ASSIGNMENT NO.

1
OPERATION MANAGEMENT
SUBMITTED BY
Shubham Soni (2015UME1315)
RISHIKESH VAISHNAV (2015UME1293)
Q1.

Collect data about contribution of the primary, secondary

and tertiary sectors to the economy of India, China, USA and
Singapore for four financial years 1951-52, 1971-72, 1991-92,
2011-12, and 2016-17. Analyze the above data to identify the
trends in social and living standards of people as well as
international politics.
Ans 1:-

Contribution of different sectors in Indian economy

Year Primary secondary tertiary
1951-52 51.81 14.16 33.25
1971-72 41.91 21.23 38.27
1991-92 29.39 25.45 44.96
2011-12 17.86 27.22 54.91
2016-17 14 27 59
Contribution of primary, secondary and tertiary sector in China
economy
Primary secondary tertiary
1951-52 58.6 11.6 29.8
1977-78 33.7 38 28.3
1991-92 23.5 42 34.4
2011-12 10 47 43
2016-17 8.60 40.7 50.7
Contribution of different sectors in United State economy
Year Agriculture secondary tertiary
2012 1.1% 19.2% 79.7%
The contribution of different sectors varies accordingly this graph-
Contribution of different sectors in Singapores economy

Primary (0%) secondary (26.6%) tertiary(73.4%)

EFFECT ON LIVING STANDARD AND INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

INDIA-

the Planning Commission of India uses its own criteria and has estimated that
27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line in 20042005, down
from 51.3% in 19771978, and 36% in 1993-1994.

Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades, its growth has
been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups,
geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.[13] For the year 2015-16, the GSDP
growth rates of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh was higher
than Maharashtra, Odisha or Punjab.

Source- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_India
CHINA-

According to the World Banks measure of national income per person, adjusted
for purchasing power parity a metric that seeks to allow meaningful
comparisons across countries and time periods by looking at what dollar amounts
can actually buy.

The percentage of children dying before their fifth birthday halved from 2.19 in
2006 to 1.07 in 2015. In the same period, the percentage of Chinese who still lack
access to improved sanitation dropped from 34% to 24%.
In 2006, only 68% of secondary-aged children enrolled in secondary school.
Within seven years, that had leapt to 96%. The percentage enrolling in tertiary
education jumped from 20% to 30% in the same period.
SOURCE-https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/06/how-has-china-s-economy-
changed-in-the-last-10-years/
SINGAPORE

Singapore firms shifted a substantial volume of production offshore and

increased ownership of production facilities in the AFEZ.

Increased connectivity enabled large numbers of Singaporeans to work in

the AFEZ while maintaining home in Singapore.

The government partnered the private sector to build offshore satellite

towns and industrial parks in the AFEZ to cater to the needs of Singapore

MNCs and overseas communities.

Source- http://www.mas.gov.sg/News-and-Publications/Speeches-and-

Monetary-Policy-Statements/Speeches/2015/An-Economic-History-of-

Singapore.aspx
USA

In 1980, the American standard of living was the highest among the

industrial countries, according to the OECD. Out of the 85 million households

in the United States, 64% owned their own living quarters, 55% had at least

two TV sets, and 51% had more than one vehicle.

In the 1990s, the average American standard of living was regarded as

amongst the highest in the world, and middle class and poor Americans

were still, on average, richer than their counterparts in almost all other

countries, though the gap with some European countries had noticeably

narrowed.

In 2006, median income was $43,318 per household ($26,000 per household

member) with 42% of households having two income earners. Meanwhile,

the median income of the average American age 25+ was roughly

$32,000 ($39,000 if only counting those employed full-time between the

ages of 25 to 64) in 2005.

In 2015 a report was done that showed that 71 percent of all workers in

America made less than $50,000 in 2014. For a family of four to live a middle

class lifestyle, it was estimated that they would need $50,000 a year. For
 workers that make less than that, their standard of living is lacking. Since

1971, the middle income was above 50% of the population in the U.S. In

2015, the middle class income consisted of 49.9% of the population. The

middle class continues to shrink and standard of living continues to

decrease.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States

As we are observing here that the United State has highest real gross domestic
product per capita and very good living standard and after US Singapore than
china and India has least living standard among these countries.

Q2

Desscribe the events and contribution of individuals towards

developlment of modern manufacturing and its management
in chronological order starting 1776.
ANS 2
Manufacturing engineering is a discipline of engineering dealing with
various manufacturing sciences and practices including the research, design and
development of systems, processes, machines, tools, and equipment. The
manufacturing engineer's primary focus is to turn raw materials into a new or
updated product in the most economic, efficient, and effective way possible.

Adam Smith and James Watt have been identified as the two men most
responsible for destroying the old England and launching the world toward
industrialization. Adam Smith brought about the revolution in economic thought
and James Watt's steam engine provided cheaper power that revolutionized
English commerce and industry. In doing so, they also laid the foundation for
modern notions of business management theory and practice.
The beginning of the industrial revolution is usually associated with 18th century
with the invention of steam engine by James Watt in 1776. Transportation was
one of those important beneficiaries. By the early 1800s, high-pressure steam
engines had become compact enough to move beyond the factory, prompting the
first steam-powered locomotive to hit the rails in Britain in 1804. For the first time
in history, goods were transported over land by something other than the muscle
of man or animal.
The United States was the pioneer in shipping, putting a passenger steamship on
the water in 1807.
specialization theory:-
The specialization theory was devised by Adam Smith. Broke large jobs into
smaller jobs then would assign jobs to workers. First recognized in Adam's
Smithsbook "Wealth of Nations," published in 1776. The specialization theory is
better known as division of labor.

In 1832 Charles Babbage proposed the Division of labour by skill, assignment of

jobs by skill which formulated the basics of time study .

Scheduling techniques(1901)

In 1901 henry L Gantt explicitly described scheduling, especially in the job shop
environment. He discussed the need to coordinate activities to avoid
interferences but warned that the most elegant schedules created by planning
offices are useless if they are ignored.

Statistical sampling applied to quality control: inspection sampling plans(1943)

The Dodge plan was the simplest continuous sampling plan proposed a simple
method to solve statistical problems using sampling method for manufacturers.

Production management(1930-1950)

Production management becomes the most acceptable term as F.W.Taylors

works become more widely known.Managers developed techniques that focused
on economic efficiency in manufacturing .Workers were studied in great detail to
eliminate wasteful efforts and achieve greater effieciency .At the same time
phychologists,socialists,economists,mathematicians and other social scientists
began to study people and human behavior in working environment.

use of computers(since1940)

NC CONTROL(1940-1950)

First Numeric Control based automation of machine tools by means of computers

was started in the 1940 and 1950,machine tools were modified with motors that
moved the control to follow the punched tape system.Later it was upgraded into
CNC machine tool that have revolutionized maching process.

CNC Control(1970)

The idea of Computer Integrated Manufacturing was first introduced in early

1970.But it was fully developed in 1984.Manufacturing became more faster and
less error-prone by the integration of computers.Designing and manufacturing
became more flexible.

. Brief information about the contributions to manufacturing management is

shown in the Table
Date Contribution Contributor
1776 Specialization of labour in manufacturing Adam Smith
1799 Interchangeable parts, cost accounting Eli Whitney and
others
1832 Division of labour by skill; assignment of jobs by Charles Babbage
skill; basics of time study
1900 Scientific management time study and work Frederick W. Taylor
study developed; dividing planning and doing of
work
1900 Motion of study of jobs Frank B. Gilbreth
1901 Scheduling techniques for employees, machines Henry L. Gantt
jobs in manufacturing
1915 Economic lot sizes for inventory control F.W. Harris
1927 Human relations; the Hawthorne studies Elton Mayo
1931 Statistical inference applied to product quality: W.A. Shewart
quality control charts
1935 Statistical sampling applied to quality control: H.F. Dodge & H.G.
inspection sampling plans Roming
1940 Operations research applications in World War II P.M. Blacker and
others
1946 Digital computer John Mauchlly and
J.P. Eckert
1947 Linear programming G.B. Dantzig,
Williams & others
1950 Mathematical programming, on-linear and A. Charnes, W.W.
stochastic processes Cooper & others
1951 Commercial digital computer: large-scale Sperry Univac
computations available.
1960 Organizational behaviour: continued study of L. Cummings, L.
people at work Porter
1970 Integrating operations into overall strategy and W. Skinner J. Orlicky
policy, Computer applications to manufacturing, and
Scheduling and control, Material requirement G. Wright
planning (MRP)
1980 Quality and productivity applications from Japan: W.E. Deming and
robotics, CAD-CAM J. Juran
Q3.
Select two products that you are familiar with and describe
the production process. Also describe the manufacturing
environment these products follow giving important
characteristics of products, production system and
customers.
Ans:-

1.Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

Raw Materials
Diodes, in general, are made of very thin layers of semiconductor material; one
layer will have an excess of electrons, while the next will have a deficit of
electrons. This difference causes electrons to move from one layer to another,
thereby generating light. Manufacturers can now make these layers as thin as .5
micron or less (1 micron = 1 ten-thousandth of an inch).
Impurities within the semiconductor are used to create the required electron
density. A semiconductor is a crystalline material that conducts electricity only
when there is a high density of impurities in it. The slice, or wafer, of
semiconductor is a single uniform crystal, and the impurities are introduced later
during the manufacturing process. Think of the wafer as a cake that is mixed and
baked in a prescribed manner, and impurities as nuts suspended in the cake. The
particular semiconductors used for LED manufacture are gallium arsenide (GaAs),
gallium phosphide (GaP), or gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP). The different
semiconductor materials (called substrates) and different impurities result in
different colors of light from the LED.
Impurities, the nuts in the cake, are introduced later in the manufacturing
process; unlike imperfections, they are introduced deliberately to make the LED
function correctly. This process is called doping. The impurities commonly added
are zinc or nitrogen, but silicon, germanium, and tellurium have also been used.
As mentioned previously, they will cause the semiconductor to conduct electricity
and will make the LED function as an electronic device. It is through the impurities
that a layer with an excess or a deficit of electrons can be created.
To complete the device, it is necessary to bring electricity to it and from it. Thus,
wires must be attached onto the substrate. These wires must stick well to the
semiconductor and be strong enough to withstand subsequent

One way to add the necessary impurities to the semiconductor crystal is to grow
additional layers of crystal onto the wafer surface. In this process, known as
"Liquid Phase Epitaxy," the wafer is put on a graphite slide and passed
underneath reservoirs of molten GaAsP.
Contact patterns are exposed on the wafer's surface using photoresist, after
which the wafers are put into a heated vacuum chamber. Here, molten metal is
evaporated onto the contact pattern on the wafer surface.
processing such as soldering and heating. Gold and silver compounds are most
commonly used for this purpose, because they form a chemical bond with the
gallium at the surface of the wafer.
LEDs are encased in transparent plastic, rather like the lucite paperweights that
have objects suspended in them. The plastic can be any of a number of varieties,
and its exact optical properties will determine what the output of the LED looks
like. Some plastics are diffusive, which means the light will scatter in many
directions. Some are transparent, and can be shaped into lenses that will direct
the light straight out from the LED in a narrow beam. The plastics can be tinted,
which will change the color of the LED by allowing more or less of light of a
particular color to pass through.

Design
Several features of the LED need to be considered in its design, since it is both an
electronic and an optic device. Desirable optical properties such as color,
brightness, and efficiency must be optimized without an unreasonable electrical
or physical design. These properties are affected by the size of the diode, the
exact semiconductor materials used to make it, the thickness of the diode layers,
and the type and amount of impurities used to "dope" the semiconductor.

The Manufacturing
Process
Making semiconductor wafers
1 First, a semiconductor wafer is made. The particular material
compositionGaAs, GaP, or something in betweenis determined by the
color of LED being fabricated. The crystalline semiconductor is grown in a
high temperature, high pressure chamber. Gallium, arsenic, and/or
phosphor are purified and mixed together in the chamber. The heat and
pressure liquify and press the components together so that they are forced
into a solution. To keep them from escaping into the pressurized gas in the
chamber, they are often covered with a layer of liquid boron oxide, which
seals them off so that they must "stick together." This is known as liquid
encapsulation, or the Czochralski crystal growth method. After the
elements are mixed in a uniform solution, a rod is dipped into the solution
and pulled out slowly. The solution cools and crystallizes on the end of the
rod as it is lifted out of the chamber, forming a long, cylindrical crystal ingot
(or boule) of GaAs, GaP, or GaAsP. Think of this as baking the cake.
2 The boule is then sliced into very thin wafers of semiconductor,
approximately 10 mils thick, or about as thick as a garbage bag. The wafers
are polished until the surfaces are very smooth, so that they will readily
accept more layers of semiconductor on their surface. The principle is
 similar to sanding a table before painting it. Each wafer should be a single
crystal of material of uniform composition. Unfortunately, there will
sometimes be imperfections in the crystals that make the LED function
poorly. Think of imperfections as unmixed bits of flower
or sugar suspended in the cake during baking. Imperfections can also result
from the polishing process; such imperfections also degrade device
performance. The more imperfections, the less the wafer behaves like a
single crystal; without a regular crystalline structure, the material will not
function as a semiconductor.
3 Next, the wafers are cleaned through a rigorous chemical and ultrasonic
process using various solvents. This process removes dirt, dust, or organic
matter that may have settled on the polished wafer surface. The cleaner
the processing, the better the resulting LED will be.

Adding epitaxial layers

4 Additional layers of semiconductor crystal are grown on the surface of the
wafer, like adding more layers to the cake. This is one way to add
impurities, or dopants, to the crystal. The crystal layers are grown this time
by a process called Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE). In this technique, epitaxial
layerssemiconductor layers that have the same crystalline orientation as
the substrate beloware deposited on a wafer while it is drawn under
reservoirs of molten GaAsP. The reservoirs have appropriate dopants mixed
through them. The wafer rests on a graphite slide, which is pushed through
a channel under a container holding the molten liquid (ormelt, as it is
called). Different dopants can be added in sequential melts, or several in
the same melt, creating layers of material with different electronic
densities. The deposited layers will become a continuation of the wafer's
crystal structure.
LPE creates an exceptionally uniform layer of material, which makes it a
preferred growth and doping technique. The layers formed are several
microns thick.
5 After depositing epitaxial layers, it may be necessary to add additional
dopants to alter the characteristics of the diode for color or efficiency. If
additional doping is done, the wafer is again placed in a high temperature
furnace tube, where it is immersed in a gaseous atmosphere containing the
dopantsnitrogen or zinc ammonium are the most common. Nitrogen is
 often added to the top layer of the diode to make the light more yellow or
green.

Adding metal contacts

6 Metal contacts are then defined on the wafer. The contact pattern is
determined in the design stage and depends on whether the diodes are to
be used singly or in combination. Contact patterns are reproduced in
photoresist, a light-sensitive compound; the liquid resist is deposited in
drops while the wafer spins, distributing it over the surface. The resist is
hardened by a brief, low temperature baking (about 215 degrees
Fahrenheit or 100 degrees Celsius). Next, the master pattern, or mask, is
duplicated on the photoresist by placing it over the wafer and exposing the
resist with ultraviolet light (the same way a photograph is made from a
negative). Exposed areas of the resist are washed away with developer, and
unexposed areas remain, covering the semiconductor layers.
7 Contact metal is now evaporated onto the pattern, filling in the exposed
areas. Evaporation takes place in another high temperature chamber, this
time vacuum sealed. A chunk of metal is heated to temperatures that cause
it to vaporize. It condenses and sticks to the exposed semiconductor wafer,
much like steam will fog a cold window. The photoresist can then be
washed away with acetone, leaving only the metal contacts behind.
Depending on the final mounting scheme for the LED, an additional layer of
metal may be evaporated on the back side of the wafer. Any deposited
metal must undergo an annealing process, in which the wafer is heated to
several hundred degrees and allowed to remain in a furnace (with an inert
atmosphere of hydrogen or nitrogen flowing through it) for periods up to
several hours. During this time, the metal and the semiconductor bond
together chemically so the contacts don't flake off.
8 A single 2 inch-diameter wafer produced in this manner will have the
same pattern repeated up to 6000 times on it; this gives an indication of
the size of the finished diodes. The diodes are cut apart either by cleaving
(snapping the wafer along a crystal plane) or by sawing with a diamond
saw. Each small segment cut from the wafer is called a die. A difficult and
error prone process, cutting results in far less than 6000 total useable LEDs
and is one of the biggest challenges in limiting production costs of
semiconductor devices.
Mounting and packaging
9 Individual dies are mounted on the appropriate package. If the diode will
be used by itself as an indicator light or for jewelry, for example, it is
mounted on two metal leads about two inches long. Usually, in this case,
the back of the wafer is coated with metal and forms an electrical contact
with the lead it rests on. A tiny gold wire is soldered to the other lead and
wire-bonded to the patterned contacts on the surface of the die. In wire
bonding, the end of the wire is pressed down on the contact metal with a
very fine needle. The gold is soft enough to deform and stick to a like metal
surface.
10 Finally, the entire assembly is sealed in plastic. The wires and die are
suspended inside a mold that is shaped according

A typical LED indicator light shows how small the actual LED is. Although
the average lifetime of a small light bulb is 5-10 years, a modern LED
should last 100 years or more before it fails.
to the optical requirements of the package (with a lens or connector at the
end), and the mold is filled with liquid plastic or epoxy. The epoxy is cured,
and the package is complete.
Marketing and Customers
2. CNC Machine Tool

Modern Design and Raw

Materials
The mechanical components of the machine must be rigid and strong to support
the quickly moving parts. The spindle is usually the strongest part and is
supported by large bearings. Whether the spindle holds the work or the tool, an
automatic clamping feature allows the spindle to rapidly clamp and unclamp
during the program run.

Cast iron or Meehanite used to be the material of choice for metal-working machines. Today, most machines
make liberal use of weldments of hot-rolled steel and wrought products such as stainless steel to reduce cost
and allow fabrication of more intricote frame designs.

Attached to the side of the machine is a magazine of different tools. A transfer

arm, sometimes called the tool bar, removes a tool from the machine, places it
into the magazine, selects a different tool from the magazine, and returns it to
the machine through instructions in the program. Typical cycle time required for
this procedure is two to eight seconds. Some machines may contain up to 400
tools in large "hives," each automatically loaded in sequence as the program runs.
The bed or worktable of the machine is supported on hardened steel "ways"
which are usually protected by flexible guards.
Cast iron or Meehanite used to be the material of choice for metal working
machines. Today, most machines make liberal use of weldments of hot-rolled
steel and wrought
The mechanical components of the machine must be rigid and strong to support the quickly moving parts. The
spindle is usually the strongest part and is supported by large bearings. Whether the spindle holds the work or
the tool, an automatic clamping feature allows the spindle to ropidly clamp and unclamp during the program
run.

products such as stainless steel to reduce cost and allow fabrication of more
intricate frame designs.
Some machines are designed as cells, which means they have a specific group of
parts they are designed to manufacture. Cell machines have large tool magazines
to carry enough tools to do all of the various operations on each of the different
parts, large worktables or the ability to change worktables, and special provisions
in the controller for data inputs from other CNC machines. This allows the CNC
machine to be assembled with other similarly equipped machines into a Flexible
Machining Cell, which can produce more than one part simultaneously. A group of
cells, some containing 20 or 30 machines, is called a Flexible Machining System.
These systems can produce literally hundreds of different parts at the same time
with little human intervention. Some are designed to run day and night without
supervision in what is referred to as "lights out" manufacturing.

The Manufacturing
Process
Until recently, most machining centers were built to customer specifications by
the machine tool builder. Now, standardized tooling design has allowed machines
to be built for stock or later sale, since the new designs can perform all the
needed operations of most users. The cost of a new CNC machine runs from
about $50,000 for a vertical center to $5 million for a Flexible Machining System
for engine blocks. The actual manufacturing process proceeds as follows.
Welding the base
1 The base of the machine is either cast or welded together. It is then heat
treated to remove casting or welding stresses and to "normalize" the metal
for machining. The base is fixtured into a large machining center, and the
mounting areas for the ways are machined to specification.
2 The ways are ground flat, bolted, and pinned to the base.

Bolting the bollscrews

3 The mechanisms that move the bed or spindle are called ballscrews.
These change rotary motion of the drive motors into linear motion and
consist of a screw shaft and support bearings. As the shaft turns, a bearing
mount follows the spiral grooves in the shaft and produces a very accurate
linear movement that moves either the worktable under the spindle, or the
spindle carrier itself. These ballscrews are bolted to the base with the
bearing mount bolted to the worktable or spindle carrier.

Mounting the spindle

4 The spindle is machined and ground, mounted to its drive motor, and
then bolted to the movable spindle carrier. Each axis of motion has a
separate ballscrew and set of ways in most machining centers.

The controller
5 The computer, or controller, is an electronic assembly separate from the
rest of the machine. It has a climate-controlled enclosure mounted on the
side of the frame or in an operator's console. It contains all of the operating
memory, computer boards, power supplies, and other electronic circuitry
to operate the machine. Assorted wiring connects the controller to the
machine motors and positional slides. The
 slides continuously send the axis location information to the controller, so
the exact position of the worktable in relationship to the spindle is always
known. The front of the controller has a video screen that displays the
program information, position, speeds and feeds, and other data required
for the operator to monitor the machine's performance. Also on the front
panel are the data entry keys, data connection ports, and start-stop
switches.
6 The assembled machine is test run for accuracy. Each machine has slight
physical differences that are mathematically corrected in the computer
operating system. These correction values are stored in a separate
memory, and the machine checks these continuously. As the machining
center wears from use, these parameters can be recalibrated to assure
accuracy. After testing, the finished machine is painted and prepared for
shipment.

Marketing and Customers