Man and Environment: Essay on Man and

Environment
Read this essay to learn about the human being, a rational and social partner in environmental action!
Man and environment are inter-related. The environment influences the life of human beings and also
human beings modify their environment as a result of their growth, dispersal, activities, death and decay etc.
Thus all living beings including man and their environment are mutually reactive affecting each other in a
number of ways and a dynamic equilibrium is possible in between the two, i.e. human beings (society) and
environment are interdependent.
The different social structures like industrial, agricultural, religious, aesthetic etc. have developed during
various stages of human civilization and these structures represent human beings accumulated cultural
resources based on natural environment.
If the natural environment helped in the development of different structures of the society on the one hand,
the existence and quality of environment now rests on the responses of these social structures to the
environment on the other hand.
The burning issues like quality of environment, disruption of earths natural ecosystem, environmental
degradation and pollution, ecological imbalances, depletion of resources etc. can be approached and solved
only after considering the value judgments which may be determined by taking into account the
consequences of environmental improvement programme on the entire society and societys response
towards the improvement programme. Actually all these depend on the interest and desire of the society in
improving the quality of environment.
The interaction between environment and society depends largely on the social and political system. Even
the capitalistic and socialistic systems perceptions and reactions to the environment are quite different. The
differential interactions are due to uneven distribution of natural resources, uneven economic and social
development, dissimilarity of demographic factors, varying view points of the governments and individuals
towards environment etc.
Continuous and exceedingly increasing rate of rapacious exploitation of natural resources, industrialisation,
technological growth, unplanned urbanisation and profit oriented capitalism by the developed western world
are responsible for grave environmental crisis and ecological imbalance not confined to their own countries
but to the whole world.
The socialistic system of government gives more emphasis on the social importance of natural resources and
environmental problems and the urgent need to tackle, these problems. Marxism preaches to organise
societys control over the rapacious exploitation of natural resources and to develop harmony between man
and nature. The emphasis on rational exploitation of natural resources and ecological balance was in the
constitution of USSR.
The changes in the relationship between man and environment depend upon the change in organisation and
attitude of society. To improve environmental standard and to maintain ecological balance, the followings
are some issues before the present civilized society.
1. Rapid population explosion:
Puts tremendous pressure on the natural resources and environmental quality. This is due to the fact that
population growth leads to poverty which directly or indirectly declines the environmental standard.
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2. Rational use of non polluted water resources:
The restoration of water quality of our water bodies and their optimum uses are the challenges before the
present society.
3. To sustain and increase agricultural growth:
Without damaging environment. The over cultivation of soil, results in nutrient deficiency, lack of organic
matter, soil salinity and damage to physical structure of the soil.
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4. To check soil erosion:
The soil erosion can be prevented by the restoration of land or soil resources which are directly or indirectly
related to strategies for the management of land, water and forest.
5. Restoration of forest resources:
The forest resources are depleting at a very faster rate in order to meet growing need of timber and farmland
for the increased population. Vast forest areas have been converted into barren waste lands. So it is the need
of the present society to restore our forest resources possibly through social forestry and afforestation
programmes.
6. To check pollution:
The overexploitation of natural resources, intervention of bio-geochemical cycles and trace element cycle,
extraneous release of matter and energy etc. cause serious environmental hazards.
In addition, continuous green house gas emission, hazardous chemicals of industry and agriculture, nuclear
arsenals; radioactive wastes and biotechnological misuse lead to global catastrophism. So the prevention of
pollution is of prime importance for the present society. Considering the above issues, it is clear that the fate
of human being depends on how he is managing and overcoming the above problems.
Some possible ways of tackling the problems and maintaining environmental standard are:
(a) Taking effective measures for population control.
(b) Optimum use of natural resources.
(c) Conserving and protecting biodiversity.
(d) Creating public awareness about the benefits and implications of environment.
(e) Giving top priority for environmental protection.
(f) Developing ecofriendly technological processes.
(g) Promoting sustainable agriculture which will not harm the environment.
(h) Using bio-fertiliser or ecofriendly fertilisers.
(i) Using minimum amount of pesticides and insecticides.
(j) Developing waste land by adopting afforestation programmes.
(k) Developing suitable biotechnology to clean up hazardous wastes in the environment.
(l) Choosing suitable technique to treat the pollutants before their discharge into environment.
What is environmental health?
The environment can directly and indirectly impact on our health and wellbeing. Environmental health examines the
interaction between the environment and our health.
We use the following definitions:
Environmental health refers to aspects of human health (including quality of life) that are determined by
physical, chemical, biological, social and psychosocial factors in the environment.
Environment broadly includes everything external to ourselves, including the physical, natural, social and
behavioral environments.
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, and is not merely the absence of disease
or illness.
What is Habitat?
A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits") is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular
species of animal, plant or other type of organism.[1][2] It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or
the physical environment that surrounds (influences and is utilized by) a species population.
Definition of Environmental Health
Environmental health is that aspect of public health that is concerned with those forms
of life substances, forces and conditions in the surroundings of man that may exert an
influence on mans health the well-being. This definition includes other people as part
of mans surroundings that contribute to the status of environmental health.
Ozone layer
Ozone layer is a deep layer in earths atmosphere that contain ozone which is a naturally occurring molecule
containing three oxygen atoms. These ozone molecules form a gaseous layer in the Earths upper
atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower region of stratosphere containing relatively higher concentration
of ozone is called Ozonosphere. The Ozonosphere is found 15-35 km (9 to 22 miles) above the surface of
the earth.
The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is usually under 10 parts per million while the average
concentration of ozone in the atmosphere is about 0.3 parts per million. The thickness of the ozone layer
differs as per season and geography. The highest concentrations of ozone occur at altitudes from 26 to 28
km (16 to 17 miles) in the tropics and from 12 to 20 km (7 to 12 miles) towards the poles.
The chief ozone-depleting substances include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and methyl chloroform. Halons, sometimes known as brominated
fluorocarbons, also contribute mightily to ozone depletion. However, their application is greatly restricted
since they are utilized in specific fire extinguishers. The downside to halons is they are so potent that they
are able to deplete the ozone layer 10 times more than ozone-depleting substances.
Scientists in this age are working around the clock to develop Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to take the place
of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) for use in vehicle air conditioning.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons are powerful greenhouse gases, but they are not able to deplete ozone.
Chlorofluorocarbons, on the other hand, significantly contribute to climate change, which means
Hydrofluorocarbons continue to be the better alternative until safer alternatives are available.
Main Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Its billed as the most extensively utilized ozone-depleting substance because it attributes to more than 80%
of overall ozone depletion. It was utilized as a coolant in home appliances like freezers, refrigerators and air
conditioners in both buildings and cars that were manufactured prior to 1995. This substance is usually
contained in dry cleaning agents, hospital sterilants, and industrial solvents. The substance is also utilized in
foam products like mattresses and cushions and home insulation.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Hydrofluorocarbons have over the years served in place of Chlorofluorocarbons. They are not as harmful as
CFCs to ozone layer.
Halons
Its especially used in selected fire extinguishers in scenarios where the equipment or material could be
devastated by water or extinguisher chemicals.
Carbon Tetrachloride
Also used in selected fire extinguishers and solvents.
Methyl Chloroform
Commonly utilized in industries for cold cleaning, vapor degreasing, chemical processing, adhesives and
some aerosols.
Erosion- Factors Affecting Soil Erosion
The factors that influence erosion are:
1. The amount and intensity of rainfall and wind velocity.
2. Topography with special reference to slope of land.
3. Physical and chemical properties of soil.
4. Ground cover its nature and extent.
Soil erosion is the wearing away detachment and transportation of soil from one place and its deposition at
another place by moving water blowing wind or any other cause.
1. The amount and intensity of rainfall and wind velocity: Rainfall is the most forceful factor causing
erosion through splash and excessive run off.
Rain drop erosion is splash, which results from the impact of water drops, directly on soil. Although the
impact of rain drops on water in shallow streams may not splash soil, it does cause turbulence, providing a
greater sediment carrying capacity. Large drop may increase the sediment carrying capacity of run off as
much as 12 times.
If rain falls gently, it will enter the soil where it strikes and some will slowly run off, but if it occurs in
torrents, as usually the monsoon rains doe, there is not enough time for the water to soak through the soil
and it runs off causing erosion. Run off that causes erosion, therefore, depends upon intensity, duration,
amount and frequency of rainfall. It is observed that rains in excess of 5 cm. per day always caused run off
whereas those below 1.25 cm. usually do not.
(The results of soil and runoff losses from air dry deep black and later tic soils with 2 p.e., slope under a
rainfall simulator with a constant rainfall immensity of 8.75 cm. per hour indicate that soil loss per 2.5 cm.
of siuautated ram) in case of latertic soil is 0.25 tons per hectare. Thus the soil loss in case of deep black
soil which is heavier than latertic soil is ten times more.
2. Topography will special reference to slope of lands: Slope accelerates erosion as it increases the velocity
of flowing water. Small differences in slope make big difference in damage. According to the laws of
hydraulics, a four - time increase in slope doubles the velocity of flowing water. This doubled velocity can
increase the erosive power four times and the carrying capacity by 32 times. In one of the experiments in
United States of America, it was observed that the loss of soil per hectare due to erosion in a maize plot was
12 tons when the slope was 5 p.c., but it was as high as 44.5 tons under 9 p.c., slope.
3. Physical and chemical properties of soil: Some soils erode more readily than other under the same
conditions. The crodibility of the soil is influenced by its texture, structure, and organic matter, nature of day
and the amount and kind of salts present. There is less erosion in sandy soil because water is absorbed
readily due to high permeability. More organic manure in the soil improves granular structure and water
holding capacity. As organic matter decreases, the crodibility of soil increases. Fine textured and alkaline
soils are more crodible.
In general, soil detachability increases as the size of the particle increases but soil transportability increases
with the decrease in particle size. Clay particles are more difficult to detach than sand, but are easily
transported on a level land and much more rapidly on slopes.
4. Ground cover, its nature and extent: The presence of vegetation ground cover retards erosion. Forests and
grasses are more effective in providing cover than cultivated crops. Vegetation intercepts the erosive beating
action of falling raindrops retards the amount and velocity of surface fun off, permits more water flow into
the soil and creates more storage capacity in the soil. It is the lack of vegetation that creates erosion
permitting condition.
Global warming is the primary cause of current sea level rise
Human activities, such as burning coal and oil and cutting down tropical forests, have increased atmospheric
concentrations of heat-trapping gases and caused the planet to warm by 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit since 1880.
Rising temperatures are warming ocean waters, which expand as the temperature increases. This thermal
expansion was the main driver of global sea level rise for 75 - 100 years after the start of the Industrial
Revolution, though its relative contribution has declined as the shrinking of land ice has accelerated.
Land iceglaciers, ice caps, and ice sheetsis shrinking at a faster rate in response to rising temperatures,
adding water to the world's oceans.
As the rate of ice loss has accelerated, its contribution to global sea level rise has increased from a little more
than half of the total increase from 1993 - 2008 to 75 - 80 percent of the total increase between 2003 - 2007.
Sea level will rise significantly over the coming century
Our past heat-trapping emissions have committed us to continued sea level rise over the coming decades, but
our present and future emissions choices can affect the rise in seas and the pace at which it unfolds beyond
2050.
Even if global warming emissions were to drop to zero by 2016, scientists project another 1.2 to 2.6 feet of
global sea level rise by 2100 as oceans and land ice adjust to the changes we have already made to the
atmosphere.
Projections for global sea level rise by 2100 range from 8 inches to 6.6 feet above 1992 levels, though the
lowest end of this range is a simple extension of historic sea level riseand recent data indicate this rate has
nearly doubled in recent years.
The rate and magnitude of the loss of ice sheets, primarily in Greenland and West Antarctica, will have the
greatest effect on long-term sea level rise.

Land management is the process of managing the use and development (in both urban and
rural settings) of land resources. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which may include organic
agriculture, reforestation, water resource management and eco-tourism projects. Land management can have
positive or negative effects on the terrestrial ecosystems. Land being over- or misused can degrade and reduce
productivity and dissrupt natural equilibriums.
Sustainable land management combines technologies, policies, and activities aimed at integrating
socioeconomic principles with environmental concerns, so as to simultaneously:
maintain and enhance production (productivity)
reduce the level of production risk, and enhance soil capacity to buffer against degradation processes
(stability/resilience)
protect the potential of natural resources and prevent degradation of soil and water quality
(protection)
be economically viable (viability)
be socially acceptable, and assure access to the benefits from improved land management
(acceptability/equity)
 Principles of Environmental Control
A primary objective of environmental control is to prevent disease. Of course, it is
preferable to prevent an environmental condition even arising which is hazardous to
man. While prevention of hazardous conditions is essential, this is only half the job. It
should be a public policy to provide an environment which maximizes mans health.
Environmental hazards vary in their manifestation, but one or more of certain
fundamental principles of environmental control are generally applicable.
These include (1)isolation; (2)substitution; (3)shielding; (4)treatment; and
(5)prevention.
Isolation
Isolation has protected man from epidemics before the rise of cities and the mobility
of populations.
Under present conditions, isolation (separation by distance) is not generally reliable
means of environmental protection, although there are some exceptions where
isolation may be useful.
Substitution
Substitution is frequently a low cost, easily applied, completely effective method of
environmental control. A simple application is the substitution of a harmless cleaning
fluid for a toxic one. The substitution of degradable detergents for non-degradable
ones is a case in point.
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Shielding
Shielding, as used here, is distinct from isolation. Shielding is the use of barriers.
Safety glasses and protective clothing are personnel measures which may be
employed. Screening for the exclusion of mosquitoes and flies and heat shields are
other examples. On cafeteria lines glass sneeze guard are used to protect against food
contamination.
Treatment
Where other measures are not applicable, treatment of the hazard may employed.
Environmental treatment methods, which may be used in conjunction with dilution or
dispersion of contaminating substances or prophylaxis, include : (1) destruction; (2)
conversion; (3) removal; and (4) inhibition
Complete destruction is applicable particularly to biological hazards. Boiling and
cooking employ heat to kill microorganisms.
Conversion of harmful substances to less harmful or harmless substances usually
involves chemical or biochemical processes. Strongly acidic and strongly alkaline
liquid wastes may be mixed together in a way to neutralize each other.
Removal of harmful substances from water and air may be accomplished by a variety
of methods. Chemicals may cause coagulation and precipitations are used for removal
of soluble substances and as aids to sedimentation.
While removal of harmful substances from water and air streams may prevent air and
water pollution, there is usually a residue remaining for some ultimate disposal.
Inhibition may be used where an environmental threat exists, but its effects may not
materialize or may be minimized by environmental intervention. Thus pH control or
the addition of salt or sugar may be used in food preservation. If bacteria contaminate
the food, they are unlikely to persist in the unfavourably created environment.
Refrigeration, while not destroy the bacteria, may inhibit the growth of bacteria and
the production of toxins.
Prevention
One may use only boiled water and cooked food when travelling in areas where
drinking water is not safe or sewage is used to irrigate slow growing vegetables.
Long-range control of environmental diseases requires modification of the
environment to prevent the condition which fosters the disease.
Succession is a process. The series of steps or communities comprising a
successional sequence leading to the climax is the sere. Seres are sometimes
classified according to the predominant force that is bringing them about. These
forces are biotic climatic physiographic and geologic and their resultant
seres are commonly called bioseres, cliseres, eoseres, and geoseres.
Succession that begins on a sterile area where conditions of existence are not at first
favourableas, for example a newly exposed sand dune or a recent lava flow is
termed as primary succession. The term secondary succession refers to community
development on sites previously occupied by well developed communities or
succession on sites where nutrients and conditions of existence are already
favourable such as abandoned croplands, plowed grasslands, cutover forests or
new ponds.

Following are the steps in autotrophic sucession .

1. Nudation i.e. exposure of bare areas by agencies like erosion, landslide,
deposition of sand or sand dune, floods, fire, volcanic eruptions etc.
2. Invasion : It means carrying and settlement of seeds or propagules of
organisms on the exposed areas thus, mostly the plants are the first invaders
(pioneers).
(i).| Ecesis : It means establishment of the migrated plant species into the new
areas. It includes germination of the seeds etc., the growth of seedlings into
adult plants and reproduction by the adult plants. Since the sterile habitat
provides harsh environmental conditions, only very few of the migrants
establish themselves successfully and most of them are wiped off.
(ii). Aggregation: It is the final stage of invasion. Here species which have
successfully settled on the new area, reproduce and aggregate into large
populations in the new area.
3. Competition: Since the space and nutrition is limited and the reproduction
continues, there a struggle for existence. There is always an inter-specific and
intra-specific competition among the individuals and with environment. As a
result of these interactions the dominant species of the community in turn
modify the physical environment. Finding the modified environment
favourable for growth more complex types species migrate and settle in the
areas. This process of modification and being modified continues until an
equilibrium between the biotic and abiotic environment is achieved
4. Stabilisation or Climax : Climax community is a mature community that
establishes as a last step of succession in a stabilized environment. The
vegetation that find in the climax community is called as the climax vegetation. The
climax community has the following characters.
i. The soil is very rich in organic and inorganic matter due to death and
decay of organism of earlier stages.
ii. It is predominantly populated by perennials and other diversed type of
organisms. This results in a complex type of food chains.
iii. It has the maximum biomass which is in steady state.
iv. Thus in climax community in contrast to unstable community there is no net
annual accumulation of organic matter.
v. If undisturbed, the climax community can maintain itself through many
years.
Atmospheric CO2 measurements by the Scripps CO2 Program at
the Mauna Loa
Observatory in Hawaii. Starting March 1958, the Scripps Mauna Loa data is the
longest-running, high-precision instrument record for atmospheric CO2.
About the Scripps CO2 Program
The Scripps CO2 program was initiated in 1956 by Charles David Keeling who
directed the program until he died in 2005. The program is now operated by Ralph
F. Keeling who also runs the Scripps O2 Program that measures atmospheric oxygen
and argon. Both programs are based at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in
San Diego (La Jolla) California.
CO2 Data Set: Original Scripps CO2 data file dated Wednesday July 2, 2014
Measuring
Location:
Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii
Why is
CO2 significant?
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the chief greenhouse gas that results from
human activities and causes global warming and climate change. To
see whether enough is being done at the moment to solve these global
problems, there is no single indicator as complete and current as the
monthly updates for atmospheric CO2 from the Mauna Loa
Observatory.
What is the
current trend?
The concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere are increasing at an
accelerating rate from decade to decade. The latest atmospheric CO2
data is consistent with a continuation of this long-standing trend.
What level is safe? The upper safety limit for atmospheric CO2 is 350 parts per
million (ppm). Atmospheric CO2 levels have stayed higher than 350
2 - 2 - 54
ppm since early 1988.
Atmospheric CO2 for June 2014 is 401.30 ppm
The Global Climate Change and Biological Diversity
Previous natural climate changes have caused large-scale geographical shifts, changes
in species composition and extinction among biological communities. If the widely
predicted greenhouse effect occurs, communities would respond in similar ways.
Human encroachment and climate change could jointly threaten many more species
than either alone.
By observing present distributions of plants and animals, which are determined in
large part by temperature and moisture patterns, it is possible to hypothesize what
would happen if these underlying temperature and moisture changes.

What is an Ecosystem ?
An ecosystem includes all of the living things (plants, animals and organisms) in a given area, interacting with each
other, and also with their non-living environments (weather, earth, sun, soil, climate, atmosphere). Ecosystems are
the foundations of the Biosphere and they determine the health of the entire earth system.
The structure of ecosystem provides information about the range of climatic conditions that
prevail in the area. From structural point of view all ecosystems consist of following four basic

components:
1. Abiotic Substances:
These include basic inorganic and organic compounds of the environment or habitat of the
organism. The inorganic components of an ecosystem are carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen,
calcium, phosphate, all of which are involved in matter cycles (biogeochemical cycles).
The organic components of an ecosystem are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids,
all of which are synthesized by the biota (flora and fauna) of an ecosystem and are reached to
ecosystem as their wastes, dead remains, etc, The climate, temperature, light, soil, etc., are
other abiotic components of the ecosystem.
2. Producers:
Producers are autotrophic organisms like chemosynthetic and photosynthetic bacteria, blue
green algae, algae and all other green plants. They are called ecosystem producers because
they capture energy from non-organic sources, especially light, and store some of the energy
the form of chemical bonds, for the later use.

Algae of various types are the most important producers of aquatic ecosystems, although in
estuaries and marshes, grasses may be important as producers. Terrestrial ecosystems have
trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, and mosses that contribute with varying importance to the
production of the ecosystem.
Since heterotrophic organisms depend on plants and other autotrophic Organisms like
bacteria and algae for their nutrition, the amount of energy that the producers capture, sets the
limit on the availability of energy for the ecosystem. Thus, when a green plant captures a
certain amount of energy from sunlight, it is said to produce the energy for the ecosystem.
3. Consumers:
They are heterotrophic organisms in the ecosystem which eat other living creatures. There are
herbivores, which eat plants, and carnivores, which eat other animals. They are also called
phagotrophs or macroconsumers. Sometimes herbivores are called primary macroconsumers
and carnivores are called secondary Macroconsumers.
4. Reducers or Decomposers:
Reducers, decomposers, saprotrophs or Macroconsumers are heterotrophic organisms that
breakdown dead and waste matter. Fungi and certain bacteria are the prime representatives of
this category. Enzymes are secreted by their cells into or onto dead plant and animal debris.
These chemicals digest the dead organism into smaller bits or molecules, which can be
absorbed by the fungi or bacteria (saprotrophs).

Population and Environment

Consider the bare figures. Between 1901 and 1951, Indias population grew from 238
million to 361 million, an increase of about 52 percent over 50 years. Between 1951
and 1981, it expanded from 361 million to 685 million, a whopping increase of 90
percent in just 30 years. India literally added a second India in the 53 years of its
independence.
Today, environmental issues are becoming more of a problem and is receiving
worldwide attention. The relationship between humans and environment has changed
from the early periods of human settlement on the earth until today. For example,
early humans thought that the environment was dominant, as in it ruled over them.
They were afraid of lightning and thunder, dense forests, wild animals, vast oceans
and large rivers. The environment affects us humans in many different ways like
population on earth varies due to variation in the environment
2 - 2 - 56
The key question for expert and lay person is: can Indias lands support such a large
and growing population? This is where the carrying capacity comes in. It is the
number of people or animals that an area of land can support on a sustainable basis.
Unfortunately, not one expert in the country has attempted to quantity the carrying
capacity of the area under a single development block leave alone the whole country.

Tidal power is taken from the Earth's oceanic tides. Tidal forces are periodic variations in
gravitational attraction exerted by celestial bodies. These forces create corresponding motions or currents in
the world's oceans. Due to the strong attraction to the oceans, a bulge in the water level is created, causing a
temporary increase in sea level. When the sea level is raised, water from the middle of the ocean is forced to
move toward the shorelines, creating a tide. This occurrence takes place in an unfailing manner, due to the
consistent pattern of the moons orbit around the earth.[6] The magnitude and character of this motion
reflects the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the effects of Earth's rotation, and
local geography of the sea floor and coastlines.

Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital characteristics of the Earth
Moon system, and to a lesser extent in the EarthSun system. Other natural energies exploited by human
technology originate directly or indirectly with the Sun, including fossil fuel, conventional hydroelectric,
wind, biofuel, wave and solar energy. Nuclear energy makes use of Earth's mineral deposits of fissionable
elements, while geothermal power taps the Earth's internal heat, which comes from a combination of
residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%).[7]

A tidal generator converts the energy of tidal flows into electricity. Greater tidal variation and higher tidal
current velocities can dramatically increase the potential of a site for tidal electricity generation.

Because the Earth's tides are ultimately due to gravitational interaction with the Moon and Sun and the
Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified as a renewable energy resource.
Movement of tides causes a loss of mechanical energy in the EarthMoon system: this is a result of pumping
of water through natural restrictions around coastlines and consequent viscous dissipation at the seabed and
in turbulence. This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years since
its formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation of the earth (length of a day) has
increased from 21.9 hours to 24 hours;[8] in this period the Earth has lost 17% of its rotational energy. While
tidal power will take additional energy from the system, the effect[clarification needed] is negligible and would
only be noticed over millions of years.

MIGRATION
Definition : Migration, like dispersal, involves movements and the invasion of
new areas. Migration, as here defined, differs from dispersal in that it is a
periodic movement back and forth between two areas. In contrast, dispersal is
one way outside movement. Migratory invasions of areas are temporary and
repetitive, but invasions resulting from dispersal may be permanent.
1 - 2 - 42
Migration is best known in birds, as an invasion of breeding area alternating with
an invasion of wintering area, annually. Representatives of other groups of
animals also migrate, particularly mammals, fish, and insects. Migration may be
classified as annual, diurnal, or metamorphic. Annual and diurnal cycles are
correlated with the two most pronounced time cycles in the physical environment.
Metamorphic migrations are movements from one habitat to another in different
stages of an animal's life cycle.
Annual Migration
Annual migrations may involve a change of latitude, or altitude, or be more local
in extent.
Latitudinal Migration : It may traverse only a few kilometres or may extend
almost from pole to pole. In terms of their occurrence in an area, they are
described as permanent residents, summer residents, transients and accidentals.
Permanent Residents : They are the species represented in an area throughout
the year even though some individuals migrate, eg. birds.
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Summer Residents : They are the species present only during the warmer part
of the year, which includes a breeding season that may extend from early
spring to late autumn. Winter visitor species present only during the winter or
non-breeding period.
Transients : They are the species present only during migration periods,
neither breeding nor wintering in the area.
Accidentals : They are the species that are rare or irregular in occurrence.