t w i t h s o m e m u s i c a l interest, p a y i n g p a r t i c u l a r attention t o t h e alto. I m i t a t i o n is o p t i o n a l .

)
 ame Date

W o r k s h e e t 17

W r i t e a b i c i n i u m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s o n page 4 8 .

-r
,

All peo-pie that on earth do dwell, Sing to the Lord with cheer ful

I 'O
Serve Him with fear, His praise fore-tell; Come be - fore Him and all
re - joice.
 ame Date

)
Worksheet 18

1. ame t h e r o o t , t y p e , a n d p o s i t i o n o f e a c h t r i a d .
a. Below each chord write the root.
b. Below that write the type: M (major), m (minor), d i m (diminished).
c. Below t h a t w r i t e t h e a m e o f t h e p o s i t i o n : r o o t o r first inversin.
d. Below t h a t w r i t e t h e figures f o r t h e p o s i t i o n : | o r f .

O o i o o 4o
o

t =
O o o o o & o \ &
t-

a 1
o
1 "feo
*
o
o
o
o o trci

b=-^ O & * - t ^ - k l n -ffn

PO o -f"
c
M
root
5
3

2 . D e s c r i b e t h e c h o r d s i n [7, 1 - 1 2 , b y r o m n n u m b e r . I f a t r i a d i s i n r o o t p o s i t i o n , n o figure i s
6
n e e d e d w i t h t h e romn n u m b e r . I f t h e t r i a d is i n f p o s i t i o n , w r i t e n e x t t o t h e romn n u m -
ber. D o n o t consider Ps i n this question.
I I I I 7

1 9

4 JJ)

6 12"

)
3. W r i t e e a c h o f t h e t r i a d s d e s c r i b e d b e l o w i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e p i t c h classes are n o t t o
b e c h a n g e d , b u t t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n is. R o o t , t y p e , a n d p o s i t i o n a r e g i v e n f o r e a c h t r i a d .

A. " "
o

T
GQo o
\y o

y u 0
w r ^
t T 1
8

w \1 rvr%r~%
J 1-1U U
^ c G Eb Ftt A Bb c i D F Gtt
m dim m M M dim dim m m
M
5 5 5
6 3 6 6 6 6 6 6
3 3
ame Date

Worksheet 19

1. W r i t e t h e c h o r d d e s c r i p t i o n o f this d a n c e piece b y P r a e t o r i u s , 115B]. O b s e r v e t h a t t h i s is n o t

c h o r a l m u s i c a n d t h e r e is n o octave t r a n s p o s i t i o n i n t h e " t e n o r . " A l l parts s o u n d as w r i t t e n .

2 . W r i t e t h e c h o r d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e m e a s u r e s f r o m Schtz's s e t t i n g o f P s a l m 1 1 1 .

" f r r r r r: p f rt^
p' 1 p 1 f P f * f I ^
r

3. U s i n g t h e c h o r d descriptiorts below each exercise, w r i t e o u tt h e f o u r - p a r t h a r m o n y i n t h e

p o s i t i o n d e s i g n a t e d . T h e k e y is g i v e n ; v a r y t h e m e t e r s .

Cise p o s i t i o n
t

rv V
 Cise position

i
H E
Eb: I V I I V V I

Open position

^
m f: I V I 6
VH I

Cise position

D: I V V I H V I

Open position
ti

N
ctt: i v i v i n 6
M% l

Open position

6
^ f # : i n v # I
 ame Date

Worksheet 20

1 . S t u d y t h i s chrale b y J o h a n n e s C r g e r , a c o m p o s e r o f s a c r e d m u s i c i n t h e m i d - s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y . A l t h o u g h t h e l a c k o f s i g n a t u r e suggests t h e D o r i a n m o d e , t h e m u s i c is a l m o s t l y
c o m p l e t e l y i n d . I d e n t i f y t h e cadenees b ytype. C h o r d pairs t h a t c o m p r i s e each cadence have
b e e n u n d e r l i n e d as u s u a l .

o J J l
* ^ o
rr rrrr r i

^^= J j J o 1
v r
'ti* -1
p -
i
ii
o

10 15
=S=t=F
o
O O "

\
r - r r r
r
Uv. ^ c n
o
- * - J 4 - " " 1 \y8 g
\j
o
o o N l
p *.
A o 1 O <> s
11 r
^ r r -

C a d e n e e types:
4

l i
15

)
 . Write an example o f
(a) a p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n c e i n E ;
(b) a n i m p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c c a d e n c e i n d ;
(c) a s e m i c a d e n c e i n g ;
(d) a plagal cadence i n D .

Describe all chords i n these cadenees.

3. T w o p h r a s e s f r o m B a c h Chrale N o . 6 5 a r e g i v e n b e l o w . D e s c r i b e a l l t h e c h o r d s a n d under-
line the cadenees.
C o m p a r e t h e t w o cadenees. W h i c h has the greater sense o f closure a n d w h y ?

J- i f
r r rcr r r ?r r L r l r r -m d

^ m *
i i i i
~i W-p-*-*-*-^

r f r j L J LT-i
H 1 F 1

G: I El
ame Date

Worksheet 21

1. S t u d y t h i s c h o r a l p i e c e b y H a n s L e o H a s s l e r , a Germn c o m p o s e r o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
C h o r d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is p r o v i d e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h c h o r d extensions a n d cadenees. D i s s o n a n t
notes a r e m a r k e d . N o t e t h eu n u s u a l voice crossing i nt h epenultimate measure. T h e music
m o v e s i n t o I I I a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e last p h r a s e . W h a t m a k e s t h i s s e e m q u i t e n a t u r a l is t h a t
B b a n d D a r e m e m b e r s o f t h e g t r i a d as w e l l as t h e Bb t r i a d . T h e t r i a d i n t h e m e l o d y is q u i t e
s t r o n g t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p i e c e ; t h i s i s t h e c l u e t o t h e e x t e n s i o n s o f I . T h e first t w o c a d e n e e s a r e
s e m i c a d e n c e s , w h i l e t h e last is a p e r f e c t a u t h e n t i c cadence. T h e w o r k is p a r t l y D o r i a n , t r a n s -
posed t o G ,a n d partly g m i n o r .

rv i _Vj ii vn v vt
i
ii

A n a l y z e this c h o r a l piece by H e r m a n n Schein, u s i n g the f o r m a t o f N o . 1 above as y o u r m o d e l .

A l t h o u g h the lack o f key signature, with as t h e piece's t o n i c , suggests t h e
m o d e , t h e piece isactually i n the k e y o f . Barlines indicate phrases.
U n d e r h n e the cadenees that end those phrases and identify b y type.
First phrase: h o w l o n g i s t h e t o n i c extensin t h a t b e g i n s t h e phrase? Bracket t h e exten-
sin a n d indcate t h e c h o r d s w i t h i n i t . W h a t n o t e s e r v e s as t o n i c f o r t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f
the phrase?
Second phrase: f r o m t h e t h i r d c h o r d t o t h e f o u r t h , w h y doesn't t h e tenor skip u p t o D
W H
d o u b h n g the root instead o f the 3rd?
 Third phrase: t w o t r i a d n o t e s i n t h e m e l o d y f r a m e a t o n i c extensin. B r a c k e t t h e extensin
a n d indicate the chords w i t h i n it.
Fourth phrase: b r a c k e t t h e s h o r t t o n i c extensin a n d i n d i c a t e t h e c h o r d s w i t h i n i t .
F i n d t w o examples o f voice e x c h a n g e i n this example.

,1 J J j J JJ . N
r, r r r p f r r " r ' r r r
j J J j ^ ,i i
r r r r' r r r
r rrr r r r

J J J,i ) J j J
r >r r r "i 1
r r r r'
-o-

1_1 3 E

r r r r f r r 1
r r r
 ame Date

Worksheet 22

1. H a r m o n i z e t h i s s h o r t p h r a s e i n f o u r p a r t s t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s , f o l l o w i n g the p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d
i n t h e t e x t . Indcate a l l c h o r d s .

i)
E

3E

I
> 1
J J .1 1 -j ^
W r.

tt^

2. W r i t e t w o d i f f e r e n t h a r m o n i z a t i o n s o f this short phrase, following the procedure described

i n t h e t e x t . Indcate a l l c h o r d s .
 ame Date

}
W o r k s h e e t 23

1. R e a l i z e i n f o u r p a r t s :

* 3 =

r 6 6 6 4 - 3
8 - 7 6 6

2. Realize i n f o u r parts:

f r
r 'f r
4 - | 6 - 5 6 6 6 4 - j | '#

3. H a r m o n i z e f o r S A T B :

sus

r r j r ex

~ E
ame Date

Worksheet 24

1. S t u d y t h i s p i e c e o f m u s i c b y t h e e a r l y B a r o q u e c o m p o s e r A d a m Gumpelshaimer.

^ J j
r r '
,j
1 1
F T
1 A J
g

mm -J j J J J J
^ r r"r
i
SE

a. T h e t o n i c i s T h e " k e y signature" suggests t h e m o d e , b u tt h emusic is i n

T h e o n l y trace o f m o d a l t h i n k i n g is i n t h e cadence o n t h e subtonic a t t h e e n do f
the third phrase.
b . B a r l i n e s h a v e b e e n a d d e d t o delinate p h r a s e s . W h a t t y p e o f c a d e n c e e n d s e a c h phrase?

first fourth.

second. fifth .

third - sixth

c. I d e n t i f y t h e c h o r d s i n t h e f i r s t p i r r a s e . B r a c k e t t h e c h o r d extensin. D e s c r i b e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s e t t i n g o f
8
the three A s i n the melody.

6 C S e C n d P h r a S C b m C k e t C h r d C X t e n S 1 0 n W h 3 t
c" i ^ t I ^r'r H ^ - ^ - s o n a n c e ts h e a r d ?
e. I n idenfying t h e c h o r d s t n t h e t h i r d p h r a s e , t a k e C , V I I , a s t h e t o n i c .
f. I n i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c h o r d s i n t h e f o u r t h p h r a s e , t a k e F , I I I a s t h e t o n i c a n d b r a c k e t t h e c h o r d extensin
g . T h e fifth p h r a s e m o v e s f r o m V I I t o V . I d e n t i f y a l l c h o r d s i n d .
h. Identify t h e chords i n the concluding phrase.
i. W h i c h c h o r d s a r e m o s t affected b y m o d e m i x t u r e ?
j . W h y t h e Bl]?
2 . T h i s i s a s e t t i n g o f P s a l m 5 f r o m t h e Ainsworth Psalter, a c o l l e c t i o n o f p s a l m t u n e s b r o u g h t t o
N e w England b ythe Pilgrims i n 1620. H a r m o n i z e the melody in four parts for S A T B .

-i J J |' f r r f i [' r f~y~^

And a l l that hope i n Thee f o r stay, Shall j o y , shall shout e - ter - nal - ly;

fe*

to*:

M c r f ^ J j
J J i [' r r J c p " i i
And T h o u shalt cov - er them, a n d they That l o v e T h y ame, b e g l a d in Thee.

to*
i
i *

3. Realize this figured bass i n f o u r parts.

^ 5 "

P
-7
6* 6 6 - H 6 6 7 - 6 6 4 i
 ame Date

Worksheet 25

1 . [ 2 7 ] i s a S a r a b a n d e a n d D o u b l e ; t h e D o u b l e i s a n e l a b o r a t e d versin o f t h e S a r a b a n d e . M o s t
o f t h e e l a b o r a t i o n is f o u n d i n t h e bass p a r t . W h a t t e c h n i q u e s o f e l a b o r a t i o n a r e u s e d m o s t ?

2 . S i m p s o n ' s G r o u n d i s g i v e n b e l o w . W r i t e t w o d i v i s i o n s , ( a ) a n d ( b ) . T h e first t w o m e a s u r e s o f
( a ) a r e g i v e n ; c o m p l e t e i t , u s i n g t h e figure i n a n y w a y y o u l i k e . T h e n , w r i t e y o u r o w n v a r i a t i o n
at (b), u s i n g the techniques o f e l a b o r a t i o n studied i n C h a p t e r 29.

> H9 ? -O
1=

( a )
a ^ r S
Irrrffr, jfli

(b)

^y? ? - o U

- w
p
(b)

b *
*p '
s

)
 Date
ame

Worksheet 26

S t u d y t h e o r g a n b i c i n i u m b y S w e e l i n c k b e l o w . W h i l e t h e S c h e i d t b i c i n i u m , [ T 8 ] , u s e d t h e chrale
m e l o d y w i t h o u t a n y c h a n g e , S w e e l i n c k elabrales a f e w n o t e s o f t h e chrale. P h r a s e e n d i n g s a r e
i n d i c a t e d w i t h a c h e c k m a r k . T h e o r i g i n a l m e l o d y is:

1 . C o m p a r e t h e o r i g i n a l m e l o d y w i t h t h e e l a b o r a t e d versin i n t h e S w e e l i n c k b i c i n i u m b e l o w .
I n d i c a t e a l l e l a b o r a t i o n s . T h e h r s t i s s h o w n i n 3.
2 . I n 8, w h i c h n o t e i n t h e u p p e r v o i c e r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e S U S ?
3. I n 1 0 - 1 2 . w h a t t y p e o f e l a b o r a t i o n is h e a r d i n t h e bass?
4. W h a t m o d e is suggested b y the Ebs?
5. W h a t is t h e k e y i n J 9 - 2 1 ?

Bicinium SWEELINCK

IN V

T a r 1 1
V lo
ir
o

I ^
 - sU
3
V
fffl=F
25,

1
l i l i j - w P m P B A M

1 L u i r LLCT _r:
*~n

r pP H<
-r e "
-1 s
2. S t u d y this o r g a n w o r k b y Frescobaldi, w i t h particular attention t o t h e diatonic dissonance.
I n d i c a t e d i s s o n a n c e t y p e s o n l y , f o l l o w i n g t h e m o d e l o f t h e first m e a s u r e .

Cf

, SUS N '
f r i'Tcrr f t r r r rr

_JJ l_

p rffVr - f r r ^ r M T Ws y
11 1
- '- r-p
10

7 -UT-~ b^*
f Y T '
U. i jjJ j 1 | -^-j s
=-^WW^i4^H
T V r r 1
^rrr t
 ame Date

W o r k s h e e t 28

1 . T h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s h o w s five w a y s i n w h i c h t w o l i n e s m a y b e c o m b i n e d i n t o o n e p o l y p h o n i c
m e l o d y . I n e a c h t h e b a s s i s u n c h a n g e d . T h e specific t e c h n i q u e u s e d i n e a c h versin i s i n d i -
cated.

Illustrations

I basic pattern (a) A r p e g g i a t i o n

'\h:. ft s -a

<> o o
o
ra:
(b) C o n n e c t e d with Ps

4i t iJ J

(c) N s , c h r o m a t i c a n d d i a t o n i c

4
(y-
P
( d ) Inversin, P , N , S U S

Afl p F

rr::
 (e) Inversin, s k i p s filled i n w i t h P , S U S

2. T h r e e p r o g r e s s i o n s a r e g i v e n b e l o w . W r i t e s e v e r a l e l a b o r a t i o n s o f e a c h , c o m b i n i n g t h e t w o
u p p e r l i n e s i n t o a p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y . I n e a c h versin, i n d i c a t e w h a t t e c h n i q u e o f e m b e l l i s h -
m e n t y o u are using.

- t t t t g ^ = j j g - t t -

*> o O o <J

r! ~' " ~
.

,* :
'ir
ti
f _

3.

fe Al

M>
i r

 3 . T h e first h a l f o f a n e x e r c i s e b y S i m p s o n is g i v e n b e l o w . F i g u r e a l l i n t e r v a l s a n d indicate
dissonances.
4. C o m p l e t e the exercise by w r i t i n g eight additional measures i n the style o f the first eight.

i i
i 1

5 10 8
0 ' 0 i 5 ^ , L _ V p p
i t

* 1
^rTf - N

P
f 1
\ J -
O

-9
ame Date

Worksheet 29

T h i s W o r k s h e e t is b a s e d o n a C h a c o n n e b y H a n d e l . T h e bass p a t t e r n is:

O : ti (
\
T h e first s e v e n v a r i a t i o n s a r e g i v e n b e l o w . A l t h o u g h t h e fixed e l e m e n t i s t h e b a s s p a t t e r n , t h e
h a r m o n y is m u c h t h e s a m e i n a l lt h e variations. T h a t h a r m o n y is stated m o s t clearly i n V a r i a t i o n
5. S t u d y t h e e n t i r e excerpt i n detail.
T h e b e g i n n i n g s o f five m o r e v a r i a t i o n s a r e g i v e n , l e t t e r e d ( a ) t h r o u g h ( e ) . C o m p l e t e e a c h o n e ,
u s i n g t h e t e x t u r e a n d figures t h a t a r e g i v e n .

Chaconne in G (excerpt) HANDEL

j_-r J. 1) i
f
Y
-.
1
i L
1
1 f-*L -rr
2
T =
J
^ ^

Var. 2
)
 Worksheet 30

B e l o w is a c h o r d p r o g r e s s i o n t o b e e l a b o r a t e d i n t o a set o f v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e m a n n e r o f a p a s s a -
caglia T h e v a r i a t i o n s s h o u l d be based o n c h o r d c o n t e n t , n o t o n t h e specific lines t h a t are g i v e n .
M o s t p i e c e s o f t h i s s o r t a r e i n t r i p l e m e t e r . A d j u s t t h e n o t e vales t o s u i t y o u r s e l v e s . R e v i e w t h e
m e t h o d o f m a k i n g o n e m e l o d y o u t o f t w o lines s h o w n i n W o r k s h e e t 27. T h e Pachelbel C h a c o n n e
a n d t h e H a n d e l Passacaille are y o u r m o d e l s f o r elaborative p r o c e d u r e s ; d o n ' t hesitate to f o l l o w
the e x a m p l e s o f those pieces.

i 6
ne
 Date
ame

) .
Worksheet 3 1

1. W r i t e a r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e figured bass b e l o w i n t h r e e v e r s i o n s :
(a) i nh a l f notes, w i t h t h e smoothest possible voice leading;
(b) u s i n g t h e pitches o f (a) a n d arpeggiating t h e chords i n sixteenth notes;
(c) e l a b o r a t i n g (b) b y e x p a n d i n g t h e lines i n m u s i c a l space. U s e octave shift a n d r e a c h u p a t least t o h i g h Ctt.

S t u d y t h e B a c h e x a m p l e b e l o w b e f o r e w r i t i n g (c).

(a)

( ; K
Q

tir i? rj (9 o 9
1
(| 1
1' 1 o

O c t a v e s h i f t i s e x e c u t e d w i t h i n a n a r p e g g i a t e d t e x t u r e i n t h e first o f B a c h ' s Little Preludes.

N o t i c e h o w S U S s a r ew o v e n into the arpeggiation.
 H e r e i s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n o t h e r o n e o f B a c h ' s Little Preludes. T h e s e v e n m e a s u r e s f o r m a
tonic pedal point.

Reduce the figuration t o i t s b a s i c p o l y p h o n y b y o m i t t i n g d o u b l i n g s . O n e c h o r d i s i n five p a r t s ,

t h e o t h e r s i n f o u r . W r i t e c o m p l e t e figures u n d e r t h e b a s s .

' J > > -

N 5
3

Elabrate t h e r e d u c t i o n i n t o a n e w p e d a l p o i n t , w i t h a d i f f e r e n t figure i n s i x t e e n t h n o t e s .
 W o r k s h e e t 32

W r i t e a p r e l u d e f o r p i a n o i n t w o steps.
Step 1: R e a l i z e t h e figured b a s s b e l o w i n f o u r p a r t s . T h e r e a l i z a t i o n h a s t h e s a m e n o t e vales a s
t h e bass.

Step 2: E l a b r a t e y o u r r e a l i z a t i o n i n t o a p r e l u d e . U s e s i x t e e n t h n o t e s u n t i l n e a r t h e e n d . M o v e
o u t o f t h e S A T B f o r m a t i n as m a n y different ways as y o u can. A n y notes, except t h e
bass, m a y b e s h i f t e d u pa n octave, o r e v e n two.Y o u m a y t a k e a n y o f t h e p r e l u d e s s t u d i e d
o r a n y p r e l u d e s f r o m The Well-Tempered Clavier as a m o d e l .
I
i
ame Date

Worksheet 33

KIRNBERGER
Rigaudon

C o p y r i g h t 1935 b y B . Schott's S o e h n e . U s e d w i t h permission. Allrights reserved.

S t u d y this piece a n d a n s w e r these questions:

a. W h a t i s t h e h a r m o n y i n t h e first p h r a s e , 1 - 4 ?
b. W h a t is t h e h a r m o n y i n t h e second phrase, - 8 ?
c. W h a t is t h e h a r m o n y i n t h e t h i r d phrase, 9 - 1 2 ?
d. W h a t is t h e h a r m o n y i n t h e f o u r t h phrase, 1 3 - 1 6 ?
e. Explain t h e use o f the 4th i n 2 .
f. W h a t t y p e o f d i s s o n a n c e is h e a r d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f J O ?
g. W h a t factors m a k e for contrast i n 9 - 1 2 ?
h. W h a t i s t h e m u s i c a l valu o f t h e u p b e a t J " 3 ?
i. W h a t d o the octaves i n 13.-14 accomplish?
j. W h a t d o y o u t h i n k are t h e g o o d points o f the piece?
k. W h a t are the limitations?
1. W h a t isa Rigaudon?
m. W h a t are Kirnberger's dates?
ame Date

Worksheet 34

H e r e is t h e first h a l f o f a k e y b o a r d p i e c e i n b i n a r y f o r m . S t u d y i t c a r e f u l l y f o r i t s s t r u c t u r e a n d
its u s e o f m u s i c a l s p a c e . T h e n w r i t e a s e c o n d h a l f t o m a t c h .

j .

m m .
 ame Date

W o r k s h e e t 35

7
1. R e s o l v e e a c h V .

7 7 7 7 7 7
Efe V I V I V I V I V I V I

7
2. W r i t e the V w h o s e r e s o l u t i o n is g i v e n .

5E S o
3QI

7 7 7 7 7
> ffc V I V I V I V I V I V 7
I

7
3. W r i t e V - I i n f o u r d i f f e r e n t w a y s .
 7
4. B e t w e e n e a c h I a n d V w r i t e a d o m i n a n t p r e p a r a t i o n a n d give its c h o r d d e s c r i p t i o n .

1
7 7 7 7
I V I I V I I V I I V I

5. T h e r i g h t - h a n d p a r t o f a w a l t z is g i v e n b e l o w . W r i t e a l e f t - h a n d p a r t a n d g i v e a c h o r d d e s c r i p -
tion.

m 0-
ame Date

Worksheet 36

1. I d e n t i f y all d o m i n a n t 7 t h c h o r d s a n d t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n s .

Piano Sonata, Op. 13, I I BEETHOVEN

Adagio cantabile
y,

* m
W* J i
*>:.U *J*JjJ^J J1 T J _ a
J --JJ
a1 :

*
r y ^ f

te
i

r f J~

2 . R e a l i z e this bass i n f o u r parts.

l
SE
2
6
6
' ' 6
8 - 7 A I
5 6 - 5
 ame Date

I
Worksheet 37

1. R e a l i z e t h i s bass i n f o u r p a r t s .

6
4
5
3 6 It
6
i 6 6ff A
4 *

2. M a r k all 4 c h o r d s i n t h e excerpt. E x p l a i n t h e purpose o f each. I neach, w h a t type o f disso-

(l n a n c e i s t h e 4 t h ? B r a c k e t t h e o p e n i n g t o n i c extensin.

4 = h - j n 4 ^
0
B * #
i
r
0

J 1 1. j
in mai - , " T I -f * . J-r-
s i
f - h r - 1\^ =^= E-+4-S-
 ame Date

(I

Worksheet 38

1 . R e a l i z e t h e b a s s i n f o u r p a r t s ; a five-part c h o r d i s a l w a y s p o s s i b l e a t t h e c a d e n c e . C o m p a r e
t w o starting notes i n the soprano, the 3 r d and the 5 t h o f the triad.

-3

r
-**J|r r 0 a O f* ~ f

= M =
7
5
4#
2
6
6*
4
3
5 - 6 6
4
5
K
4
2
7 - 6 J
8
6
4
7
5
jt
1 5
3
6
4
if
5
1
3

2. T h i s is a n e x c e r p t f r o m a s o n a t a f o r v i o l i n a n d p i a n o , c o n s i s t i n g o f a p h r a s e t h a t is r e p e a t e d .
S t u d y t h e p h r a s e as i t a p p e a r s f o rp i a n o o n l y . T h e n w r i t e a p i a n o a c c o m p a n i m e n t t o t h e
repetition o f t h e melody i n t h e violin. Follow t h e h a r m o n y o f t h e first-phrase statement,
e l a b o r a t i n g i ti n s i x t e e n t h notes. O n e m e a s u r e is g i v e n as a m o d e l .

m m
4 ~J

# # -0
i
i
1

v t .
-p
'J ~~f f 9 t _,
9 . m
fc:

Iti - lis1&- i ...

Si ^Jn
-fj _ ^ 1 - ^"L- a

11J a 1
. # y
i w
#

y -
I * / y-
ir ' i A* i i
-
3> ^
 ame Date

Worksheet 39

1 . W r i t e o u t t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o g r e s s i o n s i n f o u r a n d five p a r t s . I n e a c h c a s e , t h e l a s t c h o r d
o c c u p i e s a n e n t i r e m e a s u r e . T h e d u r a t i o n o f all o t h e r c h o r d s i s d e t e r m i n e d b y y o u . Y o u m a y
c o n n e c t a n y t w o c h o r d s w i t h P s , o r elabrate a n y n o t e w i t h N s .
7
(a) I - V I - I V - V - I
8 7
(b) I-Vg-I-IIf-V - -!
7 7
(c) I-V -VI-IV-Vt, -I
6 7
(d) I-Vf-I -II-II -Vt!-I

(b) (upbeat)

m
(a)

3=
ra

(c) (upbeat) (d)

J A '
fe

1E
m Ab:
 H a r m o n i z e this m e l o d y f o r any i n s t r u m e n t and piano.
S u g g e s t i o n s : U s e t h e a c c o m p a n i m e n t p a t t e r n s h o w n i n t h e first m e a s u r e .
T h e r e are several opportunities for % chords. F i n d t h e m first.
Resolve the d o m i n a n t o f 4 deceptively, to V I . T h e n m o v e to the relative major: V I / I V .
Modulate to a cadence i n I I I .
I n 9, reverse the pivot chord: I V / V I .
A v o i d D i n t h e bass n e a r t h e e n d u n t i l t h e f i n a l cadence.
A l t h o u g h t h e r a t e o f c h o r d c h a n g e is o n e t o t h e m e a s u r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e h a r m o n y m a y b e n e f i t f r o m a f a s t e r
rate o f c h a n g e at s o m e points.

Andant

cresc.

' b4

5^
/ " i "
m'fmT -
i IT1
v 1 1
 ame Date

Worksheet 40

1 . I n H a n d e l ' s C o u r a n t e , [ 3 5 ] , find t h e m e a s u r e s w h e r e t h e b a s s m o v e s 8 - 5 - 6 - 3 - 4 - 1 . T h e k e y
i s W r i t e t h e p r o g r e s s i o n , e l i m i n a t i n g a l l elaboratve n o t e s , i n t h r e e
parts.

m
2. D e s c r i b e t h e c a d e n e e s i n t h e m e a s u r e s i n d i c a t e d b e l o w .

piece measures key type of cadence chord description

[21] 22-23 e perfect authentic

|26B| 1 0 - 1 1 -

|29A| 12

29B 7-

15-16

20-21

m 41-42

19-20

9
l e a l i z e t h e bass i n f o u r p a r t s .

3E

f f 5
6
4
-
-

ame Date

Worksheet 41

1 . H o w l o n g i s t h e o p e n i n g t o n i c extensin i n t h e s e p i e c e s ?
m
m
[26A]

[26B]

[291
[29B]
[29Cl

un
m
[37C]

m
EE
[42A|

|42Bl

m .
|44A|_

|44B|

m
|49A|_

U s e y o u r r e a l i z a t i o n o n W o r k s h e e t 4 0 , N o . 3 , a s t h e basis f o r a p i a n o p r e l u d e . Extend
v o i c e s i n m u s i c a l s p a c e , u s i n g a figure i n s i x t e e n t h n o t e s .
 Date
ame

Worksheet 42

1. B r a c k e t t h e t o n i c i z a t i o n s a n d i d e n t i f y c h o r d s w i t h i n e a c h .

as E
i i
cresc.

2. B e f o r e c o m p l e t i n g t h e h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f t h i s m e l o d y , s i n g i t u n t i l y o u k n o w i t w e l l . L i s t e n f o r
the i m p l i e d h a r m o n y : s e c o n d a r y d o m i n a n t s are suggested i n several places.

Largo 5 ^ ^
P
i i i
i" "" m m%
J
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\v p ~~~~
0 w

r ' J
CJ
1
r "r
9 p

10

V o f V I
R e a l i z e t h i s b a s s i n t h r e e a n d f o u r p a r t s . U s e t h e r h y t h m J|"J] J. i n t h e m e l o d y . Y o u m a y u s e
elaborative notes that are not indicated by the figures.

It

r * 0*

r F '!!
m

y TI. r L
r
r *g 14 - 7 - F 1

1 17 8 7b 7
6 6
4

tt
 ame Date

Worksheet 43

1. S t u d y t h i s e x c e r p t f r o m H a y d n ' s S y m p h o n y N o . 9 9 a n d a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s b e l o w .

p -s,J 1 1 -
e
1 J Hg c
J
-VtirA, ~p
^MH, l s

a . B r a c k e t t h e o p e n i n g t o n i c extensin.

b. T h e excerpt modulates t o a cadence i n .

c. T h e p i v o t c h o r d i s

d. H o w is t h e p i v o t c h o r d e x t e n d e d ?

2. R e a l i z e t h i s bass. T o m a k e t h e m o s t o f t h e S U S i n 2 , p u t i t i n t h e t o p l i n e . T h i s is a c l u e t o
t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e first n o t e .

I
53

r rj

* - ti
6 2 6 < 4 - 3 4 6 6 7
7"i
2 5 4
II fcl
 Date
ame

#
Worksheet 44

1. S t u d y t h i s p h r a s e f r o m a S c h u b e r t p i a n o s o n a t a a n d a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s b e l o w .

Adagio.
sempr* Hijato

a . I n d i c a t e t h e o p e n i n g t o n i c extensin w i t h b r a c k e t s .
b. S h o w t h e secondary d o m i n a n t a n d tonic.
c. E x p l a i n t h e p i v o t c h o r d i n t h e m o d u l a t i o n t o a c a d e n c e i n V .

d. W h a t prepares the pivot chord?

2. H e r ea r e t h r e e o f t h e f o u r p h r a s e s t h a t m a k e u p o n e o f t h e p i a n o pieces b y Trk. S t u d y i t i n
detail T h e n w r i t e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t endings f o rt h e piece, each o n e a f o u r - m e a s u r e phrase.
Each should e n d w i t h a perfect authentic cadence.
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- h

S r

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.
 I N D I C E S

S u b j e c t s a n d P r o p e r ames

accompanied duet, 94, 136 neighbor, 56, 6 8

A h a v a R a b a h m o d e , 13 passing, 6 8
allemande, 114 progressions, 5 1
antecedent, 2 1 - 2 2 subordnate, 5 6
appoggiatura, 105 substitute, 5 7
arpeggiation, 97, 1 0 1 , 104, 142 vocabulary, 5 0
arpeggio six-four, 128 chromatic:
atonality, 5
intervals, 6
auxiliary note ( N ) , 16
notes, 5, 59, 149
P h r y g i a n m o d e , 13, 7 4
barlines, 2 5 cise p o s i t i o n , 5 0
b a s s m o t i o n i n fifths, 1 2 9 , 1 3 5 color, 1 6 3
bass, s p e c i a l f u n c t i o n , 3 6 conductus, 163
basso c o n t i n u o , 3 1 1 consequent, 2 1 - 2 3
bicinium, 48, 83 consonance, 3 1 , 4 1
binary f o r m , 107, 114, 158 consonant fourth, 4 7
b r o k e n t e x t u r e , 9 0 , 102
diminished seventh, 131
dissonance, 3 1 , 4 1
cadence, 20, 32, 53, 132
d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y , 126
authentic, 53, 67, 120, 132
deceptive, 5 3 - 5 5 , 115, 151 d o m i n a n t preparation, 120, 129, 150
half, 53, 67, 132 d o m i n a n t seventh positions, 146
Landini, 164 dotted r h y t h m , 9 5
plagal, 5 3 double counterpoint, 9 6
double n e i g h b o r note ( D N ) , 17, 4 6
semicadence, 53, 67, 132
doubling, 3 8
cantusfirmus,3 2 , 3 4
downbeat, 2 4
chaconne, 9 2
d u p l u m , 162
chant, 3
dyad,32
melismatic, 2 6
neumatic, 2 6
syllabic, 2 6 embellishments, 16
chords: elaborating notes, 15
diminished 7th, 131 expansin, 5 6
extensin, 5 6 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 7 extended tonality, 73
leading note, 130
linear, 57, 121, 123 fauxbourdon, 165
m a i n chord, 56, 123 figure, 8 2 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 4 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 1 1 4
figured bass, 6 3 - 6 4 , 3 1 1

417
g r o u n d bass, 8 0 , 9 4 phrase, 2 0
Picardy third,103
Hejaz m o d e , 13 pivot chord, 109, 1 1 1 , 112, 1 5 5
hemiola, 27, 125 plainchant, 4
p o l y p h o n i c m e l o d y , 86, 88, 92, 94, 96, 114, 122
imitation, 44, 45, 104 prolongation, 56
incomplete neighbor ( I N ) , 4 7
i n n e r voices, 5 1 realization, 311
intervals, 5, 6 recitative, 104
inversin, 6 , 1 9 , 1 0 2 r e d u c t i o n , 18, 5 8
invertible counterpoint, 9 6 registers, 8 5
r h y t h m levis, 2 5 , 4 2
L a n d i n i cadence, 164
leading note, 59, 128 scale, 5 , 6
Lber Usualis, 4 anhemitonic pentatonic, 12
major, 4
m a i n notes, 15 minor, 7
m e l o d i c structure, 18, 5 8 parallel m i n o r , 8
meter, 2 4 relative m i n o r , 8
compound, 24 scale d e g r e e s , 5
sign, 2 4 secondary d o m i n a n t , 149
simple, 2 4 secondary tonic, 108, 1 4 9
m o d a l tonality, 12 s k i p ( S ) , 15, 8 1
m o d e m i x t u r e , 8, 6 8 skip a n d passing n o t e (SP), 17, 8 1
modes: spinning out, 114
A h a v a Rabah, 13 s u b d o m i n a n t h a r m o n y , 129
Dorian, 9 suspensin ( S U S ) , 4 2 , 4 3 , 4 5 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 6
H e j a z , 13
Lydian, 11 talea, 1 6 3
M i x o l y d i a n , 10, 7 6 tempo, 26
Phrygian, 11 tenor, 162
transposed, 14 texture, 86, 90, 102, 1 0 4
m o d u l a t i o n , 112, 149 time signature, 2 4
long-range, 108 tonal, 5
t o a cadence, 108, 113, 158 tonic, 4
motet, 163 t o n i c extensin, 1 2 0
motion: tonic h a r m o n y , 58, 127
away f r o m the tonic, 6 9 tonicization, 149
conjunct, 15 over a pedal point, 156
contrary, 3 1 ,52 transposition, 6
direct, 3 1 triads, 15, 3 4 , 5 0
disjunct, 15 augumented, 50
neighbor, 4 5 diminished, 36, 5 0
oblique, 3 1 incomplete, 3 6
parallel, 3 1 i n t h e m e l o d y , 15, 5 7 , 8 1
passing, 4 5 major, 35, 5 0
polyphonic, 135 minor, 35, 5 0
similar, 3 1
positions of, 123
stepwise, 15, 8 1
tonic, 16
within a chord, 9 8
tritone, 8 8
motive, 2 0
musical space, 8 0 , 85, 1 1 5
upbeat, 2 4
n e i g h b o r n o t e ( N ) , 16, 4 1 , 4 2 , 8 1
variations:
octave shift, 8 1 chaconne, 9 2
open position, 5 0 continuous, 92-94, 9 5 - 9 7
o u t e r voices, 5 1 double, 9 0
passacaglia, 9 2
voice crossing, 3 6
passacaglia, 9 2
doubling, 3 8
passing n o t e (P), 16, 4 1 , 4 2 , 8 1
exchange, 4 7
pedal point, 99, 1 0 1 , 104, 113, 142
ranges, 3 0

418
 Music

Anonymous Suite N o . 1 f o r Solo Cello, M i n u e t , 8 6

The Ash Grove ( W a l e s ) , 4 Suite N o . 3 f o r Orchestra, A i r , 152, 2 4 6
As I Walked through the Meadows ( E n g l a n d ) , 1 1 Sonata N o . 6 for V i o l i n , Gigue, 245
Credo ( P l a i n c h a n t ) , 1 1 Bartk, Bla
Conductus ( N o t r e D a m e S c h o o l ) , 3 0 1 Four R u m a n i a n Dances for piano, 283
Earlier Tonight ( R u s s i a ) , 1 4 Beethoven, L u d w i g van
Haul Away,Joe ( U S A ) , 1 0 , 2 1 P i a n o S o n a t a , O p . 10, N o . 1, I , 1 4 8
Hebrew Cantillation (Jewish), 14 O p . 10, N o . 3, I I , 126
/ See Your Face in a Flowing Stream (Mxico), 8 O p . 13, 157
Kyrie ( P l a i n c h a n t ) , 9 , 1 1 , 1 6 , 1 9 O p . 14, N o . 2, I I , 153, 155
Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen ( U S A ) , 1 2 O p . 79, I I I , 139
Pange Lingua ( P l a i n c h a n t ) , 1 2 S t r i n g Q u a r t e t , O p . 18, N o . 1 , 156
The Pines ( C z e c h o s l o v a k i a ) , 2 5 O p . 18, N o . 4, 6 7 , 6 8 , 143
Red RiverValley (USA), 2 1 Symphony No. 6,V , 144
Revival Song ( U S A ) , 1 2 T h r e e Contradanses for Orchestra, 270
Sabbath Hymn ( J e w i s h ) , 1 3 , 1 7 Contradanse in C, 155
Veni Creator Spiritus ( P l a i n c h a n t ) , 1 0 C o n t r a d a n s e i n FJ>, 1 3 0
The Vicar of Bray ( E n g l a n d ) , 1 7 , 1 8 V i o l i n S o n a t a , O p . 12, N o . 1, I I I , 1 2 2 , 1 4 7 , 150
The Violet ( S p a i n ) , 7 , 2 0 Brahms, Johannes
Why Can I not Rest ( J a p a n ) , 1 3 How Darkly the Water Flows f o r C h o r u s , 1 4 6 , 2 8 2
Young Man's Song ( H u n g a r y ) , 1 6 How Darkly the Water Flows f o r V o i c e a n d P i a n o , 2 8 0
Arcadelt, Jacques SapphicOde, 1 2 4
Men All Are Such Great Lovers, C h a n s o n , 5 8 , 1 9 8
Certon, Pierre
Bach, Cari Philip E m a n u e l Happy I Dar Not B e , 2 0 0
Sonata i n F, I I , 143, 263 C h o p i n , Frdric
Bach, J o h a n n Sebastian N o c t u r n e , O p . 3 7 , N o . 1, 6 8
F r e n c h Suite N o . 3, A l l e m a n d e , 99, 115-16, 243 Copland, A a r o n
F r e n c h Suite N o . 5, Gavotte, 138 Suite from Our Town, " S t o r y o f O u r T o w n , " 2 9 3
Chrale N o . 1 4 , 5 3 Corelli, Arcangelo
No. 25,71 Concert G r o s s o , O p . 6 , N o . 8 , 6 7
N o . 29, 145 T r i o Sonata, O p . 4 ,N o . 2, Preludio, 227
N o . 32, 145 Couperin, Francois
N o . 36, 145 LArt de toucher le clavecn, P r e l u d e N o . 3 , 102, 126, 136, 23o
No. 85,129 La Lgubre, f o r H a r p s i c h o r d , 1 1 3 , 2 3 1
N o . 2 0 6 , 145
No. 215, 71 D e G r i n g y , Nicols see G r i g n y , Nicols d e
N o . 2 3 3 , 54, 145 Des Pres, J o s q u i n , s e e j o s q u i n D e s p r e z
N o . 286, 145 Donato, Baldassare
No. 334, 70
May She Rule in Every Season ( V i l l a n e l l a ) , 2 7 , 2 0 4
Chrale P r e l u d e Meine Seele erhebt den Herrn, 8 8 Dufay, Guillaume
Partita N o . 6 for H a r p s i c h o r d , 140
Magnficat ( e x c e r p t ) , 3 0 8
Well Tempered Clavier, B o o k I Dvofk, Antonn
P r e l u d e N o . 1, 2 4 8
Symphony N o . 9, 7 1
N o . 4, 142
N o . 2 1 , 137
Well Tempered Clavier, B o o k I I Fischer, J o h a n n C a s p a r F e r d i n a n d
Prelude N o . 3, 156 Ariadne musicale, P r e l u d e i n E f o r O r g a n , 2 3 3
Partita for Clarinet, Prelude i n C, 232

419
 A c t I I , 124, 144
Sarabande, 153
Foster, Stephen Collins Finale, 132
Gentle Annie, 1 2 0 , 1 4 3 , 1 5 0 , 2 7 6 P i a n o Concert K . 4 8 8 , I I , 1 4 1
Frescobaldi, G i r o l a m o Piano Sonata K. 280, I I , 6 9
Fiori musicali, T o c c a t a , 2 1 9 K. 281,111,153
K . 3 3 1 , T h e m e , 120, 127, 133, 2 6 9
K . 3 3 1 , I I I , 142
Gastoldi, G i o v a n n i
K . 3 3 2 , 1 , 129, 1 3 1 , 146, 157
Love's Pursuit ( B a l l a t a ) , 2 1 3
Gervaise, Claude K. 5 0 3 , 1 , 154
Allemande, for four instruments, 203 K. 553, 136
Gluck, Christoph Wilibald Symphony No. 41, III, 119
Orpheus, A i r , 1 4 0 , 2 6 4
A c t I , 131, 147 Othmayr, Kaspar
Grigny, Nicholas de A Mighty Fortress is our God ( B i c i n i u m ) , 3 1 , 2 0 2
Plein Jeu, 1 3 0
Pachelbel, J o h a n n
Handel, George Frideric Chaconne for Organ, 92, 223
Concert G r o s s o , O p . 6 , N o . 9 , 7 1 T o c c a t a i n e, 9 9 , 1 0 0 , 2 2 5
Concert G r o s s o , O p . 6 , N o . 1 2 , 8 7 , 1 3 9 Palestrina, G i o v a n n i Pierluigi d a
Judas Maccabeus, " S e e , t h e c o n q u e r i n g h e r o c o m e s , " 2 2 , 2 5 5 Missa Repleatur os meum laude, B e n e d i c t u s , 4 6 , 2 0 6
Messiah, " H a l l e l u j a h , " 6 8 Veni Snete Spiritus ( e x c e r p t ) , 2 0 8
Suite N o . 4,Courante, 253 Pergolesi, G i o v a n n i Battista
N o . 7 , Passecaille, 1 3 5 , 2 5 0 La Serva Padrona ( e x c e r p t ) , 6 9
No. 4 (1733) i n D m i n o r , Sarabande, 155 Perotin
T h r e e E n g l i s h recitatives, 2 5 6 C o n d u c t u s (opening section), 302
Haydn, Franzjoseph Pezel, J o h a n n C h r i s t o p h
The Creation, " W i t h V e r d u r e C i a d , " 6 9 Sarabande f o r Brass I n s t r u m e n t s , 138, 222
S y m p h o n y N o . 92, 69, 151 Praetorius, Michael
Symphony No. 94, 153 Galliard, 27, 217
S t r i n g Quartet, O p . 5, N o . 2 , 127 There Is a Rose, 2 1 6
Hindemith, Paul T w o Sarabandes, 218
A Swan, C h a n s o n , 2 9 0 Purcell, H e n r y
Come Ye Sons of Art, D u e t , 2 2 8
Ingegneri, Marco Antonio Funeral Music for Queen Mary, 1 2 9
Response, 35, 5 5
Isaac, H e i n r i c h Rameau, Jean-Philippe
Innsbruck, I Now Must Leave Thee, 6 5 , 1 9 6 Castor and Pollux, e x c e r p t , 1 4 0
Gavotte and Variations, for Harpsichord, 235
Josquin Desprez
Missa Pange Lingua, " E t I n c a r n a t u s E s t , " 3 8 , 5 8 , 1 9 5 Scarlatti, D o m e n i c o
Sonata i n d, 6 8
Kirnberger, Johann Philipp in E, 98, 259
D a n c e Pieces, B o u r e e , 2 6 6 i n F , 143
Scheidt, S a m u e l
L a n d i n i , Francesco Warum Betrubst Du Dich, Mein Herz ( O r g a n B i c i n i u m ) 8 3
Ballata, 307 221
Lae, B u r t o n Schubert, Franz
Od Devil Moon, 2 9 6 T h r e e W a l t z e s a n d a n Ecossaisse, 2 7 4
Lasso, O r l a n d o d i Ecossaise, O p . 18, N o . 1 , 128
Benedictus, 43, 210 Waltz, O p . 9, N o . 3, 155
GoodDay, My Heart, 6 9 , 8 9 , 2 1 1 O p . 9, N o . 16, 152
Lennon, John & McCartney, Paul O p . 18, N o . 2, 142
/ Feel Fine, 2 9 8 O p . 19, N o . 6, 120
L e j e u n e , Claude O p . 33, N o . 15, 126
Blessing Before the Meal, 2 0 8 Schumann, William
Leonin
S y m p h o n y f o r Strings, I I (excerpt), 295
T w o - p a r t o r g a n u m (excerpt), 300 Schtz, H e i n r i c h
Luther, Martin Psalm 33, 5 7
A Mighty Fortress is our God, 2 7 Psalm 78, 220
Simpson, Christopher
Mattheson, Johann
T h r e e Examples o f Melodic Elaboration,8 1
Sarabande and D o u b l e , 98, 135, 2 3 4 E x a m p l e f r o m Compendium, 1 1 1
Machaut, Guillaume de
E x e r c i s e f r o m Compendium, 8 4
M o t e t , 164, 304
Stravinsky, Igor
M e n d e l s s o h n , Flix
Renard, M a r c h , 2 8 8
A Midsummer Night's Dream ( e x c e r p t ) , 2 3 Sweelinck, Jan Pieterszoon
Songwithout Words, O p . 3 0 , N o . 3 , 1 5 3
Mein unges Leben, 1 3 7
V i o l i n Concert, I , 1 3 0
Morley, Thomas
Telemann, Georg Philipp
E x e r c i s e f r o m A Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical Music To Dons, O d e , 2 4 0
42, 45
To Sleep, O d e , 1 2 5 , 2 4 1
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus
Plain Cooking, O d e , 2 4 2
Clarinet Quintet, I V , 7 0
Trk, D a n i e l G o t t l o b
The Magic Flute, A c t I , 1 3 8
T h r e e P i a n o Pieces, 144, 2 6 7

420
Verdi, Giuseppi Wagner, Richard
II Trovatore, " S t r i d e l a v a m p a , " 2 3 Lohengrin, P r e l u d e t o A c t I , 7 0
La Traviata, " A h ! f o r s ' e lu," 1 5 4 Tannhuser, O v e r t u r e , 7 0
Vivaldi, Antonio Weber, Cari M a r i a v o n
Concert f o r T w o V i o l i n s , 1 3 6 When Our Dear Child Can Find No Rest, O p . 8 0 , N o . 1 , 1 5 7 ,
V i o l i n Concert i n D , 9 8 120, 2 7 3
Work, Henry Clay
Grandfather's Clock, 2 7 8

421