OUT-OF-STEP PROTECTION USING THE EQUAL AREA CRITERION
Shengli Cheng, Student Member IEEE Mohindar S. Sachdev, Life Fellow IEEE
Power System Research Group
University of Saskatchewan，Canada
email: shc080@mail.usask.ca
Abstract
Power systems are interconnected for enhancing the
availability of power supply to the customers and for reducing
the prices charged to them. A natural consequence of this
practice is that the interconnected power systems are likely to
swing following faults and other disturbing events. Power
swing relays are traditionally used to block distance relays
from tripping line circuit breakers if the swing is not likely to
cause dynamic instability but open the interconnecting lines if
the systems are likely to become unstable. This is achieved by
using delay timers but deciding on the delays is a very difficult,
complex and judgmental issue.
This paper presents a new approach for use in out-of-step
relays. The technique is based on the well known equal area
criterion. The basis of the protection technique is described in
the paper. The technique is able to correctly identify swings
that are likely to result in dynamic instability.
Keywords: Out-of-step, Out-of-step relaying, Power swing,
Equal Area Criterion.
1. Introduction
During power-system swings, currents and voltages oscillate
in amplitude and phase. The distance relays calculate
impedances from voltages and currents observed at a
transmission line terminal. At certain locations in the power
system that is experiencing a disturbance, the calculated
impedances become so small that they enter the protection
zones of distance relays. In many cases, the system
disturbances are not severe and, in those cases, the systems
should be allowed to settle down to a stable state. In other
cases, the systems are likely to become unstable and should be
disconnected from each other. Then, the individual systems
should be allowed to settle down to stable states. For
maintaining generation-load balance, it may become necessary
to shed load in some cases and shed generation in other cases.
Conventional power swing relays use distance relays and delay
timers to distinguish power swings that are likely to result in
system instability from the swings that are likely to settle down
in stable states. Due to the difficulty in deciding the settings
for the conventional power swing relays, research for
developing alternative techniques has been carried out from
time to time and has become an urgent issue during the
previous few years.
0-7803-8886-0/05/$20.00@2005 IEEE 1488
CCECE/CCGEI, Saskatoon, May 2005
Power System Research Group
University of Saskatchewan，Canada
email: sachdev@sasktel.net
Power systems normally operate close to their nominal
frequency when there is a balance between the outputs of
generators and the sum of all the loads plus system losses.
Disturbances, such as faults, line switching and switching on of
large loads, loss of generators, result in sudden changes in the
transfer of power through transmission lines. This is
accompanied with changes in electrical outputs of generators.
Due to the massive inertia of the generator rotors and their
controlling mechanisms, the mechanical power inputs are not
able to follow the electrical outputs. The result is that a
balance between generation and load can no longer be
maintained. Due to the unbalance, rotors of some generators
accelerate and rotors of other generators decelerate until a new
balanced state is reached.
This paper illustrates a new approach which is based on the
well known Equal Area Criterion (EAC). The results obtained
from computer simulations show that there is an advantage in
using the proposed technique in power swing relays compared
to the conventional techniques.
2. Basic Principle
A simple power system consisting of one generator
connected to a power grid by a transmission line, shown in Fig.
1, is considered for examining the stability problem.
Es Er
Pm Pe
XL
Es
Generator δ
Inertia: H Er Infinite Bus
Fig. 1. A simple one-machine connected to a grid system
It can be shown that the maximum power, Pmax , that can be
transmitted through the line depends on the difference of the
phase angles of the voltages at the two terminals. This angle
may be expressed as δ. The well known power swing equation
that models the rotation of the rotor of the generator with
respect to the power grid is as follows.
 2 H d 2δ Direct axis transient reactance: 0.2 pu
= ∆ P = Pm − Pe (1) Terminal voltage: 1.03 pu
ω s dt 2 Transformer:
Es Er Rating: 25 MVA
Where Pe = Pmax sin δ = sin δ
XL Reactance: 0.1 pu
Lines:
The well known Equal Area Criterion (EAC), is basically the
Reactance: 0.4 pu for each circuit
integration of the electric power difference ∆P as a function
Infinite bus:
of rotor angle δ. For positive values of ∆P , the generator
Voltage: 1.0 pu
accelerates and for negative values of ∆P , the generator
decelerates. The generator would return to a steady state if the
Three-phase to ground faults were considered at the middle
deceleration area is larger the acceleration area; otherwise the
generator will loose synchronism with the power system to of one circuit of the transmission line. It was also considered
which the generator is connected through the transmission line. that the circuit breakers, at the two ends of the faulted line,
Equation 1 can be rewritten in the following form. open simultaneously some time after the inception of a fault.
Because of the inertia of the speed control system, the
d 2δ ω s mechanical input to the generator, Pm , was considered to
= ∆P (2)
dt 2 2H remain constant during a disturbance. The rotor dynamics
Integrating both sides provide were simulated using the Equations described in the previous
dδ t ω section.
= ∫ s ∆Pdt (3)
dt 0 2H
Integrating this equation from the inception of the fault, t 0 , to Pm Pe
the fault-clearing time, t c , provides the following equation. ZL
dδtc tc ωs tc
ω
=∫ ∆Pdt = ∑ s ∆P∆t = ωtc −ωs (4)
dt 0 2H
0 2H
ZS
Integrating Equation 3 from the fault-clearing time, t c , to the Generator ZT
Infinite Bus
time,t max , when δ reaches its maximum value provides
Fig. 2. The simulated power system
dδmax t max ωs t max
ω
=∫ ∆Pdt = ∑ s ∆P∆t = ωmax −ωtc (5)
dt tc 2H tc 2H
When the rotor angle δ reaches its maximum value, the rotor The developed technique was applied by measuring the
returns to the system’s nominal speed. Therefore, power over the lines at the sending-end terminals where relays
ωmax = ωs would normally be installed. The mechanical input to the
(6)
generator was considered be equal to the transmitted power
Substituting Equation 6 in Equation 5 and Equating it with just prior to the inception of each disturbance. The following
Equation 4 provides procedure was used.
tc
ωs t max
ωs
∑ 2H ∆P ∆t + ∑ 2 H ∆P∆ t = 0 1. The initial steady state of the system was determined
0 tc from Pe = Pm . When a fault occurred, power transfer
which leads to the following equation. through the transmission line, Pe , reduced and
tc t max

∑ ∆P∆t + ∑ ∆P∆t = 0 (7) ∆P (= Pm − Pe ) became positive. The accelerating power

0 tc
was integrated ( ∑( Pm − Pe )∆T ), until Pe became equal
to Pm . This provided the integration of power
differential over the acceleration period.
3. Simulations Procedure 2. Starting from this moment ∆P became negative and a
A power system shown in Fig. 2 was chosen for applying the new integration was started. The rotor was now in the
technique in a computer simulation. The parameters of the deceleration mode. The integration is continued until
selected system are as follows. the deceleration area became equal to the acceleration
area. If this happened, it was concluded that the
Generator: generator will return to a stable operating state.
Rating: 25 MVA 3. The integration of the deceleration power is continued
Nominal Frequency: 60 Hz as Pe reaches the maximum value, Pmax . The total
Kinetic Energy: 2.76 MJ per MVA available decelerating area is then estimated. If this area

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 is smaller that the accelerating area, it is concluded that
generator will not return to a stable operating state and
will loose synchronism with the system.

4. Simulation Results
Eight simulation cases are reported in this paper. The pre-
disturbance power transfer and fault clearing times were varied
to obtain six stable swings and two unstable swings. The
system operation was adjusted to the mechanical inputs listed
in Table 1. The fault clearing times, also listed in Table 1,
were used in the simulations. The pre-disturbance, during
disturbance and post-disturbance reactances work out to 0.5,
1.3 and 0.7 per unit.

Table 1. Simulation power system parameter

Case
Pm(p.u) X1(p.u.) X2(p.u) X3(p.u.) tc(sec)
No.
1 0.8 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.08
2 0.8 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.2
3 0.7 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.31
4 1 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.21
5 0.9 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.27
6 0.7 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.45
7 1.05 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.198
8 1.05 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.197
9 0.88 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.305
10 0.88 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.304

Fig. 3 shows the six stable cases of power swing curves and
Fig. 4 shows the two unstable power swing curves. Stable
power swings for maximum pre-disturbance power transfer for
those configurations are also shown in Fig. 4. The simulation Fig. 3. Electric power curves during power swing
results for stable swing curves are summarized in Table 2 and
the results for the unstable swings are summarized in Table 3.
In these tables, Area 1 represents the acceleration of the Table 3. Simulation data on unstable case study
generator, Area 2 represents the deceleration area and Area 3 is
the maximum deceleration area that is available in each case. Case Study Case 7 Case 8 Case 9 Case 10
Area1 86.163 85.809 78.413 78.329
Table 2. Simulation data on stable case study
Area2 79.065 85.968 71.984 78.413
Area3 79.065 88.602 71.984 81.274
Cases Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
Area2/Area1 0.9176 1.0019 0.9180 1.0037
Area1 38.660 71.791 64.605 95.833 92.176 64.605
Area3/Area1 0.9176 1.0325 0.9180 1.0336
Area2 38.786 72.210 64.884 96.055 92.373 64.889

Area3 192.32 159.66 184.18 123.15 129.18 120.47

Area1/Area2 0.9967 0.9942 0.9957 0.9977 0.9978 0.9956 These simulations indicate that the proposed technique
Area1/Area3 0.2010 0.4497 0.3508 0.7782 0.7135 0.5363
correctly identifies if a power swing is likely to return the
system to stable operation or is likely to result in system
instability. The information provided by the proposed
technique can also be used to decide if it is necessary to shed
load or generation in a system so that the system stability is
maintained.

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 5. Conclusions

A new technique, based on EAC, for identifying if a

power swing is likely to result in system instability has been
presented in this paper. The simulations reported in the paper
indicate that the proposed technique correctly identifies the
power swings that are likely to lead the generator to lose
synchronism with the rest of the power system.
In actual power systems, system damping and power
system stabilizer (PSS) have an impact on the mechanical input
to the generators during a disturbance. Further investigations
are being carried out to address this issue.

References
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