Grape Production: Part 3: Pests and Diseases of Grapes

Grape production
Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes

Introduction ............................................................................... 2
Vineyard pests .......................................................................... 3

A grape epidemic - phylloxera..........................................................3
Fungal infections ....................................................................... 8

Black spot .........................................................................................9
Downy mildew ................................................................................10
Powdery mildew .............................................................................12
Fungicides ......................................................................................13
The natural balance................................................................. 15

The farm community.......................................................................15
Mites, friend or foe?........................................................................17
Insect pests ....................................................................................20
Competitors............................................................................. 22
Chemical control - herbicides .........................................................23
Organic weed control .....................................................................27
Plant associations ..........................................................................30
Additional resources................................................................ 32
Suggested answers................................................................. 40
Exercises Part 3 ................................................................... 45
Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes 1

Introduction
Introduction
In this part, you will be focussing on a number of different organisms
that interfere with grape production - weeds, insect pests and fungi.
These pests can damage the leaves, roots and fruit of a plant. Pest
damage results in reduced yields, quality and financial returns.
The management of pests in a vineyard is important to ensure the best

quality vintage (harvest) possible. There are many ways this can be done
including integrated pest management (IPM). An understanding of the
life cycle of an organism, including the relationship to its host, helps to
devise ways to manage populations. Every pest control program has its
advantages and disadvantages in the short and the long term. An
important problem you will be examining is resistance to chemicals.
Netting is placed over vines in this vineyard in the Berry area to reduce damage
to grapes by birds. (Photograph: Julie Robinson)
This part contributes towards an understanding of Outcomes H1.1 and

H2.1 from the Agriculture Stage 6 HSC Course. The syllabus can be
found on the Board of Studies, NSW website at
http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au
2 Grape production
Vineyard pests
Vineyard pests
Market demand for high quality grape products means that pests must be
controlled effectively. Damaged grapes mean lower returns, particularly
in the table grape market. The term pests in this module refers to:
disease-causing organisms, for example bacteria, viruses, nematodes,
fungi
insect pests, for example light brown apple moth, Rutherglen bug
arachnids, for example blister mites, bud mites
larger pests, for example rabbits, snails, birds.
The grapevines first introduced into Australia were free from most diseases.
Around the turn of the last century there was a lot of movement of vine
material (mainly cuttings) around the globe. With these came the spread of
vine pests. Fungi, viruses and insects spread from North America to Europe
and then to Australia. The most devastating of the insect pests that entered
the country in this way is phylloxera.
A grape epidemic phylloxera

Phylloxera is a tiny insect (like an aphid) that is extremely destructive,
destroying vineyards all over the world. They feed on the roots,
weakening vines and making them more susceptible to disease.
By 1920 phylloxera had spread from North America to most of the major grape
growing countries of the world. Source: Robinson J. (1986). Vines Grapes
and Wines. Mitchell Beazley Publications. London. England.

Portugal, South Africa, New Zealand, France, Spain, the United States
and Australia are major grapegrowing countries affected by outbreaks of
phylloxera.
Phylloxera was first detected in Australia in

the Geelong area in 1877.
The pest quickly spread throughout much of
eastern Australia.
Vines were uprooted in an effort to stop the
spread of this insect pest.
Rutherglens vineyard area was reduced to a Brisbane 1902
quarter of its size as a result!
Sydney 1902
Rutherglen 1899
Bendigo 1893
Heathcote 1899
Geelong 1877
The spread of phylloxera throughout Australia.
The life and times of phylloxera

A study of the life cycle of phylloxera has lead to more effective control
measures. The life of phylloxera is complicated by the type of vine.
There are several species of vines used in commercial grape production.

Vitus vinifera is native to Europe and Central Asia. It is known as the
European vine. There are a number of vine species native to America,
for example, Vitus labrusca. This species, native to North America, was
suspected of harbouring phylloxera which then hitchhiked into Europe
and Australia. Some American species are resistant to phylloxera; the
European species is not.
There are three main stages in the life cycle of phylloxera on Vitus
vinifera: the wingless adult; eggs; and nymphs. These occur on the
hosts roots. Other stages exist on different vine species. Nymphs are
brown in colour and much smaller than the adults which are green,
brown or orange and around 1 mm long.
Phylloxera survive the winter (overwinter) as nymphs sheltering under

the bark of the older roots. During the growing season, nymphs develop
into wingless adults which can lay up to 200 eggs. This cycle can occur
4 Grape production
several times, producing numerous pests. During spring, nymphs feed on
the younger roots, weakening the vine. Root galls develop which stop
the roots from growing. Older vines with more extensive root systems
last longer when infected.
Vitus vinifera
(the host)
nymphs
overwinter
(winter)
nymphs
feed
nymphs infest (spring) adult
other vine roots
several generations
during a season
eggs
nymph
A simplified life cycle of phylloxera in the soil around European vines.
Phylloxera can spread to nearby vines in various ways. Nymphs can

travel through cracks in the soil. They cannot move through coarse
sandy soil, preferring heavy clay soils. Nymphs can also travel on the
surface of the ground. They can be blown onto other plants by the wind.
Phylloxera can also reach nearby vineyards by the movement of
machinery or equipment.

1 Describe the features of a vineyard that can be badly affected by
phylloxera.
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_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2 Describe the features of a vineyard least threatened by phylloxera.
______________________________________________________
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Check your answers.
Control of phylloxera
Quarantine regulations to prevent the introduction of grape phylloxera into

areas free of phylloxera. Scanned from Are you alert to quarantine? (1990).
Department of Primary Industries and Energy. Australian Quarantine and
Inspection Service. Canberra. Australia. Commonwealth of Australia
copyright reproduced by permission.
6 Grape production
Most grapevines in Australia are varieties of the European grapevine
Vitus vinifera which is susceptible to attack by phylloxera. In areas
where phylloxera is present, vines are often grafted onto resistant
rootstocks (from American grapevine species). Establishing a vineyard
with resistant rootstocks greatly increases the cost but reduces the risk.
Quarantine regulations, in force since 1899, have contained the pest to

the original outbreak areas. The movement of vine material is restricted
in areas where phylloxera is still active, for example, in the Sydney
region. An understanding of how the pest spreads is essential to its
control.
1 Quarantine areas are often signposted with rules. What regulations
might be on a sign when you were:
a) entering the Hunter region
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
b) entering the Corowa district.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
2 How do quarantine restrictions help to control the spread of disease?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Check your answers.
Are grapes grown in your area? If so, what pests are likely to cause damage?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Are there any quarantine regulations for your area? If so, what are they?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Summary
Vine pests can spread through the soil, on cuttings or other vine
material.
Phylloxera is an extremely destructive insect pest of grapevines.
The spread of phylloxera can be controlled by quarantine restrictions
and planting vines with resistant rootstocks.

Fungal infections
Fungal infections
Grapevines are regularly monitored. The manager looks for signs of
nutrient imbalance, weather damage or the presence of pests. Indications of
pests might include: eaten leaves; the presence of spots or patches; small
grapes or a poor berry set; yellowing leaves; or a powdery covering on
grapes. Pests are identified and their damage levels determined. If
necessary, control measures can be adopted.
Anthracnose (black spot) is a disease caused by a fungus. Other common

fungal diseases include downy mildew, oidium (powdery mildew), botrytis
(bunch rot) and phomopsis (dead arm).
Fungi reproduce by spores. Each fungus has different spores which can be
used in identification. However, the damage is well underway when the
disease is evident. That is why many of the pest control programs for these
pests are preventative.
Downy mildew Powdery mildew Botrytis
on the underside of leaf on the leaf surface on the leaf surface
clustered spores single strands clustered spores
Features of the spores of three different diseases of grapevines.
Many of the fungal diseases respond well to chemical sprays called

fungicides. Information about the disease organisms life cycle and the
favourable climatic conditions help to determine the best time to control
the disease.
Does the pest damage cost more than the control measures? The
manager must know the value of the crop, the cost of the damage and the
cost of control. When the damage costs more than control the economic
threshold level has been reached.
8 Grape production
Black spot
Pests can be identified in a
number of ways. Very
small pests can be identified
by the damage they do. For
example, black spot disease
is identified by black spots
on bark, leaves and berries.
Some varieties, for

example, Semillon, are
highly resistant to black
spot; others such as
Grenache, are not.
This diagram shows some

of the symptoms of this
fungal disease. Tell tale signs of anthracnose (black spot) on
grapevines.
Look at the grapevine in the following photograph. Evaluate whether you

think it is infected with black spot.
Grapevine. (Photograph by Julie Robinson)
Check your answer.

Downy mildew
Downy mildew was first detected in Australia, in Rutherglen, in 1917.
Since then, it has spread to most of the vineyards in eastern Australia.
Grape varieties vary in their susceptibility to downy mildew. For
example, Pinot Noir vines are more susceptible than Cabernet
Sauvignon.
All green parts of the vine are affected. Circular oil spots on young
leaves are an indication of the presence of downy mildew. Downy white
spores are produced on the underside of the leaves (under the oil spots),
on young berries and bunch stalks. Infections may cause the leaves on
vines to fall, the flowers and bunch stalks to wither and the young berries
to shrivel and harden, resulting in crop losses of up to 20%.
During winter, spores rest on fallen and decaying leaves. In spring when
temperatures are more than 10C, the spores reinfect leaves. They are
spread by rain splashing on the leaves. The spread of downy mildew is
encouraged by conditions of high humidity.
Many viticulturists carry out preventative programs, for example, regular

spraying, in addition to canopy management to control mildew. The
timing of fungicide application is critical. Vines are most susceptible to
infection in warm, humid weather, so spraying is often done between
budburst and berry development (in spring).
Spraying equipment. Seldom seen vineyard, Mudgee. July, 1996.

(Photograph: Julie Robinson)
10 Grape production
overhead sprinkler or rainfall
wet leaves
resting spores
infection (late summer/

autumn)
mobile spores leaf fall
spore
(spring/ producing resting
body spores
summer) fallen leaves
(winter)
germination
Life cycle of downy mildew fungus.
1 Use information in the diagram to describe the life cycle of downy

mildew in the vineyard.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2 Warm, wet and humid conditions favour the development of downy
mildew. From your other work in this module describe two
management practices which would help to control downy mildew.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Check your answers.

Powdery mildew
Powdery mildew is another fungal disease common in Australian
vineyards. Like downy mildew, powdery mildew spread from North
America to Europe and Australia. It appeared in Australia around 1866.
All grapevines are susceptible to powdery mildew, though Riesling,
Semillon and Chardonnay are particularly affected.
pale green spots
red brown areas
grey white powdery

patches (spores)
poor berry set
small berries
mature grapes split
dried out berries
The effects of powdery mildew on a grapevine.
1 Outline how a severe infection of powdery mildew might affect the

production of grapes.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Infection by powdery mildew is encouraged by warm temperatures
(optimum temperature is 25C) and low light levels. At higher
temperatures the spread of infection slows down. Ideal conditions
are likely to occur between budburst and flowering.
2 Describe a disease management strategy for the control of powdery
mildew in vineyards. Refer to your previous work for relevant
information.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
12 Grape production
_____________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________
3 Explain why timing is important in the control of powdery mildew.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Check your answers.
Fungicides
There are a number of different fungicides registered for use in
vineyards. These include:
Bordeaux mixture
ziram, mancozeb, benomyl
sulfur, lime sulfur (very toxic to predators)
copper oxychloride, copper hydroxide.
The choice of a fungicide depends on environmental and economic

considerations. It is also important that the control program is varied to
avoid the pests building up resistance to chemicals.
Rotating chemicals is one strategy used to prevent resistance, which is a

major problem in some European vineyards. The use of other
management strategies such as canopy management and the removal of
dead leaves where some pests overwinter, will reduce the use of
chemicals.
Fungicides are usually applied more than once in a prevention program.

Before spraying, the economic threshold of the pest problem must be
considered. The vineyard manager needs to know:
what type of disease is present or likely to occur (and when)
how much the damage is likely to cost
the cost of a spraying program
the destination of the produce (wine, juice, table grapes, dried vine
fruit) since different products have different quality requirements
and chemical residue levels allowed.

Environmental consequences need to be considered when choosing to
use particular chemicals on farms. For example, agricultural chemicals
can:
leave residues in farm produce or the soil, reducing quality
leach through the soil profile to pollute ground water
affect nearby crops or pastures when sprayed on a windy day
vary in how toxic they are to humans
affect soil organisms, bees, fish or birdlife.
Information provided on container labels gives users guidelines. These

must be read by the user. If the user cannot read English then the
information must be read out to them.
Organically grown grapes do not use artificial or synthetic chemicals.

Sulfur and Bordeaux mixture can be used to control fungus diseases in
organic vineyards.
Complete Exercise 3.1: Bunch rot.
Summary
Fungi such as black spot, downy mildew, powdery mildew and
botrytis interfere with grapevine production.
Fungal diseases can be identified by their spores and the damage
caused to the green parts of vines.
Fungicides can be used to prevent and control fungal diseases of
grapevines.
Control programs are devised from information about the diseases
life cycle and favourable climatic conditions.
Pest control programs in vineyards include a range of strategies including

spraying pesticides. In the next part you will be examining a holistic
approach which takes account of the natural ecological balance of the
vineyard working with nature instead of against it.
14 Grape production
The natural balance
The natural balance
Plants in nature seldom grow alone. They usually grow in a community
whose characteristics depend on the environment they live in. For example,
the plants and animals that live together in the tropics are quite different to
those of the desert.
The farm community

On a farm, the natural community has been modified. Exotic plants and
animals have been introduced. Some of these provide food and fibre;
others are as escapees or hitchhikers. A vineyard community is shown
below.
parrots
bees eucalyptus trees
native and
imported
grasses
sheep grazing wattle tree
caterpillar
Plants and animals living in a vineyard community. Some organisms are more
obvious than others.

Agricultural activities
Agricultural activities, for example spraying chemicals, alters the
environment by changing the composition of soil and water, as well as
plant and animal populations.
machinery
eg tractor and airseeder
removal of products soil structure
eg harvest, hay soil organisms
nutrients
soil pH
clearing for grazing and cropping

biodiversity
salinity
erosion
Farming activities alter the environment.

1 Use the diagram to describe some of the changes that agricultural
production makes to the environment. Give examples.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2 Chemical control of pests, diseases and weeds also affects the
environment. From your knowledge of chemicals, briefly describe
the effects spraying might have on the environment.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Check your answers.
16 Grape production
Mites friend or foe?
As well as bees, birds and fish, chemicals may affect the natural balance
of mites in a vineyard.
What are mites? What balance are we talking about?
These animals form part In a vineyard, there are a number of different

of a larger group known mites with various feeding patterns. Some
as arthropods. Other mites, for example, bunch mite, blister mite
members include crabs, and rust mite are considered pests because
scorpions, ticks, they feed on grapevines. Others are
centipedes and insects. predatory; they feed on other mites. An
Mites and ticks are part understanding of the balance between pest
of a subgroup. Some are and predatory mites is essential to the
parasitic, for example, development of integrated pest management
cattle tick. (IPM) in vineyards with mite problems.
Mite research
Understanding the population dynamics within each vineyard, and
therefore the balance between organisms, is a major tool in the
implementation of biological mite management.
Research carried out by Dr David James and Jennifer Whitney at Yanco

Agricultural Institute shows that some chemicals affect this balance more
than others. Read about what Jennifer Whitney has to say about mite
research in the transcript of an interview with her in the Additional
resources section.
1 Jennifer mentions population dynamics several times during the
interview. Outline what you think this term means.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2 From this research, explain how you think pest mites might be
controlled by biological means.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
3 Comment on the design of the research. Explain why you think this
research was carried out in different vineyards over many years.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Check your answers.
Chemical control of mites

Chemicals used in vineyards affect mite populations. Sulfur sprays dont
alter the mite populations too much but other harder chemicals are
indiscriminate and may destroy all mite populations. Sulfur based sprays
(except lime sulfur) usually do not affect mites too much.
Vineyards where extensive chemical control is carried out have few, if any,
of the native predator mites. Read about what Jennifer has to say about
chemical control of mites in the interview in the Additional resources
section. Jennifer relates the methods used to find out how fungicides and
miticides used in vineyards affect mite numbers
1 Identify the information found by the first research method. Outline the
conclusions that could be made.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________
2 Identify the information determined by the bioassay in the
laboratory. Outline the conclusions that could be made.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________
3 Explain why research was carried out both in the field and in the
laboratory.
______________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________
4 Population dynamics and chemical sprays affect mite numbers in
vineyards. Identify other factors that might influence mite
populations.
18 Grape production
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Check your answers.
The influence of climate on mite populations

The research involved looking at how different factors influenced mite
populations. Read further in the transcript in the Additional resources
section to find out how Jennifer finds environmental factors affect mite
populations.
Identify aspects of the research design that would have allowed the
researchers to come up with these types of conclusions.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answer.
Integrated pest management

Pest populations need to be managed in vineyards to keep damage below the
economic threshold. There are various strategies that may be used
depending on things such as the vineyard managers goals. Read the rest of
the interview transcript in the Additional resources section to find out about
the use of integrated pest management (IPM) in vineyards.
In the interview Integrated pest management was described as being a

responsible approach to pest control. Outline what is meant by the term
integrated pest management.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answers.

Insect pests
There are many insects that may be pests of grapevines. Some are sap
suckers; others eat the leaves. Their activities reduce grape productivity.
The table below shows the effects of some insect pests and common
methods of control.
Insect pest Damage Control
lightbrown apple larvae hatch from eggs predators, for example spiders
moth laid on weeds then eat
leaves, young shoots, parasites, for example
berries and flowers Trichogramma
insecticides, for example
chlorpryifos
biocide, for example Bacillus
thuringiensis
remove weeds
grapevine moth overwinters on vine predators, for example shield
wood or posts then bug
eats leaves, flowers
and young berries parasites of larvae and pupae
insecticide, for example
carbaryl
biocide, for example Bacillus
thuringiensis
longtailed overwinters on vines, good canopy management
mealybug cover crops and
weeds; secretes insecticide, for example
honeydew that methidathion
develops into sooty
mould; grape
productivity is reduced
grapevine scale overwinters on canes parasites, for example parasitic

or wood; secretes wasp
honeydew which
develops sooty mould; predators, for example ladybird
growth is restricted; insecticide, for example winter
young eat leaves oil
Rutherglen bug normally lives among control weeds where bugs

weeds; can kill young breed
vines; reduces grape
quality; eats all green insecticide, for example
parts maldison applied to vine and
soil where they lay eggs
20 Grape production
As you can see, there are various methods used to manage insect pests.
Pests may be controlled by culture, natural, chemical or biological means.
Write an example of each type of control. The first one is done for you.
Control method Example
Cultural control remove weeds, canopy management
Natural control
Chemical control
Biological control
Check your answers.
If you were a vineyard manager how would you manage pests?
Would you grow grapes organically? Why? Why not?
Complete Exercise 3.2: Mites.
Summary
Many different plants and animals live in a vineyard community.
Farming activities may upset plant and animal population dynamics.
Biological control exploits the natural management of pest
populations.
Integrated pest management combines several control measures to
manage pest populations.
There are many insect pests of grapevines which are managed in a
variety of ways.
There are several types of fungi, mites and insects that interfere with
grape production in a vineyard. In the next section you will examine the
effects weeds have on production and how their populations can be
managed.

Competitors
Competitors
It is common practice in agriculture to crop large areas. Most people are
familiar with broadacre cropping, for example wheat, oats, barley, rice.
Vineyards also have many plants in rows. Even in these highly
controlled situations there are plant invaders called weeds. In this
section, you will be examining various methods used to control weeds in
vineyards. By comparing these you will be able to make
recommendations for sustainable weed management strategies.
Access an interactive version of Competitors using this link. This material will
complete this part of the module.
thistle
young grapevine
water
nutrients
Weeds compete for resources.
Very simply, weeds are unwanted plants. Weeds, like cover crops,
compete for valuable resources and may harbour pests. However, weeds
can also harbour beneficial mites and insects. Weeds need to be
managed since their total removal may not benefit the vineyard.
22 Grape production
Chemical control herbicides
Herbicides contain an active chemical constituent. Usually they are mixed
with water before spraying. It is extremely important that this is done safely
and correctly. This includes getting the quantities right and wearing
protective clothing. Your health and grapevine vigour are both at stake. So,
read the instructions!
General
Protection of Livestock
For con
trol of...
Protection of Wildlife
Safety Directions
First Aid
Agricultural chemicals are required to include information on safety procedures,

directions for use and environmental information.
Identify at least four reasons why it is critical that farm chemicals are used
safely and efficiently.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Check your answers.

Types of herbicides
In Australia, herbicides are grouped according to their mode of action the
way they control weeds. There are fourteen herbicide groups (A N).
These groups are rated as being a high, moderate or low risk.

Ally
F u si l ad e G ro up B
G ro up A
r e s p i ra t o r
[ G ro u p A - B ]

T r efl a n
S i m azi n e G ro up D
G ro up C
g l ove s
[ G ro u p C H ]

D iq ua t
R o undu p G roup L
G ro up M
Risk
ove ra l l s [ G ro u p I N ]
Herbicides are labelled to show their group. This gives users an indication of
their risk.
Some herbicides are selective, they control only particular sorts of weeds.
Examples include Treflan and Hoegrass.
Broadspectrum herbicides, also known as knockdown herbicides, are not

selective. Examples include Roundup and Gramoxone.
There are a number of government authorities that regulate the

production of chemicals used on farms. The efficient and safe use of
farm chemicals is extremely important. In 1993, the Farm Chemical
User Training Program was launched to assist people working on the
land to more safely handle and better understand herbicide use on farms.
24 Grape production
Herbicides in the vineyard
Chemicals used in vineyards must be registered for that purpose.
The different sorts of herbicides are as follows.
Pre-emergent herbicides - extremely effective for control of weeds
before they emerge. They are residual chemicals usually sprayed
onto bare ground. Some pre-emergents can accumulate in the soil.
Contact (knockdown) herbicides kill weeds when they are
touched. These herbicides are very effective at killing all the weeds
they touch. Regrowth of weeds is unaffected.
Systemic herbicides are translocated within the plant. They are
very effective especially if they are applied when weeds are actively
growing.
The diagrams below illustrate the action of three different types of

herbicides. Label each as either pre-emergent, contact or systemic.
weed seeds
dead
healthy
all dead
dead
healthy
Check your labels.

Herbicide resistance
One major drawback of chemical use is the build up of resistant weed
populations. Many agricultural weeds have developed resistance to
chemicals. These weeds can survive a herbicide applied at the
recommended rate. Herbicide resistant weeds include annual rye grass,
wild oats, capeweed, barley grass, dirty dora and starfruit.
A number of non chemical strategies can be used to reduce the build up

of herbicide resistant weeds.
Agricultural plants should be grown under optimum conditions so
they can successfully compete with weeds.
Weeds can be cultivated, for example slashed, ploughed in.
Crops can be grown to compete with weeds, for example a cover
crop, pasture, green manure crop.
Weeds can be smothered by mulching or composting.
Weeds can be grazed by sheep in winter.
Part of a weed management program may however, include chemical

use. When using chemicals as part of a weed management strategy
farmers should:
rotate chemicals from different groups
try to use low and moderate risk chemicals
use knockdown herbicides before cropping
spray weeds before they set seed (spray topping, crop topping)
analyse herbicides when the weeds are out of control.
It is important to keep accurate paddock records that show which

herbicides were used in which paddock and when.
Is resistance to herbicides something that farmers really need to be

concerned about? Why? Why not?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Complete Exercise 3.3: Resistance.
26 Grape production
Organic weed control
There are production standards that must be met by organic grape
growers. Synthetic chemicals are not allowed for use in organic
vineyards. Methods of control that are acceptable include:
mechanical or cultural control, for example hand weeding,
cultivation with machinery, mulching
planting cover crops
biological control.
Mechanical/cultural control
Weeds in vineyards can be slashed, mowed, or cultivated. However, this
may damage the vine or its root system. Cultivation was the most
common form of weed control before modern herbicides were developed.
Now, mechanical cultivation is less popular because of the soil damage
that may occur.
Think about the advantages and disadvantages of mechanical cultivation.

Complete the table to list at least two advantages and two disadvantages of
cultivating weeds.
Advantages Disadvantages
Check your answers.

Cover crops
Planting cover crops in vineyards can reduce weeds. However, there are
advantages and disadvantages as show in the table below.
provides nutrients , for example, competition for water

legumes
improves soil structure competition for nutrients
additional produce , for example, can host pests
hay
reduces weeds competition for space
reduces erosion may shade other plants
1 Briefly explain, using examples, three advantages and three

disadvantages of using cover crops in vineyards. One advantage is
shown below.
A legume cover crop, for example lucerne, may increase the
nitrogen levels in the soil.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
2 Discuss whether you would grow a cover crop if you were a
vineyard manager.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Check your answers.
28 Grape production
Biological control
In the last part you learned how effective predator mites were in the
control of blister, rust and bunch mites on grapevines. The natural
enemies of weeds work in essentially the same way. Biological control
of weeds uses natural enemies such as insects, mites and pathogens.
There are rigorous procedures that must be followed before biological

control agents (natural enemies) can be released.
The Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS) and
Environment Australia must approve their importation into
Australia.
A series of tests must ensure that the agent attacks only the target.
This ensures the safety of native species.
An application for release of the biological control agent must be
approved by several government departments, research organisations
and state departments.
The effect of the control agent must be observed in quarantine.
Performance in the field is monitored at research sites.
Biological control does not eradicate pests. It does, however, offer a

natural, environmentally safe long term method of control.
Many different organisms have been released as biological control

agents. For example, the CSIRO has released a rust fungus for skeleton
weed management.
Read the article Weevil causes destruction on Patersons curse in the

Additional resources section. It outlines the release of a biological agent
used in the control of Patersons curse, otherwise known as Salvation
Jane. This research is being done by Dr Andy Sheppard. As you read,
think about the potential of this form of control and any possible
drawbacks.
1 Identify at least two advantages in using biological weed control.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2 Identify at least one disadvantage in using biological weed control.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

3 Evaluate biological control of weeds considering the advantages and
disadvantages you have identified.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Check your answers.
Plant associations
You may have heard of companion planting where plants are grown next
to a crop to benefit the crops growth and development. For example,
growing basil with tomato plants benefits the crop in ways that are not
entirely understood. The basil may deter insect pests that would
otherwise damage the tomatoes.
The weed, silverleaf nightshade reduces the growth of crop and pasture
plants. Studies suggest that the roots of silverleaf nightshade release a
chemical which stops the growth of other plants.
The affects of one plant on another may be beneficial or adverse. This is

called allelopathy. Allelopathy is another example of crop interference.
The effects of some plants on others have been observed for a very long
time. Democritus in the third century BC first recorded that some plants
dont grow near others. Molisch coined the term allelopathy to
describe this effect in 1937. The term was coined from the Greek words
below.
allelon of each other; pathos to suffer
Plants that lower crop yields include parthenium, Johnson grass, cotton,
purslane and lantana. These plants dont affect all plants. They are
selective. For example; tall fescue inhibits the growth of canola and red
clover; thistles affect oats; and rye inhibits wheat. There is little known
about allelopathic plants and grapes.
Allelopathic plants affect other plants in a variety of ways.

The chemicals released can:
make seeds and buds dormant
promote disease infections
make plants more susceptible to disease
disrupt water balance
interfere with photosynthesis
30 Grape production
interfere with nitrogen fixation
slows down the uptake of nutrients.
What are the implications? Allelopathic plants can cause problems in

many agricultural enterprises. For example, as weeds in crops and
pastures, as stubble mulch for the next crop, in crop rotations, when
orchards are replanted and when forests are regenerated.
Research into allelopathic plants may result in isolating chemicals that

can be used in weed control.
Complete Exercise 3.4: Interference.
Summary
Weeds compete for resources, reducing plant productivity.
Weeds can be managed in a variety of ways. They can be:
slashed by machinery
grazed by sheep
sprayed with herbicides
attacked by biological control agents
covered with mulch or compost
smothered by a cover crop.
A combination of non chemical strategies is recommended to reduce
the build up of herbicide resistant plants.
Some plants have an allelopathic affect on another.
Methods used to control weeds, pests and diseases of grapevines are

changing. In fact, many things are different. In the next part you will be
finding out whats new in viticulture.

Additional resources
Additional resources
Interview with Jennifer Whitney

Jennifer Whitney at Yanco Agricultural Institute has researched the
biological control of grapevine mites for seven years and shares her
experience with us in the following interview.
Mite research
How did you gain knowledge of the balance that exists between
organisms in vineyards?
To obtain this knowledge, we have to understand the population dynamics of
pest and predatory mites in each vineyard. Population dynamics display
regional differences, although regional trends are usually obvious. Within
regions, the population dynamics can vary considerably from vineyard to
vineyard depending on management practices used,, for example, use or non
use of chemicals. We studied the population dynamics of individual sites the
following ways.
Sites were selected in viticultural regions across Australia. Most sites selected
were low input (minimal chemical usage) sites to give a more accurate
reflection of the natural grapevine fauna. Some sites that received conventional
spray programs were also used as a comparison.
Grapevine material (leaf, shoot, cane) was sampled from each site throughout
the season (August to May). Material was returned to the laboratory and
examined using a stereomicroscope.
Pest and predatory mite numbers were recorded and the occurrence of other
fauna was noted. Predatory mites were collected and retained in alcohol for
later species identification.
Pest and predatory mites numbers were collated and graphed at the end of each
season. Comparison of these data over several seasons gave us a detailed
picture of the population dynamics of these mites.
Predator species identifications were done. This provided a species profile for
each site and region and gave us an indication of how effective they were as
pest control agents.
Studying mite numbers for extended periods therefore provides information on
pest and predator populations and their affect on each other.
32 Grape production
What are the effects of chemical sprays on mite populations?

In most vineyards, chemicals are applied mainly for disease control, although
some miticides and insecticides are still used. Although these products are
aimed at diseases, they can still have a detrimental effect on the natural
grapevine fauna. We therefore need to understand their effects on predators.
We determined the effects of chemical sprays on mites in two ways.
At the end of each season, we obtained seasonal spray information from each
grower or vineyard manager. This information contained product details, rate
of application and date of application. This information was incorporated with
details of pest and predatory mite populations for the same site.
Using a graphical representation of the mite fauna in each vineyard, we were
able to see the effects of chemicals on mite populations throughout the season,
by determining the chemical application date from the graph. Any effect on
mites can be easily seen.
In some cases where chemicals were applied for pest mite control, an initial
decline in numbers was apparent as well as a drop in predators. This was
usually preceded by a pest mite outbreak! Clearly, when predators are reduced,
pests are not controlled.
Another method of determining the effects of chemicals on predatory mites is
by laboratory bioassay technique. That is, exposing predators to selected
volumes of chemicals and monitoring the survival rate.
How do different environmental factors affect mite populations?

Environmental factors affect pest and predatory mite populations seasonally
and geographically.
Our studies show that pest mite outbreaks are usually reflective of each seasons
climatic characteristics. That is, bunch mite being more prevalent in the
warmer grape growing regions and rust mite usually prevalent in the cooler
grape growing regions.
The study of population dynamics, as detailed above, has enabled us to observe
these trends in pest mite outbreaks, but in most seasons, we still see varying
combinations of the three main grapevine mite pests bunch mite, rust mite and
blister mite.
The occurrence of predatory mites is more of a geographical/ environmental
factor. Some species of predators prefer the warmer inland regions of Australia,
while others occur in the cooler, more southerly climes. We are also aware of
several species of predator that are only found in coastal regions and likewise
others, that prefer inland habitats.
Continued monitoring of regular sites over many seasons has allowed us to gain
comprehensive knowledge of the predatory fauna on Australian grapevines.
This understanding allows us to recommend regional strategies for biological
mite management.

How can integrated pest management (IPM) in vineyards be achieved?
Our knowledge of IPM in vineyards is derived from the above information.

Understanding population dynamics at a regional level, enables the appropriate
regional recommendations to be made, for example, suitable spray programs,
techniques for enhancing the natural vineyard fauna via cultural and
management practices etc. Therefore, IPM is a responsible approach to pest
management, combining the maximum use of natural management practices,
with chemical control measures only when required.
Predators control mites in vineyards

By David James and Jennifer Whitney
A revolution is about to occur in vineyard mite control. Miticides will soon be
replaced by two attractive predatory ladies with enormous appetites for the mite
pests of grapevine bunch mite, blister mite and rust mite. Doreen
(Typhlodromus doreenae) and Victoria (Amblyseius victoriensis) are predatory
mites of the Phytoseiidae family and they spearhead the push toward reduced
chemical usage in grapevines. Doreen and Victoria are Australian through and
through and have been trying to invade inland vineyards to feed on pest mites
ever since viticulture began in these areas. However, until now their efforts
have been thwarted by a barrage of chemical sprays aimed at vine diseases,
insect pests and mites.
Vignerons have done an excellent job in keeping Doreen and Victoria (and no
doubt many other useful organisms) out of their vineyards. Everywhere, that is,
except the Riverlands in South Australia. Here, viticulturists have opted for the
use of inorganic compounds such as sulphur and copper to control diseases such
as powdery and downy mildew. They rarely use the newer systemic fungicides
which can really spoil a predatory mites day. Consequently, Doreen is a full
time inhabitant of Riverlands vineyards.
She is able to put up with the regular applications of sulphur and copper and
produces populations which can occupy 90% of the leaves in a vineyard.
Doreen is fond of feeding on bunch mites and normally if Doreen is present
then the bunch mites are scarce or absent. A big attribute of Doreen is that she
does not disappear when she eliminates her favourite food.
Unlike a number of other predatory mites used in horticultural crops, Doreen is
not dependent on a single food resource for survival. She will also feed on rust
and blister mites and when times get really tough will eat pollen, insect eggs
and honeydew. Consequently, it is common to find large Doreen populations,
but no mite pests on Riverlands grapevines.
Victoria is also a general feeder, but tends to prefer rust and blister mites and
therefore complements the bunch mite preference of Doreen. Unlike Doreen,
which remains on grapevines throughout the year, Victoria departs with the
leaves in autumn and returns early-mid summer. Her return is largely
influenced by sprays used. Unlike Doreen, Victoria is susceptible to sulphur.
34 Grape production
The Doreen and Victoria combination generally hits its stride in January and
thereafter bunch, blister and rust mites are a rarity in Riverland vineyards. Of
course, no one knew Doreen and Victoria were performing such an excellent
service until vineyard mite fauna was examined in 1989/90.
Riverlands growers had been applying two to four sulphur sprays a season to
control mites, a production cost which was totally unnecessary. Viticulture in
the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area and Sunraysia is characterised by greater
inputs of synthetic fungicides which are generally more detrimental to predatory
mites than sulphur and copper. Victoria is common in both regions, but does
not appear on grapevines until sprays cease.
Doreen has only been recorded once on MIA grapevines. It is likely that
Doreen and Victoria could establish that same winning partnership in Sunraysia
and the MIA if predator-friendly chemicals were used. Recent studies in
Canberra vineyards have shown Doreen is alive and well in this region and
clearly must have the ability to survive cold and hot conditions!
Chemical mite control costs the Australian grape industry an estimated $2.8
million per annum. Doreen and Victoria have the potential to remove most of
this cost from grape production.
Research is now being directed toward developing and implementing biological
control strategies for grapevine mites in all leading viticultural regions of south-
eastern Australia. Strategies will be based on the successful Riverlands model
either using Doreen and Victoria or other predatory mites already present in the
regions.
An important research area is development of a mass rearing technique for
Doreen and Victoria. If commercially available, these predators will be rapidly
introduced to vineyards without them.
The Doreen and Victoria story is an excellent example of the substantial
benefits from basic biological research into previously unstudied systems.
Doreen and Victoria and their ilk have the potential to save the viticultural
industry millions of dollars in production costs. They will also ensure a less
contaminated product and help to clean up the environment.
Good Fruit and Vegetables. Rural Press. Issue No. 2. (1992).

Botrytis
Botrytis is fungal disease that affects many of Australias vineyards.
Varieties that are prone to botrytis (also known as grey rot) include
Semillon, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon blanc.
soft rot
watery spots
dead tissue
skin splits
Grapevine shoots, leaves, flowers and berries can be infected by botrytis.
Steve Warne is a winemaker for De Bortoli Wines in Griffith in the MIA.

The De Bortoli family company produces a large range of wines which
includes Noble one, a botrytised dessert wine of exceptional quality.
Steven was asked about the effect botrytis has on grape production.
Following is his comment.
Botrytis can have a positive or negative effect on grape production. One of the
negative effects is that it reduces grape quality. There are problems in
processing with juice stability etc. These can be overcome, but at a cost. On
the positive side, an exceptional dessert wine can be produced under the right
conditions. The initial infection is produced under conditions of high humidity.
If grapes are allowed to dehydrate so that the sugar content increases then noble
rot develops. In this area, cloudy foggy mornings followed with clear days
produces the right conditions. This varies from area to area with some areas
better than others. This may be due to differences in air drainage. Canopy
training and other management practices also affect botrytis infections.
There are a number of fungicides that can be used to control botrytis. The main
site of infection is the flower. This fungus overwinters in the old dried berries
and other vine material. Timing is critical in fungus control. It must be
knocked out before flowering.
36 Grape production
De Bortoli Wines started producing botrytised dessert wines in 1982. It was
seen as a marketing opportunity, an industry trailblazer.
The symptoms of infection are easy to see. In the advanced stages a hairy sort
of mound covers the fruit. Earlier, grapes are papery, pinkish and easy to break.
The fruit used to produce Noble one looks pretty disgusting with mould all over
the fruit.
wind
new shoot
flower
flower
infection
spores (spring)
overwintering
wind dormant fungus (winter)
dried out grapes
dormant fungus (winter)
Life cycle of Botrytis cinerea (bunch rot).

Herbicide resistance management
program - Its your move
Herbicide resistance is a major threat facing Australian grain growers.
Pressure on growers to rely more heavily on Group A and Group B products
will result in increasing discoveries of resistant populations of annual ryegrass,
wild oats and broadleaf weeds. However, resistance can be managed and a
Grains Research Development Corporation National Extension Program has
helped raise national awareness of this problem.
In 1992 State agricultural agencies, Avcare, weed researchers and GRDC put in
place a program to address herbicide resistance, a major threat facing Australian
grain growers. Projects were funded in Southern Queensland, Northern and
Southern NSW, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia.
These projects had the common aim of raising awareness of herbicide resistance
and to extend information on how to avoid and manage this problem.
A major feature of the program has been the cooperation and interaction
between the coordinators; researchers; advisers from government, private and
corporate sectors; the Herbicide Resistance subcommittee of Avcare; key
farmers and farmer groups. This cooperation has lead to a greatly improved
understanding with both the avoidance and management of herbicide resistance.
A key achievement of the program has been the agreement to make it
mandatory for all herbicide labels to include the mode of action group for
each chemical.
Outputs and activities of the projects include the following:
WA Herbicide Resistance Reference Manual
Weed Smart booklet - used in 1993 and 1994
Tasmanian Herbicide Resistance awareness and management package
the 1994/95 and 1996 awareness brochures
articles on resistance in a wide range of weed control charts, books,
magazines, etc
posters
workshops, seminars, conferences and training programs for farmers and
advisers
packages for advisers and Farmcare training providers, , for example,
overhead and slide transparencies
procedure for a field test for resistance
displays and presentations at major field days, conferences and local
programs
audio-visual using slides for use at major field days and conferences, which
has been put onto video for use with smaller groups.
38 Grape production
Has the program made any difference?
The coordinators are confidant that the answer is yes. Most grain growers are
now aware of herbicide resistance as a potential problem on their farms.
Good understanding however, about how to avoid, delay or manage resistance
is mostly confines to those farmers who have recognised the problem on their
own farm or nearby. Such farmers are proving that resistant weed populations
can be managed in a manner that improves the prospects of profitable
production. This is only being achieved where farmers are prepared to reduce
reliance on the highly effective Group A and B products to use a wide range of
methods to control crop weeds such as annual ryegrass, wild oats and Indian
Hedge mustard. The awareness and understanding of those advising farmers
has improved significantly over the three years of the program (19931996).
With increasing economic burdens and in some cases falling herbicide prices
growers are going to be under more and more pressure to rely heavily on Group
A and Group B products for weed control in intensive grain growing areas. The
potential for resistance in broadleaf weeds to Group B products is of major
concern to the coordinators and resistance researchers and highlights the need
for continued research and extension effort on the prevention and management
of resistance weeds.
Cooperative Research Centre for Weed Management Systems. Research

highlights. Weed Watch. Issue number 3. March June 1996. Cooperative
Research Centres Program. Australia.
Weevil causes destruction on

Patersons curse
The last issue of Weed Watch reported that Patersons curse root-crown weevil
Mogulones larvatus, first released by CSIRO Entomology researchers, were
developing in large numbers at a release site near Yanco. Since that time the
weevils have undergone a further generation with devastating results. On an
organic farm the weevils have killed all plants within a 200 m radius of the
release point (an estimated 150 000 plants). This has occurred in the absence of
plant competition and isolated pockets of healthy plants that have not been so
heavily hit prove the damage can be attributed to the weevil.
Such damage levels are much higher than those ever recorded in the native
range and beyond the expectations for the project personnel. This holds well
for the next biological agent redistribution workshop due to be held at Yanco
next autumn. If such attack levels continue to spread and start to appear
elsewhere at other younger release sites we may be seeing the start of something
big! An interesting observation is that the biggest plants died first. This site
will be closely monitored in future seasons and will be used as the main
harvesting site for further distributions throughout NSW.
Cooperative Research Centre for Weed Management Systems. Research

highlights. Weed Watch. Issue number 3. March June 1996. Cooperative
Research Centres Program. Australia.

Suggested answers
Suggested answers
The life and times of phylloxera
1 Vineyards that are most at risk: have young vines; are located in an
area where phylloxera has been a pest in the past, for example
Rutherglen and Geelong; grows European vines (Vitus vinifera) on
their own roots; has unrestricted access by machinery, equipment
and vine material.
2 Vineyards at least risk: are located in an area free of the pest (SA and
WA); have vines grown in sandy soils; are well established; and
have vines grafted onto a phylloxera resistant rootstock.
Control of phylloxera
1 a) This is a quarantine area. No cuttings, no grapes, no vine
material of any sort may be taken into the Hunter without
written permission by NSW Agriculture.
b) This is a declared phylloxera area. No vine material may be
taken out of the area.
2 Movement of material out of infected areas and into phylloxera free
regions is restricted preventing the spread of phylloxera.
Black spot
The grapevine looks as if it might be infected by black spot.
There are black spots on the grapes. At this stage there are no black
spots on the leaves, these may develop later.
Downy mildew
1 In winter, downy mildew lies dormant as spores in the soil and on
dead leaves. Rain and temperatures of at least 10C produce spores
underneath the grape leaves. Warm and wet conditions with high
humidity spreads disease to leaves in the canopy. Leaves, with
spores, fall to the ground in late autumn and winter and the cycle
begins again.
2 Good canopy management would improve air circulation and
therefore dry out the leaves and reduce humidity. Some vineyards
use fungicides to prevent disease. Using overhead sprinklers should
be avoided when infection is likely.
40 Grape production
Powdery mildew
1 Infected grapevines would yield much less since there is poor berry
set. Table grape production would suffer because damaged berries
are poor quality.
2 Susceptible vines can be sprayed with sulfur or other chemicals to
prevent powdery mildew. Powdery mildew prefers low light
conditions so an open canopy is part of a prevention plan.
3 A spraying program would begin just before budburst and continue
until berry set. This is when the environmental conditions are most
likely to be ideal.
Agricultural activities
1 There are many affects that farming can have on the environment.
Harvesting and haymaking reduce the nutrient levels in the soil
if crops arent fertilised. Soil pH may be reduced also making
the soil more acid.
Cultivating paddocks may lead to a decline in soil structure.
Soil organism activity may decrease, especially if soil
conditions change greatly, for example pH.
Land has been cleared for cropping and grazing. This reduces
the variety of living things that live there (loss of biodiversity).
A reduction in trees greatly increases the risk of the watertable
rising, producing saline conditions.
2 Some chemicals may: accumulate in soil and water; adversely affect
birds, fish and bees.
Mite research
1 Population dynamics refers to the way mite numbers alter over time
due to a number of influences, for example climate, season, other
organisms, food availability.
2 Encouraging predator mites to naturally control the pest mite
population would be a form of biological control. Predator mites
could be bred in the laboratory and introduced into vineyards.
3 Research at different vineyards over many years gives us more
accurate and representative data. A comparison of pest and predator
mite populations over time can lead to valid conclusions about how
the populations of each mite affect each other.

1 They matched the timing of spraying with population changes.
Information about spraying programs tells the researchers what
chemical affects which mite.

2 The bioassay technique tells researchers how much of a particular
chemical kills how many mites.
3 Information from the field gives researchers an idea of how things
are working in the field. Bioassay is an accurate measure done
under laboratory conditions.
4 Seasonal conditions, climate, stage of the vines, presence of other
food sources, presence of predators are some of the things that may
affect mite populations.

The research was carried out over many growing seasons in different
areas. Aspects of climate, for example, rainfall and temperature and the
presence (or absence) of mite species would have been taken into
consideration.

Integrated pest management means that a range of pest control strategies
should be used. For example; planting a range of crops, allowing poultry
to forage and sheep to graze, encouraging predators and rotating
chemicals.
Insect pests
Control method Example
Cultural control remove weeds, canopy management
Natural control predators (spiders, lady bird, shield bug) and

parasites (Trichogramma, parasitic wasp)
Chemical control chlorpryifos, carbaryl, methidathion, winter oil,

maldison
Biological control Bacillus thuringiensis
42 Grape production
Chemical control herbicides
Some chemicals are toxic to humans and other animals.
Some chemicals may kill crop and pasture plants as well.
Not using enough may mean that many weeds survive and farmers
may need to respray.
Chemicals may leave residues or run off into water courses.
Weeds may more easily become resistant to chemicals.
Wildlife and livestock may be affected.
Herbicides in the vineyard
weed seeds
(dead) (healthy) (dead) (healthy) (dead)
Mechanical/cultural control
non toxic soil structure declines

leaves no residues plough pans may form
existing machinery can be used high labour input
digs up all weeds cultivating crop plants must be avoided
dont need spraying equipment weeds with deep taproots are hard to
kill in this way
dont need chemical safety gear high fuel costs

Cover crops
1 Cover crops can improve soil structure especially if they are
deep rooting perennials, for example lucerne.
Legumes may provide additional nutrients to the soil.
Produce additional to grapes can be sold or used from the
vineyard if, for example, the cover crop is baled for hay.
Weed populations can be managed.
Cover crops reduce the risk of erosion.
Vigorously growing vines need nutrients which they have to
compete for with surrounding plants, for example cover crops.
Cover crops may compete more successfully for water than
newly established vines especially in a dry season.
Pests such as Rutherglen bug breed in cover crops and weeds to
then infect grapevines.
2 In most areas, the advantages outweigh the disadvantages for
growing a cover crop between the rows of grapevines.
The improved soil fertility (nutrients and structure) in addition to
reduced soil erosion make cover crops an attractive soil management
strategy.
Biological control
1 Advantages of biological control agents:
do not leave residues in soil, water and produce
are not toxic
do not need to be continually applied
do not require spraying equipment
do not require safety gear
can be used to grow organic produce.
2 Disadvantages of biological control agents:
may not be native to Australia, and therefore may interfere with
the natural balance
may not survive conditions in the field
may be costly to introduce into the area.
3 Biological control agents are chosen carefully and trialled in
quarantine facilities over many years before they can be released.
Non-chemical control must be an advantage in environmental and
economical terms.
44 Grape production
Exercises Part 3
Exercises Part3
Exercises 3.1 to 3.4 Name: _________________________________
Exercise 3.1: Bunch rot

Read the information about Botrytis in the Additional resources section
and use this to help you answer the following questions.
1 Describe how botrytis infections affect grape production.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2 Outline the life cycle of botrytis.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
3 Explain how environmental conditions affect botrytis infections.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
4 Outline management strategies you would recommend for the
control of botrytis. Is timing important? Why? Why not?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Exercise 3.2: Mites
The research carried out at Yanco Agricultural Institute by
Dr David James and Jennifer Whitney is just one of many projects
designed to improve agricultural productivity in Australia.
Refer to the interview transcript and the newspaper article in the

Additional resources section for background information to answer the
questions that follow.
1 The damage caused by mites in vineyards varies depending on the
species of mite and the grapevine variety. Buds can be killed, the
growth of new shoots can be greatly affected, leaves can fall
prematurely and bunches of grapes can be scarred.
Explain how integrated pest management can be used in vineyards in
Australia.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2 Evaluate integrated pest management as a strategy in Australian
vineyards.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
46 Grape production
Exercise 3.3: Resistance
You will have read about the problems of resistance to chemicals by both
pests and weeds. It is a major concern not only in Australia, but overseas
as well.
The Herbicide Resistance Management Program is described in an article

in the Additional resources section. Educational materials have been
produced for farmers as part of the program. These are in the form of
brochures, information sheets, booklets and leaflets. During your course
you have collected many of these from various sources such as NSW
Agriculture, your local stock and station agent, field day displays, etc.
In this exercise you will be designing educational materials in a format

similar to these. Features you may consider including are: large bold
headings, eyecatching layout, use of colour, diagrams, photographs,
small amounts of concise information.
Use information from your lesson notes and other sources to produce
a handout on chemical resistance that is suitable for farmers in your
area.
Choose a format that you like such as a poster or pamphlet.
You must use your own paper or cardboard.
Include information that will answer the questions that farmers ask
about resistance to chemicals:
What is resistance?
How can I identify resistant populations?
Why is resistance to chemicals a problem?
How can resistance to chemicals be prevented?

Exercise 3.4: Interference
The growth and development of crops and pastures may be interfered
with in various ways such as competition, allelopathy, changes to the
environment, and plants as hosts.
1 Briefly describe how competition affects plant production.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2 Outline what is meant by the term allelopathy and describe how it
interferes with plant growth and development.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3 Growing agricultural plants can modify the environment.
Describe another way that farming practices interfere with plant
productivity.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4 Rutherglen bugs live and breed in plants such as capeweed. These
bugs are pests of grapevines. Explain how these plant hosts interfere
with plant production.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5 Outline a weed management plan that you think would contribute to
sustainable long term productivity.
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48 Grape production

Grape Production: Part 3: Pests and Diseases of Grapes

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Grape Production: Part 3: Pests and Diseases of Grapes

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Grape production

Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes

Vineyard pests .......................................................................... 3

Fungal infections ....................................................................... 8

Downy mildew ................................................................................10

Powdery mildew .............................................................................12

The natural balance................................................................. 15

Mites, friend or foe?........................................................................17

Insect pests ....................................................................................20

Organic weed control .....................................................................27

Plant associations ..........................................................................30

Exercises Part 3 ................................................................... 45

Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes 1

The management of pests in a vineyard is important to ensure the best

This part contributes towards an understanding of Outcomes H1.1 and

A grape epidemic phylloxera

Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes 3

Phylloxera was first detected in Australia in

The spread of phylloxera throughout Australia.

The life and times of phylloxera

There are several species of vines used in commercial grape production.

Phylloxera survive the winter (overwinter) as nymphs sheltering under

A simplified life cycle of phylloxera in the soil around European vines.

Phylloxera can spread to nearby vines in various ways. Nymphs can

Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes 5

Check your answers.

Quarantine regulations to prevent the introduction of grape phylloxera into

Quarantine regulations, in force since 1899, have contained the pest to

Check your answers.

Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes 7

Anthracnose (black spot) is a disease caused by a fungus. Other common

Downy mildew Powdery mildew Botrytis

on the underside of leaf on the leaf surface on the leaf surface

clustered spores single strands clustered spores

Features of the spores of three different diseases of grapevines.

Many of the fungal diseases respond well to chemical sprays called

Some varieties, for

This diagram shows some

Look at the grapevine in the following photograph. Evaluate whether you

Grapevine. (Photograph by Julie Robinson)

Check your answer.

Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes 9

Many viticulturists carry out preventative programs, for example, regular

Spraying equipment. Seldom seen vineyard, Mudgee. July, 1996.

infection (late summer/

Life cycle of downy mildew fungus.

1 Use information in the diagram to describe the life cycle of downy

Check your answers.

Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes 11

pale green spots

red brown areas

grey white powdery

mature grapes split

dried out berries

The effects of powdery mildew on a grapevine.

1 Outline how a severe infection of powdery mildew might affect the

Check your answers.

The choice of a fungicide depends on environmental and economic

Rotating chemicals is one strategy used to prevent resistance, which is a

Fungicides are usually applied more than once in a prevention program.

Part 3: Pests and diseases of grapes 13

Information provided on container labels gives users guidelines. These

Organically grown grapes do not use artificial or synthetic chemicals.