Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Change 1 HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington, DC, 16 October 1996
3. File this transmittal sheet in the front of the publication for reference.
DENNIS J. REIMER
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and U.S. Army Reserve: To be distributed in
accordance with the initial distribution number 110765, requirements for FM 6-2.
C1, FM 6-2
PREFACE
This publications is a guide for commanders, survey officers, and all personnel whose duties
include planning, supervising, and performing field artillery (FA) surveys or training in those
areas. The material presented herein applies without modification to both nuclear and nonnuclear
warfare. This manual provides
Doctrine for instruction and employment of survey sections.
Guidance and reference in survey principles.
Procedures used in operating and maintaining equipment.
This manual discusses the survey personnel and equipment available to FA units. It describes
and discusses
Measurement of angles and distances.
Techniques of recording field data as they are determined.
Different methods used to extend survey control.
Basic astronomy and the methods and techniques used in astronomic observation to determine
direction.
Determination of relative locations on a rectangular grid system by using conventional
survey methods, the position and azimuth determining system (PADS), and the global
positioning system (GPS).
Survey requirements and techniques used for different FA weapon and fire support systems.
Survey planning required at all echelons.
Standardized procedures relevant to survey operations (Appendix A) (denoted in text by
a large asterisk [*]).
Survey standards and specifications (Appendix B).
Training for the FA surveyor (Appendix C).
Locally reproducible forms for use with the backup computer system (BUCS), the forward
entry device meteorological/survey (FED MSR), and for recording survey control point
(SCP) data. (See Appendix D for a list of these forms and the back of this publication
for copies of the reproducible forms.)
It also includes the ellipsoid and datum tables (Appendix E), a grid zone chart (Appendix F),
star cards (Appendix G), and extracts from the standardization agreements (STANAGs) and
quadripartite standardization agreement (QSTAG) implemented by this book (Appendix H).
This publication implements the following international agreements:
STANAG 2934, Artillery Procedures--AArtyP-1. (This STANAG combines STANAGs
2865 and 2373.)
QSTAG 269, Survey Accuracy Requirements for Surface-to-surface Artillery.
The proponent of this publication is HQ TRADOC. Send comments and recommendations on
DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to the following:
xiii
C1, FM 6-2
Commandant
US Army Field Artillery School
ATTN: ATSF-GCS
Fort Sill, OK 73503-5600
DSN 639-6616/2805
Commercial (405) 442-616/2805
Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer
exclusively to men.
xiv
C1, FM 6-2
CHAPTER 1
MISSION, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND DUTIES
The mission of FA survey is to provide a common grid that will permit the massing
of fires, delivery of surprise observed fires, delivery of effective unobserved fires, and
transmission of target data from one unit to another to aggressively neutralize or
destroy enemy targets. The establishment of a common grid, and the single
operational datum within the common grid is a command responsibility.
NOTE: Common grid refers to all firing and a. AirLand Battle Surveyor. The ALB surveyor
target-locating elements within a unified command understands the principles of all survey methods. His attitude
located and oriented, to prescribed accuracies, with is that some kind of survey is always possible, and some
respect to a single three-dimensional datum. survey is better than no survey at all. He is a thinker
with an open mind, an expert in land navigation, and
1-1. SURVEY PLANNING confident in himself and his leaders. He takes the initiative
a. Field artillery survey must provide indirect fire assets to ensure a successful survey mission. Using initiative
and target-locating assets with a common grid. Common and ability, he makes good use of the available time and
survey control allows the maneuver commander to employ resources to provide accurate survey control when and
fire support resources with a guarantee of accurate and timely where it is needed.
fire support. Survey planning within the force is based on
the following tactical considerations: b. Survey Mission Under AirLand Battle. The mission
of FA survey-provide a common griddoes not change
The commanders target adjustment policy (that is, if under ALB doctrine. However, the use of split battery
the element of surprise is an important aspect of his operations, composite units, intelligence and electronic
tactical plan). warfare (IEW) sensors, new systems, and greater dispersion
The requirement for transfer of adjusted target locations and displacements have increased the survey workload.
to higher and lower echelons. During the first 2 or 3 days of battle, artillery units expect
The required attack of deep high-payoff targets onto to make many moves. The number of survey points required
which fire cannot be adjusted (or if surprise is a factor). will depend on the type of unit and the intensity of battle.
The planned positioning of indirect fire units during Prior planning is essential. Before hostilities begin, units
each phase of the operation. should survey a network of artillery positions in their
The planned tasking of target acquisition (TA) sensors area of operation.
and the processing of targets to an attack system.
c. AirLand Battle Basic Tenants. The ALB basic tenets
b. The maneuver headquarters (HQ) establishes survey time of initiative, depth, agility, and synchronization are the
lines and accuracy requirements in the initial planning stages foundation of the Army operational concept. Survey leaders
of an operation. The maneuver commander gives the artillery and planners must understand how the ALB basic tenets
commander (fire support coordinator [FSCOORD]) targeting relate to the survey mission.
priorities and the effects he requires on high-payoff targets.
This information translates into survey requirements for the (1) Initiative equates to the importance of speed. It means
TA sensors and the designated attack systems, which must making things happen more quickly than the enemy can
be on a common grid by the time required. The effects respond. Early planning enables commanders to take the
required on the target and inherent system inaccuracies initiative by ensuring that acquisition and firing units are
determine the survey accuracy requirement (hasty, fourth-order, located by common reference in relation to each other and
or fifth-order survey). that the data are timely and to the required accuracy. This
provides for the rapid transfer of target data to and between
1-2. SURVEY OPERATIONS IN firing elements without degrading accuracy.
THE AIRLAND BATTLE
AirLand Battle (ALB) doctrine describes the Armys (2) Depth is important to the survey planner. It directly
approach to generating and applying combat power at the relates to the need for accurate and responsive common survey
operational and tactical levels. Surveyors must adapt this control for deep strikes against the enemy and for accurate
doctrine to their mission. fire support in close and rear operations. A combination
1-1
C1, FM 6-2
1-2
FM 6-2
OPERATIONS ACTIONS
Planning Receive artillery commanders guidance.
Conduct map end ground reconnaissance.
Formulate survey plan, end issue orders detailing the following:
Accuracies. Priorities.
Time to finish. Logistics.
PADS requirements. Conventional requirements.
Alternate plan. Future requirements.
Coordination Ensure communications requirements are met and survey data are available where and when
needed to include the following:
Higher headquarters. S2 and/or S3.
Adjacent headquarters. Commanders.
Survey information. Lower headquarters.
1-3
FM 6-2
d. When survey control is not immediately available, all the commander may have to accept survey accuracies that
efforts should be directed toward establishing common fall short of the specifications given. This determination is
directional control in the position area. Recommended the commanders decision. Survey leaders must advise the
methods of establishing direction by priority are as follows: commander of the effect of inaccuracies on the guarantee
of fire support. For example, in a conventional survey in
Astronomic observation. which the azimuth closure error is excessive, the ability of
a fire support unit to accomplish a tire mission on schedule
Simultaneous observation with direction established may depend on using the best available data and may require
the master station by time for adjustment. The use of substandard survey data
Astronomic observation (sun or star). can affect hitting the target and also could result in friendly
casualties. However, these surveys of degraded accuracy
Survey instrument, azimuth gyro, lightweight should be rerun when the tactical situation and time permit.
(SIAGL).
f. If the terrain or the tactical situation is such that the survey
PADS. sections of div arty, HHB, target acquisition battery (TAB),
Directional traverse by using a theodolite. and battalion or battery cannot establish survey control by
the time required, hasty methods may be used. The effects
of using hasty methods and the guarantee of accurate fire
e. Providing the best available direction and location may support are shown in Table 1-2. Hasty survey techniques
take precedence over accuracy of data. In some situations, are completely explained in FM 6-50.
MEANS OF DETERMINING
TYPE OF
SURVEY ORIENTATION LOCATION EFFECTS
Battalion A scheme in which orientation is Survey process that puts 1. Units located in the scheme that includes
hasty initiated by theodolite to an more than one unit on both orientation and location may pass target
accuracy of 0.3 mil and more common grid but not records end registration data to each other.
than one fire unit is put on necessarily closely related to 2. No guarantee on nonadjusted or
common orientation. (Can be the map. Scheme not unobserved fire unless the acquisition source
passed by simultaneous originated from a known is also included in the scheme. Fire can be
observation.) survey control point. messed by all units in the scheme after
adjustment with one gun.
Divisional A scheme in which more than Same as for battalion. Same as for battalion.
hasty one battalion is put on common
orientation.
Fifth-order Gyroscopic, astronomic, or Survey process that 1. No restriction on the passage of target
or higher equivalent process. originates at known survey records or registration data.
survey control. 2. Unobserved fire is reliable as long as the
acquisition source is in the scheme.
3. Minimizes adjustment.
1-4
FM 6-2
1-5. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SCPs depends on dispersion movement, and priorities. For
ENGINEER TOPOGRAPHIC example, on the basis of five to seven moves per day, 15
to 30 points must be established or data provided from
BATTALION trigonometric (trig) lists every 24 hours. At a minimum,
a. The engineer topo battalion is the primary source of topo topo support must provide a grid network of high-order SCPs
support throughout the echelons above corps (EAC). The every 30 km throughout the division or corps area. These
topo battalion responsibilities to artillery survey are as SCPs must also allow adjacent divisions or corps to be
follows: connected by a common grid.
Extend horizontal and vertical control into corps and
division areas.
1-6. FA SURVEY ORGANIZATIONS
Provide an SPCE in support of EAC.
Provide mapping survey control where required. In the transition from personnel-intensive to equipment-
intensive technology, survey organizations were tailored in
Advise on topo matters. terms of mission, reliability, equipment, and personnel
Assist in lower-level survey to augment FA survey requirements. The FA survey structure is the key to the
when directed. transition to new fire support systems, future survey systems,
and different unit configurations such as the light infantry
b. Topo surveyors establish and recover existing ground
division (LID) and composite battalions. See Chapter 14
control and extend it by third-order or higher conventional
survey or satellite methods. Exact positioning of this for more specific guidance on equipment and personnel
authorizations.
high-order survey control is coordinated by the corps survey
officer. Topo survey support must be provided to multiple a. Survey Planning and Coordination Element. At the
launch rocket system (MLRS) units, corps general support higher echelons, there is a survey command and control cell
(GS) artillery units, and other nondivisional assets in the called the SPCE. The SPCE is authorized at each corps
corps area. The number of SCPs that topo survey must artillery, div arty, FA brigade, and MLRS battalion. The
provide for the EAC and corps area depends on the dispersion, personnel that man the SPCE are shown in Table 1-3. The
amount of movement, and commanders priorities. For SPCE plans and coordinates all of the surveys within its
example, on the basis of five to seven moves per day, 10 area of responsibility. Survey data collection, evaluation,
to 20 SCPs will be required every 24 hours to support EAC and dissemination are additional functions of the SPCE.
and corps FA systems that div arty cannot support.
b. Survey Platoon Headquarters. The survey platoon HQ
c. Topo surveyors extend survey control into the division of FA battalions executes survey planning and coordination.
area of operations. Initial SCPs must be within 5 kilometers These responsibilities are carried out by an RSO (1LT), and
(km) of div arty HQ. Div arty and TAB surveyors will a chief surveyor (SFC). An FA surveyor (SPC) performs
further extend control to the vicinity of weapon systems survey functions when required and is the radiotelephone
and target-locating systems. Exact positioning of subsequent operator (RATELO).
1-5
FM 6-2
c. Survey Section. The survey section for a heavy div arty Table 1-4, Conventional survey parties
and a 3 x 8 FA battalion consists of a section chief, one
survey team, and two PADS teams. (The duty positions
and organization for the survey sections of the different units
are shown in Figure l-l.) DUTY FIVE-MAN SIX-MAN
RANK POSITION PARTY PARTY
(1) Section chief. The section chief (SSG) is responsible
for the total survey effort of his section. He must prioritize
his personal involvement between the survey team and the SSG Section chief 1 1
PADS team as needed to execute the survey plan. SGT Survey 1 1
(2) Survey team. The survey team consists of two FA computer
surveyors led by the section chief. The survey team performs SPC FA surveyor 2 2
conventional and modified survey methods to
PFC FA surveyor 1 2
Enhance the overall survey effort.
speed up PADS operations.
LEGEND.
Provide flexibility and agility to the survey operation. PFC = private first class
SSG = staff sergeant
(3) PADS team. The PADS team, also led by the section
chief, consists of a PADS team chief and an FA surveyor.
The PADS team provides survey control as directed by the (2) One PADS. Use a standard platoon HQ, a PADS
section chief. team, and two conventional six- or five-man parties.
(4) Survey parties. Conventional survey parties (when (3) Two PADS but no SEDME-MR. Use a standard
authorized) are configured as shown in Table 1-4. platoon HQ, two PADS teams, and one conventional five-
d. Equipment Constraints. Until all PADS are fielded, or six-man party. Then, when the survey equipment,
configure a survey section by using the options below. distance-measuring, electronic (medium-range) (SEDME-
MR) is issued, drop three men from the div arty or two
(1) No PADS. Use a standard survey platoon HQ and men from the battalion conventional party, thus forming the
three conventional six-man parties at the div arty or five-man standard survey sectionsurvey section chief, one two-man
survey parties at the battalion. survey team, and two PADS teams.
1-6
FM 6-2
1-7
FM 6-2
1-8
FM 6-2
1-9
FM 6-2
SURVEY OFFICER, AOC 13D SECTION CHIEF OR CHIEF OF FA SURVEYOR, MOS 82C10
PARTY, MOS 82C30 (CONTINUED)
Coordinates and supervises Instrument Operator
Supervises preventive maintenance
Training of survey personnel. Performs operator PMCS on
checks and services (PMCS) of
survey instruments.
Field operations. section equipment, to include
vehicles, communications equipment, Operates the instruments during
The preventive maintenance field operations.
program on survey equipment and weapns.
end vehicles. Performs other duties as directed. Verifies the verticality of the range
pole before measuring angles
The SPCE, if authorized at his during field operations.
echelon. SURVEY COMPUTER, MOS 82C20
Maintains the required Department of Reads the measured values to
Formulates a survey plan after the recorder end checks the
receiving orders from the S3 or the Army (DA) forms for computation
recorder by use of a read-back
commander and before conducting of surveys. technique.
reconnaissance. Performs Independent computations Familiarizes himself with the
Issues survey orders and briefs his during field operations by using the fieldwork requirements for all
chief surveyor and team chiefs. BUCS. survey methods.
Conducts reconnaissance. Maintains the BUCS. Helps the tape team maintain
alignment during taping
Coordinates survey operations with Assists in the collection, evaluation, operations.
higher, lower, and adjacent HQ. and dissemination of survey data.
Performs other duties as directed.
Performs other duties as directed.
CHIEF SURVEYOR, MOS 82C40 Computer-Recorder
Assists the survey officer and, when PADS TEAM CHIEF, MOS 82C20 Maintains an approved notebook
directed, performs my or all of the Performs initialization, operation, and of all surveys performed by the
duties of the survey officer. PMCS on the PADS. survey team or party.
Trains his survey section in the Sets up and operates the theodolite Neatly and legibly records survey
performance of reconnaissance, starting data and all measured
when used to mark and update. data during field operations.
communications, and survey
activities. Ensures that Directs the assistant PADS operator
Sketches in the field notebook
section personnel are cross-trained. for autoreflection or plumb bob concise, complete diagrams and
Performs other duties as directed. emplacement over the SCP or other descriptions of the principal
points to be established. stations.
SECTION CHIEF OR CHIEF OF Records PADS data and maintains Checks and means angular data
PARTY, MOS 82C30 the field notebook, ensuring all measured by the instrument
entries conform with prescribed operator.
Trains his survey party or section.
format. Checks taped distances by
Executes his party or section portion pacing (for fifth-order surveys
Briefs assistant PADS operator and
of the survey plan. only).
aircraft crew on the survey mission
Supervises and coordinates field and zero-velocity correction Provides required field data to the
operations of his party or section end requirements. survey computers independently.
PADS team. Performs or assists in the transfer Performs other duties as directed.
Maintains liaison with the survey and strapping down of the PADS for Rodman-Tapeman
officer or chief surveyor during field air assault operations.
operations. Maintains the FA survey set.
Performs other duties as directed.
Assisted by another member of
the party and using proper taping
techniques, tapes horizontal
distances during field operations.
1-10
FM 6-2
1-11
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 2
DISTANCE DETERMINATION
Section I
HORIZONTAL TAPING
Horizontal taping is used in conventional FA surveys. In this method, all measurements are made
with the tape held horizontally. Measure the horizontal distance between the rear station and the
forward station. Usually the distance between stations is more than a full tape length. The taping
team determines the distance by measuring successive full tape lengths. When the distance remaining
is less than a full tape length, the team measures the partial tape length. The total distance between
the stations is determined by multiplying the number of full tape lengths by the length of the tape
and adding the partial tape length.
2-1. TAPING TEAM Each tape is assigned a number that is used for all records
about that specific tape (for example, repairs [paragraph
A taping team consists of two mena front tapeman and 2-20b]).
a rear tapeman. The rear tapeman commands the taping
team and records all distances in his taping notebook. He b. In addition to a tape, each team is equipped with the
is responsible for determining and reporting the measured following (Figure 2-l):
distance to the recorder. The front tapeman independently
computes the distance measured. Then he compares his One set of taping pins.
findings with those of the rear tapeman and records the One tension handle.
distance in his notebook. At night, taping requires additional
personnel to assist the front and rear tapemen (paragraph One clamping handle.
2-18). Two plumb bobs.
2-2. TAPES AND ACCESSORIES Two pin and plumb bob holders.
One hand level.
a. Survey taping teams are equipped with 30-meter steel
tapes for measuring linear distances. Tapes are graduated Two leather thongs.
on one side in meters, decimeters (0.1 meter), and centimeters Two notebooks.
(0.01 meter). The first decimeter is graduated in millimeter
(0.001 meter). At each end of the tape is a blank space. Two pencils.
2-1
FM 6-2
Figure 2-1. Taping equipment (1) Taping pins. A taping pin is a steel pinpointed on
one end with a ring at the other. Use taping pins for marking
measured tape lengths on the ground. This will help
determine the number of tape lengths measured since the
last station. The ring and the upper part of the pin are
painted red. The rest of the pin is white. Taping pins are
issued in sets of 11 pins each. Properly used, taping pins
will prevent a missed or dropped tape length, a common
mistake in distance taping.
(6) Hand level. Use the hand level when taping distances
over steep slopes to help keep the tape on a horizontal plane.
Use it in normal taping operations to train new tapemen to
recognize the required horizontal plane.
2-2
FM 6-2
2-3. TAPE ALIGNMENT (1) Sight through the level at the upslope tapeman.
a. The tapemen must carefully align the tape. The maximum (2) Raise or lower the objective end of the hand level
allowable error in both horizontal and vertical alignment is until the image of the level bubble is centered on the horizontal
0.5 meter from one station to the next. The rear tapeman crossline.
usually makes final alignment by sighting along the tape
toward the forward station. The rear tapeman will direct (3) Determine the point on the upslope tapeman that is
the front tapeman left or right. (See Figure 2-2.) However, level with the eye. This establishes the horizontal plane.
if the rear tapeman cannot see the forward station, the front
tapeman will make the final alignment. This is done by (4) Tell the upslope tapeman how to hold his end of
sighting back on the rear station. The rear tapeman, using the tape so that the tape will be parallel to the established
preselected reference points aligned with the forward station, horizontal plane. The downslope tapeman must hold the
can also make the final alignment. The instrument operator, tape no higher than his armpits. Otherwise, the team must
if available, may help in the alignment. use the breaking tape procedure.
b. The tapemen then level the tape horizontally by holding c. The tapemen should check the accuracy of the bubble of
it parallel to an estimated horizontal plane. If they have the hand level when it is first used each day. The upslope
trouble keeping the tape level in rough terrain, the tapemen tapeman uses the hand level to sight on the downslope tapeman
should use the hand level. To use the hand level to set a to establish the horizontal plane. The procedure is then
horizontal plane, the downslope tapeman takes the steps below. reversed to verify the established horizontal plane.
2-3
FM 6-2
2-4
FM 6-2
2-5. USE OF PLUMB BOBS the front tapeman by sighting first toward the forward station
and then in an estimated horizontal plane. Align the tape
a. The tapemen use plumb bobs to project points on the within 0.5 meter of the line of sight from one station to the
tape to the ground. Each tapeman holds the plumb bob next and within 0.5 meter of the horizontal plane.
cord on the proper tape graduation using the thumb of one
hand on the cord and the forefinger of that hand beneath c. Each tapeman places a leather thong on his wrist and
the tape. (See Figure 2-3.) The front tapeman has the 0-meter the plumb bob cord on the proper graduation on the end of
graduation and the rear tapeman has the 30-meter graduation. the tape. The rear tapeman aligns his plumb bob roughly
After aligning the tape and applying tension, each tapeman over the rear station and commands PULL. The tapemen
lowers the plumb bob by letting the cord slip across the exert a pull of 25 pounds on the tape.
tape. The tip of the plumb bob should be about 0.25 inch d. After the tapemen have properly aligned and applied tension
above the desired point. Swinging of the plumb bob is to the tape, the rear tapeman plumbs his end of the tape
stopped by gently lowering the tape until the plumb bob exactly over the rear station and commands STICK. At
tip touches the ground and then slowly raising the tape. this command, the front tapeman drops his plumb bob and
b. The rear tapeman uses his plumb bob to position his end then marks the point of impact by inserting a taping pin
of the tape directly over the point from which each tape into the ground. Insert the pin perpendicular to the line of
length is measured. measurement at an angle of about 45 to the ground. This
allows accurate plumbing for the next measurement. After
c. The front tapeman establishes the point on the ground the pin is firmly placed, the front tapeman announces STUCK.
to which each tape length is measured by dropping his plumb This is the command for the rear tapeman to move forward
bob. If necessary, the front tapeman should clear high grass to the pin position. The front tapeman advances 30 paces
or other debris in the immediate ground area near the point to measure the next tape length.
to be established. This will ensure a true plumb over the
point and help the rear tapeman in moving forward. After
establishing the point with the plumb bob, the tapeman marks 2-8. MOVING FORWARD
the point with a taping pin.
a. The front tapeman should select a landmark (rock, bush,
2-6. USE OF TAPING PINS or such) in line with the forward station. Use this technique
as a guide in moving forward. The front tapeman should
The front tapeman must use the taping pins to mark points keep his eyes on the forward station. He should determine
on the ground for each full or partial tape length. The front his pace count for one tape length. He can stop without
tapeman marks the point struck by the tip of the plumb bob signal from the rear tapeman when he has moved forward
by sticking a pin into the ground at exactly that point. The a tape length.
shaft of the pin is placed at an angle of about 45 to the
ground and perpendicular to the length of the tape. When b. By moving forward to a point 2 or 3 meters forward of
moving forward, the tapeman should not pull the tape through the rear end of the tape, the rear tapeman usually can locate
the loop of the taping pin. In taping over a hard surface, the taping pin before the front tapeman has stopped. If the
it may be necessary to mark the point struck by the plumb taping pin is not readily visible, the front tapeman may have
bob in an identifiable fashion (point of taping pin). The to wait until the rear tapeman arrives at his position. Then
point of the pin is laid at the point struck by the plumb he moves forward to make the next measurement.
bob, perpendicular to the line of direction of the tape. c. When using an instrument at either the forward or the
rear station, the tapeman must remain as clear of the line
2-7. MEASURING THE FIRST FULL TAPE of sight as possible.
LENGTH
Measure the first full tape length as discussed below. 2-9. MEASURING SUCCEEDING FULL
TAPE LENGTHS
a. The front tapeman gives 1 taping pin to the rear tapeman
and keeps 10 pins. The pin given to the rear tapeman represents Succeeding full tape lengths are measured as described in
the first full tape length. The front tapeman moves toward paragraph 2-7 except as discussed below.
the forward station with the zero end of the tape.
a. The front tapeman should get his approximate horizontal
b. As the end of the tape reaches the rear station, the front alignment by sighting back along the tape toward the last
tapeman stops, either on his count of paces or on the command pin position and the rear station. This will allow him to
TAPE given by the rear tapeman. The rear tapeman aligns move right or left until the tape is about on line.
2-5
FM 6-2
b. The rear tapeman plumbs the end of the tape exactly b. After he has placed the taping pin into the ground, the
over the point at which the taping pin enters the ground. front tapeman announces STUCK. He then waits until
the rear tapeman comes forward. The front tapeman tells
c. After the front tapeman commands STUCK, the rear the rear tapeman which full meter graduation was used; for
tapeman pulls the taping pin from the ground and then moves example, HOLDING 25. The rear tapeman repeats
forward to the next pin position. If a taping pin is lost HOLDING 25. The front tapeman receives a pin from the
during the measurement of the distance, the tapemen must rear tapeman and moves forward. Tapemen repeat this
tape the entire distance again rather than complete the taping procedure until they reach the zero mark on the tape.
from a recovered pinhole.
c. When holding a point on the tape other than the zero
2-10. BREAKING TAPE graduation, the front tapeman must receive a pin from the
rear tapeman before moving forward.
When the tape alignment is unobtainable within 0.5 meter
of a horizontal plane because of the slope of the ground, 2-11. MEASURING DISTANCES MORE
the tapemen use a special procedure known as breaking tape.
(See Figure 2-4.) The procedure for breaking tape is discussed THAN 10 TAPE LENGTHS
below. To measure a distance longer than 10 full tape lengths, the
tapemen use the procedures described in paragraphs 2-3
a. The front tapeman pulls the tape forward a full length.
through 2-9 except as discussed below.
He then drops it about on line and then walks back along
the tape until he reaches a point at which a partial tape a. When the front tapeman has set his last pin in the ground,
length can be measured. When the tape is held level, it he has established a point that is 10 full tape lengths from
should be no higher than the armpits of the downslope tapeman. the rear station. The front tapeman waits at the last pin
At that point, the front tapeman selects any convenient full position until the rear tapeman comes forward.
meter graduation. The tapemen then measure the partial
tape length, aligning the tape and applying the full 25-pound b. Both tapemen count the pins to be sure that none are
tension. Clamping handles are used at any holding point lost. (One pin in the ground will not be counted. The rear
between ends of the tape. tapeman should have 10 pins.)
2-6
FM 6-2
2-7
FM 6-2
(5) Computing independently, both tapemen subtract the f. When a taping team is making a measurement at a station
front tapeman's partial meter reading from the rear tapemans occupied by an instrument, the tapeman can make the
whole meter reading. After verifying the amputations by measurement at the plumb bob cord of the instrument. The
comparison, both tapemen record the distance. tapeman must use extreme care not to disturb the instrument.
2-8
FM 6-2
2-9
FM 6-2
2-10
FM 6-2
2-11
FM 6-2
Section ll
Survey sections equipped with the SEDME-MR can measure distances in minimum time. The
SEDME-MR is a compact, lightweight, economical, and simple-to-operate instrument that is
especially suitable for short- and medium-range survey operations. Measuring distances from 30
to 7,000 meters takes about 18 seconds measuring time under average conditions.
2-21. DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS a. Distance Meter Case. The distance meter case (Figure
2-7) contains the items of equipment discussed below.
The SEDME-MR consists of the distance meter and the
retroreflector prisms. These units mount on any universal
tripod. The distance meter and the retroreflectors are (1) Distance meter. The distance meter is the electronic
packaged and transported in separate carrying casesthe package of the system. This instrument generates and sends
distance meter case and the restoreflector cases. a modulated signal and receives the reflected signal from
2-12
FM 6-2
2-13
FM 6-2
2-22. SETTING UP THE SEDME-MR current (v DC) power source, and connect the black clip
lead to the negative terminal of the DC power source.
The setup procedure for the SEDME-MR uses issued tribrachs
and/or the theodolite tribrach for the distance meter and prism. f. Set the parts per million (PPM) switches to 00 (atmospheric
After measuring the station angle, follow the steps below. correction not used in artillery survey).
Refer to Figure 2-9 for the location of controls and indicators
of the distance meter. g. Set the OFFSET switch to the instrument offset
correction. (An instrument offset correction is stamped onto
a. Remove the theodolite from the tribrach by using the the instrument offset plaque located at the bottom left corner
tribrach clamp. Replace and secure the theodolite in its of the instrument.)
case.
h. Accurately set the retroreflector up over the point to which
b. Mount the distance meter on the tribrach and lock it in you are making the distance measurement. Align the
place by using the tribrach clamp. Check the tribrach leveling retroreflector on the line of sight to the instrument. (See
bubble, and relevel if necessary. Figure 2-10.)
c. Adjust the vertical lock and horizontal lock firmly enough
to allow holding action. 2-23. OPERATING PROCEDURES
d. When using the NICAD battery, place the battery pack a. Test. An automatic test function is built into the instrument.
onto the instrument power connector. The test provides a quick check of the internal microcomputer
and display circuits. To test, press the PWR switch to turn
e. When using the auxiliary cable, connect the power cable on the instrument. The instrument enters the test mode
to the power connector. Connect the red clip lead of the automatically. The numerical display should sequence from
power cable to the positive terminal of the 12-volt direct all 0s to all 9s and then display 0000.
2-14
FM 6-2
Figure 2-10. Prism alignment (4) Repeat steps (2) and (3) above until the SIG meter
indicates no further increase.
2-15
FM 6-2
reflector, and S is slope distance. These computations may under such conditions. This allows a gradual temperature
be made with logarithms or with the BUCS. The horizontal change.
distance determined from this computation meets the
accuracy requirements for field artillery. c. Lens Care. Use care in cleaning dust or moisture from
lenses. Do not touch lenses with fingers. Do not use coarse
(2) The horizontal distance can also be determined by cloth, paper, or other material that might scratch the lenses.
using Program 2 (Traverse) of the BUCS survey module Use antistatic optical cleaning cloth, lens tissue, and a
and DA Form 5591-R (Computation of Coordinates and camels-hair brush. Use a mild soap and water solution to
Heights From Azimuth, Distance, and Vertical Angle remove smudge marks, when needed. To further protect
(BUCS)). (A reproducible copy of this form is at the back lens, keep lens cover on when not in use.
of this book.) When using the BUCS to convert the distance,
perform the following steps: d. Nickel-Cadmium Battery. A NICAD battery was
selected for use in the power unit. A NICAD battery, with
Step 1. Call Program 2. proper care, performs good over an extended lifetime. To
Step 2. Press the END LINE key at the TRAVERSE charge the battery, follow the instructions in (1) through (5)
prompt. below.
Step 3. Bypass the E OCC STA: 0.00 prompt by pressing
the END LINE key.
Step 4. Bypass the N OCC STA: 0.00 prompt by pressing CAUTION
the END LINE key.
Do not try to charge a battery that is not fully
Step 5. Bypass the HT OCC STA. 0.0 prompt by discharged. Ensure each battery is fully discharged
pressing the END LINE key. by using it until a distance can no longer be
Step 6. Bypass the AZ TO REAR: 0.000 prompt by measured due to the lack of power. Trying to charge
a partially charged NICAD battery will shorten the
pressing the END LINE key.
life of the battery.
Step 7. Respond to the prompt MN SCH LEG (Y/N) by
entering Y or N.
Step 8. Bypass the prompt HZ FWD: 0.000 by pressing
(1) Plug the battery charger into an alternating current
the END LINE key.
(AC) power outlet that is continuously supplied with power.
Step 9. At the prompt VA (+/-): 0.000, enter the vertical The battery charger is designed to operate from a nominal
angle. 110-volt, 50/60-hertz (Hz) power supply. When only a
220-volt, 50/60-Hz source is available, use the 220/110-volt
Step 10. Respond to the prompt RECIP VA (Y/N) by
adapter supplied with the unit.
entering Y or N.
Step 11. At the prompt DIST FWD (-:SL/+:HZ), press
the END LINE key. When the screen becomes blank, enter
the slope distance. Remember to enter the distance as a CAUTION
negative number.
Before plugging the battery charger into an AC
Step 12. At the next step, BUCS will display the power outlet, make certain that the rating of the
horizontal distance. battery charger matches the rating of the available
AC power source.
2-24. CARE AND MAINTENANCE
a. Packing and Transporting. Pack the SEDME-MR in
the molded carrying case with the foam inserts provided. (2) Plug the connector end of the battery charger cable
The SEDM-MR should be packed for transport or when it into the power connector unit. On a battery charger that
is not in use. has a red charge light, the light should come on. This indicates
that the unit is taking a charge.
b. Condensation. Taking an instrument from a cold to a
warm environment can cause condensation on the instrument. (3) Allow about 16 hours to completely recharge a fully
Leave the instrument in its carrying case for several hours discharged battery with the supplied battery charger.
2-16
FM 6-2
(4) Leaving the battery unit plugged into the battery (3) Turn the instrument power on, and select the aim
charger will not cause overcharging. However, during mode. If there is no signal indication, search the area near
prolonged periods of inactivity, disconnect the charged the prism until the signal is squired. Use the tangent screws
battery from the power unit and store it. to maximize the signal.
(5) To prevent possible damage to the NICAD battery, (4) Remove the covers from the vertical and horizontal
never charge it in an area where the temperature falls below cross hair adjustment screws.
5 degrees Celsius (C) (40 degrees Fahrenheit [F]) or exceeds
27C (90F). (5) Using the horizontal adjustment screw, position the
vertical cross hair to the center of the prism.
Note. While the battery unit is charging, the battery (6) Using the vertical adjustment screw, move the
charger may become warm to the touch and may horizontal cross hair to a point 4.5 inches above the center
emit a buzzing sound. This is normal. It is not an
indication of a malfunction In the battery charger. of the prism. (See Figure 2-11.)
(7) After adjustments, use the tangent screws to obtain
e. Sighting Telescope Alignment. Adjust the alignment maximum strength and ensure proper alignment. Replace
of the sighting telescope as discussed below. covers on the adjustment screws.
(1) Place a single-prism or triple-prism cluster with only f. Power Fuse. The power fuse protects the power circuits
the center prism uncovered at a distance of 30 to 50 meters of the SEDME-MR against overload. If the power fuse
from the SEDME-MR. fails, power is no longer applied to the internal circuits. If
(2) Using the vertical and horizontal tangent screws, you see no response when operating the PWR switch, check
position the telescope cross hairs on the center of the or replace the fuse. If repeated fuse failures occur, turn the
uncovered prism. SEDME-MR in for repair.
2-17
FM 6-2
2-18
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 3
ANGLE DETERMINATION
Section I
T16 THEODOLITE
The T16 and T16-84 theodolites (Figure 3-1) are compact, lightweight dustproof, optical-reading,
directional-type instruments equipped with a fixed reticle (Figure 3-2) in the telescope and a horizontal
circle (repeater) clamp. Surveyors use these theodolites to measure horizontal and vertical angles
for artillery fifth-order survey. The horizontal and vertical scales of the theodolite are enclosed
and are read through a built-in optical system. The scales, graduated in mils, are read directly to
0.2 mil (m) and by estimation to the nearest 0.1 mil. Illumination of the scales is provided by
either sunlight or artifical light.
3-1
FM 6-2
3-2
FM 6-2
b. Remove the theodolite from its case as discussed below. (6) Return the instrument to the second position (Figure
3-4), and again center the bubble.
(1) Grasp the carrying strap with both hands just above
the two clamping levers. Pull outward to release the clamping (7) Repeat (5) and (6) above until the bubble remains
levers from the base assembly. centered in both positions.
(2) Lift the dome-shaped cover directly off the Figure 3-2. Telescope reticle
instrument, and lay it to one side.
(3) Pull upward on the two base clamping levers that
secure the theodolite to the base assembly. Grasp the
theodolite by the standard on which the trademark is
inscribed, and lift the theodolite off the base assembly.
Handle the theodolite by this standard only.
Note. The carrying handle is used to lift the T16-84
theodolite off the base assembly.
CAUTION
Excessive tightening of the fixing screw will bend the
slotted arm and damage the tripod head.
3-3
FM 6-2
3-4
FM 6-2
e. Close the illumination mirror, and turn the hinge to the Figure 3-5. T16 theodolite scales viewed through the
top. circle-reading microscope
f. Hold the instrument by its right standard, and unscrew
the instrument-fixing screw. Lift the theodolite from the
tripod, and secure it in the carrying case. Replace the
dome-shaped cover.
g. Replace the tripod head cover, collapse the tripod, and
strap the tripod legs together.
3-5
FM 6-2
Figure 3-7. Field notebook extract and sketch of pointings in measuring horizontal angles
3-6
FM 6-2
3-7
FM 6-2
c. After making the reverse pointing on the initial station value of the vertical angle is computed from the vertical
and recording the horizontal circle reading, plunge the circle reading made with the telescope in the direct position
telescope to the direct position. Then make a direct pointing arid pointed at the station. With the telescope in the direct
on the initial station. Although zeroing the instrument is position, a vertical circle reading of less than 1,600 mils
not a part of the angle measurement it will save time in indicates that the station observed is above the horizontal
setting the initial circle setting for the angle measurement plane of the theodolite and the vertical angle is positive. A
at the next station. vertical circle reading greater than 1,600 mils indicates that
the station observed is below the horizontal plane of the
theodolite and the vertical angle is negative. To determine
3-7. DETERMINING VERTICAL ANGLES the value of a positive vertical angle, subtract the vertical
WITH THE T16 circle reading from 1,600 mils. (See Figure 3-9, (A).)
a. Normally, each time a horizontal angle is measured, a Determine the value of a negative vertical angle by subtracting
vertical angle to the forward station is determined. If 1,600 mils from the vertical circle reading. (See Figure 3-9,
possible, measure vertical angles to the height of the (B).) A second value of the vertical angle is computed
instrument. from the vertical circle reading made with the telescope in
the reverse position and pointed at the station. With the
b. Vertical angles cannot be measured directly with the telescope reversed, a vertical circle reading greater than 4,800
theodolite. The vertical circles of the theodolite reflect mils indicates a positive vertical angle, and a vertical circle
readings of 0 mils at the zenith (straight up), 1,600 mils reading less than 4,800 mils indicates a negative vertical
horizontal direct, 3,200 mils at the nadir (straight down), angle. Determine the value of a positive vertical angle by
and 4,800 mils horizontal reverse. Hence, values read from subtracting 4,800 mils from the vertical circle reading, (See
the vertical circle are not vertical angles but are zenith Figure 3-9, (C).) Determine the value of a negative vertical
distances that are converted to vertical angles. When the angle by subtracting the vertical circle reading from 4,800
collimation level bubble is centered, vertical circle readings mils. (See Figure 3-9, (D).) Mean the two values by adding
are taken from what is, in effect, an upward extension of them together and dividing the result by two. The result
the plumb line of the theodolite. (See Figure 3-8.) One is the vertical angle to the observed station.
3-8
FM 6-2
3-9
FM 6-2
3-10
FM 6-2
Figure 3-12. Plate level adjustment, step 1 Figure 3-14. Plate level adjustment, apparent error
Step 2. With these two leveling screws, center the c. Adjustment. To adjust the plate level, use the adjusting
bubble in its vial. Rotate the instrument 1,600 mils, pin from the accessory case. With the instrument 3,200
and align the plate level with the third leveling screw. mils from the first position insert the adjusting pin into the
(See Figure 3-13.) hole of the capstan screw and remove one-half of the apparent
error (actual error) by turning the capstan adjusting screw.
On the T16 theodolite, the plate level adjusting screw is
Figure 3-13. Plate level adjustment, step 2 about 1.5 inches above the horizontal clamping screw on
the right standard. (See Figure 3-15.) After adjusting, repeat
the plate level test and adjust as necessary to correct any
error remaining in the plate level bubble. The plate level
is in proper adjustment when the bubble remains centered
throughout 6,400 mils rotation.
Figure 3-15. Plate level adjusting screw
and adjusting pin
3-11
FM 6-2
b. Test.
Note. On the T16-64, the plate level adjustment screw
is on the top right of the plate level vial. (See Figure Step 1. To test the optical plumb, set up the theomdolite
3-16.)
over a station that is clearly marked by a cross or
other well-defined point. Accurately plumb and level
the instrument. The image of the point should be
Figure 3-16. Plate level adjusting screw (T16-84) centered exactly in the center of the optical plumb.
This is accomplished by recentering and releveling as
necessary.
Step 2. When the instrument is leveled and the image
of the point is centered, rotate the alidade 6,400 mils
about its vertical axis. If the image of the point does
not remain centered in the reticle, an adjustment is
required. The amount of displacement is the apparent
error, or twice the actual error, of the optical plumb.
Position the instrument at the point where the
displacement is farthest from the point.
c. Adjustment.
Step 1. To adjust the optical plumb, correct one half
of the displacement (actual error) by turning the two
optical plumb adjusting screws. The adjusting screws
are 1.25 inches to the right and left of the optical
plumb eyepiece. To gain access to the adjusting
screws, remove the cover screws. (See Figure 3-18.)
3-14. T16 OPTICAL PLUMB TEST AND
ADJUSTMENT Figure 3-18. Optical plumb eyepiece
a. Purpose. The purpose of the optical plumb adjustment and cover screws
is to make the vertical axis of the theodolite pass through
the station mark when the theodolite is properly leveled and
the station mark is centered in the reticle of the optical plumb.
(See Figure 3-17.)
3-12
FM 6-2
Step 2. Use the screwdriver from the accessory case to Figure 3-20. Horizontal collimation
turn the adjusting screws. Loosen the adjusting screw
adjustment, step 1
on the side opposite the side to which the reticle must
be moved. Tighten the other screw, and the reticle moves
as the screw is tightened. Move the reticle image one-half
the distance to the station mark by moving first one screw
and then the other in small increments. The last
movement of both adjusting screws must be clockwise.
This compresses a counterspying positioned under each
screw and holds the optical system stationary.
Step 3. Check the adjustment again by centering the
instrument over the station mark and leveling it. Rotate
the instrument through 6,400 mils. If the image of the
reticle remains centered on the station mark throughout
the full circle, the optical plumb is in adjustment. If the
image of the reticle does not remain centered on the
station mark throughout the full circle, repeat the
adjustment until the image of the reticle remains centered. Step 2. With the telescope in the direct position, center
After the adjustment is complete, replace the cover screws. the vertical crossline on the selected point. Read the
horizontal circle reading to the recorder. For
3-15. T16 HORIZONTAL COLLIMATION illustration purposes, assume your direct reading is
TEST AND ADJUSTMENT 0001.0 mil.
a. Purpose. The purpose of the horizontal collimation Step 3. Plunge the telescope to the reverse position,
adjustment is to make the line of sight perpendicular to the and give the recorder a second reading to the same
horizontal axis of the telescope. (See Figure 3-19.) point. Assume the reverse reading is 3,202.6 mils.
EXAMPLE
3-13
FM 6-2
3-14
FM 6-2
EXAMPLE
Direct reading 1603.4
Reverse reading +4797.8
Sum 6401.2
-6400.0
Apparent error 1.2 mils
Actual error (1.2 + 2) 0.6 mil
Corrected reverse vertical 4,797.2 mils
reading (4797.8 - 0.6)
EXAMPLE
Direct reading 1594.6
Reverse reading +4804.2
Sum 6398.8
Apparent error (6400 - 6398.8) 1.2 mils
Actual error (1.2 + 2) 0.6 mils
Corrected reverse vertical 4,804.8 mils
reading (4804.2 + 0.6)
3-15
FM 6-2
Figure 3-23. Circular level adjusting screws Figure 3-24. Optical plumb
3-16
FM 6-2
Note. In the procedure described above, the plate 3-20. CARE AND USE OF THE TRIPOD
level has no influence and must be ignored.
The tripod should be used and cared for as discussed below.
a. Turn the tripod to its upright position. Test the adjustment
of the tripod legs by elevating each leg, in turn, to a horizontal
position and then releasing it. If properly adjusted, the leg
CAUTION
should fall to about 800 mils and stop. If it does not, adjust
It may be difficult for you to remember where the
the tripod leg by tightening or loosening the tripod clamping
various adjusting screws are located when you need
nut. Repeat the test until it is successful.
to make adjustments on the theodolite. You should
always refer to the technical manual published for b. Clean the wooden parts with a soft cloth moistened with
each type of theodolite. water, and dry them thoroughly. Clean the leather strap with
a suitable leather cleaner.
Section II
T2 THEODOLITE
The T2 theodolite (Figure 3-25) is the authorized angle-measuring instrument for artillery fourth-order
survey. The theodolite is a directional-type instrument and is used to measure horizontal and
vertical angles. It has interior scales, which are read by means of a built-in optical system. The
scales, graduated in mils, can be read directly to 0.002 mil and by interpolation to the nearest
0.001 mil. The scales may be illuminated by sunlight or by means of a built-in wiring system
using artificial light. All parts of the instrument that can be seriously damaged by dust or moisture
are enclosed. The T2 theodolite is issued with a canvas accessory case containing the following:
Figure 3-25. T2 theodolite
3-17
FM 6-2
An instructional pamphlet. (3) Turn the leveling screws about halfway down and
to the same height.
Diagonal eyepieces for the telescope and reading
microscope. (4) Lightly clamp the horizontal clamping screw.
A sun filter. (5) Close the illumination mirrors, and turn the hinges
to the top.
A jewelers screwdriver.
(6) Hold the instrument by its right standard, and unscrew
Two adjusting pins.
the instrument-fixing screws. Lift the theodolite from the
A camels-hair brush. tripod, and secure it in the carrying case. Replace the
A plastic instrument cover. dome-shaped cover.
Two lamp fittings for artificial illumination. (7) Replace the tripod head cover, collapse the tripod,
and strap the legs together.
Also issued with the T2 is a battery case containing lighting
devices and spare bulbs and a universal tripod with a plumb
bob, plug-in sleeve, and tripod key in a leather pouch attached 3-22. CIRCLE READINGS WITH THE T2
to the tripod. The accessories of some models of the a. A system of lenses and prisms permits the observer to
theodolite are stored in the base of the carrying case. see small sections of either the horizontal circle or the vertical
circle. The circles are viewed through the circle-reading
Note. For detailed information on the T2 theodolite, microscope eyepiece located alongside the telescope. The
see TM 5-6675-205-20P, TM 5-6675233-20P, and TM observer selects the circle to be viewed by turning the circle
5-6675-296-14. selector knob on the right standard. The field of view of
the circle-reading microscope contains two small windows.
(See Figure 3-26.) The upper window shows images of
3-21. PREPARING AND TAKING DOWN two diametrically opposite parts of the circle (horizontal or
THE T2 THEODOLITE vertical). One image of the circle is inverted and appears
above the other image. The lower window shows an image
a. Setting Up the Tripod. The tripod used with the T2 of a portion of the micrometer scale.
theodolite is similar to that used with the T16 theodolite.
The procedure for setting up this tripod is the same as that b. The micrometer coincident knob on the side of the right
for setting up the T16 theodolite tripod (paragraph 3-2). standard is used in conjunction with the micrometer scale
to obtain readings for either of the circles. Optical
b. Removing the Theodolite From Its Case. The T2 coincidence is obtained between diametrically opposite
theodolite is removed from its case in the same manner as
graduations of the circle by turning the micrometer
the T16 theodolite (paragraph 3-2) except that the T2
coincidence knob. When this knob is turned, the images
theodolite is fastened to the base by three supports with
of the opposite sides of the circle appear to move in opposite
locking devices.
directions across the upper window in the circle-reading
c. Plumbing and Leveling the Theodolite. The procedure microscope. The image of the micrometer scale in the lower
for plumbing and leveling the T2 theodolite is the same as window also moves. The graduations of the circle (upper
that for the T16 theodolite. (See Figures 3-3 and 3-4.) window) are brought into coincidence so they appear to
form continuous lines across the dividing line. The center
d. Focusing the Telescope to Eliminate Parallax. The of the field of view in the upper window is marked by a
telescope of the T2 theodolite is the same as the telescope fixed vertical index line. The final coincidence adjustment
of the T16 theodolite. It is focused to eliminate parallax in should be made between circle graduations near this index
the same manner (paragraph 3-5). line.
e. Taking Down the T2 Theodolite. The procedure for
taking down the T2 theodolite is discussed below.
3-23. HORIZONTAL CIRCLE READINGS
(1) Remove the dome cover from the carrying case, and WITH THE T2
prepare the case to receive the theodolite by opening the
locking devices. A reading on the horizontal circle is determined as discussed
below.
(2) Place the telescope in a vertical position with the
objective lens down, and lightly clamp the vertical clamping a. Rotate the circle selector knob until the black line on
screw. the face of the knob is horizontal.
3-18
FM 6-2
Figure 3-26. T2 theodolite scales viewed through the a. With the circle graduations in coincidence (Figure 3-26),
circle-reading microscope determine the first erect numbered graduation to the left of
the index line that marks the center of the upper window.
This numbered graduation indicates the value of the circle
reading in tens of mils. In Figure 3-26, this graduation is
121.
b. Locate on the inverted scale the graduation for the number
opposite 121 (the number +320). In Figure 3-26, this number
is 441 (viewed as The inverted number normally is
to the right of the index line that marks the center of the
field of view. Both values always end in the same
numberin this case, the number 1. When the unit mil of
the circle reading is zero, coincidence is obtained when the
circle reading and its diametrically opposite number are in
coincidence with each other.
c. Count the number of spaces between graduations from
121 to the inverted 441. Each of these spaces represents 1
mil. There are five spaces, representing 5 mils.
d. Convert 121, which is tens of mils, to 1,210 mils. To
this value, add the unit mils determined in paragraph c above
(1,210 + 5 = 1,215 mils, the angular value obtained from
the main scale).
e. On the micrometer scale (lower window), the index line
that marks the center of the field of view also indicates the
value to be read from the micrometer scale. In Figure 3-26,
this value is 0.475 mil.
f. Add the values determined in paragraphs d and e above
(1215 + 0.475= 1,215.475 mils, the angular value displayed
in Figure 3-26).
b. Adjust the illuminating mirror so both windows in the
circle-reading microscope are uniformly lit.
3-25. VERTICAL CIRCLE READINGS
c. Focus the microscope eyepiece so the graduations of the WITH THE T2 THEODOLITE
circle and the micrometer scale are sharply defined.
To view the vertical circle, turn the circle selector knob to
d. Observe the images in the microscope eyepiece. Bring the vertical position (the black line on the face of the knob
the circle graduations into coincidence at the center of the is vertical.) Adjust the vertical circle illuminating mirror
upper window by turning the coincidence knob. so both windows in the circle reading microscope are
e. Read the horizontal circle and the micrometer scale. uniformly lit. The vertical circle is read in the same manner
as the horizontal circle. Before reading the vertical circle,
center the vertical collimation level (split bubble) by using
3-24. STEPS IN CIRCLE READING the procedures described in paragraph 3-7, and bring the
On the T2 theodolite, the main scale (upper window) is images of the vertical circle into coincidence by using the
graduated in 2-mil increments (Figure 3-26). Each fifth procedures described in paragraph 3-22.
graduation is numbered with the unit digits omitted. For
example, 10 mils appears as 1; 250 mils, as 25; and 3,510 3-26. SETTING THE HORIZONTAL
mils, as 351. The micrometer scale (lower window) is CIRCLE
graduated from 0.000 mil to 1.000 mil. Each 0.002 mil is There are two situations in which it is necessary to set the
marked with a graduation and each fifth graduation is horizontal circle.
numbered (hundredth of a mil). The scale may be read to
0.001 by interpolation. The steps in reading the circles are a. The first instance is when the initial circle setting of
discussed below. (0000.150 0.100 mil) is used.
3-19
FM 6-2
(1) Point the instrument at the rear station. (4) Using the horizontal clamping screw and the
(2) Using the coincidence knob, place a reading of 0.150 horizontal tangent screw, rotate the alidade to obtain
on the micrometer scale. coincidence on the main state at the roils value corresponding
to the reading obtained in (2) above. When coincidence is
(3) Using the circle-setting knob, zero the main scale as obtained, the instrument is pointing in the desired direction.
accurately as possible, ensuring that the numbered lines,
which are 3,200 mils apart (the erect 0 graduation and the
inverted 320 graduation), are touching each other. Ensure that
the circle-setting knob cover is closed when this step is 3-27. MEASURING HORIZONTAL
finished. ANGLES WITH THE T2
(4) With the coincidence knob, bring the main scale
a. Since the T2 theodolite is a directional-type instrument,
graduation into precise coincidence.
the values of horizontal angles are determined by differences
(5) Read the horizontal circle. The reading should be in circle readings. The procedures for measuring and
0000.150 0.100 mil). determining horizontal angles (Figure 3-27) are discussed
b. The second instance is when it is desired to orient the below.
instrument on a line of known direction from a reference (1) With the telescope in the direct position, point to
direction (or to measure a predetermined angle). the rear station (Station A). Set and record the initial circle
(1) Sight the instrument on the station for which the setting (0000.166 mil).
reference direction is provided, and read the circle.
(2) With the telescope in the direct position, point to
(2) Add the angular difference between the reference the forward station (Station B). Record the horizontal circle
direction and the desired direction (or the predetermined reading (1,215.475 mils).
angle) to the circle reading. The result is the circle reading
for the instrument when it is pointed in the desired direction. (3) Plunge the telescope to the reverse position, and point
to Station B. Record the circle reading (4,415.503 mils).
(3) Using the coincidence knob, set the micrometer scale
to read the fractional portion of the desired circle reading to (4) With the telescope in the reverse position, point to
the nearest thousandth of a mil. Station A. Record the circle reading (3,200.200 mils).
Figure 3-27. Method of recording and sketch of pointings in measuring horizontal angles, T2 theodolite
3-20
FM 6-2
(5) Subtract 3,200 mils from the reverse pointing on g. When two positions are observed, if the two observed
Station A. Mean the remainder with the direct pointing on values for any angle differ by more than 0.050 mil, these
Station A (0000.183 mil). observed values should be rejected. If the observed values
are rejected, the angles) must be remeasured.
(6) Subtract 3,200 mils from the reverse pointing on
Station B. Mean the remainder with the direct pointing on
Station B (1,215.489 mils).
3-28. DETERMINING VERTICAL ANGLES
WITH THE T2
(7) Subtract the mean pointing on Station A from the
mean pointing on Station B to determine the horizontal angle a. The procedure for determining vertical angles with the
from Station A to Station B (1215.489-0000.183= 1,215.306 T2 theodolite is the same as that for the T16 theodolite
mils). (paragraph 3-7).
3-21
FM 6-2
b. Test. The plate level adjustment test for the T2 theodolite b. Test.
is the same as that for the T16 theodolite. See paragraph Step 1. To test the optical plumb, set up the theodolite
3-13 for the steps in this test. over a station that is clearly marked by a cross or other
c. Adjustment. To adjust the plate level, use the adjusting well-defined point.
pin from the accessory case. Insert the adjusting pin into Step 2. Suspend the plumb bob from the instrument.
the hole of the capstan screw, and remove one-half of the Move the instrument until the plumb bob is suspended
apparent error (actual error) by turning the capstan adjusting directly over the well-defined point. Accurately level
screw. The capstan adjusting screw is located on the lower the instrument.
portion of the large standard of the T2 theodolite, directly Step 3. Remove the plumb bob from the instrument,
below the collimation level bubble reflector. (See Figure and check to ensure that the instrument is accurately
3-28.) After adjusting, repeat the plate level test to detect leveled (that the vertical axis is truly vertical). Look
and adjust for any error remaining in the plate level bubble. into the eyepiece of the optical plumb. If it is in correct
The plate level is in proper adjustment when the bubble adjustment, the mark on the ground will be centered in
remains centered throughout 6,400 mils rotation. the reticle.
c. Adjustment. If the point on the ground is not centered
Figure 3-28. Location of plate level adjusting screw in the optical plumb reticle, center the point by using the
three adjusting screws located near the optical plumb
eyepiece. Two of these adjusting screws are on opposite
sides of the eyepiece, and the third adjusting screw is below
the eyepiece. The bottom adjusting screw is locked in place
by a check nut, which is located immediately above the
head of the adjusting screw. (See Figure 3-29.)
3-22
FM 6-2
Step 2. Use two adjusting screws on each side of the Figure 3-30. Location of adjusting screws for
eyepiece to move the image of the reticle in the opposite verticality adjustment
direction that the screws travel. If it is necessary to
use these screws, they should be rotated an equal
amount in opposite directions. It is usually necessary
to loosen the screw below the eyepiece slightly to adjust
the screws on the side.
Step 3. When the adjusting is complete, the two
opposed adjusting screws must be fairly tight. Lock
the bottom adjusting screw in place by tightening the
check nut.
3-23
FM 6-2
3-24
FM 6-2
EXAMPLE
Direct reading 1595.193
Reverse reading 4804.607
Sum 6399.800
Apparent error 0.200 mil
(6400 - 6399.800)
Actual error 0.100 mil
(0.200 + 2)
3-25
FM 6-2
CAUTION
It may be difficult for you to remember where the
various adjusting screws are located when you need
to make adjustments on the theodolite. You should
always refer to the technical manual published for
each type of theodolite. Always perform the tests and
adjustments in the sequence in which they are listed.
After you make an adjustment, perform the test again
to check for accuracy before you go to the next test
and adjustment When making adjustments, do not
force the movement of the adjusting screws or exert
too much pressure. The screws could be damaged
and make your instrument unserviceable. A correctly
adjusted theodolite is essential in obtaining accurate
survey results.
3-26
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 4
FIELD NOTES
The field notes of any survey are the only original record of the survey that
the survey party has once it leaves the field. Therefore, the field notebook
must contain a complete record of all measurements made or determined
during the progress of the survey. It should include complete sketches,
descriptions, and remarks, when necessary, to clarify the notes. The best
survey fieldwork is of no value to the using unit if the notes are not accurate,
legible, and complete in every detail.
angle H height
appmx approximately HI height of instrument
asst assistant horiz horizontal
astro alt astronomic observation (attitude method) HT height of target
arty artillery hwy highway
az azimuth ID identification
az mk azimuth mark inst instrument
BC battery center IO instrument operator
bldg building lat Iatitude
blvd boulevard long longitude
bn battalion mal malfunction
bn SCP battalion survey control point mt mountain
BRP boresight reference point N north
cal caliber no number
ck check 1 theodolite marks (PADS)
cont continue 01 observation post (or observer 1)
COP chief of party 02 observation post ( or observer 2)
EOL end of orienting line obsr observer
E east oper operator
el elevation OP observation post
FSTK far stake (radar OS) 0S orienting station
GAZ grid azimuth PAE position, azimuth, elevation (PADS)
4-1
FM 6-2
4-2
FM 6-2
4-2. DATA RECORDED missing or if maps of the area contain errors, a sketch is
required. Each sketch should be drawn to an approximate
a. Recorded field notes consist of a combination of tabulated scale and include a grid north line. Important details of the
data, sketches, and descriptions. The total record of any sketch may be exaggerated for clarity. Sketches should show
survey in the field notebook should provide a clear and distances to at least two reference marks from any principal
concise picture of the survey performed. This information station that might be buried underground. Reference marks
will include descriptions of the starting and closing stations, should be permanent in nature. If permanent reference marks
a description of any principal station established, the area or are not available, the survey party should emplace
locality in which the work is performed, the purpose of the semipermanent marks. Sketches also are used when
survey, and general remarks on weather, terrain, or other necessary to indicate heights of survey signals and other
conditions that may be factors in evacuating the results. The points when vertical angles are observed to other than
information in the field notes must be complete enough that instrument height. A small protractor, which can also be used
anyone not familiar with that particular survey operation can as a straightedge, should be used as an aid in making sketches.
take the notebook, return to the locality, and recover or Each sketch should be legible and should be drawn large
reconstruct any portion of the survey. Figures 4-3 through enough to ensure that it can be understood. Each station
4-21 are examples of common types of field notes kept by the shown on the sketch should be identified.
recorder.
d. Description should be used to supplement the information
b. Data are recorded in the field notebook in tabulated shown in the sketch. Remarks may be made to clarify
columns according to a prescribed plan. Enough spaces are measurements, weather, terrain, and observing conditions.
provided to permit entry of mean values as they are The remarks should include any other factors that might be of
determined by the recorder. any value in the evaluation of the survey. Approved
c. Sketches must be made when needed. For example, if the abbreviations and conventional symbols will be used on
description of an SCP in the trig list is vague, incorrect, or sketches and in descriptions.
4-3
FM 6-2
4-3. RECORDING announced to him. He then reads data back to the instrument
operator to ensure his entry is correct. Field data entries are
a. Each numbered page of the field notebook provides space recorded directly in the field notebook and not on scraps of
for recording information pertinent to the survey. The type of paper for later transfer. As the entries are made, the recorder
survey (traverse, resection, and so forth) and the date are computes and records mean values and, for ease of
entered at the top of the left side of the page. Weather identification, encircles the data that will be used to compute
conditions (two variables that identify visibility and the survey. The recorder will immediately notify the
temperature), the type and serial number of the instrument, instrument operator of any incorrect angle before the
and the names of the party personnel are entered across the instrument is moved from the station. Station descriptions,
top of the right side of the first page of each survey. The rest sketches, and remarks are entered in the notebook before the
of the pages are used for recording survey data (instrument survey party moves to the next station and must be complete
readings, mean angles, and distances); for designating the enough to permit reestablishment. Only the data for that
survey stations; for recording telescope positions or number specific survey will be recorded on the page. Data pertaining
of repetitions measured; and for recording remarks, sketches, to surveys other than the one in progress will be recorded on
and descriptions. The chief of party will check data entered other pages.
on each page and initial each numbered page before leaving
the field. (If an incorrect angle or distance is discovered, it can c. Erasures are not permitted in the field notebook. If an
be remeasured before the party leaves the area.) The incorrect entry is made, it is corrected by drawing a single line
instrument operator also should check recorded values for through the incorrect data and entering the correct data
each occupied station before taking down the instrument. directly above the incorrect data. When a page is filled with
data, sketches, or remarks that will not be used because of a
b. All entries in the field notebook will be printed in capital change in plans, the page is crossed out by drawing diagonal
block letters and in a neat and legible manner. Always use a lines between opposite comers of each side of the page and
sharpened pencil with lead soft enough to be readily seen but printing the word VOID in large letters across each side of the
hard enough to be smear proof (3H or harder). Entries will page. (See Figure 4-20.) Figure 4-19 is an example of a
never be made in ink. The recorder goes with the instrument partially voided page on which all other recorded data are
operator and records the data in the field notebook as they are correct.
4-4
FM 6-2
4-5
FM 6-2
4-6
FM 6-2
4-7
FM 6-2
Figure 4-9. Triangulation (1:3,000) first position notes (two-position angle measurement)
Figure 4-10. Triangulation (1:3,000) second position notes (two-position angle measurement) (continued)
4-8
FM 6-2
4-9
FM 6-2
4-10
FM 6-2
4-11
FM 6-2
4-12
FM 6-2
4-13
FM 6-2
4-14
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 5
TRAVERSE
Section I
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Traverse legs are measured by using electronic devices, a 30-meter steel tape, or trig-traverse
procedures. At each traverse station, a horizontal angle is measured and used to determine the
azimuth of the next traverse leg. These measurements are used to compute the relative horizontal
position of each unknown traverse station on some system of coordinates, such as the UTM grid
system. A vertical angle is also measured at each station and is used to determine the height
above or below vertical datum of each of the unknown traverse stations. In FA surveys, the
angular measurements may be made with one of two instruments, depending on the accuracy
required and the echelon at which the traverse is conducted. These instruments are the T16 and
T2 theodolites.
5-1
FM 6-2
c. Distance. The distance between the occupied station and data are needed. They are the coordinates and height of a
the forward station is measured by using electronic devices, starting point and an azimuth to a visible azimuth mark.
horizontal taping, or trig-traverse procedures (see Section (See Figure 5-3.) Starting data may be obtained from existing
IV). The distance is used in conjunction with the horizontal control data or maps or may be assumed.
and vertical angles to determine coordinates and height.
a. Known Control. Known survey control data may be
acquired from trig lists, local or national survey agencies,
5-2. STARTING CONTROL (TRAVERSE or supporting survey elements of a higher HQ. An azimuth
REQUIREMENTS) to an azimuth mark (starting direction) may be obtained by
The purpose of traverse is to locate the unknown points use of a SIAGL by astronomic observation, by computation
relative to each other and to locate all points within the from known coordinates, by reference to an existing trig
traverse relative to a common grid. Three elements of starting list, and by PADS.
5-2
FM 6-2
5-3
FM 6-2
survey is closed must be a point established to an equal or of markers may be used, such as shell casings or concrete
higher order of accuracy than that of the starting point. This monuments.
is the preferred type of traverse. It provides checks on
fieldwork, computations, and starting control. It also Figure 5-4. Survey station marked with a
provides a basis for comparison to determine the accuracy reference stake
of the work performed.
c. Directional Traverse. Directional traverse is a type of
traverse that extends directional control (azimuth) only. This
type of traverse can be either open or closed. If open, the
traverse should be closed at the earliest opportunity. It can
be closed on either the starting azimuth or another known
azimuth of equal or higher order of accuracy. It also can
be closed by comparison to an astronomic azimuth,
gyroscopic azimuth, or a PADS azimuth. Since direction
is the most critical element of FA survey and time is frequently
an important consideration it is sometimes necessary at lower
echelons to map-spot battery locations and extend direction
only.
5-4
FM 6-2
5-5. ORGANIZATION OF
CONVENTIONAL TRAVERSE
PARTIES
The number of personnel authorized to perform survey will
depend on the unit TOE. The organization of these persons
into a traverse party and the duties assigned to each member
will depend on the unit SOP. The organization and duties
of traverse party members and modifications proposed for
reduced-strength parties (a through d below) are based on
the functional requirements of a traverse. See Chapter 1
for a detailed description of individual duties.
5-5
FM 6-2
a. Fifth-Order Traverse Party. instruments. When the 30-meter steel tape is used, the
rodman-tapeman and an individual designated by the chief
(1) Chief of party. The chief of party plans the traverse,
selects and marks the locations of the traverse stations, and of party measure the distance from one traverse station to
the next. Each keeps a record of the distance taped. They
supervises the work of the other members of the party. When
compare their recorded distances before reporting the
directed, he helps the survey officer or chief surveyor in
the reconnaissance and planning of the survey. measured distance to the recorder. The rodman-tapeman
maintains all taping equipment.
(2) Instrument operator. The instrument operator
measures the horizontal and vertical angles at each traverse
b. Fourth-Order SEDME Traverse Party. The fourth-
station. He measures distances with the SEDME-MR. He order SEDME traverse party is equipped with two T2
theodolites and one SEDME-MR. The personnel are one
also operates the azimuth gyro and is responsible for the
chief of party, twoinstrument operators, two
care and cleaning of those instruments.
computer-recorders, and one rodman. Party deployment and
(3) Computer-recorder. The computer-recorder keeps measuring operations are shown in Figure 5-6. Measuring
the field note-s for the party in a field notebook. He records Section (MS) 1 occupies the survey control point, measures
the angles measured by the instrument operator, the distances Angle 1 (A1), and sets up a set of infrared reflectors (IRRs)
measured with the SEDME or measured by the tapemen, before moving to TS 2. Measuring Section 2 occupies TS
and all other data pertaining to the survey. He also checks 1, measures A2 and distances 1 and 2 (D1 and D2), and
the length of each taped traverse leg by pacing (fifth order). moves to TS 3 to repeat the cycle. The recon section plans
Also, he computes the grid coordinates and height of each the survey, establishes forward stations, and recovers the
traverse station as the traverse progresses and checks his IRRs and range poles, as required.
results with the computer.
c. Fourth-Order Taped Traverse Party. Duties for a
(4) Computer. The computer computes the grid fourth-order taped traverse are the same as in a above with
coordinates, height, and azimuth of each traverse station the exceptions discussed below.
as the survey progresses. The computer and the
computer-recorder work independently and check their (1) The computer-recorder is not required to check the
results with each other. length of a taped traverse leg by pacing.
(5) Rodman-tapeman. The rodman-tapeman helps in (2) In artillery fourth-order taped traverse, all distances
setting up and marking stations. He erects the SEDME are double taped to a comparative accuracy of 1:5,000. The
reflector and helps the instrument operator care for the recorder helps the rodman-tapeman with the taping operation.
Figure 5-6. Operational concept for div arty or TAB survey party
5-6
FM 6-2
(3) There are two instrument operators and two T2 observing instrument. If signal lights are not available,
theodolites in each fourth-order party. flashlights may be taped or securely strapped to the pole in
the same manner prescribed for the target lights. To ensure
d. Reduced-Strength Party. Often, enough personnel are that the lights are placed and pointed properly, the chief of
not available for a full traverse party. In such circumstances, party will designate one man to remain with the range poles
members of the survey party may be required to do more and coordinate the placement and pointing of the lights with
than one job. Shortages in personnel will never affect the the instrument operator.
jobs of the instrument operator or tapemen, since these two
jobs must be done if a traverse is to be conducted. Shortages d. Angle Measuring and Recording.
will, therefore, be apparent in the duties of rodman, computer,
and computer-recorder. If the party is short one rodman, (1) Angle measuring. There is no different between
the chief of party will perform, in addition to his own duties, measuring angles at night and measuring angles during
the duties of the rodman. If three or more members are daylight, except at night the instrument must be equipped
absent from the party, the fieldwork is completed and the with a night-lighting device. The chief of party should
computations are performed later by designated personnel. coordinate with the instrument operator to ensure that the
The organization of a reduced-strength party is not bound lights at the rear and forward stations are placed and pointed
by strict rules. However, for a party to function when properly and are moved to the next station when the
personel shortages exist, each party member must be trained observation is completed.
to perform all duties. (2) Recording. The same recording procedures used for
recording during daylight hours are used for night recording
except that the recorder must have a flashlight so he can
5-6. NIGHT TRAVERSE see to record. He should record in the remarks section of
At times, the FA surveyor will be required to survey at night the field notes anything that may affect the survey, such as
to accomplish his mission. Night traverse can be done by burnt-out lights or only one light on the forward station.
modifying daylight techniques and organization. However,
e. Distance Measurement at Night.
night traverses require more work, more training, more
personnel, and more coordination. (1) Taping. For information on taping at night see
paragraph 2-18.
a. Equipment. The same equipment used for performing
daylight traverse is also used to perform night traverse with (2) SEDME. Use the same procedures at night as for
the addition of night-lighting equipment. This lighting daylight measurements. Lighting devices are required to
equipment includes flashlights for all personnel and two orient the SEDME and reflector assembly. After the SEDME
signal lights for each range pole. If signal lights are not is oriented and before measurements are taken, lights at or
available, two flashlights for each range pole will suffice. behind the reflector assembly must be turned off.
All lighting devices should be equipped with filters of some Communication between stations must be maintained.
type to ensure greater light security and to prevent undue
glare in the telescope of the observing instrument when it f. Communication. Communication during a night traverse
is pointed at a station. The observing instrument should be should be by radio. However, radio is not always convenient
equipped with its integral lighting equipment. or available, and at times, the survey party must resort to
light signals. These light signals should be prearranged and
b. Personnel. The standard traverse party must be simple. For example, the instrument operator may have to
supplemented with additional personnel to enable it to signal the rodman to raise or lower the bottom light on a
function properly at night. Three additional men who are range pole or inform him to move to the next station. In
light holders go with and help the tapemen. arranging signals, the survey party should avoid waving
lights, since a waving light may easily attract the enemys
c. Station Marking. At night, the traverse stations are attention. Every precaution should be taken in sending light
marked the same as in daylight except for the lighting devices signals to avoid detection by the enemy.
required at the rear and forward stations. Two signal lights
should be placed on each range pole that will be observed
from a traverse station. Usually, this will include two range 5-7. TRAVERSE FIELD NOTES
poles-both the rear and the forward stations. One of these
lights should be placed on the pole at the height of the For correct procedures and examples of field notes on
instrument and the other at the lowest point visible from traverse, see paragraphs 4-1 through 4-5 and Figures 4-6 and
the instrument. Both lights should be pointed directly at the 4-7.
5-7
FM 6-2
Section II
TRIGONOMETRY OF TRAVERSE
The distance and azimuth between points can be used to form and compute a right triangle. The
distance between points serves as the hypotenuse, and the azimuth can be used to determine an
angle. Three right triangles must be solved for each leg. Three trigonometric functions are used
to compute a traverse. These functions are the sine, cosine, and tangent. The sine and cosine
functions are used to compute the differences in casting and northing coordinates. The tangent is
used to compute the difference in height.
5-8
FM 6-2
5-9
FM 6-2
(2) The PROMPT column indicates the display that are used for recording the field data, known data and station
should appear on the BUCS at each step. names. This is where the known coordinates of the occupied
(3) The PROCEDURE column lists the actions that the station and the azimuth mark, the name of the occupied
operator must take at each step. station and the azimuth mark, and the results of the BUCS
computations are recorded. (See Table 5-1 for instructions
c. Immediately below the INSTRUCTION section is the on computing DA Form 5590-R.)
REMARKS: section. The REMARKS: section is used for
recording any information that will help clarify the
(1) The blocks marked with a filled-in arrow are for
computations or survey.
recording the known coordinates. Blocks that are not marked
d. On the right side of the form under the administrative with the filled-in arrow are for recording the computed
section, is a block containing notes. The purpose of these azimuth and distance. The remaining blocks are for recording
notes is to help the operator use the form and the BUCS the station names.
to compute the survey.
e. On the right side of the form under the notes is the DATA (2) There are spaces on the form to record the results
RECORD section. The blocks in the DATA RECORD section of four individual sets of azimuth and distance computations.
5-10
FM 6-2
5-11
FM 6-2
5-12
FM 6-2
5-13
FM 6-2
To determine the coodinates of the unknown point (TS 1), at Station A is measured to the height of instrument at Station
algebraically add the difference in casting to the casting B (AA is the height of instrument at Station A, and BB is
coordinate of the known point (Station A) and the difference the height of instrument at Station B). Both of the heights
in northing to the northing coordinate of the known point are the distance from the known ground elevation at Station
(Station A). In Figure 5-13, for the traverse leg appearing A to the horizontal axis of the telescope of the instrument
in the first quadrant, the dE and dN must be added to the being used. AA is equal to BB. The height of instrument
casting and northing coordinates of Station A. For the must be determined and marked on the range pole at the
traverse legs in the other quadrants, the signs of the dE and forward station. The difference in height between the two
dN change. In all instances, the quadrant in which the traverse stations is side CB of the right triangle. Determine dH as
leg lies determines if dE and dN are added to or subtracted follows :
from coordinates of Station A. (See Figure 5-13.)
Tangent of vertical angle =
opposite side = dH
5-16. DETERMINATION OF dH adjacent side distance
a. In a traverse, the FA surveyor must determine the height or
of each of the unknown stations in relation to the height of dH = tangent of vertical angle x distance
the starting (known) station. He does this by computing
the difference in height (dH) between the occupied station Note. When using a BUCS or a calculator capable of
and the forward station. Through the solution of a right performing logarithms, enter the formula as follows:
triangle, the vertical angle at the occupied station and the
measured horizontal distance to the forward station are used Distance (Hypotenuse) x TAN (vertical angle x .05625) END
LINE = dH
to determine the difference in height between the two stations.
This difference is then added to or subtracted from the known
height at the occupied station. The dH computed is actually the difference in height at
ground level between the two stations. The computed dH
b. In Figure 5-14, the measure distance is the horizontal is added to or subtracted from the height of the known station
distance from Station A to Station B. The vertical angle according to the sign of the measured vertical angle.
5-14
FM 6-2
5-15
FM 6-2
Section Ill
TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS
Survey computations can be performed in any mathematical sequence that will produce the correct
solution. However, for the purpose of simplicity and uniformity, Department of the Army has
devised standardized forms for use in performing survey computations. Accurate and timely
computations are the key to a successful survey. Computations performed on a standard form are
easily checked, adjusted, and filed when necessary.
5-18. COMPUTING THE TRAVERSE LEG Program 2 (BUCS, SURVEY REV1) to determine
coordinates and height from azimuth, distance, and vertical
a. To determine the coordinates of the unknown point, the angle of main scheme traverse stations. The program also
azimuth and distance from the known point to the first converts slope distance to horizontal distance and computes
unknown station are used. the total traverse length, total azimuth and height corrections,
radial error of closure, accuracy ratio, and traverse adjustment.
b. Determining the coordinates of the first unknown point
requires the use of DA Form 5591-R. (See Figures 5-15 b. Entries on the form are discussed below. (Instructions
and 5-16.) for completing the front and reverse sides of DA Form 5591-R
are in Tables 5-2 and 5-3.)
5-19. DETERMINATION OF HEIGHT (1) The known data of the starting and closing stations
In a traverse, the FA surveyor must determine the height of and the traverse field data are required by the BUCS. The
each of the unknown stations in relation to the height of the known starting and closing data consist of the coordinates
starting (known) station. The vertical angle at the occupied and height of the starting and closing stations and a line of
station and the measured horizontal distance to the forward known azimuth at each of the stations. The traverse field
station are used to determine the height of the unknown data consist of horizontal and vertical angles measured at
station. each station and the distance between the traverse stations.
(2) The user must enter the known starting station data
5-20. DA FORM 5591 -R and then the traverse field data. The traverse field data
a. DA Form 5591-R is the form on which traverse must be entered in the same sequence that the traverse stations
computations are recorded. It is used in conjunction with were encountered in the field operations.
5-16
FM 6-2
5-17
FM 6-2
5-18
FM 6-2
5-19
FM 6-2
(3) The operator must enter the known closing station (9) The azimuth from the known point to an azimuth
data to allow computation of the following: mark is recorded in the AZIMUTH TO REAR (MILS): block.
Total traverse distance. (10) The next information recorded on the form is the
Total azimuth and height corrections. measured field data- horizontal angles, vertical angles (with
sign and whether reciprocal or nonreciprocal noted), and
Radial error of closure. the distances (whether horizontal or slope noted). The field
data must be obtained from the recorder. The recorder also
Traverse accuracy ratio. provides the station names. Enter the data in the blocks
Adjusted traverse station data. with the black triangle.
(See Figure 5-16.) c. The computer is now ready to compute the first leg of
(4) The basic design of DA Form 5591-R is the same as the traverse.
DA Form 5590-R. In the DATA RECORD section, there are
spaces for recording the starting data, the field data for four d. The reverse side of DA Form 5591-R is used to record
traverse stations, and the computed data for three traverse the closing data for the survey just computed. The format
stations. The computed data for the fourth station must be of the front and reverse sides of the form is similar. The
recorded on another form. Additional forms are used as DATA RECORD section has spaces for recording the known
required. Closure and adjustment data are recorded on the closing data, the measured closing horizontal angle, the
reverse side of the form. computed closing data, and the adjusted data for four stations.
Fifth-order surveys are not adjusted.
(5) The administrative information is entered in the six
spaces provided on the top of each form. When a survey
operation is conducted, all information must be recorded.
(6) The names of the stations are entered in the blocks on
the left side of the DATA RECORD section. Start with the
e. If the computer wishes to compute closure date, he must
REAR STATION: block, and then complete the STATION
record the known data of the closing station on the reverse
NAME: blocks for the forward and known stations. Number
side of the form. He records these data as discussed below.
the known station 1. Each station name in a traverse must be
written and numbered. (1) Record the closing horizontal angle in the CLOSING
(7) The coordinates of the known point are recorded in the ANGLE (MILS): block. The angle is obtained from the
EASTING: and NORTHING: blocks of the DATA RECORD recorder.
section. (2) Record the known closing azimuth in the KNOWN
(8) The height of the known point is recorded in the AZIMUTH FORWARD (MILS): block. This azimuth may
HEIGHT (METERS): block, The height is obtained from be determined from a trig list, by using an azimuth gym,
a trig list of local survey control. by astronomic observation, by computation, or by PADS.
5-20
FM 6-2
5-21
FM 6-2
(3) Record the known height in the KNOWN HEIGHT 5-23. RADIAL ERROR OF CLOSURE
(METERS): block the known casting in the KNOWN
EASTING: block, and the known northing in the KNOWN a. The radial error of closure is determined by comparing
NORTHING: block. These data may be obtained from a the correct coordinates of the closing point with the computed
trig list, or they could be provided by the supporting survey coordinates of that point and determining the differences.
element. The difference between the two castings of the closing point,
or error in casting (eE), forms one side of a right triangle.
f. The computer ensures the BUCS is still displaying the The difference between the two northings of the closing
prompt CLOSURE (Y/N): The actions required to compute point, or error in northing (eN), forms the second side of
the closing data are to press the Y key and then the END the triangle. The hypotenuse of this right triangle is the
LINE key. The BUCS now starts computing the closing radial error of closure. (See Figure 5-17.) It is computed
data for the survey. by using DA Form 5590-R or the Pythagorean theorem.
From the Pythagorean theorem, it is derived that the radial
5-21. RECIPROCAL MEASUREMENT OF error of closure is equal to the square root of the sum of
VERTICAL ANGLES the square of the error in casting and the square of the error
in northing. The equation for computing the radial error
The effects of the curvature of the earth and atmospheric
is as follows:
refraction must be considered for traverse legs in excess of
1,000 meters. Vertical angles at each end of such a leg are Radial error of closure
measured to compensate for these effects. When vertical
angles are measured reciprocally, the vertical angle at each
end of the leg should be measured to the same height above
the station (normally the HI).
c. After the accuracy ratio has been computed, the AE in which AE = allowable radial error and K =
denominator of the fraction is always reduced to the next total (main scheme) length of the traverse to the nearest
lower hundred (for example, 1/3879 becomes 1/3800). 0.1 km.
5-22
FM 6-2
For example, using the 1:3,000 evaluation in a traverse 37.3 5-24. CLOSING AZIMUTH ERROR
km in length would allow a maximum radial error of 12.4
meters (37,300 + 3,000). Whereas , would allow a The closing azimuth error is determined by comparing the
maximum radial error of 6.1 meters The known closing azimuth with the closing azimuth determined
result of the method used will then be compared with the by the traverse. The difference between the two is the closing
radial error computed for the traverse to determine if the azimuth error. The error is considered to be within tolerance
traverse radial error meets the requirement. The traverse if it does not exceed 0.1 mil per main scheme angle for
must be rerun when the radial error exceeds the computed fifth-order traverse. Fourth-order traverses are evaluated for
maximum allowable radial error and no error can be azimuth closure in two ways. If the number of main scheme
determined. angles is six or less, multiply the number of main scheme
angles by 0.04. For traverses of seven or more main scheme
angles, multiply the square root of the number of main scheme
angles by 0.1 (Appendix B).
5-23
FM 6-2
a. Fourth-Order Accuracy. Normally, fourth-order in carrying the azimuth through the traverse. If the traverse
surveys are performed by the div arty survey platoon and exceeds 25 main scheme angles, then azimuth must be
the TAB survey platoon to extend survey control to using checked by comparing the computed azimuth with an
units. The maximum allowable error in position closure astronomic azimuth, gyroscopic azimuth, a preestablished
for an artillery fourth-order traverse generally is expressed azimuth or a PADS azimuth. The allowable azimuth error
as 1:3,000, or 1 unit of radial error for each 3,000 similar in mils for a traverse having no more than six main scheme
units of traverse executed. A fourth-order traverse starting angles is computed by the formula AE = 0.04 x N, in which
from existing survey control must start and close on stations N is the number of main scheme angles used to carry azimuth.
established to fourth-order accuracy or higher. If survey If there are more than six main scheme angles in the traverse,
control of the required accuracy is not available, the fieldwork the allowable azimuth error is computed by the formula
and computations can be computed and the traverse evaluated AE=0.1
for accuracy (accuracy ratio determined) by using assumed
starting data, provided the traverse is ended at the starting (3) Height accuracy. The allowable error in meters for
station. The T2 theodolite is used to measure the angles. the height closure of a traverse of any length performed to
Horizontal angles are measured as one-position angles (1 fourth-order accuracy is also computed by the formula
D/R). Vertical readings are taken once with the telescope AE =
in the direct position and once in the reverse position (1
D/R). The vertical angle is then computed. If traverse legs
b. Fifth-Order Accuracy. NormalIy, FA battalions perform
are greater than 1,000 meters in length, vertical readings
must be observed reciprocally. Distances are double taped fifth-order survey to establish survey control for the firing
with the 30-meter steel tape to a comparative accuracy of units of the battalion. A fifth-order traverse starting from
1:5,000. When the SEDME is used, three readings must existing control must start and close on stations established
be taken to determine the distance. to fifth-order accuracy or greater. When survey control of
the required accuracy is not available, the fieldwork and
(1) Position accuracy. The procedure used to evaluate computations can be completed and the traverse evaluated
the position accuracy of a fourth-order traverse depends on for accuracy (accuracy ratio) by using assumed starting data,
the length of the main scheme of the traverse. Traverses provided the traverse is closed on the starting station. The
of less than 9,000 meters in main scheme length are evaluated T16 theodolite is used to measure the angles. Horizontal
by determining accuracy ratios as explained in paragraph angles are turned one position with the T16 theodolite.
5-23b. However, when the traverse length exceeds 9,000 Vertical readings arc taken once with the telescope in the
meters, the accuracy achieved may be excessive. Therefore, direct position and once with the telescope in the reverse
when the main scheme length of the traverse exceeds 9,030 position (1 D/R), The vertical angle is then computed.
meters (9 km), the maximum allowable radial error is Distances, when measured with the 30-meter steel tape, are
computed by the formula in which K is the single taped and checked for gross errors by pacing. When
total- length of the traverse to the nearest 0.1 km. distances are measured with the SEDME, three readings will
be taken.
5-24
FM 6-2
Section IV
TRIG TRAVERSE
When a traverse is conducted in the field, it may be impossible to tape or electronically measure
a traverse leg because of the terrain, electrical interference, or equipment failure. If this occurs,
a method known as trig traverse may be used. When properly executed, this method is adequate
for accomplishing fourth- and fifth-order traverse requirements. The trig traverse method uses the
triangular figure, the base of which is carefully measured.
5-26. METHOD measured. The base must be long enough to minimize the
effects of instrumental error on the distance to be measured.
In the trig traverse method, the base of the triangle need To do this, the base must be longer than one-twentieth and
not be established perpendicular to the required side of the preferably about one-tenth of the distance to be determined.
triangle but may be established at an angle more convenient In Figure 5-18, the length to be determined is the line AB.
for measurement. When possible, however, it should be Two independent bases are measured to offset the slight
placed perpendicular to the required side by using the inaccuracy that will prevail in the base measurement and
theodolite to place the base ends at right angles to the desired to provide a check on the work. The bases are shown by
side. If it is not possible to make the base perpendicular, the lines BC1 and BC2. The shortest base should not be
the angle formed by the base and the desired side must be less than one-twentieth of the required distance.
5-25
FM 6-2
5-27. BASE ACCURACY is the angle from B to C2, BC1 is the distance from B to
C1, and BC2 is the distance from B to C2. See the
The accuracy of the base measurement is the key to a perpendicular base in Figure 5-18.
succesful trig traverse. When the base length is one-
twentieth of the required side and an error of 0.01 meter b. Nonperpendicular Base. When the base is not
was made in determining the length of the base, the result perpendicular, the distance is computed by using the
is an error of 0.20 meter in determining the computed length following formulas:
of the base. Each base should be double taped separately
within a comparative accuracy of 1:7,000 for fourth order
and 1:3,000 for fifth order. The distance C1 to C2 is also
measured to provide a check. Reasonable control over the
accuracy of the distance measurements can be exercised by
limiting the ratio of the length of the base to the length to
be computed. Y is the angle formed by the base and the required side.
See the nonperpendicular base in Figure 5-18.
5-28. ANGLES
a. In fourth-order survey, the T2 theodolite is used for angle 5-31. DA FORM 5603-R
measurement. Two-position horizontal angles are measured. Trig traverse is computed with the BUCS and by using DA
If the two measured values for any angle differ by more Form 5603-R (Computation of Trig Traverse/Subtense
than 0.050 mil, these angles will be rejected and remeasured. (BUCS)), (A reproducible copy of this form is included at
b. In fifth-order survey, the T16 theodolite is used for angle the back of this book.) This form follows the same basic
measurement. One-position horizontal angles are measured. format of the BUCS forms used in computing the traverse.
a. The top of the form is for recording administrative data.
5-29. TARGETS Data in this area include the following:
Because of the very short distance to the end of the base, Computer.
the targets must be designed for accurate pointings. The Name of the individual who checks the computations
string of a suspended plumb bob or a sharpened pencil point
(checker).
may be sighted on. On longer bases, a range pole may be
used, provided the range pole is very carefully plumbed Area in which survey was performed.
over the point. If available, a tripod-mounted target may Notebook reference.
also be used. It also must be carefully leveled and plumbed
over the point. Date computations were performed.
Identification of the sheet number.
5-30. DISTANCE COMPUTATION b. The next part of the form provides notes for the specific
Two independent lengths (AB1 and AB2) are computed, operations of the program and other notes needed to complete
one from each base. The mean of the two computed lengths the form.
is the required distance. A comparative accuracy is computed
to determine the reliability of the computed distance. For c. The next part of the form is divided into two major sections.
fourth-order survey, the required side accuracy must be at The section on the left provides instructions for the operator
least 1:5,000; and for fifth-order survey, at least 1:1,000. to complete the program.
Computations for perpendicular and nonperpendicular bases (1) The right section is for recording data-both field
without the use of DA forms are described below.
and computed. TWO trig traverses may be computed on each
a. Perpendicular Base. If the base is perpendicular to the form.
required side, the distance is easily computed by using the
following formulas: (2) The left section is divided in three columns-STEP,
PROMPT, and PROCEDURE. The STEP column is the
AB1 = cot Q1 x BC1 numerical sequence the operator uses as he proceeds down
AB2 = cot Q2 x BC2 the form. The PROMPT column tells the operator what will
appear on the BUCS display at each particular step. The
AB is the required distance (AB1 is the first distance, AB2 PROCEDURE column tells the operator what action he
is the seared distance), Q1 is the angle from B to Cl, Q2 should take at each particular step or prompt.
5-26
FM 6-2
5-27
FM 6-2
5-28
FM 6-2
Section V
LOCATION OF TRAVERSE ERRORS
A good survey plan executed by a well-trained party provides for numerous checks in both
computations and fieldwork. However, these checks do not always eliminate errors. On the contrary,
errors made both in fieldwork and in computations often are not discovered until the survey has
been completed. The FA surveyor must, therefore, be able to isolate these errors and determine
their causes. Often, a critical analysis of both the fieldwork and the computations of a survey in
error will save additional hours of repetitious labor and computation.
5-29
FM 6-2
5-33. ISOLATION OF
DISTANCE ERRORS
a. A distance error is indicated when the azimuth for the
traverse closes within tolerance but coordinate closure is in
error beyond the limits allowed for the prescribed accuracy.
b. Compare the known coordinates of the point on which
the survey was closed to the computed coordinates determined
by the survey. From this comparison, determine the error
in easting and the error in northing. Note the sign of each
error, and compute the azimuth from the known coordinates
of the closing station to the computed coordinates of the
closing station on DA Form 5590-R. The traverse leg
containing the distance error will have the same azimuth
(or back-azimuth) as the azimuth computed. (See Figure
5-20.) The distance computed will be the radial error. In
analyzing an error of this nature, some tolerance and
judgement must be used to determine the traverse leg in
error, This is because in both angular and distance
measurements, minor errors occur that are too small to affect
the overall accuracy but are large enough to make error
analysis difficult. Under some circumstances, several legs
with azimuths approximating the azimuths of the radial error
could contain the distance error. Check computations for
each suspected leg. If there is no error in computations,
then each suspected leg must be remeasured until the leg
containing the error is found.
5-30
FM 6-2
5-34. ISOLATION OF
AZIMUTH ERRORS
a. Indication of Azimuth Error. An azimuth error is
indicated when the azimuth does not close within required
tolerance and coordinate closure is in error beyond the limits
allowed for the prescribed accuracy.
b. Isolation Procedure. Compare the computed azimuth
to the known azimuth of the closing point, and determine
the azimuth error. Compare the computed coordinates of
the closing station to the known coordinates, and determine
the error in casting and the error in northing. Compute the
distance (RE) and azimuth of the radial error by using DA
Form 5590-R, the known coordinates of the closing station,
and the computed coordinates of the closing station. Using
a scaled sketch of the traverse, construct a line perpendicular
to, and at the midpoint of, the plotted radial error line. Extend
this line in the appropriate direction through the area in
which the fieldwork was executed. (See Figure 5-21.) The
suspect station at which the angle error was made will be
on or very near the extended line.
c. Corrective Procedure. After the suspect station is
located, a check should be made of amputations at the
station to include the angular values in the field notes recorded
for that station. If there was no error in meaning of angles,
the angle for the station should be remeasured and compared
with the recorded angle measured as a part of the original
survey. This procedure will reveal the error, if one exists.
If the remeasured angle compares favorably with the recorded
angle, a multiple error exists in the survey and a solution
is not possible. When this situation occurs, the survey should
be rerun to determine the location of the errors.
5-31
FM 6-2
5-32
FM 6-2
Section VI
TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENT
Establishing a common grid throughout an entire corps or div arty sector is not as simple as it
may first appear. When a party is extending survey control over long distances by traverse, the
traverse may well be within the prescribed accuracy and still be considerably in error. This problem
is magnified when several traverse parties are used to extend control and try to tie their work
together. Seldom, if ever, will these parties coincide on their linkage. By adjusting the traverse,
throughout, however, some compensation will be made for those errors that have accumulated. A
traverse executed to a prescribed accuracy of fourth order must always be closed and adjusted.
An adjusted traverse is one in which the errors have been distributed systematically so that the
closing data determined by the traverse, coincide with the correct closing data. There is, of course,
no possible means of determining the true magnitude of the errors in angle and distance measurement
that occur throughout a traverse. Therefore, a traverse adjustment is based on the assumption that
the errors have accumulated gradually, and the corrections are made accordingly. Three adjustments
must be made when adjusting a traverse. These are azimuth, coordinates, and height, These
adjustments eliminate the effects of systematic errors on the assumption that they have been constant
and equal in their effect on each traverse leg. Traverse adjustment cannot compensate for blunders
such as dropped tape lengths or misread angles. Also, a traverse that does not meet the prescribed
standard of accuracy is not adjusted but is checked for error. If the error cannot be found, the
entire traverse must be performed again.
5-33
FM 5-2
5-34
FM 6-2
b. The height correction is the error in height with the sign correction, since the correction is applied to the differences
reversed. It is determined by comparing the height of the in height between the stations and not directly to the station
closing point established by the traverse with the known heights. The height adjustment can be made on the same
height of the closing point and applying a sign () that will form and at the same time that coordinate adjustments are
cause the established height, with the algebraic correction being made.
applied, to equal the known height. For example, if the
known height is 478.3 meters and the computed height 5-40. DISCRETION ADJUSTMENT
(established by traverse) is 477.5 meters, the height correction
would be 0.8 meter (478.3 - 477. S). For the height determined Although traverse adjustment is a systematic operation, there
by traverse to equal the correct height, 0.8 meter would will be times in the field when surveyors may rely on
have to be added to the height of the closing station judgment alone. In these case-s, the error maybe distributed
determined by traverse. arbitrarily in accordance with the surveyors estimation of
the field conditions. It is reasonable to assume that if certain
c. The height correction is distributed equally among the legs of the traverse are over rough terrain, the error in taping
stations of the traverse with any remainder distributed to these legs will be relatively large compared to taping over
those stations computed from the longest legsi. Assume that ideal terrain and the correction should be correspondingly
the traverse for which the height correction was determined greater. If lines of sight are steep and visibility is poor,
consists of four stations. To distribute the height correction larger angular errors would be expected than when observing
throughout the traverse, divide the height correction by the conditions are relatively favorable. The artillery surveyor
total number of stations in the traverse excluding the starting should not resort to this method of adjustment unless he is
station (a known height). In this case, 0.8 meter +3 stations experienced and has a keen knowledge of where errors are
= 0.2 meter with a remainder of 0.2 meter to be divided most likely to occur and of their effect on the overall survey.
and applied equally to those stations computed from the In any event, the field notebook should contain a detailed
longest legs. The adjustment would be as shown in the account of any unfavorable survey conditions so that it may
example below. The adjustment is an accumulation of the be used to substantiate any arbitrary adjustments.
5-35
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 6
TRIANGULATION
Triangulation is a method of conventional survey used when the traverse
method is impractical or impossible. This method is ideally suited to rough
or mountainous terrain. The triangulation method employs oblique
triangular figures and enables the surveyor to cross obstacles and long
distances. This method is time-consuming and requires careful planning
and extensive reconnaissance.
Section I
METHODS AND OPERATIONS
The triangulation method of survey uses triangular figures to determine survey data. If the values of
certain elements of a triangle are known, the values of other elements of the triangle can be computed.
6-1. SURVEY METHODS USING in the fieldwork and in the computations differ somewhat
TRIANGLES from the methods used in triangulation. Two of these
methods used in FA survey are intersection and resection.
a. In FA surveys, the term triangulation is restricted to
operations that involve the measurement of all angles within (1) In the intersection method, two angles are measured.
a triangle, (See Figure 6-l.) Other methods of survey, If the length and azimuth of one side and two angles are
however, use the triangular figure, but the procedures used known, the intersection can be computed. (See Figure 6-2.)
Figure 6-1. Triangulation Figure 6-2. Intersection
6-1
FM 6-2
(2) In resection, the coordinates of an unknown point b. Survey methods using the triangular figure may be used
are obtained by determining the horizontal angles at the at all levels of FA survey to establish the locations of survey
unknown point between three unoccupied points of known control points. Generally, it is better to use some method
coordinates. (See Figure 6-3.) of survey that employs these procedures if the distance or
terrain involved makes traverse difficult or impossible.
Figure 6-3. Three-point resection c. Triangulation involves single triangles (Figure 6-1) and
chains or schemes of triangles (Figure 6-4). Whether a
particular triangle is a single triangle or part of a scheme
of triangles, the angles in the triangle are determined in the
same manner, and the unknown elements of the triangle are
computed in the same manner. In a single triangle, the base
(known side) is measured with electronic distance-measuring
devices or a 30-meter steel tape, or it is computed from
known coordinates of the required accuracy. In a chain of
triangles, the base of the first triangle is determined in the
same manner as a single triangle. The base for the second
triangle is the side of the first triangle that is common to
both triangles. This side is computed, which establishes a
base distance for computation of the second triangle. The
same procedure is used to determine the base for each triangle
in a triangulation scheme.
6-2
FM 6-2
d. When the base is measured with the SEDME-MR a team by some prearranged method (for example, by
of two men is required. This team consists of one instrument radiotelephone).
operator-recorder and one man to set up the reflector prism
at the end of the base. If taping teams are used, the base 6-3. TRIANGULATION FIELD NOTES
is double taped to the specified comparative accuracy. If a. As the bases are measured, each tapeman of the two
only one taping team is available, it must make at least two taping teams records all the base measurements in the taping
independent measurements of the base to the specified notebook. As soon as practical, these recorded distance-s
comparative accuracy. A tension handle with a 25-pound are transferred to the field notes kept by the recorder. When
pull should be used, and horizontal alignment must be the base length is measured with the SEDME-MR, the
maintained to ensure the required accuracy of a taped base recorder at the end of the base at which the SEDME is
measurement. If SEDME-MR devices are used to measure located enters the distance in the field notebook.
the base, the base will be measured three times and the
mean reading used to compute the base. After completing b. The field notes kept by the recorder in an angIe-measuring
all required measurements, these personnel may be used as party are discussed in Chapter 4. Figures 4-7 through 4-9
directed by the chief of party or the survey and recon officer. are examples of notes kept by a recorder for 1 :1,000 (T16
theodolite) and 1:3,000 (T2 theodolite) triangulation.
e. The computing party consists of two computers (one has
a dual role of computer-recorder). The computers make 6-4. STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
independent computations and compare their results. They In triangulation, fieldwork and computations adhere to certain
make their computations at any convenient location specified standards and specifications to produce surveys of the desired
by the party chief or the survey officer. Data from the accuracy. These standards and specifications are described
various points in the survey are reported to the computer in Appendix B.
Section II
TRIANGULATION COMPUTATION
A triangle is defined as a closed the-sided geometric figure containing three interior angles the sum
of which is 3,203 mils. Each triangle is solved separately whether it is a single triangle or a triangle
in a scheme. The only type of triangulation problem (excluding intersection and resection) involved
in artillery surveys is the solution of a triangle in which the values of all three angles and the length
and azimuth of one side are known. This type of problem is solved by using DA Form 5592-R
(Computation of Plane Triangle Coordinates and Height From One Side, Three Angles, and Vertical
Angles (BUCS)). (A reproducible copy of this form is included at the back of this book.)
6-3
FM 6-2
(1) If the coordinates and height of both B and C are Figure 6-5. Distance angles of a single triangle
known, the azimuth and length of the base (the line joining B
and C) can be computed on DA Form 5590-R. These known
coordinates and heights must be of an equal or higher accuracy
than that of the survey being performed. (If a fourth-older
survey is being conducted, the coordinates used to compute the
azimuth and length of the base should be of third-order accuracy
or higher but must be at least fourth-order accuracy.)
(2) If the coordinates of only one of the points are known,
the base length must be taped or measured electronically.
The azimuth must be obtained by astronomic observation,
by gyroscopic means, or by sighting on a point of known
azimuth (azimuth mark).
6-4
FM 6-2
Section Ill
TRIANGULATION SCHEMES
A chain (scheme) of triangles is a series of single triangles connected by common sides. (See Figure
6-4.) In a chain of triangles, only the length of the first, or original, base and the length of each check
base are measured. The lengths of all other sides are computed.
6-7. DESCRIPTION, SOLUTION, AND be its distance angle, regardless of its value. A distance
CHECKS OF A CHAIN OF TRIANGLES angle is an angle in a triangle opposite the known side and
the angle opposite the required side (side common to an
a. In Figure 6-7, side John-Bill is common to triangles adjacent triangle). The required side is also known as the
John-Bill-Joe and Mike-Bill-John. Each of these triangles forward line or forward base, because it will become the
may be solved individually if one side and the interior angles base for the next triangle in the scheme. In a chain of
are known. In Figure 6-7, assume there is a requirement triangles, the last triangle in the scheme is computed as a
to locate an additional point, Mike, outside the single triangle single triangle, and its distance angles are determined as
John-Bill-Joe. While the interior and vertical angles at John discussed in paragraph 6-6b. For example, in Figure 6-7,
and Bill are being measured, the angles for the new triangle the distance angles in triangle John-Bill-Joe are at points
would also be measured. Then the horizontal and vertical John (angle opposite known side Joe-Bill) and Joe (angle
angles at Point Mike would be determined. Since side opposite the required side). For triangle Mike-Bill-John,
Joe-Bill is a known side, all the information needed to the distance angles are at Point Mike (angle opposite known
compute both triangles would then be available. Side side John-Bill, which has been solved in triangle
John-Bill would be the required side (side John-Bill is John-Bill-Joe) and Point Bill (the stronger of angles at John
common to both triangles), and the angle at Point Joe would and Bill).
6-5
FM 6-2
Figure 6-7. Relationship of a single triangle to figure factor table. (See Table 6-l.) The distance angles of
a chain of triangles the triangle serve as arguments for entering the table, the
smaller distance angle dictates the column; the larger distance
angle, the row. The smaller the factor, the greater the relative
strength of the triangle.
c. When the sum of the strength factors of a chain of triangles
exceeds 200 or at every fifth triangle, a check base (the
required side) and azimuth must be determined. If the
difference between the computed length and azimuth and
the measured length and azimuth is within prescribed
tolerances, the scheme may be continued with the measured
data. For fifth-order surveys, the computed length of the
check base must agree with the measured length within
1:1,000 (comparative accuracy), and the computed azimuth
must agree with the astronomic (astro) or gyroscopic (gyro)
azimuth within 0.1 times the number of main scheme angles
used to carry the azimuth to the check base. For fourth-order
surveys, the check comparisons are 1:3,000 (comparative
b. The size of the distance angles in a triangle is used as accuracy) for the base and 0.04 x N, where N is the number
the measure of relative strength of the figure. The strength of main scheme angles used to carry the azimuth to the
factor of a triangle is determined by use of a strength of check base.
6-6
FM 6-2
Figure 6-8. Determining distance for Figure 6-9. Determining number of angles for
accuracy ratio azimuth closure
6-7
FM 6-2
6-8. TRIANGLE CLOSURE the succeeding unknown stations will be labeled in order of
computation. In Figure 6-10, Station Ben is number one
When interior angles of a triangle are measured in the field, because it is the point where the known and required side
the sum of the angles may vary from 3,200 mils by a small meet. Station Sue is labeled #2, since it is the first unknown
amount. The term used to describe this variance is triangle point. The next unknown station (Bill) is labeled #3.
closure. If the variance is within tolerance (Appendix B),
the angles are adjusted to equal 3,200. The BUCS will (2) Steps 1 through 8 of the DATA RECORD section
automatically do this by distributing the closure variance are used to record the data for the starting known point (B
equally among the three angles. The BUCS will display or C), to include the azimuth and distance of the starting
the closure. (See Figures 6-10,6-11, and 6-12 for triangulation base. If there is more than one triangle to be computed,
computations.) data from subsequent triangles are also recorded in this
section. (See Figure 6-11.)
6-8
FM 6-2
6-9
FM 6-2
6-10
FM 6-2
6-11
FM 6-2
6-12
FM 6-2
6-13
FM 6-2
Table 6-3. Closure on known point computation, reverse of DA Form 5692-R (continued)
6-14
FM 6-2
Section IV
INTERSECTION
Intersection is a method of survey used to locate an unknown point by determining azimuths from two
or more known points. This method of survey is used as a means of establishing control to desired
positions and of checking the locations of points established by other survey methods. A point
established by the intersection method should be observed from at least two known stations of equal
or higher order of survey than the survey being conducted. One of the points is designated as 01. The
height of 01 must also be known. The location and height of the unknown are computed from 01.
6-15
FM 6-2
(2) Imagine yourself standing at the unknown point c. If the points are nonintervisible (Figure 6-14), do the
looking back at the known points. (See Figure 6-13.) Point procedure below. (See the example below.)
02 is located to the left side and Point 01 to the right. Subtract
(1) Measure a horizontal angle from both points to the
the azimuths from left to right.
unknown point by using a point with a known azimuth as
a rear station. Each angle is then added separately to the
known azimuth to determine the azimuths from 01 and 02
to the unknown point.
(2) Determine if the apex angle meets the requirements
as described in paragraph 6-1 lb.
6-16
FM 6-2
6-17
FM 6-2
6-18
FM 6-2
6-19
FM 6-2
Section V
THREE-POINT RESECTION
Three-point resection is a method of survey used to obtain control for an unknown point on the basis
of three inaccessible known points. However, before the fieldwork is begun, several factors must be
considered. In Figure 6-16, Stations A, B, and C are the known points and Station P is the occupied
station for which coordinate are to be determined. All points must be selected so that Angles P1, P2,
C, and B (Figure 6-16) are at least 400 mils The preferred value for the angles is 533 rnils. Also, if
the sum of the Angles P1, P2, and Al is between 2,845 mils and 3,555 mils no valid solution is possible.
This simply means that Station P lies on or near a circle passing through Stations A, B, and C. To
eliminate the possibility of this occurring, a map reconnaissance must be made. The fieldwork consists
of measuring horizontal Angles P1 and P2 and the vertical angle to the center station. Resection field
notes are recorded in the field notebook in the same basic format as triangulation field notes except
that the height of target (known or estimated) and the height of instrument (measured to the nearest
0.1 meter) are recorded in the remarks section. A three-point resection may be considered a closed
survey if a fourth known point is used to compute a second resection, the solutions are compared, and
the accuracy ratio meets the specified position closure requirement. The points used for three-point
resection should be fourth-order or better. For an example of the field notes of a three-point resection,
see Figure 4-11 in Chapter 4.
6-20
FM 6-2
6-21
FM 6-2
6-22
FM 6-2
6-23
6-16. LAW OF SINES side c = side a * SIN(Angle C * .05625)/ SIN(Angle A *
.05625) END LINE.
As shown in Figure 6-19, the law of sines is a straight
proportion-type formula which states that the sine of the
angle at A is to its opposite side as the sine of the angle Figure 6-19. Law of sines as it applies to
at B is to its opposite side or the sine of the angle at C is a basic triangle
to its opposite side. If the value of each of the interior angles
of the triangle were known and the length of side a were
known, the law of sines would be transposed as shown in
b and c below.
a. Ensure the BUCS is operating in degrees. (Type
DEGREES, and press the END LINE key.)
b. To determine the length of side b, use the following
formula:
6-24
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 7
ASTRONOMY FOR FIELD ARTILLERY
Section I
BASIC ASTRONOMY
The FA surveyor uses practical astronomy to perform his mission. Practical astronomy is used to
determine time, position, and azimuth. The FA surveyor observes celestial bodies only to determine
azimuth. High-order survey organizations determine position by astro observation. The key to
gaining a working knowledge of practical astronomy is learning its terms. The following paragraphs
and the Glossary define the common astronomic terms.
7-1
FM 6-2
c. Since adapting a rectangular coordinate system to a sphere to be located at the center of the earth. This imaginary
is impractical, a system using angular measurements was sphere of infinite radius is called the celestial sphere. The
adopted. celestial sphere allows us to solve all problems of astro
observations by using spherical trigonometry.
(1) Latitude. Planes were passed through the earth, all
parallel to each other and perpendicular to the rotating axis b. The celestial sphere appears to rotate about an axis.
of the earth. The lines that these planes inscribe on the earths However, this apparent rotation is due to rotation of the
surface are called parallels of latitude. The parallel of latitude earth about its axis from west to east in a counterclockwise
halfway between the poles is called the equator. This parallel movement and is opposite in direction to that in which the
is given a value of 0 and is used as the basis for measuring stars appear to move. In practical astronomy, the earth is
latitude. Latitude is measured in units of degrees, minutes, regarded as stationary and the celestial sphere revolves about
and seconds north or south of the equator (344812 N or the earth from east to west.
301216 S) Up to 90.
(2) Longitude. Other planes were passed through the earth 7-3. SPHERICAL COORDINATES
so they intersect at both poles. The lines these planes inscribe a. Reference points, such as the poles, the equator, meridians
on the surface of the sphere are called meridians of longitude. of longitude, and parallels of latitude, are used to determine
A baseline for measurement was established with the meridian the location of points on the surface of the earth. Spherical
that passed through Greenwich, England, and was given a coordinates are used to determine the location of points on
value of 0. Longitude is measured in units of degrees, the celestial sphere. There are two systems of spherical
minutes, and seconds east (E) and west (W) of the Greenwich coordinatethe horizon system and the equator system.
meridian (for example, 902418 W or 401243 E) up to The artillery surveyor uses the equator system.
180.
b. Since the earth is assumed to be the center of the celestial
sphere, the North and South Poles of the earth can be extended
7-2. CELESTIAL SPHERE to the sphere where they become the celestial North and
a. In practical astronomy, the sun and stars are considered South Poles. Likewise, the plane of the earths equator,
fixed onto a sphere of infinite radius. At the center of this extended to the celestial sphere, becomes the celestial equator,
sphere is the eye of an observer. The observer is resumed (See Figure 7-3.)
7-2
FM 6-2
c. The observer's position on earth is located by latitude Figure 7-3. Celestial sphere
7-3
FM 6-2
(1) During each year, the sun traces a path, called the Figure 7-5. Ecliptic, equinoxes, and solstices
ecliptic, on the celestial sphere. This path is caused by the
tilt of the minor axis of the earth with respect to the plane
of its orbit. (See Figure 7-5.) This path of the sun moves
from the Southern Hemisphere of the celestial sphere to the
Northern Hemisphere and back. The point where the sun
crosses the celestial equator in its movement from south to
north along the ecliptic is known as the vernal equinox, the
first day of spring. The vernal equinox is the first point of
reference in the equator system of spherical coordinates. It
also is used in the same manner that the prime meridian of
Greenwich is used as a point of reference.
7-4
FM 6-2
7-4. ASTRONOMIC TRIANGLE Figure 7-8. Three sides of the PZS triangle
a. In FA survey, the determination of astro azimuth is based
on the solution of a spherical triangle, a triangle located on
the celestial sphere. The celestial spherical triangle has the
vertices of the pole (P), the observers zenith (Z), and the
sun or star (S). This triangle is known as the astronomic,
or PZS, triangle (See Figure 7-7.)
b. The sides of the PZS triangle are segments of great
circles passing through any two of the vertices. Hence, the
sides are arcs and are measured with angular values. The
angular value of each side is determined by the angle that
the side subtends on the earth. (See Figure 7-8.) The three
sides of the PZS triangle are the polar distance, the coaltitude,
and the colatitude.
(1) Polar distance. The side of the PZS triangle from
the celestial North Pole to the celestial body is called the
polar distance (See Figure 7-9.) The value of the polar
distance side is determined from the declination of the
celestial body observed. Declination may be defined as the
angular distance from a celestial body to the celestial equator.
When the celestial body lies north of the celestial equator,
the declination is plus. When the body lies south of the
celestial equator, the declination is minus. The polar distance
side is determined by algebraically subtracting the declination
of the celestial body from 1,600 mils.
Figure 7-7. PZS triangle Figure 7-9. Polar distance side of the PZS triangle
7-5
FM 6-2
7-6
FM 6-2
(3) Colatitude. The colatitude is the side of the triangle Figure 7-11. Colatitude side of the PZS triangle
extending from the celestial North Pole to the zenith. (See
Figure 7-11.) It is determined by subtracting the latitude of
the observer from 900 (1,600 roils) when the observer is in
the Northern Hemisphere. If the observer is in the Southern
Hemisphere (that is, from 0 to 900 south), the colatitude
is 90 (1,600 roils) plus the amount of south latitude.
7-7
FM 6-2
7-8
FM 6-2
7-9
FM 6-2
d. Since the mean solar day has been divided into 24 equal the observer is located. Therefore, LMT is clock time in
units of time, there are 24 time zones, each 15 wide, around the area unless the area is using nonstandard time such as
the earth. With the Greenwich meridian, 0 longitude, used daylight saving time.
as the central meridian of a time zone and the zero reference
for the computation of time zones, each 15 zone extends
7.5 east and west of the zone central meridian. Therefore, Figure 7-16. Time zone boundaries
the central meridian of each time zone, east or west of the
Greenwich meridian, is a multiple of 15. For example, the
time zone of the 90 meridian extends from 8230' to 9730'.
(See Figure 7-16.) Each 15 meridian, or multiple of, east
or west of the Greenwich meridian is called a standard time
meridian. Four of these meridians (75, 90, 105, and 120)
cross the United States. (See Figure 7-17.)
e. Standard time zone boundaries are often irregular,
especially over land areas. Standard time zone boundaries
follow the 7.5 rule to each side of the zone central meridian,
approximately, having been shifted wherever necessary to
coincide with geographical or political boundaries. Standard
time, a refinement of mean solar time, is further identified
by names and/or letter designations. For example, the central
standard time (CST) zone, time based on the 90 meridian,
is also the S standard time zone. (See Figure 7-18.) The
artillery surveyor uses the term focal mean time (LMT) in
referring to standard time. It refers to the standard time in
the referenced locale. Local mean time in artillery survey
operations means the standard time for the area in which
7-10
C1, FM 6-2
7-11
C1, FM 6-2
g. To convert local mean time to Greenwich mean time i. Determining the local hour angle (LHA) of the sun, a
when the observer is located in west longitude, divide value necessary for some astro formulas, requires several
the value of the central meridian of the time zone in steps in addition to those in the example above. When the
degrees of longitude by 15. This equals the time zone position of the apparent sun at the time of observation has
correction in hours. Add to the LMT the difference in been determined and related to the Greenwich meridian, the
time between the standard time zone of the observers time is referred to as Greenwich apparent time. By simply
position and GMT to determine the GMT of observation. adding 12 hours to, or subtracting it from, the GAT (the
(See Figure 7-19.) If the result is greater than 24 hours, result cannot exceed 24 hours), the surveyor determines the
drop the amount over 24 hours and add 1 day to obtain value of the Greenwich hour angle (GHA). The Greenwich
the Greenwich time and date. When the observer is hour angle is the amount of time that has elapsed since the
located in east longitude, subtract the time difference sun last crossed the Greenwich upper meridian. The next
from the LMT to determine the Greenwich mean time step is to convert both the observers longitude, extracted
of observation. If subtraction cannot be performed, add from a trig list or scaled from a map, and the Greenwich
24 hours to the LMT and drop 1 day to determine the hour angle to mils of arc. The arc distance (in mils) measured
Greenwich date of observation. from the Greenwich meridian to the observers meridian is
added to the GHA in roils if the observer is located in east
h. When the artillery surveyor makes observations on the longitude. It is subtracted from the GHA in mils if he is
sun, obviously he observes the apparent sun instead of the located in west longitude. The result is the local hour angle
mean sun on which his time is based. Consequently, the of the apparent sun expressed in mils of arc. The final step
observer must convert the Greenwich apparent time (GAT) is to determine angle t, the angle at the polar vertex of the
of observation to the GMT. The date of observation is used PZS triangle, Angle t is determined as discussed below,
as an argument to enter Table 2 of FM 6-300, and the value (1) If the local hour angle is greater than 3,200 mils,
of the equation of time for zero hours GMT (O h) is extracted angle t equals 6,400 mils minus LHA.
along with the daily change. The resultant equation of time
value for the date and time of observation is then added (2) If the local hour angle is less than 3,200 mils, angle
algebraically to the GMT of observation. t equals LHA.
Figure 7-19. Application of the time zone correction to local mean time to obtain Greenwich mean time
7-12
FM 6-2
7-7. SIDEREAL TIME instant is the hours, minutes, and seconds that have
elapsed since the vernal equinox last passed the meridian
a. The sidereal day is defined by the time interval of that point.
between successive passages of the vernal equinox over
the upper meridian of a given location. The sidereal year b. In general, it can be stated that observations on the
is the interval of time required for the earth to orbit the sun involve apparent solar time, whereas observations on
sun and return to its same position in relation to the the stars are based on sidereal time. The computations
stars. Since the sidereal day is 3 minutes 56 seconds using either apparent solar time or sidereal time are similar
shorter than the solar day, this differential in time results in that they do nothing more than fix the locations of
in the sidereal year being 1 day longer than the solar both the celestial body and the observer in relation to the
(tropical) year, or a total of 366.2422 sidereal days. Since Greenwich meridian. Once a precise relationship has been
the vernal equinox is used as a reference point to mark established, it is a simple matter to complete the deter-
the sidereal day, the sidereal time for any point at any mination of azimuth to the celestial body.
Section II
ASTRONOMIC OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES
The technique used to observe a celestial body depends on the azimuth determination method used
(altitude, arty astro observation, or Polaris tabular) and the type of celestial body being observed.
Using the proper techniques will ensure more accurate results.
7-8. PURPOSE OF ASTRONOMIC the triangle. In addition to the angle from a ground point
OBSERVATIONS to the celestial body, three elements must be determined.
These elements are as follows:
Astro observations can be used for, but are not limited to,
the following survey operations: Latitude for determining the side colatitude.
Determining or checking a starting azimuth for a Declination of the body for determining the side polar
conventional survey. distance.
Determining or checking the closing azimuth of a Attitude for determining the side coaltitude.
conventional survey.
Checking the azimuth of any line in a survey. Figure 7-20. Altitude method of solving the
PZS triangle
Providing orienting azimuths for cannons and associated
fire control equipment.
Determining azimuths for the declination of aiming
circles.
Providing orienting azimuths for radars and OPs.
7-13
FM 6-2
b. In the arty astro method (Figure 7-21), the azimuth c. In the Polaris tabular method, the azimuth to Polaris
angle is determined from two sides and the included angle. is tabulated in the Army ephemeris for every 3 minutes of
The sides are the polar distance and colatitude and must be local sidereal time (LST). The listed azimuth is corrected
determined as described in paragraph 7-4b. The angle at P for the observer's latitude and the date of observation. This
(Figure 7-21) is angle t. The value of the local hour angle method avoids lengthy PZS triangle solutions, but it can be
is computed by using the time of the observation and is used only in the Northern Hemisphere.
then used to compute angle t.
Note. The methods of determining azimuth are
Figure 7-21. Arty astro method of solving the discussed in detail and compared in Sections V, VI,
VII, and Vlll.
PZS triangle
7-14
C1, FM 6-2
Time of observation. (2) When the arty astro method is used, the sun should not
be observed within 1 hour local apparent time of the
Sun (accurate to the nearest 5 minutes). observers meridian. This is because there is no valid solution
Star (accurate to the nearest day). when angle t is less than 15 (1 hour).
c. In addition to the data in a above, the Polaris tabular (3) The selection of Polaris in the Northern Hemisphere or
method requires time accurate to the nearest minute. Alpha Acrux (Southern Cross Star) in the Southern
Hemisphere should be automatic. The altitude of Polaris
d. The arty astro method of observation requires the roughly coincides with the north latitude of the observer,
following data: Circumpolar stars are preferred to east-west stars.
UTM coordinates (casting and northing) map-spotted to (4) The arty astro method is the only acceptable method
within 150 meters. used with circumpolar stars other than Polaris.
Horizontal reading from the desired azimuth mark to the (5) For best results, stars should be below 800 mils in
celestial body. altitude.
Approximate azimuth to the desired azimuth mark. A 7-12. TEMPERATURE AND TIME
magnetic or map-spotted azimuth will suffice.
a. Temperature and a time correction should be obtained
Date of observation (manual input or BUCS time module). at the time of observation and checked after the final
Time of observation (manual input or BUCS time module). observation. The temperature may be obtained from
meteorological (met) stations, powder thermometers, or any
- Sun (accurate to 1 second). thermometer available. Time may be obtained from radio
- Star (accurate to 1 second). time signals (paragraph 7-32) or from the div arty SPCE.
Message center and commercial radio times are generally
- Polaris (accurate to 10 seconds). accurate enough for altitude observations.
e. Special requirements are discussed below. b. The BUCS contains an accurate quartz-crystal clock.
(1) For the sun to be suitable for use with the altitude Properly set, it will keep accurate time, within tenths of a
method, it should be within 530 mils of the observers prime second, until battery life expires or the memory is cleared.
vertical. To determine if it is, algebraically subtract the Any good watch with a sweep second hand is adequate for
declination of the sun on the local date from the latitude of timekeeping, if a correction is carried. For astro observation,
the observers station. The remainder is the angle from the a good watch is one that gains or loses a constant amount
prime vertical to the sun at noon, When he is observing the of time over a given period. The timekeeper should not try
stars, the observer will have little difficulty in selecting stars to set his watch to the exact time, but he must ensure that
that fall within the 530-mil requirement. The celestial bodies the second hand is in the vicinity of 12 when the minute
(sun or stars) should be observed between 175 mils and 800 hand is on a minute mark. (This will preclude a 30-second
mils in altitude. The sun should not be observed within 2 error.) The timekeeper will determine the amount his watch
hours local apparent time of the observers meridian, because is in error and note the correction, with the proper sign, in
there is no valid solution when the coaltitude side of the the remarks section of the recorded field notes.
triangle is less than 30 (2 hours).
7-13. POINTING TECHNIQUES
a. When the sun is being observed, special pointing
Note. The restriction has been placed on vertical techniques are required to resolve its center because of the
angles over 800 mils because of the error
introduced into the horizontal angle measurement size and brilliance of the sun. Since the angular diameter
when the instrument has not been leveled of the sun is about 9.5 mils of arc, an accurate pointing
perfectly. The error in the horizontal angle is equal cannot be made on the center of its disk without the use of
to the tangent of the altitude of the celestial body
multiplied by the error in Ieveling the plate of the special aids and/or techniques.
instrument. In the case of the T11 or T2 theodolite,
one division of error in the plate level bubble is b. One of the special pointing aids is the solar circle etched
equal to an error of about 0.1 mil if the altitude on the reticle of the observing instrument. Most theodolites
angle is 800 mils. If the altitude angle is 1,000 mils, have the solar circle etched on the reticle, (See Figure 3-4.)
the error in the horizontal angle will be about 0.2 No special pointing technique is required with these
mil. For this reason, special precautions must be
taken in Ieveling the instrument when a vertical instruments, but the sun must be centered in the circle. The
angle between 800 and 1,100 mils is required. sun will not always fit exactly into the circle. However, the
amount of overlap, or spacing, will not affect the final result.
7-15
C1, FM 6-2
c. Pointings on stars are made so the intersection of the Note. When using the arty astro method of
vertical and horizontal cross hairs bisects the star. observation, the instrument operator takes three
direct readings to the celestial body, then plunges the
7-14. TRACKING AND OBSERVING telescope, and sights back on the azimuth mark. A
second set should be taken with three readings in the
PROCEDURES reverse position as a check on the instrument and
a. The instrument operator sets up his instrument as operator. As a rejection criteria, the closing readings
on the azimuth mark should agree with the initial
prescribed in Chapter 3. With the instrument telescope in circle setting by the known spread of the instrument.
the direct position, he points the telescope at the azimuth In addition, the mean of the two sets of readings
mark. After the initial circle setting has been recorded in should agree with both sets within prescribed
accuracies.
the recorders book, the instrument operator and recorder
perform the steps discussed below. b. Three sets of observations must be made normally by
(1) The instrument operator places the sun filter on the the procedures in a above. However, a well-trained observer
telescope and turns the instrument until the sun is near the may use a modified form of these procedures. A modified
center of the solar circle. He announces TRACKING. form would be to take three direct observations and then
three reverse observations before closing the angles on the
CAUTION azimuth mark. Care must be taken in recording the
The sun must never be viewed through the telescope observations.
without a sun filter. The filter should be inspected before c. Pointings on the stars are made in the same manner as
use to ensure that the coated surface is free from pointings on the sun except that at the instant TIP is
scratches or other defects. Serious eye damage will announced the cross hairs should bisect the star.
result if proper precautions are not taken.
Note. When the observer is observing the stars, it is
advantageous for him to have the telescope blacked
Note. If the sun filter has been damaged or lost, a out until the star is identified. When the star has been
solar observation may be completed by use of the identified, the telescope light rheostat is turned up so
card method. The image of the sun is projected onto that as many stars as possible, other than the desired
a card held 3 to 6 inches behind the eyepiece, and one, will be obliterated by the light in the telescope.
the telescope is focused so that the cross hairs are
clearly defined.
7-15. RECORDING AND MEANING DATA
a. The format for recording field data and determining the
(2) on the instrument operators announcement of
mean angles is generally the same as that for other angle
TRACKING, the recorder begins keeping time without measurements except for the large spread between the direct
lifting his eyes from the watch. At the instrument operators and reverse readings and that the times of observation are
announcement of TIP, the recorder notes the exact recorded. The mean time of observation is determined from
uncorrected time and records it in the field notebook. If the the times recorded for the direct and reverse pointing. The
BUCS is being used as a time piece, the recorder presses END same format is used for observations with the T16 and T2
LINE at the announcement of TIP. If the forward entry device, theodolites. Sun observations are recorded in the same manner
meteorological/survey (FED MSR) is being used, the use of as star observations, Figures 4-12, 4-13, 4-15, and 4-20 show
the time module is also an option. how data are recorded in a field notebook for astro
(3) The instrument operator reads the horizontal circle observations.
reading and announces it to the recorder, levels the split
bubble, and announces the vertical circle reading. b. Extreme care must be taken in meaning time. Time is
recorded in three units-hours, minutes, and seconds. If using
a watch to record time, record seconds first, followed by
Note. Vertical angles are not measured for the arty
astro or Polaris tabular methods. minutes and hours. Time should be meaned by using the
method described in the following example.
(4) The instrument operator then plunges the telescope
to the reverse position, again sights on the sun, and announces
TRACKING. The steps in (2) and (3) above are then
repeated. The observer then sights on the azimuth mark and
reads the horizontal circle reading. The recorder records the
reading and determines the mean data. This completes one set
of observations.
7-16
FM 6-2
7-17
FM 6-2
Section Ill
THE ARMY EPHEMERIS
The Army ephemeris (FM 6-300) is a condensation of data from the American Ephemeris and
Nautical Almanac. Units must request FM 6-300 from the AG Publications Center or be on pinpoint
distribution. It is issued to artillery units equipped to perform astro observations. Data in the tables
of FM 6-300 are required in computing direction from astro observations. All data extracted from
the ephemeris tables will be expressed to the accuracy of the ephemeris. The use of the ephemeris
tables is explained in this section. Sample problems are based on data in the ephemeris for 1993
through 1997. Only the tables used by the artillery surveyor are explained herein.
7-18
FM 6-2
the magnitude of each star. This table is used primarily to hours GMT on the 0, 10th, 20th, and 30th days of each
provide the star numbers to determine data on the stars from month (10-day) intervals). To determine the declination or
Table 10. The constellation and magnitude aid in identifying the right ascension of Polaris for a given day, interpolate
the star. For example, find the star Enif in the list. The table between the given values. Data for the 31st day of the month
shows that Enif is in the constellation Pegasus, is star number are shown as the0 day of the following month.
70, and has a magnitude of 2.5.
7-19
FM 6-2
for b0 and b1) and Greenwich date. From the 1st to the
15th day of the month, use the Greenwich month of
observation. From the 16th to the last day of the month,
use the month after the Greenwich month of observation.
Section IV
STAR SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION
There are important advantages to using stars rather than the sun as sources of astro azimuth. Since
they appear as pinpoints of light in instrument telescopes, stars are easier to track than the sun.
At least one of the 73 stars tabulated in the Army ephemeris can usually be found in a satisfactory
position for observation regardless of the time of night or the observer's latitude. The North Star
(Polaris) should always be used when the geographical location and tactical situation permit. Polaris
is the most desirable source of astro azimuth because it is easily identified and bcause its slow
apparent motion makes it easy to track. The Polaris tabular method yields reliable azimuths in
considerably less time than any other method. In the low northern latitudes and the Southern
Hemisphere, however, east-west (noncircumpolar) stars must be used for night astro azimuth
determination. Local weather conditions obscuring Polaris may also make observation of east-west
stars necessary. Since so many stars are available for observation, the artillery surveyor must be
able to select and identify those most suitable for observation. The star finder and identifier is
used to identify them.
7-23. STAR FINDER AND IDENTIFIER of the vernal equinox or the local sidereal time. On each
template is a series of concentric ellipses. Around the outer
The star tinder and identifier (Figure 7-23) is a device used edge of these ellipses are two sets of numbers from 0 to
to determine the approximate (2) azimuth and altitude of 360. The inner set of numbers starts at the top of the template
a given star. This device is issued as a component of the for north latitude and increases in a clockwise direction.
survey set, artillery fire control, fourth-order. The star finder The outer set of numbers starts at the bottom of the template
and identifier consists of a base, 10 templates, and a carrying for south latitude and increases in a clockwise direction
case. The base is reversible with stars of the Northern around the ellipses. In the Northern Hemisphere, the inner
Hemisphere on one side and stars of the Southern Hemisphere figures are used; in the Southern Hemisphere, the outer figures
on the other. There is one template for each 10 of latitude are used. The inner set of figures represents the azimuth
from 5 to 85 (5, 15, 25, 35, and so forth). (The tenth from the celestial North Pole to the line that the figures
template, designed for plotting the sun and planets, is not identify. The outer set of figures represents the same thing
used in artillery survey). Each template is reversible with except that the azimuth is from the celestial South Pole to
one side for north latitude and the other side for south latitude. the line. The series of concentric ellipses represents altitudes
The template constructed for the latitude nearest the latitude above the horizon. The template has the horizon on its
of the observer should be used. The base of the star finder circumference, the zenith as its center, and a measure of
in Figure 7-23 shows the stars visible in the Northern azimuth around the edge. The 0 to 180 line represents the
Hemisphere. The center of the device represents the celestial observer's meridian. Before the star finder can be oriented,
North Pole. The edge of the base is a circle graduated in the value of the local sidereal time must be determined. The
degrees and half degrees, representing the local hour angle pointer of the template is then placed over the appropriate
7-20
FM 6-2
7-21
FM 6-2
7-22
FM 6-2
Figure 7-25. Motion of a star viewed through a Figure 7-26. World star chart
surveying instrumentlow star rate
d. The following method can be used to orient the world (3) Hold the world star chart with the word North on
star chart in the Northern Hemisphere. top. Locate the graduation at the top the chart that represents
the LST. Face south, and align the LST graduation just below
(1) Determine the LST of observation from Figure 7-27. the celestial equator along the observers meridian. The world
(a) Enter the table with the closest date of observation. star chart is now oriented with the stars in the sky.
(b) From the date, move to the right and stop in the e. The following method can be used to orient the world
column of the closest hour of observation. star chart in the Southern Hemisphere.
(c) Extract the LST from the hour column. (1) Determine the LST from Figure 7-27 by using the
same procedures in subparagraph d.
(2) Locate the celestial equator.
(2) Locate the celestial equator. This is done the same
(a) Subtract the observers latitude from 90. The result as in the Northern Hemisphere except the observer must
is the distance above the horizon to the celestial equator. face north and count up from the horizon to locate the celestial
(b) Facesouth, and determine the position of the celestial equator.
equator. Remember, at arms length, a finger width is 2, 1 hand (3) Hold the world star chart with the wo South at
width is 10, and 1 hand span is 20. the top. Locate the graduation at the top of the chart that
represents the LST. Face north, and align the LST graduation
Figure 7-27. Local sidereal time just below the celestial equator along the observers meridian.
f. To aid the observer, highlight the 30 0N and W S lines
EVENING MORNING on the star chart. Also highlight the 0 0 line, which is the
HOURS MIDNIGHT HOURS celestial equator. The strip of sky as outlined by the 30 0N
DATE 2000 2400 0400 and 300S lines will contain the brightest stars (seen at any
one time). Keep in mind that the strip of sky being looked
JAN 5 3 7 11
at is about 6 hours either side of the LST.
20 4 8 12
FEB 4 5 9 13 7-27. LOCATING STARS
20 6 10 14
The easiest way to identify stars and fix their locations in
MAR 7 7 11 15 relation to each other is to learn something about
22 8 12 16 constellations. Since stars are fixed in definite points in the
APR 7 9 13 17 sky with relation to each other, the relative position of stars
22 10 14 18 has remained about the same for many centuries. In certain
groups of stars, primitive stargazers saw the shapes of
MAY 7 11 15 19 creatures or heroes of their folklore. Names were applied
22 12 16 20 to the shapes of these various groups of stare. Later, people
JUN 7 13 17 21 saw in the stars the shapes of household implements with
22 14 18 22 which they worked. The development of the names of stars
began early in the history of man and finally resulted in a
JUL 7 15 19 23 catalog of the visible stars. The named shapes became
22 16 20 0 constellations, and the individual stars were identified by
AUG 7 17 21 1 name with the constellation of which they were a part. From
22 18 22 2 this primitive development the constellations were given
Latin names. Other groups of stars were assigned names of
SEP 7 19 23 3 gods and goddesses and creatures of land and sea that figured
21 20 0 4 in Roman and Greek mythology. Much later in history, our
OCT 6 21 1 5 forefather saw in the many constellations objects common
21 22 2 6 to their mode of living. Thus, the Big Bear came to be
known as the Big Dipper. To the English, this same
NOV 6 23 3 7 constellation is the Plough. Some of the more familiar starts
21 0 4 8 and constellations are described below.
DEC 6 1 5 9
a. The familiar constellation called the Big Dipper is only
21 2 6 10 part of the constellation Ursa Major. (See Figure 7-28.) The
seven stars of the dipper are easy to find on almost any c. Polaris, the polestar, is the alpha star in the constellation
clear night. The two outer stars of the bowl point toward Ursa Minor (Figure 7-30), commonly called the Little Dipper.
the North Star, Polaris, which is about 30 away. The distance On a clear night, the Little Dipper is easily seen. The handle
between the pointers is about 5. Both measurements are of the dipper has a reverse curve, and Polaris is the last star
very helpful when the star finder and identifier is being in the handle.
used.
Figure 7-30. Ursa Minor
Figure 7-28. Ursa Major
b. Cassiopeia (Figure 7-29), sometimes called the Lady in d. The first prominent constellation after the vernal equinox
the Chair, the Running M, or the Lazy W, is a prominent has risen in the east is Taurus, the Bull. (See Figure 7-31.)
northern constellation. It is found directly across the celestial On the forehead of Taurus is a red star of the first magnitude,
North Pole, opposite the Big Dipper. When the Big Dipper Aldebaran. It is a royal star, one of the four stars most
is below the horizon, Polaris can be found by drawing a commonly used by navigators. On the upper foreleg of Taurus
line from the star Ruchbah bisecting the angle formed by is the Plaeiades. This aggregation is a tight cluster of stars,
the shallow side in Cassiopeia. The bisecting line points which is also called the Seven Sisters.
almost through Polaris.
Figure 7-31. Taurus
Figure 7-29. Cassiopeia
7-25
FM 6-2
e. Chasing these seven stare and the bull is Orion, the Hunter. g. About 2 hours behind Gemini and Canis Minor is Leo,
(See Figure 7-32.) There are two very bright stars in Orion. the Lion. (See Figure 7-34.) The head and forequarter of
The hunters right shoulder is Betegeuse Orionis); his Leo are sometimes known as the Sickle. The body and tail
left knee is Rigel Orionis). Close on the heels of Orion extend off to the east. The heart of Leo is Regulus ( Leonis).
are his two dogs, Canis Major and Canis Minor. In the big Regulus is another of the four royal stare. It is brilliant
dog is the brightest star in the sky, Sirius. It is a brilliant white, whereas the others are red.
blue-white star. Slightly behind Canis Major is the smaller
dog in which Procyon is found. Figure 7-34. Leo
7-26
FM 6-2
i. One of the most easily recognized constellations is k. Pegasus (Figure 7-38), which includes the Great
Scorpio. (See Figure 7-36.) However, it is so far south Square, straddles the hour circle of the vernal equinox.
that in northern latitudes it is visible during evening hours This is the constellation of the flying horse, a very
only through July and August. Antares ( Scorpii) is prominent skymark.
another of the four royal stars.
Figure 7-38. Pegasus
Figure 7-36. Scorpio
7-27
FM 6-2
7-28
FM 6-2
7-29
FM 6-2
7-30
FM 6-2
7-31
FM 6-2
Section V
ALTITUDE METHOD
The altitude method can be used to determine azimuth from the sun or from the stars. This method
requires the solution of the astronomic (PZS) triangle (Figure 7-20) by using, as determined data,
the three sides of the triangle (polar distance, colatitude, and coalititude). In the altitude method,
the time is required only to determine the declination of the body. When the sun is observed, the
time should be accurate within 5 minutes. For stars, only the date is required. Since time is not
critical in the altitude method of observation, this method is used most frequently by artillery
surveyors.
7-32
FM 6-2
7-33
FM 6-2
7-34
FM 6-2
7-35
FM 6-2
7-36
FM 6-2
7-37
FM 6-2
7-38
FM 6-2
Section VI
ARTY ASTRO OBSERVATION METHOD (SUN)
In the arty astro method of determining azimuth, two sides of the PZS triangle (Figure 7-21),
the polar distance and colatitude, and one angle are used to solve for the azimuth angle. This
computation is based on the time of the observation. The problem of determining azimuth
consists of taking a horizontal reading at the observers station between the mark and sun,
the azimuth of which can be computed. The simple operation of subtracting this horizontal
angle from the computed azimuth of the sun gives the desired azimuth to the mark.
7-39
FM 6-2
7-40
FM 6-2
7-41
FM 6-2
7-42
FM 6-2
7-43
FM 6-2
Section Vll
ARTY ASTRO METHOD (STAR)
The arty astro method can be used with observations on Polaris or on east-west stars. Used with
Polaris, this method yields the most accumte azimuths. When the arty astro method is used with
east-west stars, the requirement for accurate time is a disadvantage, but the method can be used
when no stars meet the position requirements for the altitude method. Computation of arty astro
star is the same as the computations for arty astro sun. The only differences are steps 9 and 9a of
the form. Step 9 will be amwered N (no). Step 9a asks for the star number which can be found
on the reverse of the computation form.
7-37. POSITION OF STARS When Polaris is moving fmm eastern to weatem elongadou
its altitude is greater than the latitude of the observer. When
The star chart is used for selecting east-west stars for arty Polaxis is moving tlom weatem to eastern elongatio~ its
astro observations. Polaris should be observed anytime it is alitude is less than the latitude of the obsewer.
visible. Best results are obtained when it is above 175 mils
in altitude to minimize the effects of refraction. c When the telescqe is diwted at Polaris, the observer
will see two other stars nearby that are not visible to the
7-38. OBSERVATION AND naked eye. However, Polaris will be the only star visible
when the cross hairs are lighted.
IDENTIFICATION OF POIARIS
a Polaxis appeam to move in a small, elliptical,
Figure 7-47. Orbit of Polaris
counterclockwise orbit about the celestial North Pole.
Because Polaris stays so close to the celestial North Pole,
it is visible throughout the night in most of the Northern
Hemisphem. When the Polaris local hour angle is 0 or 12
hours, the star is said to be in its upper or lower culmination,
respectively. (See Figure 7-47.) When the Polaris local hour
angle is 6 or 18 hours, the star is said to be in its western
or eastern elongation, respectively. The small orbit of Polaris
results in a very slow apparent motion, so the star can be
observed at any point in its orbit. The least chance of error
in tracking, however, will occur when the star is in elongation.
b. To help identify Polaris, set the latitude of the observers
position as a vertical angle on the observing instrument and
point the telescope north. The line of sight will be near the
celestial North Pole, and since Polaris is very near the pole,
the star should appear in the field of view. If the star is in
elongation, its altitude will equal the obsewers latitude.
Section Vlll
POLARIS TABULAR METHOD
The computational methods discussed in Sections V, VI, and VII are satisfactory for both fourth-order
and fifth-order work. The Polaris tabular method of computation will achieve reliable fourth- and
fifth-order accuracies. The Polaris tabular method uses the azimuths to Polaris that are tabulated
in FM 6-300, Table 12. These azimuths are corrected by factors related to the observers latitude
and the date and time of observation.
7-44
FM 6-2
7-39. COMPUTATION OF AZIMUTH administrative data you will find notes that refer to the
operation of the BUCS in this program. Under the notes on
DA Form 5598-R (Computation of Astronomic Azimuth the left side of the form, you wilt find specific instructions
by Polaris Tabular Method (BUCS)) (Figure 7-48) is used on the use of this form. To the right of the instructions,
to compute astronomic azimuth by the Polaris tabular you will find the data remd where all known, field, and
method with a BUCS. (A reproducible copy of this form computed data are recorded. Blocks that are marked with a
is included at the back of this book.) bold arrow are where field data are entered. One complete
obsewation can be remrded and computed on each form
7-40. DA FORM 5598-R (three sets).
7-45
FM 6-2
7-46
FM 6-2
7-47
FM 6-2
Section IX
SIMULTANEOUS OBSERVATIONS
7-41. PROCEDURES All observers then plunge their telescopes and repeat the
FOR SIMULTANEOUS tracking procedure.
OBSERVATIONS
a. Flank stations are established at points where azimuth is Figure 7-49. Simuitaneous observations
required. A master station is established at a point from
which the grid azimuth to an azimuth mark is known or
has been computed. (See Figure 7-49.) (An assumed azimuth
may be used.) Both the flank and master stations should be
points that are easily identified on a map and provide the
best possible communications.
7-48
FM 6-2
7-49
FM 6-2
7-50
FM 6-2
7-51
FM 6-2
(2) Requirements for fifth-order azimuth (+0.3 mil) areas accuracy of the computation depends on which instrument
follows: is used to perform the observations (M2A2 aiming circle
An azimuth of fifth-order or better and a T16 or 2.0 mils or T16 theodolite 0.3 mils).
T2 theodolite at the master station. b. The fieldwork for this method is the same as the fieldwork
T16 at the flank station. for a flank station simultaneous observation. The hasty astro
program is the master station for the observation. A T2 does
(3) Requirements for 1:500 azimuth (0.5 mil) are as not have a nonrecording motion; therefore, it will not be
follows:
used in conjunction with this method.
An azimuth of fifth-order or better and a T16
c. Follow the field procedures below when using a T16
theodolite at the master station.
and the hasty astro program. Check angles must compare
An aiming circle at the flank station. within 0.3 mil.(Figure 7-52 shows a hasty astro field sketch.)
(4) Specifications arc the same as for an astro observation (1) Emplace the T16 over the orienting station.
(Appendix B).
(5) Station displacement (cumature) corrections must be (2) Place 0000.0 mils on the horizontal scale. Lock the
applied (paragraphs 7-41c and d). scale with the horizontal clamp.
b. When a T16 theodolite is used at a flank station and a (3) Track the celestial body (with scale lccked), and
T2 theodolite is used at the master station and the conditions announce TRACKING when the instrument is oriented on
of a above are met, the maximum accuracy that can be the sun or selected survey star. Announce TIP when the
realized will be fifth-order azimuth or 0.3 mil. If the master center of the reticle is exactly aligned on the sun or star.
station instrument is a T16 theodolite and the flank station (4) At the announcement of TIP when using the internal
instrument is an aiming circle, the maximum accuracy to timer, press the END LINE key on the BUCS. If the internal
be expected is 0.5 mil. timer is not being used, manually enter the date and time
of tip into the BUCS.
Note. Simultaneous observations will yield the same
accuracy as astro azimuths taken with the (5) When the grid azimuth to the celestial body at the
instructions used to a maximum D value of time of tip is displayed, record this as the azimuth to the
approximately 26,000 meters. Obseservations may be EOL.
conducted over much Ionger distances if a 1-roll or
2-roll accuracy is acceptable. (6) Depress the telescope, and emplace the EOL.
(7) Unlock the scales, and repeat steps 3 and 4. The
BUCS will display the check angle. timpme the check angle
7-43. HASTY ASTRO OBSERVATION from the BUCS to the check angle on the instrument. If the
a. This method enables battalion surveyoxs and firing battery difference is 2.0mils for the aiming circle and 0.3 mil
personnel to compute a grid azimuth and a check angle for the T16 theodolite, the azimuth to the EOL is good; if
from observations of the sun or a selected survey star. The not, check all data and/or reobserve.
7-52
FM 6-2
7-53
FM 6-2
7-54
FM 6-2
7-55
FM 6-2
7-56
FM 6-2
Section X
SELECTION OF METHODS OF OBSERVATION
The method selected for observation depends upon the observer's location, celestial bodies available,
and the accuracy required. During daylight hours, only the sun is available. The observer's location
will dictate if the altitude method or the arty astro method must be used. At night, the determining
factors will be the availability and locations of the stars.
7-44. FIFTH-ORDER AZIMUTHS not so critical as it is when used with an east-west body.
The Polaris tabular method will yield reliable fourth-order
a. Generally, speed of computation is the most important azimuths. When Polaris cannot be seen, observe an east-west
consideration in choosing a method for fifth-order astro star with the arty astro method if accurate time is available.
azimuth determination. The techniques covered in Sections If time is unreliable, use the altitude method of observation.
V, VI, VII, and VIII are all satisfactory for fifth-order azimuth
determination. c. In the daytime, use the arty astro method with the sun
if accurate time is available; if not, use the altitude method.
b. At night, in the Northern Hemisphere, Polaris should
always be used if it is observable, because it is easy to
identify and easy to track. When observing Polaris, use
either the arty astro method or the Polaris tabular method. 7-46. CHOICE OF CELESTIAL BODY
If Polaris is not visible but an east-west star is, either the During daylight hours, the sun is the only celestial body
altitude method or the arty astro method can be used. If that can be readily observed. At night, Polaris is one of
the star has a high star rate and accurate time is available, the most easily identified stars in the Northern Hemisphere.
use the arty astro method. If the star has a low rate, the It is ideal for observation because of its slow movement.
altitude method generally is preferable because it requires However, Polaris cannot be seen in many parts of the Northern
less accurate time than does the arty astro method. If time Hemisphere because of local weather conditions, and it cannot
is not critical and only east-west stars are observable, observe be used in areas close to the equator and in the Southern
a star in the east and one in the west. Hemisphere. Therefore, it is inadvisable to depend solely
on this star for night observations. Methods of identification
c. In the daytime, use the sun-altitude method if the sun is and approximate locations of the stars on the celestial sphere
in the proper position, since accurate time is not so important in relation to the observers position are presented in Section
as it is with the arty astro method. If the sun is not in the IV. All artillery surveyors must be familiar with the more
proper position to use the altitude method, use the arty astro common stars and their relative positions in the sky.
method.
7-57
FM 8-2
7-48. SOLUTION OF THE PZS TRIANGLE manner as in the Northern Hemisphere. However, other
TO ESTABLISH AZIMUTH techniques must be used in determining the polar distance
(SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE) and true azimuth.
The Army must be prepared to undertake field operations b. The polar distance is determined by algebraically adding
at any location on the earth. Hence, the artillery surveyor the declination of the celestial body to 90 (1,600 mils) with
must be able to function effectively at any and all locations, due regard for the algebraic sign of the declination. In the
to include those in the Southern Hemisphere. Southern Hemisphere, the true azimuth to the celestial body
is determined by adding the azimuth angle to or subtracting
a. Locations within the Southern Hemisphere present new it from 3,200 mils. If the celestial body is west of the
problems to an observer accustomed to working the PZS observer, the azimuth angle is added to 3,200 mils; if the
triangle in the Northern Hemisphere. The coaltitude body is east of the observer, the azimuth angle is subtracted
colatitude, and local hour angle are computed in the same from 3,200 mils. (See Figure 7-55.)
7-58
FM 6-2
Figure 7-55. Comparison of the PZS triangle in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere
7-59
FM 8-2
CHAPTER 8
GYROSCOPIC AZIMUTH
This chapter discusses the skills needed to operate the azimuth gyro
(SIAGL [Lear]). It also discusses the conversion of the azimuth determined
by gyroscope (true azimuth) to grid azimuth.
Section I
SIAGL (LEAR)
This section is a guide for survey personnel to develop the skills needed to operate the azimuth
gyro. The azimuth gyro available for use is the SIAGL (Lear). The SIAGL is a portable gyrocompass
used to determine a true north direction at any selected station, latitude permitting. The SIAGL
can determine direction without lengthy computations or existing control in almost any weather
condition. Accuracy of the SIAGL is comparable to that of astro observation. All persons involved
in FA survey operations must understand the functions of this instrument and be able to determine
a direction with it.
8-1
FM 6-2
8-2
FM 6-2
CAUTION
Avoid unnecessary exposure of the equipment to
dust, soil, or other abrasive materials.
8-3
FM 6-2
8-4. FINAL SETUP PROCEDURES the tripod circular level. Repeat the procedure for each of
the other two tripod legs.
With the equipment unpacked and the tripod extended (Figure
8-3), complete setup procedures as discussed below. b. To center the unit over a fixed reference point, extend
the plumb pointer located on the bottom of the GRU housing.
Place the reference unit on the ground so the pointer is near
a. Course-level the instrument by releasing one of the tripod the fixed point. Press the leg spades into the ground. Check
leg clamps. Adjust the leg to obtain a level indication on the plumb pointer from two positions 1,600 mils apart.
8-4
FM 6-2
8-5
FM 6-2
8-6
FM 6-2
(2) Add the direct and reverse readings. that the theodolite rotates in a clockwise direction and the
TEST METER pointer is in the green band of the meter
(3) Divide the sum obtained in (2) above by two to obtain scale.
the mean mirror reading.
f. Place the TEST SELECT switch to the SERVO CCW
o. If the mirror reading determined in n above is within position. When looking down on the reference unit, verify
0.04 mil of the value displayed on the mirror azimuth plate that the theodolite rotates in a counterclockwise direction
just below the reference mirror window, make no adjustment. and that the TEST METER pointer is in the green band of
If the error is greater than 0.04 mil, use the adjustment the meter scale.
procedures below.
g. Place the TEST SELECT switch to either SERVO CW
(1) Subtract the last four digits of the reverse reading from or SERVO CCW until the yellow index mark is in the center
the last four digits of the direct reading. (Disregard the first of the yellow servo operating band.
two digits.)
(2) Divide this value by two to determine the collimation h. Place the TEST SELECT switch to BRAKE. Verify
error. that the BRAKE ON indicator lights and the TEST METER
pointer is in the green band.
(3) Algebraically add the collimation error to the value on
the mirror azimuth plate. i. Place the TEST SELECT switch to GYRO. Verify that
(4) With the telescope in the direct position, center the the TEST METER pointer centers in the yellow area of the
image (green cross) accurately in the reticle pattern as in a test meter scale (0).
through f above. Using the micrometer, set the value
determined in (3) above on the horizontal and vernier scales.
Using the horizontal circle adjusting tool, center the index 8-7. OPERATION OF THE
between the nearest double line. See Figure 8-1 for location INSTRUMENTS
of the horizontal circle setting control.
Note. For daytime operation, the PANEL ILLUM
(5) Take an additional direct and reverse reading. control must be in the DAY position and the theodolite
Compare these with the mirror azimuth plate, and repeat illumination must be at least two-thirds full illumination.
adjustment until the desired reading is obtained.
a. Place the ECU MODE SELECT switch to BIAS (audible
8-6. SELF-TEST click).
Place the telescope in the direct position. Perform the self-test b. Rotate the CAGE-UNCAGE knob on the GRU clockwise
as discussed below. until the UNCAGED indicator lights (audible click). If the
GRU will not uncage, check the fine level of the instrument.
a. With the MODE SELECT switch set to SELF TEST and
the PWR ON indicator lit, place the TEST SELECT switch c. Observe the TEST METER pointer swing left and right
to SOURCE VOLTAGE. at an approximate rate of one reversal every 5 seconds. When
the pointer comes to a stop, verify that it is at 0. If necessary,
b. Press the PRESS TO TEST switch. Verify that the TEST unlock the outer ring on the BIAS control by turning it
METER pointer falls between 22 and 33 volts DC on the counterclockwise, and turn the inner control knob in the
meter scale. appropriate direction to move the needle to 0. When the
pointer is at 0, turn the outer ring clockwise to lock the
Note. You must press the PRESS TO TEST switch BIAS control in position.
for each of the test positions.
d. Rotate the CAGE-UNCAGE knob on the GRU
c. Place the TEST SELECT switch to REG AC. Verify counterclockwise until the UNCAGED indicator goes out
that the TEST METER pointer is in the green band of the (audible click).
meter scale.
e. Place the MODE SELECT switch to GC (gyrocompass).
d. Repeat step c with the TEST SELECT switch in the Verify that the GYRO SYNC indicator lights within 2
REG DC and BIAS positions. minutes.
e. Place the TEST SELECT switch to the SERVO CW f. Rotate the CAGE-UNCAGE knob clockwise until the
position. When looking down on the reference unit, verify UNCAGED indicator lights.
8-7
FM 8-2
8-8
FM 6-2
8-10. MAINTENANCE
The SIAGL will operate in all climatic categories. However,
because of known design limitations of theodolites, use of
the procedures below will permit successful operation.
a. Avoid subjecting the instrument to extreme sudden
changes in temperature.
b. Allow the instrument to stabilize at the operating
temperature.
c. Select operating sites that can shield or protect the
instrument from the full effects of the extreme environment.
Make use of available tents or other shelters.
d. At the end of a mission, return the instrument to its
transport case. Do not allow the instrument to be exposed
in conditions where it cannot be used.
e. Remove moisture and fogging of the optics by storing
the instrument in a warm, dry place. (Locally fabricated
hot boxes and a desiccant can be used.)
f. Adhere to the standard operation, transportation,
maintenance, and storage procedures prescribed for the
various climatic regions.
g. During operations in winds exceeding 20 miles per hour,
use a wind shelter.
h. Ensure that the equipment is clean and dry before storage.
8-9
FM 6-2
Section II
CONVERSION OF GYROSCOPIC AZIMUTH TO GRID
AZIMUTH
The azimuth determined by gyroscope is a true azimuth. For use in artillery survey, this azimuth
must be converted to grid azimuth. The difference between true azimuth and grid azimuth (Figure
8-7) is called grid convergence.
Figure 8-7. Relation of true azimuth to grid azimuth Figure 8-8. Convergence
8-10
FM 6-2
STEP INSTRUCTION
1 There is no prompt. The procedure in the PROCEDURE column is CALL PROGRAM 9. Enter the survey module,
and call Program 9.
2 The display prompts GRID CONVERGENCE. There is no procedure. Press the END LINE key
3 The display prompts LAT(-:S) 0.0000000. The procedure is ENTER LATITUDE OF STATION. Enter the value of
the latitude. If the latitude is in the Southern Hemisphere, enter it as a negative. Enter the value in the format
DD.MMSS. Record the latitude In the LATITUDE block in the top DATA RECORD section.
4 The display prompts LG(-:W) 0.0000000. The procedure is ENTER LONGITUDE OF STATON. Enter the value of
the longitude. If the observer is in the Western Hemisphere, enter the value as a negative. Enter the value in the
format DD.MMSS. Record the longitude in the LONGITUDE: block in the top DATA RECORD section.
5 The display prompts TRUE AZ: 0.000. The procedure is ENTER TRUE AZIMUTH. Enter the azimuth that is to be
converted to a grid azimuth. Record the azimuth in the TRUE AZIMUTH (MILS): block in the top DATA RECORD
section.
6 The display prompts GRID ZONE: 00. The procedure is ENTER GRID ZONE NUMBER. Enter the grid zone. This
information can be taken from a map of the area. Record the grid zone In the GRID ZONE: block in the top DATA
RECORD section
7 The display prompts CONVG: 0.000. The procedure is RECORD CONVERGENCE. This is the difference
between true and grid azimuth for the location. Record It in the CONVERGENCE (MILS): block in the top DATA
RECORD section.
8 The display prompts GRID AZ: 0.000. The procedure is RECORD GRID AZIMUTH. This is the value of the true
azimuth with the amount of the grid convergence applied. Record it In the GRID AZIMUTH (MILS): block in the top
DATA RECORD section.
9 The display prompts ANOTHER CVG (Y/N): The procedure is ENTER Y OR N. If this step is answered Y (yes), the
program returns to step 2. If this step is answered N (no), the program goes on to step 10.
10 The display prompts END OF MSN (Y/N). The procedure is ENTER Y OR N. If this step is answered N, the
program returns to step 9. If this step is answered Y, the program will return to SURVEY PGM MENU REV1.
8-11
FM 6-2
8-12
C1, FM 6-2
*Section Ill
North-Seeking Gyroscope
The north-seeking gyroscope (NSG) is a portable gyro compass that determines both true and grid
azimuth with an accuracy of 0.2 mil probable error (PE). (See Figure 8-10 on page 8-14.) The
FA surveyor can use the NSG to determine an azimuth, whenever required, that is within artillery
orientation specifications. The NSG does not require any precise orientation or computations.
Detailed information on the operation and maintenance of the NSG and additional equipment can
be found in TM 5-6675-333-10 (TO 33D7-9-53-1).
8-13. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION It has alphanumerical screens for data entry and display of
azimuth and system status. The theodolite horizontal scale
The NSG is a precise survey instrument that finds the direction can be aligned with respect to the gyro mirror that is viewed
of geodetic north and determines azimuths relative to geodetic through the autocollimation attachment. Power is applied
north (true north) or grid north. Trained personnel can to the NSG via the back of the gyro compass.
determine a grid azimuth (after setup) in about 4 minutes.
During the setup, there is a requirement to enter UTM b. Power Supply.
coordinates accurate to the nearest 200 meters casting and
(1) The SEB42-1 battery is a rechargeable 24-volt
1,000 meters northing. NICAD cell battery that is capable of about 35 measurements
8-14. COMPONENTS at 68 F. Use of lighting accessories will decrease battery
life. The battery clamps to the rear of the gyro compass
The NSG is housed in three watertight transport cases. Upon and is protected from discharging by a fuse.
receipt of equipment, inspect each component, including the
transport cases, for completeness and damage in accordance (2) The SLG6-1 battery charger is capable of charging
with (IAW) TM 5-6675-333-10. The instrument can be two SEB42- 1 batteries at the same time, using either AC
transported by vehicle, hand carried by using the carrying or DC. Depending on cell voltage and temperature, the
handles, or backpacked by using the shoulder straps located charger automatically provides the appropriate current. The
in each case. charger will accept 10 to 33 v DC or 115 to 230 v AC.
At temperatures between 41F to 122F, it takes less than
a. SKK3-1 Gyro Compass. The gyro compass is a single 7 hours to completely charge a dead battery, whereas at
box unit that is designed to fit into the gyro tripod. The 14 F, it may take up to 14 hours.
heart of the gyro compass is a gyro motor suspended on a
thin metal tape. Internally the gyro makes two coarse (3) The SEV22-1 power adapter enables the gyro
measurements and one (or two) fine measurements near north compass to be powered directly from vehicle power (9 v to
to determine an azimuth. The keyboard is attached to the 33 v). The adapter is protected with a fuse and is connected
gyro compass, and it is the operators link to the gyrocompass. to the rear of the gyro compass as is the battery.
8-13
C1, FM 6-2
8-14
C1, FM 6-2
c. T16SK-1 Theodolite. The theodolite is a modified wants to enter location in geographic coordinates, he selects
version of the current T16-84 (upright image). One LC (latitude and meridian correction) from the Control Menu.
distinction is the autocollimation box attached to the side, (2) Measurement mode. The measurement mode most
This is used to align the theodolite with the gyro. The commonly used will be 1U. The advantage in using the
scales are read the same as the T 16-84 scales. The T16SK- 1 1U mode is that the operator does not have to decide whether
comes with accessories such as electric lighting for night or not to calibrate and does not have to know the
operations, target rod (barber pole with tricolor lights), zero-calibration procedure.
eyepiece filter (sun filter), sun shade, adjustment tools, and
rain and dust cover. For a complete list of accessories, see
b. Entering Data. The keyboard is a right fill enter (input)
type of keyboard. This means that when data are entered,
TM 5-6675-333-10.
the last number in a string of numbers is entered first. The
decimal point on the keyboard applies only to azimuths.
Note. The telescope must be in the reverse position
when determining azimuth. The laser range finder c. Entering UTM Coordinates. Only four digits are
studs will face up when in the reverse position. When entered when entering UTM casting and northing during
no range finder studs are present, the microscope
(reading scale) will be on the left side of the telescope the setup. When entering the easting coordinate of 546321.5
when facing the keyboard. (accurate to the nearest 200 meters), the user enters 5463
(546,300 meters) by first entering 3, then 6, then 4, and
finally 5. When entering the northing coordinate of
d. GST90-5 Gyro Tripod. The gyro tripod has three 3819765.7 (accurate to the nearest 1,000 meters), enter 3820
leveling screws, a circular level, a clamping screw, and a (3,820,000 meters) by first entering 0, then 2, then 8, and
tilting dish capable of lateral movement of 1 inch for simple then 3.
positioning of the north-seeking gyroscope. For transport,
there is a protective cover for the tilting dish. Note. When surveying within 1,000,000 meters north
of the equator, the user enters three digits northing
and four digits casting.
8-15
C1, FM 6-2
b. Procedure for Determining E-2 Additive Constant. Mean = -0.6/6= E-2new (-.1)
8-16
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 9
9-1
FM 6-2
9-2. PADS COMPONENTS (3) The IMU (Figure 9-4) contains the gyroscopes,
a. PADS primary pallet contains the basic electronic modules accelerometer sensors, and associated electronics needed to
for the PADS. These are the control and display unit (CDU), maintain the survey coordinate frame. It will measure distance
power supply (PS), inertial measurement unit (IMU), and traveled to each coordinate axis.
computer.
(1) The CDU (Figure 9-2) has a keyboard and an Figure 9-4. Inertial measurement unit
alphanumeric display for data entry and display of survey
data and system commands. The CDU is the input-output
device for the system.
9-2
C1, FM 6-2
b. The secondary pallet is the battery box. The battery The SCP may not be accessible to the PADS by using the
box (Figure 9-6) contains two 12-volt batteries. They are plumb bob. In this case, update the system by using a
used to continue operations while the PADS is transferred theodolite. The procedures for updating the PADS by using
from ground vehicle to helicopter or from helicopter to ground a theodolite are discussed in TM 5-6675-308-12, Chapter
vehicle. It supplies additional power requirements for 3.
initialization and provides a backup power supply in case
b. Zero-Velocity Corrections. Zero-velocity (Z-VEL)
the vehicle power fails. It also houses cables, tools, and
corrections must be performed en route to points to be
small hardware items.
surveyed and during the survey mission. The Z-VEL
correction allows the PADS to correct itself to its present
Figure 9-6. Battery box location. Ten minutes is the maximum Z-VEL time allowed.
This is associated with battalion fifth-order survey
requirements. If more accurate survey control is necessary,
a 5-minute Z-VEL correction (associated with div arty or
TAB fourth-order requirements) must be performed. PADS
is automatically set for a 10-minute Z-VEL time. To change
this time, consult TM 5-6675-308-12. The desired Z-VEL
time is entered into the computer after initialization. To
perform a Z-VEL correction, the vehicle must be at a complete
stop and the STOP button on the CDU must be pressed. In
aircraft operations, the aircraft must be stationary on the
ground, but it can continue at flight idle. The PADS requests
a Z-VEL correction be performed by alternately flashing
the GO and STOP indicators and sounding the DS3 ALARM.
This audible alarm will sound 30 seconds before the required
Z-VEL correction.
c. Survey Operations. On arrival at the position to be
surveyed, maneuver the vehicle with PADS over the point
to be established. The PADS operator must know what data
the user requires. He must decide which marking procedure
(plumb bob or theodolite) will be used. If an orienting line
is required in the mission, a two-position azimuth mark-must
9-3. PADS OPERATION be performed. The two-position azimuth mark using the
PADS operation requires a two-man party, an assistant PADS plumb bob requires that the two points beat least 100 meters
operator (driver-radio operator), and a PADS operator (PADS apart and intervisible, The PADS automatically computes
party chief). Both must be qualified in FA survey. the grid azimuth from the second marked position back to
the first marked position. The coordinates that the PADS
a. Preparation for Operation. A PADS mission begins computes are unadjusted. This unadjusted data may be given
on receipt of a warning order with before-operation checks to the users with the understanding that the adjusted data
and services, followed by initialization. (See TM will be given upon completion of the mission. The procedures
5-6675 -308-12.) After arrival at the initialization point for performing a two-position azimuth mark and adjusting
(which must be within 100 meters horizontal and 10 meters data are also discussed in TM 5-6675-308-12, Chapter 3.
vertical accuracy), activate the system by switching circuit Because of terrain or unit SOP, two-position azimuth marks
breakers 1 and 2 on and pressing the ON-OFF button. Enter may not be the preferred method. In this case, the second
the spheroid, grid zone number, casting and northing method, marking position, azimuth, and elevation by using
coordinates, and elevation. The PADS then automatically the theodolite, would be used, since there is no distance
aligns itself. Initialization takes from 30 to 45 minutes, requirement.
depending on ambient temperature. After the PADS has
completed initialization modes 0 through 8 and the CDU
shows a flashing GO light, the system is ready to be updated.
Drive to the SCP, and maneuver the PADS over the SCP
by using the plumb bob suspended from the plumb bob arm
for alignment. Enter the correct grid coordinates and height
of the SCP. PADS is then ready to perform the survey mission.
9-3
C1, FM 6-2
d. Shutdown Procedures. On completion of the survey fourth-order or higher conventional survey control. If known
mission, the PADS must be shut down. The PADS can be control is not available, update over a PADS SCP established
operated for an unlimited amount of time, but you must by using 5-minute Z-VEL corrections, or when no known
perform an update every 7 hours of operation. If the PADS PADS SCPs are available, update by using the precise
is shut down and you are required to do an additional mission lightweight GPS receiver (PLGR). (Refer to TM
after shutdown, you must wait 2 minutes, then reinitialize. 5-6675-308-12, Change 3, page 3-36.12). The PADS must
After initialization is complete, update over a known SCP. be updated after initialization before it can provide accurate
Before shutdown, close out the survey over a known SCP survey data. The first update after initialization is called
by updating the system and recalling the adjusted data. The the initial update. The survey mission starts with the initial
first step in the shutdown procedure is to conduct a PADS update. The PADS must also be updated at the end of a
battery test. This test checks the PADS battery operation survey mission. This closing update should be on a second
under load. After the battery test, turn off the system. (Detailed known SCP. lf a second known SCP does not exist, a PADS
shutdown procedures are listed in TM 5-6675-308-12, Table survey can be closed on the starting point, or when no known
3-2.) SCPs are available, by using the PLGR. As in conventional
survey, if a survey is closed on the starting point (or GPS),
9-4. PADS MISSION CLOSURE there is no check on the starting control. Care should be
taken to verify these data by using all available means (another
a. Field artillery surveyors are accustomed to describing GPS, maps, and so on). The PADS will either accept or
survey accuracies in terms of survey specifications for reject the update. If it accepts the update, the PADS
fourth-order (1:3,000) and fifth-order (1:1,000) surveys. automatically adjusts all data recorded since the previous
These specifications are described in Appendix B and serve update. The adjusted data replace the unadjusted data stored
as rejection criteria for conventional survey techniques. in the system computer memory. The adjusted data must
PADS operations are similar to a conventional traverse. The be provided to all users.
computer determines the position of a point by using input
from the accelerometers (compared to measuring the distance
with a tape or distance-measuring equipment). Conventional Note. Position and/or elevation updates can be
performed independently.
traverse errors usually increase during the survey because
of systematic errors in the measurement of angles and
distances. PADS errors also generally increase as the PADS
a. Update Procedures With Plumb Bob or Theodolite.
proceeds along the survey route. However, absolute rejection Procedures used to update position and/or elevation with
criteria cannot be applied to PADS position data. This is
the plumb bob or theodolite are listed in TM 5-6675-308-12,
because the error will vary with mission length, duration,
Table 3-2, steps 3, 4, 5, and 6.
system characteristics, Z-VEL correction periods, and other
factors. In units that require fourth-order conventional b. Update Acceptance. After the operator has entered the
specifications, the PADS uses 5-minute Z-VEL corrections. known trig list positions and/or elevation data of the SCP
In units that require fifth-order conventional specifications, into the PADS, the system automatically tests the difference
it uses 10-minute Z-VEL corrections. Acceptability of a between the update coordinates (trig list data) and the PADS
conventional survey is determined by comparing the radial position coordinates. If the difference (error) is within the
error of closure with a maximum allowable error in position built-in calibration tolerance parameters, the update is
and similar criteria for azimuth. PADS performance is accepted and the CDU displays ID PAE U-U. This display
checked by using an update rejection procedure. tells the PADS operator that the PADS has met the specified
b. A PADS survey should be started on fourth-order or higher accuracy needed for that update and all surveyed stations
conventional survey control or on a PADS SCP established established back to the previous update. When the update
by using 5-minute Z-VEL corrections. It should be closed has been accepted by the PADS, the survey is considered
on a second SCP of an equal or higher order survey. If a a closed survey within the prescribed accuracy.
second known SCP does not exist, a PADS survey must be
c. Update Rejection. If the difference (error) is outside the
closed on the starting point. If PADS accepts the data, then
built-in calibration tolerance parameters, the PADS recues
the survey is good, if not, refer to TM 5-6675-308-12, Table for the update data by displaying a flashing E on the CDU,
3-3.
followed by the data the operator entered. The flashing E
indicates a possible update rejection in position. The operator
9-5. UPDATING THE PADS then checks the probable reason for the update rejection and
Entering accurate position and/or elevation data into the takes the appropriate corrective action as outlined in TM
PADS is called updating. Updates should be performed over 5-6675-308-12, Table 3-3.
9-4
C1, FM 6-2
9-6. PADS SURVEY PLANNING will update the system over the initialization point (assumed
point) and all control will be extended from this point to
Because of the speed and accuracy of the system, extensive ensure all elements are on a common grid. To close out this
planning and a map reconnaissance must be performed. The type of survey, the PADS must be updated over the
mode of travel, route, weather, terrain, and tactical situation initialization-initial update point (assumed SCP). This
must be considered. Because of time and distance limitations, procedure should be used only in special missions where
SCPs nearest the area of the PADS mission must be used known survey control is not available.
for starting control. For detailed information on PADS
planning and use of the PADS in FA units, refer to Chapters
14 and 15. c. PADS Operation at Night. The PADS can be operated
at night under blackout conditions as long as the CDU
9-7. PADS USE IN SPECIAL keyboard can be read with the lamps dimmed or with a
SITUATIONS flashlight with strict light control. Only the CDU status
indicators and data display can be dimmed. The keyboard
The following are special situations in which the PADS can is either fully illuminated or dark. If autoreflection is to be
be used. No additional personnel or equipment is required. performed, the theodolite front sight can be painted white
a. Establish a Declination Station. When the PADS is with typewriter correction fluid or can be illuminated with
used to establish a declination station, the criteria for the the hand lamp. The end of the azimuth line must be
predetermined site is the same as that described in paragraph illuminated. Under blackout conditions, the two-position
14-5d. The preferred procedure, time and tactical situation mark method is preferred in establishing an azimuth line.
permitting, is to travel directly from an update point and The only illumination required for this method is to aid in
determine the mean of two azimuths for each azimuth line marking the station. For tactical reasons, the PADS team
(as a check) by following normal PADS procedures for must be thoroughly familiar with all indicators and controls
determining an azimuth. The azimuths should agree within and the CDU keyboard.
0.4 mil. To close out the declination station survey, update
as soon as possible and record adjusted data. Record and d. PADS Decontamination. While in a survey mission, the
include measured vertical angles with the declination station PADS can continue to operate in a nuclear, biological,
data. (The vertical angle is not used with PADS but will chemical (NBC) environment with partial decontamination,
be used at the declination station to determine a vertical To partially decontaminate the system, the PADS operator
angle correction when the aiming circle is declinated.) should use the M13 decontamination kit. The CDU, plumb
bob arm, porro prism cover, circuit breaker covers, flashlight,
and battery box latches should be decontaminated. When
b. Using the PADS With Assumed Data. The PADS the survey mission is complete and the unit has established
can be operated in areas where known survey control or a decontamination point, the entire system can be
GPS data are not available. In such cases, the PADS operator decontaminated with soapy water. When the entire system
must know the spheroid and UTM grid zone and must use is to be decontaminated, extreme caution must be used to
all existing support elements (S2, SPCE) to determine the prevent exposing the system to high-pressure water. The
data needed to initialize the system. The initialization data PADS operator also must ensure that the circuit breaker
used should be as accurate as possible. When conducting a covers are closed and that any unconnected cable connector
PADS operation under these conditions, the PADS operator is capped or taped.
9-5
C1, FM 6-2
*CHAPTER 10
FORWARD ENTRY DEVICE METEOROLOGICAL/SURVEY
The FED MSR is a digital communications device that allows the artillery
surveyer to process command and control information and to perform the
full range of calculations that are currently performed by the BUCS (Survey
REV 1 and DDCT modules). The FED MSR also gives the surveyor
limited forward observer capabilities and graphics that will allow the user
to display tactical symbols and other graphical information.
Section I
OVERVIEW
When properly prepared for operation, the FED MSR is configured to allow surveyors to choose
the survey option desired. The surveyor can perform limited forward observer functions and can
manipulate and display maneuver and fire support information.
10-1
C1, FM 6-2
10-2
C1, FM 6-2
10-4. FORWARD OBSERVER MODIFICATION DATA under the FED STATUS selection
OPERATIONS from the MODE MENU. Information entered into the Unit
List, Equipment List, Geometry List, and Point/Installation
Forward observer messages are found under the MESSAGE List files will be displayed on the graphics map. Information
TYPE (option I) selection from the MAIN MENU. Forward listed in the Member Data File and Survey Control Point
observer messages can also be accessed from the LOCAL File will also appear on the graphics map. The graphics
MISSION FILE. These messages permit the operator to map uses icons to display and identify information on the
direct engagement of enemy targets by indirect fire and to graphics map. The icons represent military symbols that
transmit and/or receive battlefield information messages. can be found in FM 101-5-1. The graphics map displays
Detailed information on the use and capabilities of these information based on the map level that is present on the
messages can be found in TM 11-7025-300-10, Chapter 3. graphics map. There are four different map levels available
in the FED MSR. Each map level displays a different set
of icons. Some icons will be visible at more than one map
10-5. GRAPHICS CAPABILITIES level. The icons that appear at each of the map levels are
The graphics of the FED MSR allow the operator to listed in TM 11-7025-300-10, Appendix C. The graphics
manipulate and display maneuver and fire support map will display an area ranging from 1,000 meters to 99,999
information stored in the data base. The user identifies the meters, with a default setting of 8,000 meters. TM
map area that will be displayed by entering minimum and 11-7025-300-10 provides detailed information on the use of
maximum easting and northing values in the MAP the graphics map.
Section II
SURVEY CALCULATIONS WITH THE FED MSR
The survey calculations function of the FED MSR allows the operator to perform various types
of survey calculations without performing any setup procedures as described in Section I. The
type of survey calculation desired is selected from the SURVEY CALCULATIONS MENU (Figure
10-3). The FED MSR will maintain up to three completed calculations in its data base for each
type of calculation. Completed calculations are automatically saved in the data base. Records
remain in the data base until the operator either deletes or writes over the record. The device will
allow the operator to establish a new calculations record or to view and/or edit an existing one.
10-3
C1, FM 6-2
10-6. SURVEY CALCULATIONS (2) To delete a file if they are all full, the operator can
select one of the full files by pressing the corresponding letter.
a. FED MSR Forms. The FED MSR calculation forms When the calculation screen appears, delete only the one file
were designed to be similar to the BUCS forms to simplify by pressing the X key.
their use. There are five major parts to the forms:
(3) To delete the entire list, press the X key at the
Administrative data. Summary List screen. All files for that particular calculation
Instructions. will be permanently deleted.
Required fields. c. Entering Data. Once a calculation has been selected
Data record. and the applicable DA form has been filled in, the next
Remarks. steps are to enter field data and record the computed data.
When the calculation is initially called up, the first required
Some of the forms have additional information on the back. field will be highlighted in black.
The use of the different parts of the FED MSR forms and
the procedures for computing them are discussed below. (1) When entering data into any of the calculation
(Detailed instructions for the use of the FED MSR are in programs, all fields that are followed by a question mark (?)
TM 11-7025-300-10.) must have an entry. If any question marks remain when the
user tries to perform the calculation, the program will error
(1) Administrative data. At the top of the form, right and return to the step containing the question mark.
below the form title, there are six blocks. These blocks are
used to record administrative data. When conducting survey (2) The FED MSR will not accept data into the
operations, all required information must be entered. This computation unless the window of legal entries is displayed
will ensure that proper records of survey operations can be on the screen. The ENTER key acts as a toggle for displaying
maintained. the window of legal entries, which shows the range of values
that can be entered in any field. TM 11-7025-300-10, Section
(2) Instructions. Below the administrative data blocks are 5, and Appendix B list the legal values for all required entries.
the instructions for the use of the form, to include the The window must be displayed before trying to enter or edit
following: data in a specific field.
How to call up the required computation. (3) Entry of data is in a fixed format that requires the
How to determine what field data are required. operator to complete all available characters for all fields.
How to display the window of legal entries. This requirement uses preceding and ending zeros for values
How to calculate the data. that do not include the full range of characters provided. for
example, when entering northing data, there are eight required
(3) Required fields. On the left side of the form, under the digits to the left of the decimal; therefore, you must enter a
instructions, are the required fields blocks. These blocks zero (unless near the equator) before entering the normal
show which fields appear in the computation. This part of the seven-digit northing. When naming stations, you would have
form also shows where to record computed data. to fill in the remaining ?s with spaces if the name is not as long
(4) Data record. To the right of the required fields blocks as the required field.
are the data record blocks. These blocks show where to enter (4) When a field is completely filled in, the next field will
field data (blocks marked with a filled-in arrow). They are automatically be highlighted and the window will still be
used for recording station names and computed data. displayed. You can also toggle between fields by using the
(5) Remarks. This block is located under the required up and down arrows to check your data or to edit data already
fields blocks and is provided to record any remarks that are entered. The ENTER key must be pressed before the C key
pertinent to the survey being computed. There are no for calculating is pressed so that the window of legal entries
particular remarks that are required; however, any is removed. If this is not done, the FED MSR will not respond.
information that could affect the survey should be included.
d. Editing Calculations. When the need to edit a
b. Selecting a Calculation. Once a calculation has been calculation arises (for example, rerunning a survey or
called up from the SURVEY CALCULATION MENU by converting to common control), you can edit the calculation
pressing the key that corresponds to the desired calculation, while still in the calculation or by recalling it.
the summary list for that particular calculation will appear.
(1) To edit the calculation from the solution screen, press
(1) To select an empty file (one without a name or main the S key to show input data. The first screen of entered
points), whether it be A, B, or C, select the empty file by data will appear. To move through the calculation within
pressing the corresponding letter. For example, if A and B are the pages, use the PG UP or PG DN keys and the up and
full, then select C. down arrow keys.
10-4
C1, FM 6-2
(2) To edit the data, do the following in order of listing: 10-8. TRAVERSE CALCULATION FILE
Move the cursor until the required field is highlighted. a. The Traverse Calculation File is designed to compute
Press the ENTER key to display the window of legal the grid azimuth, coordinates, and height of up to 40 main
entries. scheme traverse stations and 10 offset points from the known
data of the starting station and the field data of the traverse.
Replace previously entered data with the new data. The program allows for entry of either slope or horizontal
When all required fields have been edited, press the C key distance. If slope distance is entered, the program does a
to calculate. The display will move to the next page. conversion to horizontal distance. The program allows the
Continue to edit data until you reach the solution screen. user to access the Survey Control Point File to import
information for the starting point. The program computes
(3) To edit a calculation after you have left it, you must closing data to include the following:
recall the calculation from the Summary List. Once you recall
the calculation, the solution screen will appear. You then Azimuth correction.
follow the same procedures as when you were originally in Height correction.
the calculation. Total traverse length.
e. Special Operations. When computing with the FED Radial error.
MSR, there are several options available when in a Accuracy ratio.
calculation. At the bottom of the screen, there is a list of
options with the key to press to activate the option. Traverse adjustment is computed by pressing the T key at
the CLOSURE SOLUTION screen. A list of traverse points
(1) One such option is ACCESS SCP FILE (A key). This can be displayed by pressing the P key from the CLOSURE
function is used when the SCP file contains the data for the SOLUTION screen of a completed traverse. The list of
known control being used in a particular calculation. For traverse points displays adjusted data if the survey was
example, when computing a resection and one or more of the adjusted. If the survey was not adjusted, unadjusted data
known points (left, center, right) are in the SCP files, you can are displayed. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-40, for
retrieve the data and input them into your calculation by step-by-step procedures.)
pressing the A key. Once in the Survey Control Point File, b. DA Form 7357-R (Computation of Coordinates and
you can select from the list or perform a search to find known Height From Azimuth, Distance, and Vertical Angle (FED
points to use for your calculation. MSR)) (Figure 10-5) is used to record the data determined.
(2) Another option when computing a survey is the PREV The instructions for computing the data for this program
return function. When you press the PREV key from within are shown on the front of the form. Closure and adjustment
a calculation, you will return to the Summary List. When you data are recorded on the reverse of DA Form 7357-R (Figure
press the PREV key from the Summary List, you will return 10-6).
to the SURVEY CALCULATIONS MENU and you can
restart operations. 10-9. TRIANGULATION
(3) As previously mentioned, you can use the X delete CALCULATION FILE
function to delete the calculation if you need a blank record. a. The Triangulation Calculation File computes coordinates,
However, the data will be lost. height, azimuth, and distance by triangulation. The program
will compute a single triangle or a chain up to 40 triangles.
10-7. AZIMUTH AND DISTANCE The program allows access to the Survey Control Point File
for importing data for the starting point. When entering
CALCULATION FILE the name of the starting station, the user identifies the starting
a. The Azimuth and Distance Calculation File is designed point as B or C. This step is where the program determines
to compute the grid azimuth and distance between two the side to be computed for the first triangle of a chain.
stations. The user must input the known UTM coordinates For the first triangle, the user must also identify the side to
of both stations, or select points from the Survey Control be computed for the next triangle of the chain (prompt NEXT
Point File to be imported into the Azimuth and Distance TRI BASE BA/CA). As the computation continues, this
Calculation File. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-37, for step is repeated (enter the side to be computed for next
step-by-step procedures.) triangle). When entering data for the last triangle in a chain
or a single triangle, enter either BA or CA (the side to be
b. DA Form 7356-R (Computation of Azimuth and Distance computed for the last triangle was entered in the previous
From Coordinates (FED MSR)) (Figure 10-4) is used to triangle) at the prompt NEXT TRI BASE BA/CA. The
record the data determined. The instructions for computing program will not compute a triangle without an entry in
the data for this program are shown on the front of the this field. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-45, for
form. step-by-step procedures.)
10-5
C1, FM 6-2
10-6
C1, FM 6-2
10-7
C1, FM 6-2
10-8
C1, FM 6-2
b. DA Form 7358-R (Computation of Plane Triangle (A list of star names and numbers are located on the back of
Coordinates and Height From One Side, Three Angles, and the form.) The program determines accuracy and mean azimuth
Vertical Angle (FED MSR)) (Figures 10-7 and 10-8) is used in the same manner as the Altitude Method (Sun) Calculation
to record the data determined. The instructions for computing File program. Access to the Survey Control Point File and
the data for this program are shown on the front of the form. rejected data are controlled in the same manner as the Altitude
Closure and adjustment data are recorded on the reverse of Method (Sun) Calculation File. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page
DA Form 7358-R (Figure 10-9). 5-58, for step-by-step procedures.)
Notes.
10-10. RESECTION CALCULATION FILE 1. Altitude Method (Sun and Star) Calculation Files
a. The Resection Calculation File computes the coordinates computations will be recorded on DA Form 7360-R
(Figures 10-11 and 10-12). (A list of stars is on the
and height of one or more stations from the UTM coordinates back of the form [Figure 10-13]).
of three known stations and the azimuth from the occupied 2. Both Altitude Method Calculation Files require the
station to the center station. The program allows the user access entry of OBS DATE, OBS TIME, DAYLT SAVINGS
to the Survey Control Point File for importing data of the three TIME, and TIME ZONE CORRECTION. This
known points. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-51, for information is used to determine if the sun or selected
step-by-step procedures.) star is in position to meet the prime vertical
requirements (Chapter 7, paragraph 7-11e). If the
b. DA Form 7359-R (Computation of Coordinates and Height prime vertical requirements are not met, the status
by Three-Point Resection (FED MSR)) (Figure 10-10) is used line will display SUN/STAR NOT WITHIN 530 MILS
to record the data determined. The instructions for computing OF PRIME VERTICAL. The status line will also
the data for this program are shown on the front of the form. display a warning (VERTICAL ANGLE TO
SUN/STAR NOT BETWEEN 175 AND 800 MILS)
when the vertical angle does not fall between 175 and
10-11. COMPUTATION OF ASTRONOMIC 800 mils. The programs will perform the calculation
and provide a solution even if either or both of these
AZIMUTH BY ALTITUDE METHOD conditions exist.
(SUN AND STAR)
a. Altitude Method (Sun) Calculation File. This program 10-12. HASTY ASTRO CALCULATION
computes a grid azimuth to an azimuth mark from three sets FILE (SUN AND STAR)
of observations of the sun. The program provides the user a. Hasty Astro (Sun) Calculation File. This program
with a mean astronomic and grid azimuth. The program computes a grid azimuth and check angle from observations
compares each of the azimuths to the mean to determine if of the sun. The program uses an internal electronic ephemeris,
the observation meets required accuracies. If one of the sets which eliminates the need to extract data from FM 6-300. The
does not meet the rejection criteria, an audible alarm sounds program also provides the option to use the internal clock (see
and the status line will display: OBSERVATION SET _ arty astro method) of the device to determine the date and
REJECTED. If two of the sets fail to meet the rejection criteria, time of tip. Date and time can also be entered manually. The
the audible alarm will sound and the status line will display: ability to manually input date and time of observation allows
TWO OR MORE OBSERVATION SETS REJECTED. the computation to be performed at a site remote from where
RERUN OBSERVATIONS. The audible alarm can be silenced the fieldwork is performed. The Survey Control Point File
and the status line cleared by pressing the NEXT (F8) key. can be accessed from the program. This allows data for the
The user can access the Survey Control Point File to import position of the observation to be imported directly into the
location data for the observing station only if the latitude and computation (the latitude and longitude must be included in
longitude are entered in the Survey Control Point File. If the the Survey Control Point File). (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page
geographic location is not entered in the Survey Control Point 5-62, for step-by-step procedures.)
File, the program will display NO APPLICABLE SURVEY
POINTS AVAILABLE FOR ACCESS. (See TM b. Hasty Astro (Star) Calculation File. This program
11-7025-300-10, page5-55, for step-by-step procedures.) computes a grid azimuth and check angle from observations
of survey stars. The user must enter the number of the star
Note. The last prompt in the initiation screen is being used at the STAR NO/NAME prompt. The program
DAYLT SAVING TIME (Y/N). It does not matter what has the same capabilities as the Hasty Astro (Sun) program.
is entered at the DAYLT SAVING TIME (Y/N) prompt;
the calculation does not use this information. The (See TM 11-7250-300-10, page 5-65, for step-by-step
user must enter the time zone correction, to include procedures.)
daylight savings time, at the TIME ZONE
CORRECTION prompt for the calculation to correctly
compute the azimuth. Note. DA Form 7361-R (Computation of Astronomic
Azimuth by the Hasty Astro Method (FED MSR))
(Figure 10-14) is used to record the data determined.
b. Altitude Method (Star) Calculation File. This program The instructions for computing the data to be
recorded are shown on the front of the form. A list of
computes a grid azimuth to an azimuth mark from three sets star names and numbers is located on the back of the
of observations of a selected star. The user must enter the form (Figure 10-15).
number of the star being used at the STAR NO/NAME prompt.
10-9
C1, FM 6-2
10-10
C1, FM 6-2
10-11
C1, FM 6-2
10-12
C1, FM 6-2
10-13
C1, FM 6-2
10-14
C1, FM 6-2
10-15
C1, FM 6-2
10-16
C1, FM 6-2
10-17
C1, FM 6-2
10-18
C1, FM 6-2
10-13. STAR ID CALCULATION FILE used to record the data determined. The instructions for
computing the data to be recorded are shown on the front
a. The Star ID Calculation File computes the approximate of the form.
azimuth and altitude to a selected star at a date and time
chosen by the user. The orientation data will help identify 10-16. TRIG TRAVERSE
survey stars for astronomic observation or navigation. The CALCULATION FILE
program will compute the approximate azimuth and altitude
(vertical angle) to any of the 73 survey stars listed in FM a. The Trig Traverse File computes horizontal distances and
6-300. The orientation data are accurate to within 5 mils. comparative accuracy from trig-traverse fieldwork. (See TM
(See TM 11-7250-300-10, page 5-71, for step-by-step 11-7025-10, page 5-90, for step-by-step procedures.)
procedures.)
Note. M=SUBTENSE is no longer used and will be
b. DA Form 7362-R (Computation of Azimuth and Vertical removed from the next version.
Angle to Selected Star (Star ID) (FED MSR)) (Figure 10-16)
is used to record the data determined. The instructions for
computing the data to be recorded are shown on the front b. DA Form 7365-R (Computation of Trig Traverse (FED
of the form. MSR)) (Figure 10-19) is used to record the data determined.
The instructions for computing the data to be recorded are
10-14. POLARIS TABULAR METHOD shown on the front of the form.
CALCULATION FILE
10-17. INTERSECTION
a. The Polaris Tabular Method Calculation File computes CALCULATION FILE
a grid azimuth from three sets of observations of the star
Polaris, using the Polaris Tabular method. The program a. The Intersection Calculation File computes the coordinates
checks the accuracy specifications in the same manner as and height of an unknown point (target) from intersection
described for the altitude method (paragraph 10-11). (See fieldwork. The program can be used for either intervisible
TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-75, for step-by-step procedures.) or nonintervisible bases. The Survey Control Point File can
be accessed from the initiation screen. This program has
b. DA Form 7363-R (Computation of Astronomic Azimuth the capacity to store 40 targets for three sets of OPs. For
by Polaris Tabular Method (FED MSR) (Figure 10-17) is example, in file A= from the two selected OPs, the program
used to record the data determined. The instructions for will store data for 40 targets. The same amount of targets
computing the data to be recorded are shown on the front can be stored in files B= and C= regardless of whether the
of the form. OPs are the same or one or both are new OPs. If additional
targets are required from the same two OPS, press the next
10-15. GRID CONVERGENCE open target record (that is, B=), enter data, confirm data,
CALCULATION FILE and press the C key. Continue to record target data and
select open target records until all targets have been computed.
a. The Grid Convergence Calculation File converts a UTM If more than 40 targets are required, then go to Summary
grid azimuth from a gyroscopic (true) azimuth. The program List. Select a blank file, and start a new calculation. (See
also computes the convergence from true to grid azimuth TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-96, for step-by-step procedures.)
for an area of operations. (See TM 11-7250-300-10, page
5-78, for step-by-step procedures. b. DA Form 7366-R (Computation of Coordinates and
Height by Intersection (FED MSR)) (Figure 10-20) is used
b. DA Form 7364-R (Computation--Convergence of True to record the data determined. The instructions for computing
Azimuth to Grid Azimuth (FED MSR)) (Figure 10-18) is the data to be recorded are shown on the front of the form.
10-19
C1, FM 6-2
10-20
C1, FM 6-2
10-21
C1, FM 6-2
10-22
C1, FM 6-2
10-23
C1, FM 6-2
10-24
C1, FM 6-2
10-25
C1, FM 6-2
10-26
C1, FM 6-2
10-27
C1, FM 6-2
Section Ill
CONVERSION AND TRANSFORMATION WITH THE FED MSR
The transformations function of the FED MSR will allow the operator to perform various types
of survey conversions and transformations. The type of transformation desired is selected from
the TRANSFORMATIONS MENU (Figure 10-23). The FED MSR will maintain up to three
completed calculations in its data base for each type of transformation. Completed calculations
are automatically saved in the data base. Records remain in the data base until the operator either
deletes or writes over the record. The device will allow the operator to establish a new calculation
record or view or edit an existing one.
10-19. TRANSFORMATIONS How different parts of the FED MSR forms are
The transformations function of the FED MSR will allow used.
the operator to perform conversion of UTM coordinates to How to select a calculation.
geographic coordinates and geographic coordinates to UTM How to enter data.
coordinates. It also provides for zone-to-zone transformation
of coordinates and azimuth and datum-to-datum coordinate How to edit a calculation.
transformations. The FED MSR transformation forms and How to perform various special operations.
calculation procedures were designed to be similar to the
FED MSR survey calculations to simplify their use. See Detailed instructions for the use of the FED MSR are in
Section II, paragraphs 10-6a through e, for an explanation TM 11-7025-300-10. For further reference, conversions and
of the following: transformations are discussed in Chapter 11.
10-28
C1, FM 6-2
10-20. UTM TO GEO COORDINATE corresponding numbers are located on the back of the form
CONVERSION FILE (Figure 10-26), in Appendix E, and in TM 11-7025-300-10
(pages B-34 through B-37).
a. This program converts UTM coordinates to geographic
coordinates. The Survey Control Point File can be accessed 10-24. UTM TO GEO DATUM
from this calculation. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-100,
for step-by-step procedures.) CONVERSION FILE
a. This program transforms UTM coordinates from a selected
b. DA Form 7368-R (Computation--Conversion UTM to
UTM datum to GEO coordinates of a selected GEO datum.
GEO Coordinate, GEO to UTM Coordinate, Zone-To-Zone
(See TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-112, for step-by-step
Transformation (FED MSR)) (Figure 10-24) is used to record
the data determined. The instructions for computing the procedures.)
data to be recorded are shown on the front of the form. b. DA Form 7369-R is also used for recording data
transformed from UTM to GEO datum. (See Figure 10-25.)
10-21. GEO TO UTM COORDINATE
CONVERSION FILE 10-25. GEO TO UTM DATUM
a. This program converts geographic coordinates to UTM CONVERSION FILE
coordinates. The Survey Control Point File cannot be a. This program transforms GEO coordinates from a selected
accessed from this calculation. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, GEO datum to UTM coordinates of a selected UTM datum.
page 5-103, for step-by-step procedures.) (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-115, for step-by-step
procedures.)
b. DA Form 7368-R is also used for recording the GEO to
UTM coordinate conversion data. (See Figure 10-24.) b. DA Form 7369-R is also used for recording data
transformed from GEO to UTM datum. (See Figure 10-25.)
10-22. ZONE-TO-ZONE COORDINATE
CONVERSION FILE 10-26. GEO TO GEO DATUM
a. This program, also refered to as zone-to-zone CONVERSION FILE
transformation, transforms UTM grid coordinates and a. This program transforms GEO coordinates from a selected
azimuth from one grid zone into terms of an adjacent grid GEO datum to another selected GEO datum. (See TM
zone. The Survey Control Point File can be accessed from 11-7025-300-10, page 5-118, for step-by-step procedures.)
this calculation. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, page 5-106, for
b. DA Form 7369-R is also used for recording data
step-by-step procedures.)
transformed from one GEO datum to another. (See Figure
b. DA Form 7368-R is also used for recording the 10-25.)
zone-to-zone transformation data. (See Figure 10-24.)
10-27. KRASSOVSKY TO UTM DATUM
10-23. UTM TO UTM DATUM CONVERSION FILE
CONVERSION FILE a. Krassovsky to UTM datum coordinate transformations
a. This program transforms UTM coordinates from a selected transform UTM coordinates from a selected Krassovsky
UTM datum to another selected UTM datum. The program datum to a selected UTM datum. The datum numbers must
also allows the option of zone-to-zone transformation. If be entered (known) for all calculations. (See TM
yes (option Y) is selected, the ending grid zone must be 11-7025-300-10, page 5-121, for step-by-step procedures.)
entered. The datum numbers must be entered (known) for b. DA Form 7370-R (Computation--Datum-To-Datum
all calculations. The Survey Control Point File can be
Coordinate Transformation Gauss Kruger (GK) Datums
accessed from these calculations. (See TM 11-7025-300-10, (FED MSR)) (Figure 10-27) is used to record the data
page 5-109, for step-by-step procedures.)
determined. The instructions for computing the data to be
b. DA Form 7369-R (Computation--Datum to Datum recorded are shown on the front of the form. A list of
Coordinate Transformation Listed Datums (FED MSR)) datum names and corresponding numbers is located on the
(Figure 10-25) is used to record the data determined. The back of the form (Figure 10-26), in Appendix E, and in TM
instructions for computing the data to be recorded are shown 11-7025-300-10 (pages B-34 through B-37). The Survey
on the front of the form. A list of datum names and Control Point File can be accessed from these calculations.
10-29
C1, FM 6-2
10-30
C1, FM 6-2
10-31
C1, FM 6-2
10-32
C1, FM 6-2
b. DA Form 7370-R is also used to record UTM to Bessel 10-33. LITSTED TO USER-DEFINED
datum coordinate transformations. (See Figure 10-27.) DATUM CONVERSION FILE
Note. When performing a Krassovsky or Bessel to a. Listed to user-defined datum coordinate transformations
UTM datum coordinate transformation, the user must transform UTM coordinates from a selected listed datum to
select datums and/or numbers from the box at the top a selected user-defined datum. (See TM 11-7025-300-10,
of the back of DA Form 7370-R. When performing page 5-142, for step-by-step procedures.)
a UTM to Krassovsky or Bessel datum coordinate
transformation, select datums and/or numbers from the
b. DA Form 7371-R is also used to record listed to
99 listed datums. user-defined datum coordinate transformations. (See Figure
10-30.)
10-33
C1, FM 6-2
10-34
C1, FM 6-2
10-35
C1, FM 6-2
10-36
C1, FM 6-2
10-37
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 11
CONVERSION AND TRANSFORMATION
Universal transverse mercator grid zones are 6 wide. There are 60 such
zones surrounding the earth. At the equator, each of these zones is
about 360 nautical miles wide. When moving north or south from the
equator, each zone decreases in width. In the UTM grid system, there
are overlap areas east and west of zone junctions. It is very possible
that survey operations will take place at the junctions of these zones. It
is also probable that missiles and longer-range field artillery will be required
to fire from one zone to another. Since FA operations will span such
large areas, survey personnel may have to transform coordinates and/or
azimuth from one zone to another. They may have to convert geographic
coordinates to UTM grid coordinates in areas where existing survey is
available only in geographic coordinates. Survey personnel may also need
to convert UTM coordinates to geographic coordinates for the purpose of
computing astro observations.
Section I
CONVERTING GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES TO UTM
COORDINATES AND UTM COORDINATES TO
GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES
Conversion computations depend on the method of computation and the spheroid that is used for
a particular locality. To determine the spheroid for a particular locality, refer to local trig lists,
maps, or higher HQ.
11-1
FM 6-2
STEP INSTRUCTION
1 There is no prompt. The procedure in the PROCEDURE column is CALL PROGRAM 10. At this step, enter the
survey module and call Program 10.
2 The display prompts GEO/UTM/ZONE-ZONE. There is no procedure. Press the END LINE key to continue the
program.
Note. At the completion of each step, press the END LINE key.
3 The display prompts SPHEROID CODE: O. The procedure is ENTER SPHEROID CODE. At this step, enter the
number that corresponds to the spheroid for the local area The spheroid can be obtained from a map of the local
area. When determining the code to enter in the BUCS, use the code printed on the computation form. Record the
spheroid name in the SPHEROID: block of the DATA RECORD section.
4 The display prompts FUNCTION CODE: O. The procedure is ENTER 1. (Program 10 can perform all conversion
and transformation computations.) At this step, the user identifies the type of conversion to be performed.
5 The display prompts LAT(-:S): 0.0000000. The procedure is ENTER LATITUDE OF STATON. At this step, enter
the latitude of the station. Geographic coordinates are entered in the format DD.MMSS. (The DD Is degrees; MM,
minutes; and SS, seconds.) Two positions are available for the minutes and seconds. If the number of minutes or
seconds is less than 10, enter a O in the first position for that measurement (for example, 34.0402). Record the
latitude of the station In the LATITUDE: block of the DATA RECORD section.
Note. The latitude must be preceded by a negative if it is in the Southern Hemisphere.
6 The display prompts LG(-:W): O.0000000. The prccedure is ENTER LONGITUDE OF STATION. At this step,
enter the longitude of the station (DD.MMSS). Record the longitude of the station In the LONGITUDE: block of the
DATA RECORD section.
Note. The longitude must be preceded by a negative if it is in a west longitude.
7 The display prompts GRID ZONE: 00. The procedure la ENTER GRID ZONE. At this step, enter the grid zone In
which the point Is located. The grid zone can be taken from a map of the area Record the grid zone In the GRID
ZONE: block of the DATA RECORD section.
8 The display prompts EAST: 0.00. The procedure is RECORD EASTING OF STATION. At this step, record the
eastlng of the station In the EASTING: block of the DATA RECORD section.
9 The display prompts NORTH: 0.00. The procedure is RECORD NORTHING OF STATION, At this step, record
the northing of the station In the NORTHING: block of the DATA RECORD section.
10 The display prompts ANOTHER CONV (Y/N). The procedure is ENTER Y OR N. If this step Is answered yes (Y),
the program will return to step 2. If this step is answered no (N), the program will go on to step 11,
11 The display prompts END OF MSN (Y/N). The procedure is ENTER Y or N. If this step Is answered yes (Y), the
program will go to SURVEY PGM MENU REV1. If this step is answered no (N), the program will return to step 10.
11-2
FM 6-2
11-3
FM 6-2
11-4
FM 6-2
11-5
FM 6-2
Section II
ZONE-TO-ZONE TRANSFORMATIONS
When a combat area includes more than one grid zone, transformation may be required. In the
UTM grid system, there are overlap areas east and west of zone junctions; however, transformation
is not restricted to these overlap areas. Grid coordinates and azimuths can be transformed from
any point in one zone into terms of an adjacent zone.
11-6
FM 6-2
STEP INSTRUCTION
1 There is no prompt. The procedure in the PROCEDURE column is CALL PROGRAM 10. At this step, enter the
survey module and call Program 10.
2 The display prompts GEO/UTM/ZONE-ZONE. There is no procedure. Press the END LINE key to continue the
program.
3 The display prompts SPHEROID CODE: 0. The procedure is ENTER SPHEROID CODE. At this step, enter the
number that corresponds to the spheroid for the local area. This information can be obtained from a map of the
local area. Record the spheroid in the DATA RECORD section.
4 The display prompts FUNCTION CODE: 0. The procedure is ENTER 3. Program 10 can perform all conversion
and transformation computations. At this step, the user identifies the type of conversion to be performed.
5 The display prompts STARTING GRID: 00. The procedure is ENTER STARTING GRID ZONE. At this step, enter
the number of the grid zone from which the information is being transformed. Record the starting grid zone in the
GRID ZONE: block of the DATA RECORD section.
6 The display prompts ENDING GRID: 00. The procedure is ENTER ENDING GRID ZONE. At this step, enter the
number of the grid zone to which the data are being transformed. Record the ending grid zone In the GRID ZONE:
block of the DATA RECORD section.
7 The display prompts E IN __: 0.00. The procedure is ENTER EASTING OF STATION. At this step, enter
coordinates of the point in the starting grid zone. Record the easting coordinates in the EASTING: block of the
DATA RECORD section.
8 The display prompts N IN __: 0.00. The procedure is ENTER NORTHING OF STATION. At this step, enter the
northing coordinates of the point in the starting grid zone. Record the northing in the NORTHING: block of the
DATA RECORD section.
9 The display prompts LATITUDE (N/S): The procedure is ENTER Nor S. At this step, enter N if the station is
located in the Northern Hemisphere or S if it is located in the Southern Hemisphere.
10 The display prompts AZ IN __: 0.000. The procedure is ENTER AZIMUTH IN STARTING GRID ZONE. At this
step, enter the azimuth in the starting grid zone. Record this azimuth in the AZIMUTH (MILS): block in the DATA
RECORD section.
11 The display prompts E IN __: 0.00. The procedure is RECORD EASTING IN ENDING GRID ZONE. At this step,
record the easting coordinates In the ending grid zone in the EASING block on line 11 of the DATA RECORD
section,
12 The display prompts N IN_ _: 0.00. The procedure is RECORD EASTING IN ENDING GRID ZONE. At this
step, record the northing coordinates in the ending grid zone in the NORTHING: block on line 12 of the DATA
RECORD section.
13 The display prompts AZ IN __: 0.000. The procedure is RECORD NORTHING IN ENDING GRID ZONE. At this
step, record the azimuth in the ending grid zone in the AZIMUTH (MILS): block on line 13 of the DATA RECORD
section.
14 The display prompts ANOTHER CONV (Y/N): The procedure is ENTER Y OR N. If this step is answered yes (Y),
the program will return to step 2. If this step is answered no (N), the program will go on to step 15.
15 The display prompts END OF MSN (Y/N): The procedure is ENTER Y OR N. If this step is answered yes (Y), the
program will go to SURVEY PGM MENU REV1. If this step is answered no (N), the program will return to step 14.
11-7
FM 6-2
11-8
FM 6-2
Section Ill
DATUM-TO-DATUM TRANSFORMATIONS
Maps, trig lists, and other survey information are prepared and published on the basis of a specific
datum. As new products with new datums are developed by DMA, a variety of conflicting maps
and survey information may exist that cover identical areas. Some of these products may be based
on the old datum and others on the current (preferred) datum. To operate on a common grid, all
fire support systems must use the same datum.To operate on a common grid, all
target-detecting systems must be able to perform datum-to-datum coordinate transformations (DDCT).
11-9
FM 6-2
b. A datum is any numerical or geometrical set of quantities map production. The DMA has identified 21 preferred
specifying the reference coordinate system used for geodetic geodetic datums within the various ellipsoids. At present,
control in the calculation of coordinates of points on the there are over 1,000 datums in use worldwide. Currently,
earth. Datums may be either global or local in extent. A TM 5-241-1 is being used to determine spheroids and datums;
local datum defines a coordinate system that is used only however, DMA TM 8358.1 replaces it.
over a region of limited extent. A global datum specifies
the center of the reference ellipsoid to be located at the d. The coordinates of a point based on one datum will show
earths center of mass. a difference when compared to the same point based on
another datum. In extreme cases, the difference will exceed
c. The Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) TM 8358.1 1,000 meters radial error. Figure 11-6 shows an example of
identifies five preferred ellipsoids for the purpose of new the difference between datums for the same map area.
11-10
FM 6-2
11-11
FM 6-2
MESSAGE MEANING
ILLEGAL ENTRY Occurs when incorrect data are entered or when input limits are exceeded. Ensure your input data are
correct. I
IMAGE OVFL Occurs when the computational limits are exceeded. This error massage is produced under the
following conditions:
During zone-to-zone coordinate transformations if the transformation is to a zone to the west and the point to
be transformed is too far east of the boundary between zones. (See paragraph 11-11b(2).)
When the point to be transformed is near the equator. This occurs when the point is in the southern
Hemisphere and the datum shift places the coordinate north of the equator. The error message is displayed if
the northing coordinate exceeds or equals the legal limit of 10 million meters. To overcome this error message,
subtract 1 million from the input northing coordinate. After the transformation, add 1 million back into the
northing coordinate and subtract 10 million if the sum is over 10 million. The point is now in the Northern
Hemisphere.
INSUFFICIENT May occur if random-access memory (RAM) has not been cleared before module(s) is (are) inserted.
MEMORY Clear the BUCS memory, and run the DDCT module again.
MEMORY LOST Occurs when memory is cleared. Run the DDCT module.
11-12
FM 6-2
b. To run the DDCT programs when the module number (4) GEO to GEO. This function converts geographic
is unknown, follow the procedure in Table 11-6. coordinates in one datum into geographic coordinates in the
same or another datum.
Note. When running the DDCT programs, BUCS b. Capabilities. This program will convert coordinates from
prompts MODULE DESIRED: 00. What the BUCS is one datum into the same or another datum. The input and
requesting is the program number. output coordinates may be any combination of UTM and
geographic coordinates. In addition, this program may be
used to compute zone-to-zone transformations when both
the input and output coordinates are given in UTM grid.
11-11. PROGRAM 14-LISTED The grid zone designated in the output datum must be adjacent
DATUMS to the grid zone designated in the input datum. See the
a. Purpose. This program transforms coordinates between grid zone chart in Appendix F to determine adjacent grid
any two datums whose ellipsoid and abridged Molodensky zones. When performing zone-to-zone transformations,
transformation papameters are stored permanently in the several error or warning conditions exist.
BUCS DDCT ROM. A list of these daturns appears in
Appendix E. The program has four separate functions (1) Zone-to-zone coordinate transformations may
available for coordinate transformations. produce negative castings. If the transformation is to a grid
zone to the west and the point is too far west of the zone
(1) UTM to UTM. This function converts UTM boundary, a negative casting is produced. The distances
coordinates from one datum into UTM coordinates in the that cause negative castings are a function of latitude (north
same or another datum. Zone-to-zone transformations may or south) and are listed in Table 11-7.
be included as part of a UTM-to-UTM transformation. In
such cases, the grid zone designated for the output datum
must be adjacent to the grid zone designated for the input Table 11-7. Distances that cause negative eastings
datum.
(2) UTM to GEO. This function converts UTM
coordinates in one datum into geographic coordinates in the
same or another datum.
(3) GEO to UTM. This function converts geographic
coordinates in one datum into UTM coordinates in the same
or another datum.
11-13
FM 6-2
(2) Zone-to-zone coordinate transformations may this region with the exception of the Norwegian island
produce (he IMAGE OVFL error warning message for group of Svalbard.
casting coordinates. If the transformation is to a grid
zone to the west and the point is too far east of the zone Note. When the coordinate to be transformed is near
boundary, an IMAGE OVFL error or warning message the equator, a negative northing or an IMAGE OVFL
is displayed. The error message is displayed if the casting error message may be displayed. This occurs when
coordinate exceeds or equals the legal limit of one million the datum shift places the coordinate in a different
meters. The distances that cause the error or warning hemisphere; for example, the equator shifts from north
to south of the point and vice versa. For grid zones
message are a function of latitude (north or south) and north of the equator, the equator has a value of zero.
are listed in Table 11-8. If the transformation datum shift causes the coordinate
point north of the equator to end up south of the
Table 11-8. Distances that cause error or warning equator, subtract one million from the input northing
coordinate. After the transformation has been
message computed, add 1 million back to the northing
coordinate and subtract 10 million if the sum is greater
than 10 million. The point is now in the Northern
Hemisphere.
11-14
FM 6-2
11-15
FM 6-2
STEP INSTRUCTION
13 The display prompts ZONE TO ZONE (Y/N): The procedure is ENTER Y OR N (IF NO, GO TO STEP 18). If a
zone-to-zone transformation is not required, press the N key and the END LINE key, Go to step 18. if a
zone-to-zone transformation is required, press the Y key and the END LINE key. Go to step 14. Select the
appropriate response-Y or N.
Note. A zone-to-zone transformation can only be performed with function 1.
14 The display prompts ENDING GRID ZONE (-:S): The procedure is ENTER ENDING GRID ZONE (GO TO STEP
18). Enter the ending grid zone of the station. If the point to be transformed is in the Southern Hemisphere, enter
the grid zone as a negative number. Record the grid zone in the ENDING GRID ZONE: block in the DATA
RECORD section.
15 The display prompts LAT(-:S): 000000000. The procedure is ENTER LATITUDE OF STATION. if function 3 or 4
was used instep 9, enter the latitude of station. Record the latitude of the station in the LAT: block in the DATA
RECORD section.
Note. To enter latitude, see Table 11-1, step 5.
16 The display prompts LG(-:W): 000,0000000. The procedure is ENTER LONGITUDE OF STATION. If function 3 or 4
was used in step 9, enter the longitude of station. Record the longitude in the LNG: block in the DATA RECORD
section.
Note: To enter longitude, see Table 11-1, step 5.
17 The display prompts GRID ZONE (-:S): 00. The procedure is ENTER GRID ZONE OF STATION (IF FUNCTION
=4, GO TO STEP 22). If function 3 or 4 was used in step 9, enter grid zone of station, Record the grid zone of the
station in the GRID ZONE: block in the DATA RECORD section.
18 The display prompts EAST: 000000.00. The procedure is RECORD EASTING OF STATION. If function 1 or 3 was
used instep 9, record the UTM easting in the EASTING: block in the DATA RECORD section.
19 The display prompts NORTH: 0000000.00. The procedure is RECORD NORTHING OF STATION. If function 1 or 3
was used instep 9, record the UTM northinq in the NORTHING: block in the DATA RECORD section.
20 The display prompts GRID ZONE (-:S:): The procedure is RECORD GRID ZONE OF STATION. If function 1 or 3
was used in step 9, record the ending grid zone in the GRID ZONE: block in the DATA RECORD section.
21 The display prompts ELPS: The procedure is RECORD ELLIPSOID (GO TO STEP 26). If function 1 or 3 was used
in step 9, record the output ellipsoid name in the ELLIPSOID: block of the DATA RECORD section. BUCS will go to
step 26.
22 The display prompts -LAT: 00.0000000. The procedure is RECORD LATITUDE OF STATION. if function 2 or 4 was
used in step 9, record the latitude of station in the LAT: block in the DATA RECORD section.
Note. For recording latitude. see Table 11-2, step 9.
23 The display prompts -LNG: 000,0000000, The procedure is RECORD LONGITUDE OF STATION. If function 2 or 4
was used in step 9, record the longitude of station in the LNG: block in the DATA RECORD section.
Note. For recording longitude, see Table 11-2, step 9.
24 The display prompts GRID ZONE: 00. The procedure is RECORD GRID ZONE OF STATION. if function 2 or 4
was used in step 9, record the grid zone in the GRID ZONE: block in the DATA RECORD section.
25 The display prompts ELPS: The procedure is RECORD ELLIPSOID. If function 3 or 4 was used in step 9, record
the ellipsoid in the ELLIPSOID: block in the DATA RECORD section
26 The display prompts END OF MSN (Y/N): The procedure is ENTER Y OR N. If the response is N, the series of
program prompts which began with LISTED DATUMS will begin again (step 4). All data maybe recalled at this
point and will appear es the default values at the appropriate prompts. If the response is Y, the next display prompt
will be DDCT REV.#0 90/06/25 (step 1) and all Program 14 data in memory are discarded. Select the appropriate
responseY or N.
11-16
FM 6-2
11-17
FM 6-2
11-18
FM 6-2
11-19
FM 6-2
11-20
FM 6-2
11-21
FM 6-2
WARNING
Program 15 incorrectly computes Gauss-Kruger
coordinate transformations in the Southern
Hemisphere. Add 4,000 meters to the northing
coordinate when computing UTM to GK and GK
to UTM transformations. The only country using
the GK projection that is affected is Somalia.
11-22
FM 6-2
11-23
FM 6-2
11-24
FM 6-2
11-25
FM 6-2
11-26
FM 6-2
11-27
FM 6-2
11-28
FM 6-2
11-13. PROGRAM 16USER-DEFINED Note. Datum shifts performed between WGS-72 and
any other datum by using Program 14 or 15 do not
a. Purpose. This program transforms coordinates produce the same solutions as Program 16 when
between two user-defined datums, between a user-defined inputting t h e transformation parameters as
datum and a listed datum, and between a listed datum user-defined datums. This occurs because a more
and a user-defined datum. See Appendix E for the listed accurate formula for WGS-72 is used in Programs 14
datums. The DMA or a higher HQ will disseminate and 15. Program 16 relies on the abridged Molodensky
user-defined datum parameters when needed. formulas and datum shifts for WGS-72. Use Program
16 for datum transformations only when directed by
(1) User-Defined Datum to User-Defined Datum. This a higher HQ and when specific parameters are
function converts UTM coordinates from one provided. Zone-to-zone transformations may be
user-defined datum into UTM coordinates in the same included in any of the above transformations. In such
cases, the grid zones must be adjacent. See the grid
or another user-defined datum. zone chart in Appendix F.
(2) User-Defined Datum to Listed Datum. This
function converts UTM coordinates from a user-defined
datum into UTM coordinates in a listed datum. b . Capabilities. This program converts coordinates
between user-defined datums or between a user-defined
(3) Listed Datum to User-Defined Datum. This
function converts UTM coordinates from a listed datum datum and a listed datum and also computes
into UTM coordinates in a user-defined datum. zone-to-zone transformations.
Note. The Adindan datum (code 1) transformation Note. The semimajor axis and the semiminor axis
parameters have been updated by the Defense cannot both be 6360000.000, or the program may
Mapping Agency. To perform transformations
involving the Adindan datum, use the updated abort.
parameters in Table 11-13.
11-29
FM 6-2
11-30
FM 6-2
11-31
FM 6-2
11-32
FM 6-2
11-33
FM 6-2
11-34
FM 6-2
*CHAPTER 12
BACKUP COMPUTER SYSTEM
12-1
FM 6-2
12-2. ALPHANUMERIC KEYBOARD (3) Turn the computer off before installing or removing
FUNCTIONS plug-in modules. Memory loss will occur if the interface
module or a RAM or ROM module is removed when the
Most keys on the computer perform one primary operation computer is on.
and two alternate operations. The primary operation of any
key is indicated by the white or black character(s) on the (4) Turn the computer and printer off before connecting
or disconnecting the interface cables to either component.
face of the key. The alternate operations are indicated by
the gold characters printed above the keys and the blue (5) Do not place the computer in strong magnetic fields
characters below the keys. To select the character or (for example, near a telephone).
operation printed on the face of a key, press only that key. (6) Do not place fingers, tools, or other foreign objects
To select the alternate character or operation printed in gold into any of the computer plug-in ports.
and blue, press the like-colored prefix key f or g and then
the operation key. The functions of each key are described (7) Place the printer on a clean and level surface for
in TM 9-7000-200-13&P and the HP71B Reference Manual. operation.
b. BUCS Turn-On and Turn-off Procedures. To place
12-3. STATUS ANNUNCIATORS the computer in operation, press the ON key. To turn the
computer off, perform one of the following:
Table 12-2 lists and briefly describes the status annunciators.
Press the f key and then the ON key.
Table 12-2. Status annunciators
Type in OFF, and press the END LINE key.
DISPLAY MEANING Type in BYE, and press the END LINE key (only in
BAT Battery is low. basic mode).
CALC HP71B is in the calculate mode. Note. A power supply safeguard automatical turns
the computer off with loss of memory after 10
USER User keyboard is active. minutes of inactivity.
RAD Angular setting is radians. c. BUCS General Assembly. To use the BUCS General
for survey computations, perform the steps discussed below.
PRGM A program is running. (1) Ensure the computer is off. No prompts or characters
SUSP A program is suspended. should appear in the display window.
(2) Turn the computer upside down, and set it on a soft,
Data extend to the left 01 the display, flat surface.
Data extend to the right of the display. (3) Using your thumb, press down on the battery
compartment door (the door to the center compartment).
Slide the compartment door toward the rear of the computer.
12-4. PREPARATION FOR BUCS When you press down on the compartment door, the catch will
OPERATION snap as it unlatches from the computer.
a. BUCS Operating Precautions. Certain electronic (4) Insert the batteries. Be careful to align the batteries
circuits in the computer function continuously. Improper according to the indicators in the compartment. (See Figure
operation can disrupt performance in unexpected ways or 12-2.)
damage the electronics. Observe the precautions below in
assembling or operating the BUCS General or BUCS Special. Figure 12-2. HP71B battery installation
(1) When installing batteries or RAM or ROM modules,
the operator must ground himself to metal to remove static
electricity from the computer. This is particularly important
for the handling of the HP-IL 82401A interface module.
(2) Turn the computer off before installing or removing
batteries. When removed, the batteries must be replaced
within 30 seconds or the contents of the computer memory are
lost. If the AC adapter is connected to the computer, the
memory will not be lost when the batteries are changed.
12-2
FM 6-2
(5) Lay the compartment door imposition. Slide it toward Figure 12-4. HP-IL 62401A interface installation
the front of the computer until the catch snaps.
(6) Insert and secure the program ROM module in the
appropriate plug-in port on the computer. Port 1 is the
preferred port to use. If port 1 is in use, take the next
numbered port. (See Figure 12-3.)
CAUTION
Inserting or retrieving the program ROM module while
the computer is on can damage the module and/or
cause the display to be frozen.
12-3
FM 6-2
(7) Open the front cover of the printer, and pull back Note. It is advisable to perform the self-test after
the carriage latch. Insert the paper ink absorber into its prolonged periods of storage or when installing new
holder. Insert the print head cartridge into the carriage. (See batteries and/or ROM modules.
Figure 12-7.)
(1) Turn the computer off.
(8) Close and snap the carriage latch, and pull the bail
(2) Remove all custom or prewritten program ROM
arm back. Install the paper separator onto the printer, and
modules from the computer. Reinsert the plug-in port covers
raise it to the vertical position. (See Figure 12-7.)
into the computer plug-in ports.
(9) Insert the paper, and slide it along the paper channel (3) Plug the AC adapter into the receptacle on the back of
into the slot under the paper separator. Pull the top edge the computer. Connect the AC adapter to an AC power outlet.
of the paper 1/4 inch above the bail arm rollers.
(4) Turn the computer on.
(10) Align the right-hand pinwheel to the paper holes,
(5) Type PI, and then press the END LINE key. The result
and push the bail arm forward. Lower the paper separator
3.14159265359 should be displayed, which indicates that
to the operating position, and close the printer cover. The
about 60 percent or more of the computer circuits are
BUCS Special is now ready for operation.
operating properly.
e. HF71B Computer Operational Self-Test. The self-test (6) If the computer repeatedly fails to perform a particular
can be conducted with or without the AC adaptor. If you operation or repeatedly displays an error message, such as
suspect that the computer is not operating properly, perform EXCESS CHARS, carefully reread the instruction regarding
the self-test as specified below. that operation. You may be improperly specifying the
operation.
Figure 12-7. HP2225B printer (front view)
(7) If the computer still does not operate properly, press
the ON key and / key at the same time. INIT:1 will appear
in the display. Press the END LINE key to execute a Level 1
initialization. The display should now display the replace
cursor (BASIC mode) or insert cursor (CALC mode).
(8) Press the ON key and/ key at the same time. Then
press the 2 key and END LINE key. This executes a Level
2 initialization (INIT: 2). The computer will do a self-test
of its circuitry and will display ROM TEST 1 as it begins
to test the circuits. When the first portion of the test verifies
the proper operation of the circuits, the computer will display
ROM TEST 1G 2. This indicates that the computer is
continuing the test. When the test is completed, the computer
will display ROM TEST 1G 2G 3G 4G. Then it will return
to the BASIC mode if the test revealed no faulty circuits.
If faulty circuits are detected, at least one of the numbers
will be followed by a B instead of a G. Thus, ROM TEST
1G 2B 3G 4G indicates that the computer has a faulty ROM.
If the computer indicates a faulty ROM after an INIT: 2
test, it requires service.
(9) If the display remains blank when the ON key is
pressed, or if characters remain frozen in the display, then
reset the memory by using the procedure below.
(a) Press and release the ON and / keys at the same
time.
(b) The display prompts INIT: 1. All keys are now
inactive except 1, 2,3, and END LINE. To reset the memory,
press the 3 and END LINE keys.
(c) The display prompts MEMORY LOST. Clear
the display by prosing the ON key.
12-4
FM 6-2
(10) If the procedure outlined in (9) above did not solve prompts displayed must be followed step-by-step to
the problem, reset the memory as discussed below. determine the correct data or solution in that program. The
(a) Unplug the AC adapter, and turn the computer known or field data required for computer computations are
off. the same as those required for manual computations. Survey
data and computations may be recorded on the appropriate
(b) Remove all modules. computation forms developed for use with the computer or
(c) Remove the batteries. recorded directly by the printer when the BUCS Special
(d) Press and hold down the ON key for about 30 computer is used. The prompt abbreviations are explained
seconds to discharge the circuits. in the Glossary and in the instructions section of each form.
(e) Install the batteries, or connect the AC adapter.
Then press the ON key. The message MEMORY LOST Note. Record data exactly as shown on the display.
should appear in the display. Pressing any key should display Computations will be rounded off only before survey
the BASIC prompt and replace the cursor. data are passed to the user.
12-5. SURVEY PROGRAM MODULE (1) Follow the steps in Table 12-3 to call a program for
which the program or module number is known.
The survey programs in the survey program module are
user-friendly. The user is guided through each program by (2) Follow the steps in Table 12-4 to call a program for
numerous prompts that are simple and understandable. The which the program or module number is unknown.
12-5
FM 6-2
TITLE NUMBER
AZIMUTH/DISTANCE #1
TRAVERSE #2
TRlANGULATION #3
RESECTION #4
ALT METHOD #5
HASTY ASTRO #6
STAR ID #7
POLARIS TABULAR #8
CONVERGENCE #9
CONVERSION/TRANS #10
SUBT/TRIG TRAV #11
INTERSECTION #12
ARTILLERY ASTRO #13
(2) Top of file. To go back to the beginning of a program,
press the T (top of file) and END LINE keys. This allows
d. Program Functions. The operator can back Up to or the operator to review the entire program and check the
recall a previous display, or he can go to the top of a file data displays to ensure correct information was entered.
and review the entire program. He can correct data, if
required, by entering the correct data. The operator can (3) Error correction. After performing a backup of a
abort a survey program at any time. These capabilities are prior input, the operator can correct input data by entering
inherent to the survey program software. the corrected data where the error exists. Key in the correct
data, and press the END LINE key. To recompute all outputs
(1) Backup. To backup to a prior prompt or data display, by using the corrected data, press the END LINE key as
press the Band END LINE keys. To backup to each previous required.
prompt or data display, repeatedly press the B and END LINE
keys. (4) Abort. The operator can abort a survey program at
any point in the program calculation by pressing the A and
Note. Specific display prompts are preceded by a END LINE keys. A safety prompt, ABORT (Y/N), is
circumflex (^). The circumflex is used with the displayed to preclude accidentally aborting a program. To
backup function. It tells the operator performin the
backup operation that some data have been complete the abort procedure, press the Y and END LINE
bypassed. To review the bypassed data, the keys. The next display prompt will be SURVEY PGM
operator must proceed in the program. In the MENU REV1.
following example, Program 1, Azimuth and Distance,
is used to demonstrate the backup procedures when (5) Warning messages. Table 12-6 lists the warning
a prompt with a circumflex is displayed. messages that may be encountered in the survey programs.
12-6
FM 6-2
d. Program 4-Resection. This program computes the MEMORY LOST Occurs when memory is
coordinates and height of one or more stations from the cleared.
UTM coordinates of three known stations. Resection NO SOLUTION - CHECK Occurs when computation
computations are recorded on DA Form 5593-R. INPUT based on input data is not
possible.
Figure 12-8. Sketch of a sample traverse
ILLEGALENTRY Occurs when operator tries
to enter data which are not
within input parameters.
WARNING: DATE <1950 Occurs when the operator
tries to enter a pre-1950
date.
SET#1 AZ Occurs in artillery astro
SET #2 AZ program when rejection
SET #3 AZ criteria are not met These
three messages follow the
prompt REJECTION CRIT
NOT MET
LAT NOT WITHIN UTM Occurs when the operator
tries to enter a latitude
greeter than 84 (north) or
less than -80 (south).
12-7
FM 6-2
e. Program 5Altitude Method. This program computes are recorded on DA Form 5598-R. This program checks
a grid azimuth from three sets of observations of the sun or the accuracy specifications in the same manner as Program
a survey star. The program contains two separate 5.
computationsone for sun and one for stars. Computation
i. Program 9Grid Convergence. This program computes
of the sun altitude is recorded on DA Form 5594-R.
a UTM grid azimuth from a gyroscopic (true) azimuth.
Computation of star altitude method is recorded on DA
Computations are recorded on DA Form 5599-R.
Form 5595-R. Azimuth from three sets of observations are
computed, and the azimuth of each set is compared to the j. Program 10Conversion and Transformation. This
mean of the three sets. If one of the three sets does not program has three separate operations which are
meet the rejection criteria, the computer will display SET described below.
#_REJECTED. The computer will then calculate a mean
azimuth from the two remaining sets. Should two sets fail (1) Geographic to UTM. This operation computes
to meet accuracy specifications, the display will be REJECT conversion of geographic coordinates to UTM coordinates.
CRIT NOT MET. In this case, check the input data and Computations are recorded on DA Form 5600-R. This
recompute. If rejection criteria still arc not met, determine operation requires the following data:
new field data.
Spheroid.
Latitude of station.
CAUTION
Once the user has obtained the final grid azimuth Longitude of station.
and it is shown in the GRID AZ/MK display, the backup
Grid zone.
function cannot be used, To review any previously
entered data, the operator must use the top of file (2) UTM to geographic. This operation computes
function (press T and END LINE keys). The backup conversion of UTM coordinates to geographic coordinates.
function can be used at any time before the final grid Computation are recorded on DA Form 5601-R. This
azimuth is shown in the GRID AZ/MK display. operation requires the following data:
Spheroid.
f. Program 6Hasty Astronomic Observation (Hasty UTM casting.
Astro). This program computes a grid azimuth and check UTM northing.
angle from observations of the sun or a survey star. Data
for either operation are recorded on DA Form 7286-R. The Grid zone.
accuracy of the computation depends on the instrument used (3) Zone to zone. This operation transforms UTM grid
to perform the observation (0.3 roils for the T16). The coordinates and grid azimuth from one grid zone to an adjacent
program uses the electronic ephemeris, which eliminates the grid zone. Computations are recorded on DA Form 5602-R.
need to extract data from FM 6-300. The program provides The operation requires the following data:
the option of using the internal timer to determine date and
time of observation or manually inputting dale and time. Spheroid.
The ability to manually input date and time of observation Starting grid zone.
allows the surveyor to perform fieldwork without BUCS being
at the site of observation. Ending grid zone.
g. Program 7Star 11). This program computes the UTM casting.
approximate azimuth and altitude to a selected star at a date
UTM northing.
and time chosen by the user. The orientation data will help
identify survey stars for astro observation or navigation. The UTM grid azimuth.
program will compute the approximate azimuth and altitude
(vertical angle) to any of the 73 survey stars listed in FM k. Program 11Trig Traverse and Subtense. This
6-300. The orientation data are accurate to 5.0 roils. Data program has two separate operations-trig traverse and
for Star ID are recorded on DA Form 7284-R. The form subtense. Both operations of this program compute
has space for six sets of data. horizontal distances. Computations for both operations
are recorded on DA Form 5603-R.
h. Program 8Polaris Tabular Method. This program
computes a grid azimuth from three sets of observations of 1. Program 12Intersection. This program computes the
Polaris by using the Polaris tabular method. Computations UTM coordinates of a target by intersection. Computations
12-8
FM 6-2
are recorded on DA Form 5604-R. A maximum of 40 targets turns the computer off after 10 minutes of inactivity. The
can be computed when the same OPs are common to BUCS has a continuous memory which allows the operator
subsequent targets. This program can be used for either to recall the last program and its calculations at any time
type of target area base. (intervisible or nonintervisible). The without loss of survey data.
following data are required:
(1) The operator uses the following steps to recall
Coordinates of OP 1 (01). the last program and its calculations before the computer
is turned off:
Coordinates of OP 2 (02).
Step 1. Turn the computer on.
Azimuth from OP 1 to target.
Step 2. Press the f key.
Azimuth from OP 2 to target. Step 3. Press the CONT key.
Vertical angle from OP 1 to target. Step 4. Press the END LINE key.
m. Program 13Artillery Astronomic Observation (Arty (2) This procedure will recall the program and the
Ash). This program computes a grid azimuth from three calculations. The computer will display the prompt which
observations of the sun or survey star. Data for either follows the prompt at which the computer turned itself off.
observation is recorded on DA Form 7285-R. This program Use the backup procedure to verify the data of the previous
uses an electronic ephemeris, which eliminates the need to display prompt, and continue computations.
extract data from FM 6-300. The program provides the option b. Exiting and Reentering BUCS Program Mode. The
of using the internal timer or manually entering the date BUCS allows the operator to exit the survey program at
and time of tip for each observation. The ability to manually any time for the purpose of performing mathematical
input the date and time of observation allows surveyors to calculations independent of the program. The operator
perform fieldwork without BUCS being at the site of may reenter the survey program at any time without loss
observation. The program cheeks the accuracy specifications of memory.
in the same manner as Program 5.
(1) The following steps must be performed to exit
the program mode and go to the calculation mode:
12-7. SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
Step 1. Press the ON key to clear the display.
Several special applications of the BUCS can be performed
by the user. These applications are as follows: Step 2. Press the f key.
Using the continuous memory. Step 3. Press the CALC key.
Exiting and reentering the program mode. The computer is now in the CALC mode and ready to
perform mathematical problems independent from the
Setting the time and date. survey program.
Making time corrections and adjustments (2) The following steps must be performed to reenter
(internal timer). the program mode:
Determining time accuracy requirements. Step 1. Press the f key.
Adjusting the contrast of the display. Step 2. Press the CALC key.
Step 3. Press the f key.
Increasing the speed of data input and
calculations. Step 4. Press the CONT key.
Clearing the memory. Step 5. Press the END LINE key.
The computer will return to the display prompt which
Inserting RUNNING CLOCK program into follows the display prompt where the program was exited.
BUCS memory.
(3) The following steps must be performed to reenter
a. Using BUCS Continuous Memory. To protect the BUCS the program mode at the very start of the display prompt
from running down the batteries, a built-in safety feature ^DATE 01-JAN-00:
12-9
FM 6-2
Step 1. Press the f key. TIME: hh:mm:ss. The hh is the hour (24 hour
clock); mm the minute; and SS, the second.
Step 2. Press the CALC key. The operator can either accept the displayed
Step 3. Press the RUN key. time by pressing the END LINE key or change
it by typing in a new one. If the operator
Step 4. Press the END LINE key. decides to change the time given, he must
The computer is now in the program mode and ready to input the entire time, including the seconds.
perform survey programs 1 through 13. The example below shows this procedure.
Note. The procedure in (3) will discard the program d. Making Time Corrections and Adjustments (Internal
which was run before this procedure. Timer). BUCS has a versatile set of statements and functions
to set and adjust the quartz-controlled clock and to change
c. Setting Date and Time (Internal Timer). The BUCS its speed. The system clock is regulated by a quartz crystal
contains an accurate quartz-crystal clock and a calendar with a typical accuracy of 1.5 minutes per month. The
covering several thousand years. The clock and calendar accuracy of the clock is affected by temperature, physical
are referred to as the internal timer in this chapter. The shock, humidity, and aging. HP71 Owners Manual (Section
internal timer is accessed at the TIME MODULE prompt 5, page 90) describes how to refine the time keeping accuracy
in the program instructions. This internal timer runs whether of the clock if required. The time adjustment statements
the BUCS is on or off. It begins as soon as the batteries described in Section 5 must be followed exactly. An improper
are installed. The steps for setting the date and time are use of these statements could lead to a very inaccurate clock
as follows: speed.
Step 1. Turn BUCS on. e. Determining Time Accuracy Requirements. The new
astro programs within the SURVEY MODULE REV1 (Star
Step 2. Type RUN SURVEY. ID, Hasty Astro, and Arty Astro) use the hour-angle formulas
The SURVEY routine will call a subroutine to compute azimuth. The new astro programs require the
(DATIME) which will then request the time accuracies shown in Table 12-7.
proper date by displaying
^DATE:DD:-MMM-YY. The DD is the day; Table 12-7. Time accuracies for astro programs
MMM, the month; and YY the year. The
operator can either accept the date that is
displayed by pressing the END LINE key or CELESTIAL BODY ACCURACY OF TIME
type in a new date in the same format as
given in the prompt and then pressing the Sun 1 second
END LINE key.
Stars (other than Polaris) 1 second
The subroutine DATIME will next request
the proper time of day by displaying Polaris 10 seconds
12-10
FM 6-2
f. Adjusting the Contrast of Display. the operator must perform the steps discussed
below.
(1) The BUCS allows you to adjust the contrast by
controlling the display intensity and optimum viewing angle. Step 1. Press and release the ON and / keys at the
You may choose a contrast value from 0 to 15. Contrast same time.
0 gives you the least contrast and shallowest viewing angle. Step 2. The display prompts INIT: 1. All the keys
Contrast 15 gives you the sharpest contrast and steepest are now inactive except 1, 2, 3, and END LINE.
viewing angle and also makes all the annunciators easily To reset the memory, press the 3 and END
visible. After memory reset, contrast value is set to 9. You LINE keys.
can adjust the contrast value to suit your own preference. Step 3. The display prompts MEMORY LOST. Clear
(2) To adjust the contrast and the viewing angle, type the display by pressing the ON key.
CONTRAST 15 and press the END LINE key. This will
i. Inserting RUNNING CLOCK Program Into BUCS
give you the sharpest contrast. Choose your own preference Memory.
by selecting any number from 0 to 15.
WARNING
Note. If the contrast is set to 0, the display appears
blank unless it is viewed at a low angle. Therefore, This routine may be used only with the BUCS
when BUCS is turned on with the contrast set to 0, SURVEY REV 1 module. Use with any other
the BUCS may appear to be off. This problem can
be remedied by setting the contrast to 8.
module (for example, cannon) is not authorized
because of memory restrictions.
12-11
FM 8-2
WARNING
Do not incinerate or mutilate the printer battery
pack. The battery pack may release toxic
materials or burst under extreme heat. Do not
connect together or otherwise short-circuit the
battery pack terminals. The battery pack may
melt or cause serious burns.
WARNING
The ink in the print head cartridge contains
diethylene glycol, which is harmful if swallowed.
12-12
FM 6-2
2. Yellow attention light is on continuously. Load paper into printer. Attention light will start blinking.
3. Yellow attention light is blinking. Press blue button. Print head cartridge will move, and attention light will go out.
Remove any obstruction from around print head cartridge, and push blue button
again. If attention light continues blinking, printer is signaling an error condition
and should be turned in for repair.
4. Printer does not respond to computer. Make sure that power light is on or blinking and attention light is off. If this is not
the case, refer to error conditions 1 through 3 above. Verify that printer is
operational by running the self-test (Chapter 1 of HP71B Owners Manual). Verify
that the HP-IL cables are property connected, and repeat the procedure for
assigning printer as system print device. This procedure is explained for several
different HP systems in appendixes of HP2225B Reference Manual. You may also
need to refer to HP71B Owners Manual. Computer may not be sending printer a
carriage return and line feed at end of each line. In this case, printer will continue
storing data because it never recognizes end of the line. Refer to automatic line
termination on page 3-7 of the HP2225B Reference Manual and to the HP71B
Owners Manual for the reset procedures.
5. Paper does not feed properly. Remove paper from printer, and discard any that is crumpled. If using fanfold
paper, verify that it can travel freely without catching and that right side pinwheel is
adjusted correctly for width of paper. Reload paper according to instructions in
Chapter 1 of the HP2225B Reference Manual.
6. Print quality is poor, dot rows are missing, Ensure there is sufficient ink in cartridge by viewing the ink bladder. If bladder is
and carriage moves but printer does not print. collapsed, replace cartridge. Using a tissue, gently wipe face of print head to
remove any accumulated dust if print head cartridge has not been used for
several days, moisten tissue with water before wiping. Using a cotton swab
dipped in alcohol, lightly wipe electrical connector of print head cartridge, if
problem continues, replace print head cartridge.
12-13
C1, FM 6-2
Chapter 13
SATELLITE SIGNALS NAVIGATION SET AN/PSN-11
13-1
C1, FM 6-2
b. The control segment consists of five passive-tracking b. The satellites also broadcast an encrypted precise (P/Y)
monitoring stations, active-tracking ground antennas, and the code. This transmission is the basis for the PPS that is
master control station located at Falcon Air Force Base, used by military GPS receivers. These receivers must have
Colorado. These tracking stations, located around the world, crypto keys loaded to detect and nullify the SA errors, which
are capable of monitoring the satellite navigation messages allows for more accurate position data. Also, the crypto
and time signals better than 90 percent of the time. This keys provide a means of unscrambling the encrypted P/Y
information is relayed to the master control station, which code, which is an antispoofing (AS) protection. Receivers
has the capability to effect any needed corrections to the such as the AN/PSN-11 have this capability and are
satellite timing and navigation messages. considered to be PPS receivers. Only PPS receivers are
c. The user segment consists of navigation receivers authorized for combat operations.
designed for marine, aircraft, and manpack or vehicle use.
The receivers must have electrical line-of-site with the
satellites to receive and decode the satellite signals. The 13-3. FA SURVEY APPLICATION
internal computer uses these satellite data to generate a precise
a. The current AN/PSN-l1 basis of issue plan (BOIP) calls
time, velocity, and three-dimensional (3D) position data. The
for one receiver with each PADS team, each conventional
receiver must track four satellites to obtain a 3D position,
survey team or party, and the survey headquarters or SPCE.
and three satellites will yield a two-dimensional (2D) position.
Current position coordinates and height are obtained from b. Field artillery survey personnel will primarily use the
a 3D position and only current coordinates are obtained from AN/PSN-11 to initiate surveys when existing survey control
a 2D position. The receiver needs only one satellite for is not available. This receiver allows the surveyor to begin
precise time. surveying immediately with more accuracy than assumed
data or a map spot.
13-2. STANDARD POSITIONING SYSTEM
AND PRECISE POSITIONING SYSTEM c. A description of all parts, components, and detailed
operating procedures for the AN/PSN-11 can be found in
a. The SPS is available to all GPS receivers worldwide, TM 11-5825-291-13. All operators should be thoroughly
both military and civilian. When a receiver is in the SPS trained on all functions of the system before using the
mode, almanac, navigation, and timing information are AN/PSN-11. The general how-to procedures for operating
received on the nonencrypted course acquisition (CA) code the AN/PSN-l1 will not be in this manual. Only those
satellite signal. To deny unauthorized users the full accuracy issues that deal with survey positioning and orientation or
of GPS, the Department of Defense (DoD) intentionally specific recommended procedures will be addressed.
places errors in the navigation and timing signal. This process
is called selective availability (SA). The SA errors are (1) Setup. The setup selections allow the AN/PSN-11
unpredictable and can produce significant horizontal and operator to select several options and modes of operation.
elevation errors. This is one reason why SPS receivers are (See TM 11-5825 -291-13.) An example of a typical setup
not authorized for combat operations. for artillery surveyors is shown in Table 13-1.
13-2
C1, FM 6-2
(2) Position. Whenever coordinates are being determined set for meters or feet as a unit of measurement. Normally,
for a critical position such as an orienting station, howitzer mean sea level and meters will be the preferred selections.
location, and PADS initialization or update point, use extreme (4) Direction. The AN/PSN-11 should never be used to
care. To meet required accuracy, the system must have determine orientation azimuth for firing positions. As with
crypto keys loaded, be set on the correct datum, and indicate the PADS, azimuth computed between two sets of GPS
a FOM 1 before the coordinates will be used. The coordinates will produce erratic results.
AN/PSN-11 with a FOM 1 will meet or exceed an accuracy
of 10 meters CEP for horizontal and 10 meters PE for (5) PADS operation. The AN/PSN-11 does not require
vertical. The averaging mode will yield a more stable and any special installation for PADS operation. Position
accurate set of coordinates. After the set attains FOM 1, coordinates for initialization or update can be obtained by
switch to the averaging mode, and allow the counter to moving a short distance away from the vehicle and placing
increment to at least 300 counts. (This will take about 5 the set directly over the desired location. Using the system
minutes.) Position data should always be checked by a away from the vehicle will reduce the possibility of antenna
second independent mean; for example, a second receiver, masking. When the averaged FOM 1 coordinates have been
an accurate map spot, or the current coordinates on the PADS. recorded, move the PADS vehicle to the AN/PSN-11 position.
If the AN/PSN-11 auxiliary antenna is mounted on the
(3) Height. The AN/PSN-11 can determine height vehicle, the precise GPS vehicle lever arms information (X,
(elevation) relative to either the horizontal datum ellipsoid Y, Z) must be entered during system initialization as outlined
(spheroid) or mean sea level. Both modes of operation can be in TM 5-6675-308-12 with Change 3. The operating
13-3
C1, FM 6-2
instructions in the current PADS TM (Chapter 3, in Change c. Spoofing. The AN/PSN-11 may be subject to spoofing
3) applies to older GPS receivers. When using the errors. These errors are caused by false satellite signals
AN/PSN-11 during PADS operations, only data determined designed to generate errors in navigation and position data.
from a FOM 1 will be used. Maximum protection against spoofing is attained by using
the crypto keys and the All-Y setup selection. If the
13-4. GPS LIMITATIONS AND AN/PSN-11 is in a spoofing environment, the system may
CONSIDERATIONS sense spoofer activity and generate a POSSIBLE SPOOFERS
warning screen.
a. Masking. GPS receivers rely on electronic line of sight
with the satellites. Therefore, dense foliage, buildings,
mountains, and canyons may mask the signl. The d. Temperature. The AN/PSN-11 operating range is -4
AN/PSN-11 will initially select satellites that are 10 or to +158 F. When operating in cold regins, protect the
more above the true horizon. If for usable satellites are receiver by carrying it inside your outer clothing or operating
not detected, the set will switch to 0 until satellite acquisition. it from a heated vehicle. This can be done by using the
After acquisition, the set will switch to 5 above the horizon auxiliary antenna.
for normal operation. If enough satellites cannot be acquired,
the receiver must be moved to a more suitable location. e. Power. The AN/PSN-11 will normally be operated by
using either a BA5800/U lithium battery or 24-volt vehicle
b. Jamming. The AN/PSN-11 is subject to jamming. power. Operating in the continuouts mode, the battery will
When low signal to noise ratios are detected or reception
provide adequate power for about 15 hours at 71 F. During
is blicked altogether, jamming may be the cause. Move to
extended missions, spare batteries must be readily available.
a new location, and try to place something between the
Using vehicle power eliminates this problem; however, the
receiver and the suspected jammer. When the signal to noise
ration is above 34 decibels (db), jamming has probably been correct polarity must be observed to prevent damage to the
eliminated. system.
13-4
C1, FM 6-2
CHAPTER 14
SURVEY OPERATIONS
To support current Army doctrine, survey operations must be responsive,
accurate, and flexible. The artillery surveyor's primary mission is to provide
accurate orientation and determine the coordinates and height of weapons
and target-locating systems relative to one another. This is known as
establishing a common grid. The task of providing a common grid involves
different levels of command and echelons of survey. Beginning at the echelon
above corps, topo surveyors establish third-order or higher SCPs in the corps
and EAC areas for Patriot, corps general support units, and other units.
Topographic surveyors also provide SCPs in the division area for the div arty
surveyors. Div arty and TAB surveyors extend control to battalion areas,
where the battalion surveyors extend control to the weapons and target-locating
devices. This chapter discusses the survey operations typical of the following:
Common grid.
Cannon battalion.
Missile and rocket battalions.
Division artillery.
Target acquisition battery and detachment.
SPCE (corps and brigade).
Special environments.
Section I
CANNON BATTALION SURVEY
The primary mission of the surveyors in a cannon battalion is to provide timely and accurate
survey control to the firing batteries and any other battalion assets as required. Survey control
consists mainly of establishing a line of known direction and determining the locations, both
horizontally and vertically, of the weapons and the target-locating systems. In addition, FA battalion
survey must provide control for other weapons, instruments, and electronic equipment as required.
14-1. REASONS FOR COMMON GRID b. Deliver Surprise Observed Fires. If survey is not
available and all batteries are required to adjust on a target,
Accomplishment of the battalion survey mission provides the element of surprise is lost. Complete surprise is
a common grid for firing units and target-locating systems impossible without survey.
within prescribed accuracies. A common grid allows the
cannon battalion to do the procedures below. c. Deliver Effective Unobserved Fires. Without survey,
consistently effective unobserved fires are possible only if
the target has been fired on previously and replot data have
a. Mass Fires. Accurate survey permits rapid and been computed.
economical massing of fires. For artillery to mass fires
accurately without survey requires an observed adjustment d. Transfer Target Data Between Units. Transfer of target
of all units on the target or prior registration of all units on data between units is possible only when units are located
a common registration point. relative to each other and to the target (on a common grid).
14-1
C1, FM 6-2
14-2
C1, FM 6-2
Figure 14-1. Discrepancies in survey control caused by use of assumed starting data
14-3
C1, FM 6-2
(2) Apply the corrections (differences) to the assumed must recompute the entire survey again. This is done by entering
data to make the assumed data equal the common grid data the correct (common) starting data and all field data and by
(coordinates and height) at all critical points. following normal computational procedures.
d. Whenever survey operations are started with an (2) When using the FED MSR, recompute the entire
assumed azimuth, regardless of whether the coordinates survey by recalling the survey that needs converting to
and height are known or assumed, the coordinates of common control and exchange the assumed data with the
each station and the azimuths determined will be in error. correct (common) data. Then repeat by pressing the C button
To convert the assumed data to correct grid data, all and recording all critical data as they appear.
azimuths and coordinates determined in the scheme must 4
be corrected. Application of the azimuth correction Note. The FED MSR will hold three computations of
when using known coordinates and height with an each type of survey. However, if the survey requiring
assumed azimuth was referred to as swinging the grid. conversion is no longer in the FED MSR, you must
recompute the entire survey by entering the correct
When both assumed coordinates and height and azimuth (common) starting data and all field data and by
are used, it is known as swinging and sliding the grid. following normal computational procedures.
With the acquisition of more rapid means of computing
(BUCS and FED MSR), these methods are no longer
required. The procedures for converting assumed
azimuth and/or coordinates to common control are
discussed below. 14-4. POSITION AREA SURVEY
(1) When using the BUCS to convert assumed azimuth REQUIREMENTS
and/or coordinates to common control, use the following Survey control is required in the position area of each firing
procedures: battery of an FA cannon battalion. The HQ battery survey
section using the PADS or a conventional survey team
(a) If the survey data that needs converting is still in performs the survey. Position area survey requirements are
the BUCS, recompute the entire survey. This is done by going identical for light, medium, and heavy artillery batteries.
to the top of file (T, END LINE) and exchanging the assumed (See Figure 14-3.) If the battery is using the split-battery
data with the correct (common) data. Then repeat by pressing concept of operations, survey control is provided for each
END LINE and recording all critical data as they appear. firing platoon. (See Figure 14-4.) Requirements for position
(b) If you have started computing another survey or area survey are described in paragraphs a through g on the
the survey that needs converting is no longer in the BUCS, you next two pages.
14-4
C1, FM 6-2
a. Battalion and Battery Survey Control Points. As relative locations of the OS and EOL usually are addressed
mentioned earlier, survey control for artillery units may be in the unit survey SOP.
available in the form of SCPs established by higher echelons
(2) End of the orienting line. The EOL is a survey station
or trig lists containing data for stations located near the unit.
used as an azimuth mark for the OS. The EOL must be
The locations of SCPs established by div arty must allow
located so that it is visible and at least 100 meters from the
for the survey capability of the battalion. An SCP must be
OS.
provided within 5 km of the center of the battalion position
area if the PADS is the primary method of survey. When (3) Orienting line. An OL is a line of known direction
the battalion is limited to conventional survey methods, div materialized on the ground in each position area. It is used
arty survey must provide SCPs within 2,000 meters of the as a reference direction for orienting instruments and for
firing positions. If the firing elements are widely dispersed laying weapons for direction. When the PADS is used to
or operating separately, it may be necessary to establish establish the OL, the two-position mark is the preferred
more than one SCP. If there are no SCPs in the battalion method. If autoreflection is used, a one-position angle must
area, the battalion RSO will select a convenient point near be measured. When the OL is established by conventional
a prominent terrain feature and assume starting control. The survey, it should be a main scheme leg to ensure accuracy.
div arty survey officer (survey platoon leader) may task direct
support (DS) battalions to provide survey control for c. Field Artillery Radar Locations. One weapons-locating
supporting units located in the battalion area of operations. radar (WLR) section (AN/TPQ-36) normally is attached to
each DS howitzer battalion. The coordinates and the height
of the radar position (near stake) and a line of known direction
b. Firing Battery Positions. Survey requirements in each to an azimuth mark (far stake) are required. The distance
firing battery position are described in (1) through (3) below. and vertical angle to an azimuth mark are also required.
The battalion survey section is responsible for determining
(1) Orienting station. The OS is a station used by the these data. Usually, the WLR (AN/TPQ-37) will be located
firing battery or platoon personnel to orient the weapons. near one of the artillery battalions. Div arty may task the
The coordinates and height of the OS and a line of known nearest battalion to provide survey control. The radars
direction are required. The position of the OS is usually require coordinates and height of the radar position and
selected by the battery commander or executive officer (XO), distance and direction to an azimuth mark. (See Figure
but it can be selected by the survey personnel. The frequent 14-5.) The PADS is the primary means of obtaining survey
moves and the many positions required will not always allow control for the Firefinder radars (AN/TPQ-36 and
the battery commander and/or XO to select all 0Ss. The AN/TPQ-37). When the PADS is not available before the
14-5
C1, FM 6-2
radar section occupies the radar site, fifth-order survey will Railroad tracks, artillery, tanks, and vehicles: 75
be provided by a conventional survey team or the radar meters.
section will conduct a hasty survey. The hasty survey will Barbwire and personal weapons: 10 meters.
provide the data for initializing the radar. If the PADS or
conventional survey team arrives after the hasty survey has (3) Whenever a declination station is established, the
been completed, the data determined by the PADS or vertical angle to each azimuth mark should be determined.
conventional survey will be entered into the radar computer The vertical angle correction for the aiming circle can then
instead of the hasty survey data. Azimuth required by the be determined at the same time it is being declinated.
Firefinder radars must be accurate within 0.4 mil. The
(4) Any SCP with an azimuth mark may be used as a
position accuracy required is 10 meters. The vertical interval declination station if the area is free from local magnetic
accuracy is 10 meters for the AN/TPQ-36 and 3 meters for attraction.
the AN/TPQ-37. However, the weapon location accuracy
of the AN/TPQ-36 is greatly enhanced by keeping the vertical e. Intelligence Electronic Warfare Sites. When IEW sites
interval accuracy within 3 meters. This accuracy is within are established in the battalion area, the div arty survey
the capabilities of the PADS and fifth-order survey. officer may task the battalion survey section to provide survey
d. Declination stations. A declination station should be control.
established at a place that is convenient to using units. It f. Meteorological Sites. Met sites usually do not require
may be established by an FA battalion, a div arty, or a survey control. A map spot and the met section declinated
TAB. The ideal declination station should have known grid theodolite usually are accurate enough. However, when the
azimuhs to four prominent features (for example, a church map accuracy is doubtful or maps of the area are not available,
steeple, radio towers, quad markers). Preferably there should the nearest artillery battalion may be tasked to provide survey
be one prominent feature in each quadrant and at least 1,000 control.
meters from the declination station. When time, tactical
situation or lack of prominent features limit operations, g. Alternate, Supplementary, and Offset Registration
Positions. Survey of alternate, supplementary, and offset
azimuth marks can be established (for example, range pole).
However, a minimum distance of 300 meters should be used registration positions should be performed as soon as survey
if possible. operations for primary positions are completed. Survey
requirements for alternate positions are the same as those
(1) In establishing a declination station, the direction of for primary positions.
each azimuth mark may be determined by computing the
azimuth (if the coordinates of the declination station and 14-5. CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF
azimuth marks are known), by applying a measured angle
to a known direction, by astro observations, or by using POSITION AREA SURVEY
PADS with optical transfer. The theodolite is used in a. Any conventional survey method or combination of
measuring angles or making astro observations to determine methods may be used to perform the position area survey.
the azimuths for the declination station. The method most commonly used is traverse, electronic or
taped. The position area survey starts at an SCP, moves to
(2) Declination stations should be established in an area
its destination, and ends on another SCP (on the same common
free from local magnetic attraction. The following minimum
grid) or the starting point. All surveys should be started
distances from common objects with magnetic attraction are
prescribed: and closed on an SCP of greater accuracy than the survey
being performed. All position area survey requirements are
Power lines and electronic equipment: 150 meters. executed to fifth-order accuracy.
Figure 14-5. Radar survey
14-6
C1, FM 6-2
b. When a firing battery or platoon position is surveyed, effectively mix conventional survey methods with PADS
an OS is established from which all weapons will be visible. operations. When target area survey is required, the PADS
This point is used as one EOL, and the traverse leg used crew will establish an SCP with an azimuth mark as close
to establish the station is used as the OL. This makes the as possible to the OPs as part of the connection area survey.
OL a leg of the closed traverse and thus permits the detection The conventional survey team will then perform the target
of any error in the OL should the traverse not close in azimuth, area survey.
The OL should be checked by using a compass. Marking
of the OS and EOL is established by unit SOP. b. Accomplishment of the target area survey mission
requires that a base be established from which the targets
and critical points can be surveyed. The requirements
14-6. CONNECTION AREA SURVEY for establishing a target area base are to locate two or
a. Connection area survey, when required, is that part of more OPs relative to each other that overlook the target
the survey operation performed for the purpose of placing area, to determine the azimuth and distance between the
target area surveys and position area surveys on a common two, and to determine an azimuth to a visible azimuth
grid. Surveyors performing the connection area survey may mark for each. The OPs are designated 01, 02, and so
establish the actual OPs or provide only a target area SCP. forth; and 01 is considered the control OP. 01 may be
If only a target area SCP is established, then survey control on the right or left of the base. However, it is always the
must be extended to the desired target locators by FA OP requiring the least amount of fieldwork to establish
surveyors during target area survey operations. its location. This is because less directional accuracy is
lost through angular measurements when the number of
b. The connection area survey normally is started from main scheme angles is held to a minimum. (For example,
the battalion SCP and is closed on either the starting point if the OP on the left can be established in two traverse
or any other SCP on the same grid network. When the legs from the target area survey control point [TASCP]
PADS is unavailable and time is critical, the connection and five traverse legs are required to establish the OP on
area survey may be limited to a directional traverse or the right, then the OP on the left would be designated as
astro observation performed at the OPs. The OP locations 01.) (See Figure 14-5a.)
can then be determined by resection or map spot if the
common grid and the grid of the map are the same.
Figure 14-5a. Target area base
c. Additional requirements in the connection area survey
may include providing survey control for mortars within
the supported brigade and combat electronic warfare and
intelligence (CEWI) target-locating devices located within
the area. The div arty survey officer will designate
priorities. Control is extended to these installations as
provided in the survey plan. Priorities of the FA battalion
requirements must be indicated in an SOP or in the
operation order (OPORD).
14-7
C1, FM 6-2
14-8. PALADIN SURVEY update points along the routes of march and two update
points per platoon position area to ensure that no Paladin
a. Paladin Element. The Paladin is an M109A6 has to travel more than 16 miles/27 kilometers without
self-propelled howitzer equipped with a modular azimuth updating. If the battalion has set up a rearm, refuel resupply,
positioning system (MAPS). With MAPS, the Paladin has and survey point (R3SP), update points should be set up
more flexibility and requires fewer crewmen and less next to the fuel trucks so the howitzers can perform an update
equipment. The Paladin battery normally operates in a while refueling. If no R3SP is set up, establish four update
two-platoon configuration (three howitzers per platoon). points, spaced 50 to 100 meters apart near the release point
Normally, an M109A2/A3 platoon is allocated a position of a tactical road march. These points should be easily
area goose egg of about 1,000 meters in diameter. In contrast, identifiable and accessible without detouring far from the
a Paladin platoon requires a position area on the order of route of march, and without clogging traffic along the route
2,000 by 1,000 meters and it uses all of that terrain during of march. This will allow the entire platoon to update at
normal operations. Limitations of the on-board navigational once, so that they will not hold up the rest of the battalion.
system restrict the howitzer displacement distance. The
Paladin must be updated every 16 miles or 27 kilometers c. Alternative Survey Control. If one or both PADS
to ensure it meets position accuracy requirements. become inoperative, the RSO must ensure that the survey
mission continues. The conventional team supplemented
b. Survey Requirments. If the Paladin battalion is to by the inoperative PADS team members must provide update
accomplish its mission effectively, survey operations must points. They can use whichever conventional method that
be continuous and carefully coordinated. The battalion S3 time allows to provide the best available update points
and RSO must use their limited survey assets (two PADS possible until the PADS is operating again. Hasty survey
and one conventional team for six platoons) wisely. The methods or a PPS GPS receiver can also be used by the
primary responsibility of the PADS teams are to establish howitzer crew as a last resort.
Section II
MISSILE AND ROCKET BATTALION SURVEY
The survey mission in MLRS and Patriot missile units is to provide timely survey control within
prescibed accuracies. Numerous alternate position areas are essential for survival, and all require
the same survey as the primary position area. Each system has individual requirements that vary
slightly from other FA systems. These differences are due to equipment design, number of launchers,
and auxiliary equipment requiring survey control.
14-8
C1, FM 6-2
(2) Although cover and concealment are considerations c. Alternative Survey Control. If the PADS becomes
in platoon area survey point (PASP) selection, utility should inoperative, the battery commander must ensure that the
be the primary consideration. The PASP must be readily survey mission is continued. In this situation, survey control
accessible so that the driver can stop the launcher next to should be obtained from other FA units operating in the
the SCP without a ground guide or excessive maneuvering. area or may be established by using a combination of
conventional and hasty survey techniques. The PADS team
(3) In the motor park area, each launcher should have can continue the mission by using conventional survey
an individual SCP for initialization. This option will enable methods that can be performed by two men with a theodolite
the launcher to leave the motor park area in a HOT status and the BUCS. Battery personnel must help the PADS team
and be able to accept fire missions immediately. in the survey effort by using the AN/PSN-11 (PLGR) to
establish coordinates at the firing point. For guidance on
the use of the AN/PSN-11, see Chapter 13. When location
(4) The launcher crew calibrates the SRP/PDS whenever data are determined by hasty survey or map reading skills,
the launcher carrier track system is replaced or repaired. the distance traveled by the MLRS between update points
Calibration must also be performed when there is a significant cannot exceed 6 km. The unit must train and rehearse these
change in the terrain of the operating area. Two SCPs located techniques at every opportunity, both in the field and in
4 to 6 km apart are required for conducting calibration. The garrison, to ensure that personnel have the skills needed to
launcher must be calibrated every 30 days, after PDS consistently obtain accurate results. It must be understood
maintenance, and after major suspension or track drive that these alternative methods are to be used only in
maintenance. emergency situations.
14-9
C1, FM 6-2
14-10. PATRIOT MISSILE control can be converted to the corps grid when corps
BATTALION SURVEY control becomes available.
a. Battalion Survey Elements. The mission of the Patriot b. Employment. The Patriot battalion is employed in two
missile battalion requires that the unit be employed, in basic configurations. These are the area (belt) defense
most cases, over a very wide frontage and in great depths. (Figure 14-7) and the forward area defense engagement
Under the present organization, the battalion consists of coverage (Figure 14-8). Figures 14-7 and 14-8 show the
three batteries of six launchers each. Future plans are to six-battery battalion. Battalions with fewer than six batteries
increase the organization to six batteries of eight launchers should modify these defense designs to use available tiring
each. The battalion HQ battery (one of three battalion units effectively.
batteries) is authorized three PADS teams. Each PADS (1) Area (belt) defense. Patriot battalions are employed
team consists of one E5 and one E3 (MOS 82C). The in the area defense to counter enemy attempts to penetrate the
six-battery battalion will be authorized four PADS teams. rear operations area to attack deep strike assets. In this type
A survey HQ element and an SPCE are organic to the of employment, the batteries are spread across a front of about
HQ battery. The HQ element consists of the chief surveyor 200 km. Because of this wide frontage and the limitations of
and an E3 driver. The SPCE consists of an E5 and E4. the PADS, the topo survey company must provide at least
The chief surveyor, who works directly under the battalion three SCPs for the battalion. Each of the PADS teams must
reconnaissance, selection, and occupation of position extend survey control to two batteries. Even with the SCPs
(RSOP) officer does the detailed survey planning and conveniently located between the batteries, each PADS will
supervision to ensure that adequate survey control is have to travel about 80 km to accomplish the mission. Since
available. He also has responsibility to train, supervise, this type of employment will be used against the initial attack,
and coordinate the activities of the PADS teams and SPCE ample time should be available to complete the survey before
personnel. The primary mission of the Patriot survey the outbreak of hostilities.
personnel is to place the firing units and supporting
elements on a common grid. This mission is accomplished (2) Forward area defense engagement coverage. In this
by proper planning, coordination, and organization for configuration, Patriot battalions are employed to protect a
survey by the chief surveyor. The common grid on which frontline division against attacks. The batteries of the
the Patriot battalions operate should be the corps grid. If battalion are positioned in the division rear area in a five-point
corps SCPs are not available within the battalion area, perimeter formation that looks much like a pentagon. When
the chief surveyor must select a known point or assume the battalion is deployed in this formation, the topo survey
survey control and establish his own grid. Control is company or the div arty survey section must provide two
then extended from this point to the firing units. This centrally located SCPs.
14-10
C1, FM 6-2
14-11
C1, FM 6-2
(1) Establish the NREF and azimuth mark by the (5) Whether the Patriot battalion is organized under the
two-position and azimuth mark method by using a plumb three-battery concept or the six-battery concept (Figure
bob. If the NREF line must be less than 100 meters, establish 14-12), the survey control required and the procedures for
the line by performing a position and azimuth mark with a performing the survey are the same for each battery.
theodolite. Figure 14-10. Launcher site survey
(2) Establish the radar site by performing a position mark
with a plumb bob or theodolite.
(3) In surveying the launcher sites (LSs) (Figure 14-10),
establish the following for each launcher:
An OS (located 10 to 12 meters behind the launcher
position).
OL from the OS to the launcher position.
Location of the launcher position.
14-12
C1, FM 6-2
Section III
DIVISION ARTILLERY SURVEY
The primary mission of div arty survey is to establish battalion SCPs and an OL for assigned or
attached firing and target-locating units. The div arty secondary mission is to recover and verify
existing control, provide survey tie-in points to adjacent division areas, and help battalion surveyors
whenever possible.
14-11. DIV ARTY SURVEY OFFICER engineer topo surveyors. If there is no existing control, the
div arty survey officer or chief surveyor will assume starting
a. The div arty survey officer is the principal advisor to data.
the div arty commander and his staff on survey matters.
On the basis of the corps survey plan, he plans and b. The div arty survey officer must use the survey section
supervises the div arty survey and has staff responsibility effectively. The PADS teams are his primary survey assets,
for all surveys performed by the div arty survey section. but the survey team can be used to speed up survey operations.
b. The div arty survey officer must identify all units and Once the PADS teams have brought control to the forward
elements requiring survey control and ensure that these area by using 5-minute Z-VELs, the survey team using
requirements are met in his plan. Because of the number conventional methods can extend control from PADS points
and variety of installations in the division requiring survey to nearby installations.
control, the div arty survey officer develops a survey plan
that is based on the priorities established by the div arty c. The preferred method for extending control from a PADS
commander. point is a traverse closed on the starting point by using a
c. Equal distribution of the survey workload increases minimum number of traverse legs. The div arty SPCE helps
the speed of execution. When the div arty survey officer the survey team if needed. If survey control is not provided
and/or PADS cannot occupy existing control, the survey
tasks battalions and the TAB to perform surveys for various
installations, he must ensure that these missions are within team uses conventional methods to provide the PADS teams
with starting SCPs.
the capabilities of the battalion and/or TAB. The div
arty survey officer must coordinate with lower echelon
survey elements to avoid a duplication of effort. d. Div arty must operate on a 24-hour basis under the ALB
concept. The mission of operating continuously and the
d. The div arty survey officer must also maintain liaison long distances in the div arty survey mission creates a need
with the aerial fire support observer (A FSO). He must for backup PADS teams. The survey section chief can
determine the control requirements of the OH-58D aircraft schedule the survey team as an alternate PADS team to
with respect to specific mission planning. Landing areas sustain the requirement of continuous operations. The div
collocated with the div arty TOC require surveyed arty chief surveyor supervises the survey execution and helps
initialization points. The div arty SPCE provides data coordinate between div arty, brigade SPCE, and other survey
from which the AFSO can get established control for echelons.
planning way points for his mission.
14-12. DIV ARTY SURVEY SECTION e. If one div arty PADS becomes inoperative, the div arty
survey officer distributes the workload between the remaining
a. The div arty survey section starts from SCPs selected by PADS and TAB PADS teams. The personnel from the team
the div arty survey officer. He selects these starting points with the inoperative PADS combine with the survey team
from either existing trig lists or from SCPs established by and perform as a five-man conventional survey party.
14-13
C1, FM 6-2
Section IV
TARGET ACQUISITION BATTERY AND DETACHMENT
The TAB survey section provides survey supped for the Firefinder radar (AN/TPQ-37) and, when
tasked, for the IEW installations. The detachment PADS team is a corps asset that provides survey
support for corps-assigned AN/TPQ-37 radars.
14-13. TARGET ACQUISITION BATTERY control is not available, the TAB survey will start from an
SCP provided by the div arty survey section. If the TAB
a. The TAB survey section consists of one PADS team and has to assume starting control, they must close their survey
a six-man survey party. Also located in the TAB is a survey back on the starting point and convert their data to div arty
HQ element. grid when available.
b. Survey requirements of the TAB are discussed below. e. The TAB PADS team will use 5-minute Z-VEL
(1) Provide the Firefinder radar (AN/TPQ-37) with corrections to ensure the necessary accuracy to establish
azimuth, coordinates, height, vertical angle, and the distance battalion SCPs when directed. The PADS team can provide
from the site near stake to the far stake. control, using resection and astro observation, if they have
to go beyond the PADS limit of distance. The survey team
(2) Provide IEW installations with survey control when can use short closed traverses anchor resections to establish
tasked by the div arty survey officer. starting control and update points for the PADS team. In
(3) Establish battalion SCPs when tasked by the div arty addition to providing conventional support, the survey team
survey officer. will act as the relief PADS team during 24-hour continuous
operations. In the event the PADS becomes inoperative,
c. Although the AN/TPQ-37 radars are the TAB surveyors' the HQ element will combine with the PADS team personnel
standard mission, the div arty survey officer may direct the to form a conventional team. The TAB will then operate
TAB survey section to perform any mission throughout the with two conventional teams.
division area. To avoid duplication of the survey efforts,
the TAB must closely coordinate its survey plan with the 14-14. DETACHMENT
div arty survey officer.
Detachments are corps assets in the form of a PADS team.
d. When possible, the TAB survey will start from existing Their sole function is to bring control to corps-assigned
SCPs, as do all survey echelons. When existing survey AN/TPQ-37s situated in the zone of operations.
Section V
The corps artillery SPCE is the planning and control element for survey operations. The FA
brigade SPCE may have a DS or general support reinforcing mission and is the controlling element
for all survey operations within its area of responsibility.
14-15. CORPS ARTILLERY SPCE a. Maintain maps and overlays which show completed
surveys, surveys in progress, and planned surveys.
The survey planning and coordination officer (SPCO) and
the corps chief surveyor (SFC) plan and coordinate survey
activities. Three survey computers (SGTs) are responsible b. Keep a file of all SCPs and tie-in points established in
for the functions discussed below. adjacent corps areas by div arty and TAB survey sections.
14-14
C1, FM 6-2
14-15
C1, FM 6-2
14-16
C1, FM 6-2
14-17. COLLECTION OF Members of the SPCE check and evaluate the data and enter
SURVEY INFORMATION the required information on DA Form 5075-R (Artillery
Survey Control Point). (See Figures 14-14 and 14-15.) This
Information collected by the SPCE includes trig lists, reports form is completed in duplicate for each fourth-order SCP.
by the FA section at corps HQ, div arty and TAB survey One copy of the form is provided to the corps FA section,
party reports, and FA battalion survey reports. and one copy is filed as a reference record. (A reproducible
a. DMA Trig Lists. The SPCE obtains DMA trig lists as copy of this form is included at the back of this book.)
part of the initial map issue to the div arty. The SPCE d. FA Battalion Survey Party Reports. The survey parties
retains one copy of each trig list as a reference record. Trig periodically submit survey information to the div arty SPCE
lists are considered allied support material to the map supply on DA Form 5075-R. Copies are retained as reference
and are requisitioned through G2 channels. The areas of records. Only survey control that the div arty, SOP, or
current operations and prospective interest are the basis of OPORD has directed the artillery battalions to establish are
map supply to the div arty. reported. The div arty survey officer designates the points
b. Reports by the FA Section at Corps Artillery to be established by battalions when the situation is such
Headquarters Battery. In static situations, the FA section that the establishment of these control points would contribute
at corps artillery HQ battery may periodically publish materially to the expeditious delivery of FA fires. These
consolidated lists of fourth-order SCPs established by the survey control points are of particular value in cases in which
survey parties from all division artilleries in the corps. FA battalions exchange position areas or when counterattack
plans are implemented and an abundance of survey control
c. Div Arty and TAB Survey Party Reports. The div is required in a general area to be occupied by the supporting
arty and TAB survey parties report their progress daily to field artillery. They are designated with a specific purpose
the SPCE. Reports are accompanied by field notebooks in mind and then only when it is impractical to provide
and complete computations on all surveys performed. fourth-order survey control points.
Figure 14-14. F r o n t o f D A F o r m 5 0 7 5 - R
14-17
C1, FM 6-2
14-18
C1, FM 6-2
14-19
C1, FM 6-2
a. Battalion and TAB RSOs or their representatives should method of disseminating survey information because of
visit the SPCE often to keep abreast of div arty survey plans possible errors in transmitting and because of problems in
and to obtain survey control (trig lists) available in their orally describing the survey station sketches shown on DA
prospective areas of interest. Form 5075-R.
b. The div arty survey officer should visit the FA battalions e. In the div arty, survey information usually is not
and the TAB often to coordinate and discuss survey operations disseminated until it has been evaluated and adjusted. During
and requirements. During these visits, he should ensure that fast-moving situations in areas where limited survey control
the RSOs are aware of available control. is available, there may be exceptions. The div arty survey
section in the field may disseminate survey data directly to
c. Survey data can be stored and rapidly trasmitted by using the battalion sections as the data are determined. In this
command and control systems such as TACFIRE and case, the chief of the div arty survey section disseminating
AFATDS. Unit SOP will dictate the procedures used to the survey data will ensure that the battalion and TAB survey
access, store, update, and disseminate survey information officers are informed that the data provided are unchecked
between echelons. and unadjusted. When the survey data are turned in to the
d. Survey information may be disseminated by radio or SPCE, the chief of the survey section will report which data
telephone. However, security requirements outlined in the he has disseminated and to whom. The SPCE will then
unit signal operation instructions (SOI) must be observed. ensure that the user gets the adjusted data when they become
Radio or telephone communication is the least desirable available.
Section VI
SURVEY IN SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS
Survey operations must proceed regardless of environmental factors, such as climate and terrain.
Therefore, the type of environment must be considered. This section discusses some of the problems
that may affect surveyors in arctic, desert, jungle, and urban areas.
14-21. ARCTIC AREAS -50F (-45C) and 125F (50C). It may be stored without
damage between -50F and 160F (71C). Initialization,
a. Survey Operations. Normally, peacetime surveys are which normally takes about 30 minutes, will take longer at
planned to take advantage of the warmer months of the year temperatures below -5F (-20C) or when wind blows into
to avoid working under the varying terrain and climate the IMU heat exchanger. Using a vehicle enclosure, parking
conditions found in the upper latitudes. In wartime, however, behind a windbreak, or placing a blanket or an article of
survey operations are executed when and where needed and clothing over the heat exchanger exhaust will improve
cannot wait for ideal climate conditions. The summer season reaction time. Keep the batteries warm at temperatures below
has the advantage of better visibility, greater body comfort, -20F (-29C). Use the vehicle heater during operation.
and fewer equipment malfunctions. The winter season Store batteries in a warm area when they are not being used.
reduces transportation difficulties in river, lake, and tundra
regions. Survey control can be extended easily along
riverbanks; over the nearly level, treeless plains of the arctic WARNING
tundra; or across large bodies of water. When committing Contact with power supply fins may cause skin
survey elements to field operations in arctic regions or under bums at high ambient temperatures. Lead-acid
arctic conditions that are seasonal in the middle latitudes, batteries that are not fully charged may freeze
commanders must consider the effects of ice movement, and burst. Handle batteries as prescribed in TM
snowfall, prevailing wind, light refraction, and other 9-6140-200-14.
peculiarities. The proper use of authorized cold weather
equipment and field expedients will overcome most problems
caused by the cold. For detailed instructions on cold weather c. Other Field Operations. Survey accuracy depends
operations, refer to FMs 31-70 and 31-71. largely on factors that can be controlled in the field by the
b. PADS Operation. The PADS operates without survey officer, the chief surveyor, and the chief of the survey
performance degradation at temperature extremes between section. These include instrument handling, equipment care,
14-20
C1, FM 6-2
and aids to maintaining body comfort. Surveying in the (a) Do not touch metal with any part of the bare skin.
arctic or under arctic conditions requires a lot of professional
(b) Make use of equipment furnished for protection of
judgement and common sense. All survey methods may
the eyes against wind and glare.
be employed subject to terrain and weather conditions in
the area of operation. Warmup time for electronic equipment (c) Always use the buddy system in surveying. Do not
will be increased. go out alone.
(1) Setting up instruments under bad weather conditions, (d) Always carry a first aid kit.
especially in snow, requires the use of field expedients. Brief
setups in snow can be accomplished by firming up a snow (e) Practice personal hygiene as coveredin FM31-70.
base. Tamping will suffice for routine operations. Other d. Survey Control. In most arctic areas, especially on the
procedures are discussed below. tundra or in heavily forested regions and away from centers
(a) Clear away the snow to reach the frozen but solid of civilization, preestablished control will be minimal.
Survey control that does exist will be difficult to locate in
earth.
areas of heavy snowfall and high winds. Topo support is
(b) Drive stakes to form a trivet-like base for tripod essential to establish the common grid. Map spottings, when
shoes. maps are available, are almost impossible because of the
lack of definable natural and man-made objects. The most
(c) Use long tripod legs for setting up in deep snow.
probable solution for the extension of survey control (if topo
(d) Use sharply pointed tripod shoes to facilitate setting support cannot be provided) is for the div arty survey officer
upon icy surfaces. to assume position control; use the PADS, astro observation,
or the SIAGL (latitude of operation permitting) for direction;
(e) Protect the instrument from wind, or accurate and start the common grid there. Each installation or unit
readings will be difficult will then convert to common control as it enters the divisional
(2) Proper daily care ensures against equipment failure survey net.
and delays in the field. Extreme changes in temperature
may induce internal stresses within an instrument. 14-22. DESERT AREAS
Instruments should be kept outside overnight or in unheated
shelters for short periods of nonuse. When transporting Field artillery survey in a desert environment lends itself to
instruments in the field, make some arrangement for the some major problems in equipment, methods, and operations.
instrument to be carried outside the vehicle or in an unheated Problems not experienced in other environments are prevalent
cargo compartment. Tripods also should be left outside when during desert operations. Initially, desert operations seem
not in use. The BUCS (with batteries removed) can be to be perfect for survey w ith long lines of sight, clear traverse
stored in temperatures down to -40F, but it cannot operate lines, and cloudless skies for celestial observations.
below 32F (OC). The proper lubricant for arctic use is However, the desert is no utopia for the surveyor. Some
grease, artillery and automotive, military specification of the problems encountered are described below.
MIL-G-10924, or an equivalent. a. Equipment. Optical instruments operated in extreme
heat can have some major interior and exterior physical
(3) Body comfort depends mainly on the protection problems. Experience has shown that at 100F, the survey
offered by issue clothing. The survey chief can improve instrument leveling vials increase about 2 graduations past
conditions by directing the digging of pits, erecting the true center. Therefore, at 120F, the instrument operator
windshields, or building up snowbanks to reduce the intensity may not be able to level the instrument because of bubble
of exposure over extended periods. Utility stoves should expansion. To counter this, instruments should always be
be used for heating nourishing liquids and keeping the fingers shaded. The direct rays of the sun can and will cause optical
warm. An instrument can be modified by providing enlarged distortion and internal stress. Before moving to a desert
nonmetallic operating knobs or by wrapping standard knobs environment, operators and supervisors must ensure that
with adhesive tape. This facilitates manipulation of the proper maintenance is performed and lubricants are applied
instrument and helps keep the fingers from being injured. to and maintained in the instruments. The scoring effects
Head and hand coverings become a problem for the of sand and grit on the instrument optics require that the
instrument operator and the recorder. Layer gloves and layer instrument lens covers be in place when the instruments are
head coverings provide a practical combination of warmth not being used. The major problems in desert operations
and maneuverability. An easily removed hood over an are caused by heat waves. Distances between stations are
ear-covering headpiece is practical for most conditions. severely limited because of heat wave distortions. Consistent
Safety precautions are discussed below. readings at occupied stations are nearly impossible to achieve.
14-21
C1, FM 6-2
Operator eye fatigue is common and necessitates frequent 14-23. JUNGLE AREAS
operator changes. Beause of heat wave distortion,
conventional survey operations and PADS operations a. Survey Operations. Survey operations in the jungle pose
requiring optical transfer should be avoided. The BUCS many problems not encountered in other environments.
can be stored in temperatures up to 140F (with batteries Some of these are the foreboding appearance of the jungle,
removed), but it cannot operate above 113F (45C). If the oppressive humidity and heat, the unfamiliar noises, and
absolutely necessary, conventional survey operations will the loneliness one feels in the jungle. In addition to the
have to be conducted during the hours of darkness or during physical and psychological effects of working in the jungle,
early morning and late afternoon. the FA surveyor will be aware immediately of the lack of
b. Survey Control. Survey control in the desert is very adequate maps. The maps that are available often are
fleeting in nature. The lack of definable natural and inaccurate except for locations of coastlines and principal
man-made objects increases the problem of permanent rivers. For a more detailed discussion of jungle operations,
control. Topo surveyors must make every effort to provide refer to FM 90-5.
starting control for the division survey section. Established
survey control dates from the desert colonial periods and, b. Survey Control. Because of the inaccessibility of jungle
although scarce, it is accurate. However, control that can areas and since adequate maps do not exist for most areas,
be identified and located one day may be obscured by sand the establishment of survey control and the common grid
the next. If these control points are constructed of anything is a primary consideration of the commander.
valuable (for example, metallic substances of any kind), local
civilians will dig up and carry off the station markers. In (1) The extension of survey control should not depend
establishing control, efforts must be made to camouflage or on preestablished control, which in most jungle areas is
immobilize control points. Use of the existing road networks minimal and at best difficult to recover and identify. One
and road junctions is another way of ensuring that control solution is for the div arty or battalion survey officer, using
is available when it is required. Burned-out armored vehicles available maps or map products, to assume control; to use
and destroyed fortifications also can be used as control points. the PADS, astro observation, the SIAGL, or simultaneous
When operating in the desert, the survey officer should ensure observation for direction; and to initiate the common grid.
that all control possible within the zone of operations is Each unit will convert to common control when it ties into
recovered and verified. It should be understood that control the division survey control net. Map spottings with available
in the desert is, at best, only temporary in nature. maps or photomaps may have to suffice for position control
at firing unit locations.
c. Techniques of Conventional Desert Survey.
Conventional surveys conducted in a desert environment (2) Normally, FA firing positions are in natural clearings.
require special considerations. In any other area, the primary This usually will permit a position area survey to tie in the
means of extending control is traverse. However, in the firing batteries relative to each other. Direction can be
desert, the distance involved and the lack of control indicate obtained as described in (1) above. One possible solution
the primary means of extending control will be triangulation. for the extension of the common grid is the use of gridded
If traverse has to be used, night traverses will be common. mosaics or other photomap products.
If night surveys are required, parties will have to be
augmented with additional personnel. Light discipline will c. Conventional Methods. Survey control maybe extended
be of great importance because lights can be seen in the through the jungle by pursuing traverse procedures. It will
desert to distances of about 8 miles. Trig traverse is an be difficult and time consuming and normally will require
excellent means of extending control in desert operations. that a security force go with the surveyors. Using
The use of astro observation, simultaneous observations, and triangulation and resection techniques is most difficult, since
the SIAGL to start and extend directional control will be line of sight is extremely short or nonexistent. Target area
of critical importance to the surveyors. survey and connection survey usually are very restricted or
d. Personnel. Personnel acclimatization is an important impossible. In any case, survey in the jungle requires the
factor in desert operations. It can be assumed that if our imagination and initiative of all survey personnel.
current deployment policy does not change, there will be
no time for acclimatization. Surveyors will be deployed 14-24. URBAN AREAS
from the continental United States (CONUS) right into a
desert environment. Care should be taken to ensure that a. In most military operations, the type of terrain is a prime
all personnel who might possibly be employed in this type factor in planning, coordinating, and executing a unit mission.
of environment are trained in survival techniques. This is especially true for survey operations conducted in
14-22
C1, FM 6-2
and around villages, towns, cities, and other built-up areas. c. Line of sight limitations in urban areas and the possibility
The presence of buildings and man-made changes to the of widespread weapon positions will increase the number
landscape greatly affect conventional survey operations and of survey stations. Required OPs must be located on rooftops,
also must be considered during PADS operations. towers, or other high structures. Also, more OPs may be
needed to observe all areas of concern and to ensure accurate
b. The tactical situation is a strong influence on survey target locations.
operations in built-up areas. The enemy can be well hidden
by using roofs and upper stories of buildings, sewer systems,
subways, and other underground structures. Enemy obstacles d. Targets of opportunity generally will be exposed to
(barricades, booby traps, and minefield) may deny the use observes for brief periods. Also, political and tactical
of certain terrain needed as routes for extension of survey considerations will demand pinpoint accuracy in locating
control. Communication between survey assets may be and destroying targets. Destroying key facilities and creating
hampered by the limited range of FM radios within built-up severe obstacles to friendly troops must be weighed. For
areas. a detailed discussion of urban operations, see FM 90-10.
14-23
FM 6-2
CHAPTER 15
SURVEY PLANNING
15-1. CONDUCT OF PLANNING c. Artillery units at all levels start survey operations
before occupation of position. They do not
a. Surveys are planned to ensure that all required
wait for higher-echelon survey control to be established
control is provided in the correct place and
in the area. Firing and target-locating units
at the time required. The plan distributes work
must work from the best available data and
evenly among teams and eliminates duplicate work.
improve the data as higher-order survey becomes
Planning is based on meeting as many survey
available.
requirements as possible under the given conditions
and always providing the best available survey d. Fourth-order survey sections are organic to
control to using units. Direction is the most the div arty HHB and TAB to provide survey
important element of survey control. Therefore, control for assigned and attached units of the
when time is critical, the plan must reflect the division. Each artillery battalion has an organic
requirement to rapidly extend direction throughout fifth-order survey section. These sections are
the area of operation and later extend coordinates organized into survey teams and equipped according
and height. to the modification tables of organization and
equipment (MTOE) for the unit. The concept
b. Survey planning is conducted at all echelons of employment of these sections is based on
at the same time. Provisions should be made the guidelines below.
to link together all surveys conducted in the
area. Normally, the surveyors of div arty HHB (1) Div arty. Provide all organic, attached, and
provide survey control points to all assigned reinforcing artillery battalions, TA assets, and separate
and attached battalions or separate batteries. Thus, batteries with common direction, coordinates, and height.
they tie together the surveys of the division
(2) TAB. Provide common direction, coordinates, and
firing and locating elements. The TAB and
height for the TA assets of the battery. Provide SCPs for
battalion surveyors survey their organic and attached other units as directed by the TAB commander.
elements and help other units as directed. The
degree of accuracy, speed of execution, and priority (3) Battalion. Provide common direction coordinates,
of work are given in the commanders guidance and height for all firing batteries and targeting devices that
or are set by the S3 from the commanders are assigned or attached to or reinforcing the battalion and
guidance. mortars.
15-1
FM 6-2
15-2
FM 6-2
(2) Fire order. Fifth-order survey control is required requirements. This checklist is not inclusive and should be
by firing and target-locating installations. Some installations modifed to meet situations) requirements.
require 0.4-mil or 0.5-mil accuracy for direction. Care must
be used in selecting a method to establish direction for these b. Corps Artillery SPCO. The responsibilities of the SPCO
installations. The requirements for CEWI sites should be associated with the corps survey effort are discussed below.
addressed by local SOP or coordinated by the div arty survey
officer. Figure 15-1. FSCOORD checklist
15-3
FM 6-2
(1) Know the survey requirements of all crops units (4) Make contact with the survey company of the
(Figure 15-2) and the survey capability of those units. engineer topo battalion and obtain necessary details from
(2) Coordinate with the corps G2 to get intelligence the commander (for example, attached platoon, location of
estimates of the proposed work areas to include the following: company SPCE, and names of points of contact). The
engineer topo battalions survey company supports the field
Enemy activity. artillery and sir defense artillery with third-order horizontal
Friendly forces. and vertical control points and azimuth marks for EAC down
to division and separate artillery brigades on a 24-hour basis.
Other optional connstraints. Topo survey augments FA survey requirements with the
(3) Coordinate with the crops G3 plans to get the following:
following:
Current and planned positions of corps artillery units. EACtwo SCPs per Patriot battalion.
Unit movement plans. Corps area-eight SCPs each 24-hour period and one
Dates and times of movement. SCP per div arty or separate brigade each 24-hour
period.
Priority of unit movement.
PADSstarting and closing SCPs are provided at a
This information used in planning and coordinating includes maximum interval of 25 km.
IEW systems requiring survey in support of corps missions.
(Refer to Figures 15-3 and 15-4 for corps survey planin MLRSstsrdng and closing SCPs are provided at a
progress and future surveys overlay.) maximum interval of 30 km.
15-4
FM 6-2
15-5
FM 6-2
15-6
FM 6-2
(5) Make necessary arrangements with headquarters and He works closely with the TAB and battalion chief surveyors
headquarters company (HHC), corps for administrative and to ensure complete undemanding of the div arty survey
logistical support of the topo survey platoon. concept. He also supervises the div arty SPCE to ensure
effective collection, evaluation, and dissemination of survey
(6) Arrange and coordinate with the corps aviation data.
company for aviation support if requested by the survey
platoon leader of the engineer topo survey company. e. TAB Survey Officer. The TAB survey officer is
primarily concerned with extending survey control to organic
(7) Maintain a close working relationship with the topo TA assets requiring survey control. He receives a survey
survey platoon leader or survey technician, the survey officers order from div arty survey officer and plans the employment
of corps artillery units, and the div arty survey officers. of his section to accomplish the mission. The TAB survey
This coordination will ensure timely three-way flow of officer must be ready to assume the duties of the div arty
information concerning survey operations and data collection. survey officer when directed. In coordinating the div arty
It will also enhance timely completion of the survey mission. survey effort, the TAB survey section may be assigned
c. Div Arty Survey Officer. The div arty survey officer responsibility for other installations (for example, battalion
is the survey platoon leader of div arty HHB. As such, he SCPs) and may also assume SPCE functions.
initiates tactical survey planning. He is responsible to the f. TAB Chief Surveyor. In planning the TAB survey, the
div arty commander for the execution of the survey plan to chief surveyor must work closely with other section leaders
establish common survey control (the common grid)
of the TAB in determining the locations of the required
throughout the division area. He coordinates all artillery
positions. Since the TAB will be required to help establish
survey operations in the division to ensure effectiveness and
the common grid, the TAB chief surveyor must have a
to reduce duplication of effort. This includes the activities
thorough knowledge of the div arty plan and be prepared
of the div arty SPCE, which is vital to the coordination of
to help in its implementation.
the survey effort. The div arty survey officer requests
external survey support as required. He plans the g. Battalion RSO. The battalion RSO is responsible for
employment of all organic fourth-order sections in the placing organic and attached firing TA elements on a common
division. His plan is in accordance with the commanders grid. His first priority is to establish common directional
guidance as interpreted by the S3. The locations of division control. Other priorities are listed in the commanders
tie-in points must be coordinated with adjacent div arty survey guidance or are derived by the S3. The RSO coordinates
officers for establishment of a corps common grid. As the the placement of the battalion SCPs with the div arty survey
coordinator of div arty survey resources, the survey officer officer. He also coordinates with the RSO of any R artillery
must advise the commander and staff on all matters pertaining unit to ensure that units are on a common grid. The use
to the following: of a common grid allows accurate transfer of target data
between units. When required, the RSO and his HQ element
Survey requirements.
(chief surveyor and driver) combine with the survey section
Techniques. to speed up operations such as setting up reflectors and
computing data. The battalion RSO performs reconnaissance
Capabilities. for the battalion to include selection of routes and evaluation
Problem areas. of positions within the position area. He works with the
S2 and S3 to determine areas requiring reconnaissance and
d. Div Arty Chief Surveyor. The div arty chief surveyor helps the battalion commander in his reconnaissance. The
is the technical expert on surveying in the div arty. His RSO, as the technical advisor for survey in the battalion
primary duty is to advise the div arty survey officer. He must monitor an effective hasty survey training program.
must have wide experience in the employment of FA The ability of the firing units to provide themselves with
surveyors in support of all systems requiring survey data. some form of survey greatly improves their effectiveness
He must and allows the commander to mass fires of his subordinate
units sooner.
Be prepared to assume the duties of the survey officer.
h. Battalion Chief Surveyor. Responsibilities of the
Brief the staff on survey and recon matters. battalion chief surveyor parallel those of the div arty and
TAB chief surveyors. He must advise and perform technical
Formulate, implement, and supervise the execution of
planning and coordinate the work of the survey team. He
the survey plan. must be prepared to perform the duties of the battalion RSO
Train surveyors in proper survey procedures. and advise the battalion staff on survey and recon matters.
15-7
FM 6-2
15-3. ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD More extensive survey planning is required in areas where
SURVEY PLAN survey control is limited.
In formulating the survey plan, the survey planner must (2) Priority. The priority of work assigned is either listed
remember and strive to meet certain essentials. The survey in the mission or commanders guidance or derived from
plan must meet the essentials discussed below. the mission by the S3. The priority of work affects the
order in which the plan is executed or the type of survey
a. Provide Required Control. The plan must provide performed.
survey control within the required accuracy to all installations
that require survey. (3) Number of installations. The number and locations
of installations to be surveyed must be considered primarily
b. Provide for Checks. Whenever possible, the plan must with respect to time and troops available. The survey
provide for cheeks; for example, closed surveys and alternate operations required to locate a few widely scattered
bases. Each member of the survey team continuously makes installations often take more time and/or personnel than
checks as a matter of standard practice. would be required for many closely grouped installations.
c. Be Simple. The plan must be understood by all survey In the survey plan, the survey tasks should be allocated so
personnel. Work that is unnecessary or that exceeds the that the various survey teams complete their portion most
required accuracy must be avoided. expeditiously.
d. Be Timely. The plan must be capable of execution in b. Enemy. The enemy situation has a strong influence on
the time allotted. survey operations, since the disposition of troops may
interfere with or restrict the movement of survey personnel
e. Be Flexible. The plan must be capable of being changed and their equipment. Restrictions on communications, such
if the situation warrants. as radio silence and enemy jamming, can greatly reduce the
f. Be Adaptable. The plan must be adaptable to the effectiveness of survey teams. The ability of the enemy to
following: interfere with survey operations by denying use of terrain
or routes is of prime importance. When survey operations
Terrain. are restricted, the commander should give priority of survey
Situation. to those units supporting the main attack. FA surveyors
must be able to implement suppressive fire immediately if
Personnel available. they receive enemy fire. Terrain and cover must be used
Weather. as much as possible. Unit SOP should provide for actions
to be taken by survey teams that came under fire.
Equipment.
c. Terrain and Weather. The terrain and weather through
which survey control must be extended are a primary factor
15-4. FACTORS AFFECTING SURVEY in determining the methods of survey to be used. The survey
PLANNING planner must be so familiar with the effects of terrain and
weather on survey operations that he can promptly and
In formulating the plans by which the survey mission is to
properly advise his commander on the time and personnel
be accomplished, the survey planner must consider the factors requirements. Adverse weather greatly reduces the capability
of mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and time of survey teams. Fog, rain, snow, heat or dust can reduce
available (METT-T). The factors of METT-T cannot be visibility to the extent that observation through an optical
considered independently because each is related to the other.
instrument is impossible. When visibility is poor, the
a. Mission. The tactical mission of the unit determines the commander may choose to put his survey effort on accurately
time available, the area to be surveyed, the accuracy, and locating his radar so that it can locate his firing units. In
priority of the survey effort. It is the basis of the survey this case, the SIAGL would be used to establish common
mission and determines the influence other factors have on direction. Extreme heat or cold can also reduce survey team
the survey. efficiency and increase the time needed to complete the
survey.
(1) Starting control. The location of existing survey
control or the establishment of control by a higher echelon d. Troops. The survey personnel and equipment available
of survey affects the time required to extend control. Survey to perform the survey mission greatly affect the plan. The
operations are concurrent at all echelons. When starting status of training determines the methods available and time
control is not available, the starting data must be assumed. required to perform survey, The availability and operability
The necessary survey operations are started immediately. of survey equipment dictate the methods used in the plan.
15-8
FM 6-2
15-9
FM 6-2
The use of offset legs to locate radar positions and other Troop-leading steps should be an instructive and automatic
points can reduce the time required for the traverse. Offset way of thinking for section leaders and commanders.
traverse legs are not used to carry control, and an error Without detailed instructions, commanders must turn a
made during the offset leg fieldwork will not affect traverse mission order into actions to support the plan of the next
closure. Therefore, the fieldwork must be carefully checked. higher commander. Elaborate troop-leading procedures are
useless if they slow the response of the force. The eight
(2) Triangulation. Triangulation is a means of extending troop-leading steps are as follows:
control over long distances. It is ideally suited for survey
in difficult terrain and for crossing obstacles. The primary Receive the mission.
disadvantage of triangulation is the amount of time required Issue a warning order.
for reconnaissance. For planning purposes, triangulation
requires about 30 minutes per station plus time for Make a tentative plan that will accomplish the
reconnaissance and travel between stations. Triangulation mission.
schemes are not as flexible as traverse schemes, since all
stations in a triangle must be intervisible. Reconnaissance Start the necessary movement.
for triangulation generally requires as much time as the
fieldwork, especially in extensive triangulation schemes. If Reconnoiter.
the distance-measuring equipment is operational, traverse is
preferred because it requires less time and fewer personnel. Complete the plan.
15-10
FM 6-2
(1) Gather information. From the commanders briefing, will be in the area to be surveyed at the required time. If
the survey officer gathers vital information that influences the section must move a long distance, it should start the
the planning of his survey. This information should pertain move immediately on the basis of first rough plans.
to
e. Reconnoiter. After the map reconnaissance, the survey
The situation to include the following: planner must make a ground reconnaissance as detailed as
- Mission of the units. time permits. The tentative plan selected during the map
study is changed as required by the terrain. Particular
- Status of registration. emphasis should be placed on critical areas. If necessary,
indications are made to other survey planners or team chiefs
- Time available. at points where tentative plans may need revision or close
- Zones of fire. coordination. A scale sketch of the survey is an easy way
- Friendly positions. to summarize information determined from the ground
reconnaissance. Since a PADS team can provide survey
Routes, communications, minefield, contaminated data as it reconnoiters, greater emphasis must be placed on
areas, and restrictions on modes of travel. efficiency of movement through the area.
Support to R units, to allies, or to priority units. f. Complete the Plan. Reconnaissance may not change the
(2) Make map reconnaissance. After attending the plan, but it certainly adds detail. The plan must be modified
commanders briefing and issuing a warning order to alert to fit all the information gained from the ground
his personnel, the survey officer, using any suitable map or reconnaissance.
map substitute, makes a thorough map reconnaissance. In
g. Issue the Order. A verbal survey order is issued, if
doing this, he follows a specific procedure to ensure that
possible, from a vantage point overlooking the area to be
full consideration is given to all factors. This procedure,
surveyed. The survey order follows the standard
in order, is discussed below.
five-paragraph OPORD format. Continuing operations may
(a) Map-spot installations. Known control and those require the use of a FRAGO.
installations requiring survey control are plotted on the map.
Restricted areas and other information relative to the area h. Supervise. A leader must continually supervise the
of operations are also plotted. preparation for and execution of the mission. Constant
supervision is as important as issuing the order. Along with
(b) Select a tentative plan. All the factors that affect supervising, the survey HQ element must help the
survey (METT-T) are fully considered, methods are chosen, conventional team as required. This help will supplement
and a tentative plan is made. Particular attention is placed PADS operations and speed up the survey mission.
on the accessibility of installations.
(c) Consider time. An estimate of the time required
to execute the tentative plan is made. If the survey mission
cannot be performed within the allotted time, the plan is 15-7. THE SURVEY ORDER
modified or an appropriate recommendation is made to the
commander. The planner may recommend the following The survey order contains detailed instructions
to each survey team not covered by local SOP.
Extra personnel be made available. It gives general information needed for the efficient
accomplishment of the survey mission. The survey
Div arty support be requested. It generally
order is written or issued orally.
More time be allowed for survey. follows the same sequence as the OPORD. Often,
because of the tactical situation and wide dispersal
Location of certain installations be delayed. of units, parts of this order may be issued
by radio or wire or both.
Accuracy for certain installations be relaxed.
a. The format for a five-paragraph survey order is shown
(d) Determine critical areas. Areas that require in the example on page 15-12.
detailed ground reconnaissance are identified.
b. FRAGOs include the information in paragraphs 2 and 3
d. Start Necessary Movement. The survey planner must of the survey order and anything else that has changed since
now make good use of the time available so that the section the last order.
15-11
FM 6-2
15-12
FM 6-2
b. To be effective, a survey SOP must be brief and must 15-9. SURVEY PLANNERS
conform to established doctrine. If the SOP is too long and GUIDELINES
detailed, it loses its value as an instrument of ready reference.
It must be flexible, since it cannot cover every possible The guidance below is provided to help the survey planner
survey situation or method. The SOP should give survey prepare a survey plan. Use the guidelines to ensure that none
personnel enough latitude to adapt survey requirements to of the important considerations are omitted.
different situations rather than specify various types of
problems that may or may not exist in the field. The SOP a. Preparing the Survey Plan.
must conform to the doctrine and policy in the SOP of the
higher HQ so that trained personnel reassigned from one (1) Enemy forces.
unit to another will have no difficulty or be no less proficient. Have all the intelligence data pertaining to the tactical
As a minimum, the SOP for survey operations should contain
situation been considered?
the information and instructions discussed below.
HOW will NBC hazards affect survey operations?
(1) Principal duties of key personnel. This survey SOP
should define the principal duties of key personnel. The (2) Friendly forces. Have all the friendly forces in the
key personnel include the following: area of operation been identified, and can they provide
Survey officer of the echelon at which the SOP is logistical support if needed?
prepared. (3) Attachments and detachments. Are reinforcing units
Chief surveyor. needing survey control in the area of operations?
Survey team chiefs. (4) Number of installations.
Team members. Have all elements requiring survey control been
Survey officers of subordinate commands, assigned identified?
or attached. Which installations can provide their own survey
control?
(2) Acceptable methods of survey. The survey SOP
should include the methods of survey acceptable for various Are there survey requirements from the higher
survey tasks. The methods will depend on the type of echelon?
instruments available, time available, and status of training
(5) Priority of installations.
of survey personnel.
What priorities must be established to support the
(3) Specifications and techniques. The survey SOP commanders guidance and the maneuver forces?
should contain specifications and techniques for fieldwork
and computations. These include such items as the following: What method of survey should be used to meet the
priority requirements?
Minimum closures for angles and triangles.
(6) Accuracy requirements.
Manner of measuring angles.
Can the accuracy requirements be met with the
Allowable errors. equipment available?
Station marking techniques. Where can accuracy requirements be relaxed until
Recording techniques. accurate data are available?
Required degrees of accuracy. Does the plan Provide for common control
throughout?
(4) Supply and maintenance information. The survey
SOP should include pertinent information on supply (7) Time requirements.
procedures, stock levels, and maintenance responsibilities Can time requirements be met on the basis of time
for all survey personnel. available, accuracies required, and survey assets
available?
(5) Communications. The survey SOP should include
information pertaining to the use of radios, telephones, visual Is additional survey support required, and where is it
signals, and ECCM. available?
15-13
FM 6-2
Dots the plan incorporate time lines that consider Where are DS maintenance units located for repair or
response time for units or systems to meet the exchange of equipment?
operational times in support of the attack? Does DS maintenance have PADS units or line
(8) Coordination requirements. replaceable parts available?
Where is the SPCE located? Are helicopters available to help the survey effort if
What survey control is available? needed?
Does the survey section have its basic load of
Are trig lists available?
ammunition?
What maps are required?
(13) Allied requirements.
At what locations is control from higher or lower Does the plan include allied forces?
echelon required?
Is survey support required for any allied units
(9) Assets (equipment and/or personnel). operating in the-of operations?
Is all survey equipment operational?
What are the survey requirements for the allied units
Are all survey personnel available? or systems?
Can survey equipment be effectively used in existing b. Executing the Survey Plan.
terrain and weather?
(1) Disseminate trig lists, maps, and other pertinent
Does the survey plan provide for continuous survey information.
operations?
Does the response time require the survey HQ element (2) Ensure that survey control is provided
to help the conventional team with survey fieldwork? To prescribed accuracies.
(10) Alternatives to the survey plan. Is the survey plan On time.
flexible enough to support maneuver forces under changing
situations? When needed.
(12) Supply and logistics. (6) Be prepared to modify the survey plan and execute
changes rapidly.
Does the survey section have enough rations for the
first 72 hours of operation? (7) Inform the commander of the following:
Does the survey section have enough expendable Delay in providing survey control and actions to be
supplies (such as hubs, stakes, and batteries) for the taken to correct this deficiency.
number of positions required? Degraded accuracy caused by lack of time.
Do survey operations have to be interrupted for
Projected time when survey data will be upgraded.
refueling vehicles, or can the survey vehicles be
resupplied on the move? Any deviation from previous guidance.
15-14
FM 6-2
APPENDIX A
STANDARDIZED PROCEDURES
The following standardized procedures relevant to survey operations are
denoted in text by a large asterisk (*).
Subject Location
BUCS Chapter 12
Field notes Chapter 4
Station marking Paragraph 5-4b
SEDME-MR Chapter 2, Section ll
Duties of survey personnel Paragraph 1-8
Orders of survey accuracy Appendix B
Survey forms Appendix D
A-1
C1, FM 6-2
APPENDIX B
B-1
C1, FM 6-2
(6) Fifth-order azimuth is an azimuth of a line used in is not extended from the line established by
the extension of fifth-order survey which, from its point of observation, the rejection limit can be relaxed to 1.0
origin, has depreciated in accuracy by a PE value of 0,09 mil with a considered accuracy of 1.0 mil, In the
mil per main scheme angle. A fifth-order azimuth cannot tables, D/R means direct/reverse. In Tables B-1 and
be obtained by computation between a fifth-order SCP and
B-2, N represents the number of main scheme angles
an SCP of equal or higher order.
used to carry azimuth. In Table B-1, K represents
b. The specifications presented in Tables B-1, B-2, the total main scheme distance surveyed to the nearest
and B-3 are the permissible tolerances allowed to 0.1 kilometer. In Table B-2, K is the sum of the
ensure that the overall standards for fourth- and sides used to compute coordinates. When a computer
fifth-order surveys are achieved. The specifications or calculator is used, angles and distances may be used
apply for determining a 1:500 azimuth. If direction in computations to the nearest 0.001.
B-2
FM 6-2
B-3
FM 6-2
B-4
C1, FM 6-2
APPENDIX C
TRAINING THE FIELD ARTILLERY SURVEYOR, MOS 82C
The purpose of this appendix is to help the survey officer or chief surveyor
conduct a more effective training program. It suggests a program for
training the survey platoon and/or section. There is no single best method
of training. What is important is that the training approach used should
be determined in advance and planned in detail.
C-1 . TRAINING PHILOSOPHY Used together, these documents become the foundation for
the training program.
The key to effective performance on the battlefield is a
training program based on planning, conduct (execution), b. Supervised on-the-job training (SOJT) may also be used
and evaluation. to train surveyors in the unit. Correspondence subcourses
are excellent for individual and common educational needs,
a. Planning. Planning is the keystone to interesting, combined study, and joint discussions and critiques.
worthwhile, and effective training. The planning must ensure Available subcourses and instructions for requesting
that each member of the survey section understands his role correspondence course material are included in DA Pam
in accomplishing the survey mission of his unit, whether 351-20.
the unit is a battalion, TAB, or div arty.
c. The trainer should ensure that every member of the survey
b. Conduct. Conduct is the action phase of the training section has a copy of the soldiers manual applicable to his
program. In this phase, the individual surveyor, survey party, grade. This document outlines performance standards and
or survey section participates in classroom instruction, gives the soldier a road map for progression.
operation of survey instruments, field exercises, and practice
Army training and evaluation programs (ARTEPs).
C-3. TRAINING THE SURVEYOR
c. Evaluation. Evaluation is controlled feedback. The
survey officer or chief surveyor must examine the entire The trainer must ensure that the individual surveyor is trained
learning process to ensure that the members of the survey to perform his required tasks. If the individual surveyor
section can successfully accomplish the survey methods, has not attended a service school for his initial survey training,
he must be trained in the unit through various methods,
techniques, and procedures that they have been taught. The
such as one-on-one instruction, Army correspondence course
survey officer or chief surveyor conducting the training must
receive controlled feedback after the conduct of an exercise lessons, unit school, SOJT, or a combination of these methods.
A unit evaluation of individual knowledge, primarily through
so that success can be reinforced and mistakes can be
the use of the self-development test (SDT), will determine
identified and corrected.
if the individual surveyor is knowledgeable in his skill level
and can perform effectively as a member of a survey party.
C-2. TRAINING THE TRAINER
C-4. TRAINING THE SURVEY
a. The survey officer is responsible for developing a training PARTY OR SECTION
program, for conducting training, and for keeping abreast
of training doctrine. The survey officer uses FMs 25-100 When the individual surveyors have attained the desired
and 25-101 as a guide for planning, conducting, and level of proficiency, party or section training can be started
evaluating a training program. He uses Soldier Training with the goal of molding an efficient working team capable
Publication (STP) 6-82C 14-SM-TG, and applicable ARTEPs of performing its mission. First, each survey party should
to determine individual and team qualifications. The trainers complete miniature field exercises involving position area
guide (STP 6-82C14-SM-TG) lists the critical tasks of MOS survey, target area survey, and connection survey until
82C, identifies the tasks to be performed at each skill level, the party performs surveys efficiently and with minimum
and indicates for each task where the soldier is to be trained. supervision. The survey parties, operating together as a
C-1
.
C1, FM 6-2
C-2
FM 6-2
C-3
FM 6-2
C-4
FM 6-2
C-5
FM 6-2
C-6
C1, FM 6-2
*APPENDIX D
REPRODUCIBLE FORMS
This appendix provides a list of the reproducible forms shown at the back
of this book. These forms are not available through publications supply
channels. You may reproduce them locally.
D-1
C1, FM 6-2
D-2
C1, FM 6-2
APPENDIX E
ELLIPSOIDS AND DATUMS
The PADS Core (Version 8), PADS Solid State (Version 4), BUCS Survey (Rev 1),
BUCS DDCT (Rev 0), MADTRAN (Edition 2), MADTRAN (Edition 4), PLGR (Version
04.62), and FED MSR systems contain a data base that stores the relevant constants
and parameters for the ellipsoids listed in Table E-2.
E-1. REFERENCES
a. The following references were used to compile the information
found in this appendix:
(1) DMA TM 8358.1 (September 1990).
(2) DMA TR 8350.2 Second Edition (1 September 1991) with
Insert 1 (9 December 1993).
(3) National Geodetic Survey, Geodetic Glossary (September
1986).
(4) DoD Glossary of Mapping, Charting, and Geodetic Terms
(1991).
(5) MADTRAN, Edition 2 and 4 (DMA program referencing
DMA TR 8350.2 above).
(6) Mercator (DMA program referencing DMA TM 8358.2
(dated September 1989).
(7) TM 08837A-12/1A (28 October 1988) with Change 3 (9
September 1992) PADS.
b. When the information in the references above conflicted, DMA
TR 8350.2 was considered the senior publication.
c. The numbers in front of the references above correspond to the
reference numbers in the tables of this appendix. Reference 8 was
used to determine the PADS ellipsoid code; Reference 4 was used
to determine the BUCS DDCT (Rev 0) code.
E-2. TABLES
a. Ellipsoids.
(1) Table E-1 is a list of all ellipsoids and their parameters as
published in the references above.
(a) This is not a list of all ellipsoids; however, it is the
most complete one-table list of ellipsoids and their parameters
available to artillery surveyors.
(b) The semimajor axis (a), semiminor axis (b), and
flattening (l/f) are listed when available. Semiminor axes not listed
were not available from the references and must be computed by
the user with the formula b = a (l - f).
(2) Table E-2 is a list of the ellipsoids in Table E-1
cross-referenced with current survey applications.
b. Datums.
(1) The datum transformation parameters are listed
corresponding to the ellipsoid to which they are referenced. The
E-1
C1, FM 6-2
transformation parameters are from the local geodetic datum to WGS-84; therefore, a datum table with WGS-84 will not be
published. Also, datum tables for ellipsoids in Table E-1 with no listed datums are not published.
(2) Differences in data published in the above references are explained in the notes section at the end of this appendix.
E-2
C1, FM 6-2
E-3
C1, FM 6-2
E-4
C1, FM 6-2
PADS code as listed in TM 08837A-12/1A. In cases where two or more ellipsoids have the same parameters, the
same PADS code was listed for each even when not listed in the reference. For example, Australian National and
South American 1969 can both use code 8. These codes are for Version 4 PADS. If a PADS code is not listed,
the user-defined option should be used.
Local geodetic datum. The datum name as it appears in DMA TR 8350.2. In cases where a datum has more than
one name, the second name is listed in parentheses.
Country/area. This information is mostly as it appears in DMA TR 8350.2. The only variations from the reference
are listings of states and countries published under mean solutions.
Transformation parameters (shifts in X, Y, and Z axes) as listed in DMA TR 8350.2. These parameters are from the
local datum to WGS-84.
Datum code. The codes in the DATUM CODE column match the programmed datum codes from the AN/PSN-11
(PLGR) Version V04b.2. The datum codes listed in this column that are not a programmed option of the PLGR must
be selected as user-defined. All datum codes published in this table are from DMA TR 8350.2.
DDCT code. This is the datum code from the BUCS DDCT Rev 0.
b. Tables E-3 through E-25 are datum transformation tables. A quick reference to the location of specific tables is on page
E-1.
Figure E-2. Datum transformation table
E-5
C1, FM 6-2
E-6
C1, FM 6-2
E-7
C1, FM 6-2
E-8
C1, FM 6-2
E-9
C1, FM 6-2
E-10
C1, FM 6-2
E-11
C1, FM 6-2
E-12
C1, FM 6-2
E-13
C1, FM 6-2
E-14
C1, FM 6-2
E-15
C1, FM 6-2
E-16
C1, FM 6-2
E-17
C1, FM 6-2
E-18
C1, FM 6-2
E-19
C1, FM 6-2
E-20
C1, FM 6-2
E-21
C1, FM 6-2
E-22
C1, FM 6-2
E-23
C1, FM 6-2
E-24
C1, FM 6-2
E-25
C1, FM 6-2
E-26
C1, FM 6-2
E-27
C1, FM 6-2
E-28
C1, FM 6-2
E-29
C1, FM 6-2
E-30
C1, FM 6-2
E-31
C1, FM 6-2
E-32
C1, FM 6-2
E-33
C1, FM 6-2
E-34
C1, FM 6-2
E-35
C1, FM 6-2
E-36
C1, FM 6-2
E-37
C1, FM 6-2
whereas:
when:
E-38
FM 6-2
APPENDIX F
APPENDIX G
STAR CARDS
Surveyors should be familiar with the location of stars and the magnitude
of stars. Figure G-2 through G-20 show the constellations recognized by
artillery surveyors. Use the alphabetical index below to locate the
constellation desired. Figure G-1 describes the magnitude of the stars in
the constellations.
G-1
FM 6-2
G-2
FM 6-2
Figure G-2. C e t u s
G-3
FM 6-2
G-4
FM 6-2
G-5
FM 6-2
G-6
FM 6-2
G-7
FM 6-2
G-8
FM 6-2
G-9
FM 6-2
G-10
FM 6-2
G-11
FM 6-2
G-12
C1, FM 6-2
APPENDIX H
STANDARDIZATION AGREEMENTS
Section I
GENERAL
H-1
C1, FM 6-2
Section II
STANDARD SURVEY ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS
FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE ARTILLERY
The following data are extracted from STANAG 2934, Section II and Annex A.
1104. Survey accuracy requirements are expressed in terms of probable error (PE), circular error probable (CEP), and
standard deviation (SIGMA). Survey parties may express the accuracy of their work in terms of a ratio (for example, 1
in 10000) which is an absolute accuracy.
1105. PE and CEP are derived from the positive standard deviation of the measurement (Sigma - ) as follows:
a. = Positive standard deviation of the measurement (Sigma).
b. PE= 0.6745
c.CEP=1.1774
d. CEP = 1.7456 PE.
Notes. 1. PE is a value which is exceeded as often as it is not; that is, it has a 50 percent probability of occurrence.
With respect to fixation (position), the PE applies to both the East-West and North-South axis.
2. CEP is the radius of the circle, centered about the true position, such that any measured or calculated position
has a 50 percent probability of lying within that circle.
ARTILLERY SURVEY ACCURACY CRITERIA
H-2
C1, FM 6-2
Section Ill
RECORDING OF DATA FOR
ARTILLERY SURVEY CONTROL POINTS
EXPLANATORY NOTES
AGREEMENT
1. This NATO Standardization Agreement (STANAG) is promulgated by the Chairman MAS under the authority vested
in him by the NATO Military Committee.
2. No departure may be made from the agreement without consultation with the tasking authority. Nations may propose
changes at any time to the tasking authority where they will be processed in the same manner as the original agreement.
3. Ratifying nations have agreed that national orders, manuals, and instructions implementing this STANAG will include
a reference to the STANAG number for the purposes of identification.
DEFINITIONS
4. Ratification is The declaration by which a nation formally accepts the content of this Standardization Agreement.
5. Implementation is The fulfillment by a nations forces concerned of their obligations under this Standardization
Agreement.
6. Reservation is "The stated qualification by a nation which describes that part of this Standardization Agreement which
it cannot implement or can implement only with limitations."
RATIFICATION, IMPLEMENTATION AND RESERVATIONS
7. Page iii gives details of the state of ratification and implementation of this agreement by the NATO nations. If no
details are shown, it signifies that the nation has not yet notified the tasking authority of its intentions. Page iv (and
subsequent) gives details of reservations and proprietary rights that have been stated.
8. If an amendment of substance of a new edition (other than an editorially amended edition) is promulgated, all
previous ratification, implementation and reservation/restriction details are deleted from pages iii and iv and the
amendment or new edition is processed in the same manner as the original agreement.
Note. The Artillery Survey Control Point Proforma (Amex B to STANAG 2934) has been adapted as a DA form (DA
Form 5075-R) and is discussed in Chapter 14, with the exception that datum and ellipsoid must be included. See the
sample Artillery Survey Control Point Proforma in Annex B and instructions in Section III, 1107d, located in this
appendix, for examples. It is suggested that you still use DA Form 5075-R; just include the datum and ellipsoid data
in the UTM ZONE and UTM SQUARE blocks. (See the back of this book for a reproducible copy of DA Form
5075-R.)
H-3
C1, FM 6-2
RESERVATIONS
DA: Denmark will not use the proforma (Annex A), but will use existing Danish Trig Lists with text in Danish and
English. In the trig lists all information according to STANAG 2865 is found except:
a. Paragraphs 4b and 5j (direction to orient equipment).
b. Paragraph 5e (accuracy).
c. Paragraph 51 (verification block).
IT: In the space LOCATION DIAGRAM in Annex A, Italy will also record a vertical sketch with indications of the
altitude of the different collimation plans.
NO: Norway will use an artillery survey control point proforma with a different layout than that described in Annex A
to STANAG 2865. The Norwegian format will not include information on:
a. UTM square.
b. Accuracy.
c. Longitude/latitude.
d. Bearing/azimuth to aiming points in degrees or grads.
e. Method of determination.
The Norwegian format will include grid bearing/azimuth to only two reference objects from the artillery survey
control point.
H-4
C1, FM 6-2
g. A diagram showing the location of the control point in relation to local topographical detail. The diagram is given
in order that the control point may be easily recognized on the ground.
h. The description of the control point; that is, how it is marked on the ground.
j. The grid bearing/azimuths, in mils, to at least four reference objects. Two of these reference objects must be
between 100 and 500 meters of the control point.
k. A description and sketch showing the exact point of lay and the approximate distance from the control point, for
each reference object.
1. A verification block containing:
(1) The unit.
(2) By whom prepared.
(3) By whom checked.
(4) The date.
Notes. 1. There are several ways of writing numbers by hand. The English-speaking nations, for example, use 17.11.
Other nations, for example, use 17,11. Both of these examples can be used but are not to be mixed.
2. When an artillery survey control point is situated near a UTM zone border and two sets of data are available,
separate proforma must be prepared for each UTM zone.
3. The Artillery Survey Control Point Proforma may be printed in national languages, but the format must not be
altered.
H-5
C1, FM 6-2
H-6
C1, FM 6-2
ANNEX C
EVALUATION CHECKLIST
ARTILLERY SURVEY
GENERAL
1. This Chapter agrees the method of expressing artillery survey accuracy criteria for weapons,
target acquisition, surveillance and meteorological systems in current usc by nations. It also
shows the proforma to be used by NATO forces for wording artillery survey control point data
2. Evaluation opportunities will arise during field training exercises.
EVALUATION PLAN
3. The information required should be obtained by:
a. Observation of artillery survey teams.
b. Discussion with survey officers/NCOs.
c. Review of national implementing documents.
Questionnaire
4. Which of the following equipment types were evaluated? State exact type:
a. Cannon Artillery
b. Free Flight Rocket
c. Surface to Surface Guided Weapon
d. Mortar Locating Radar
e. Artillery Locating Radar
f. Sound Ranging
g. Light Ranging (Flash Spotting)
h. Ground Surveillance Radar
i. Drone
j. RPV
k. Meterological Equipment
l. Ground Laser Locator Designator
5. Was the proforma shown at Annex B (Artillery Survey Control Point) used to record survey
data? State yes or no............ If no, give details:
8. Was an Artillery Survey Control Point produced by one nation and used by the survey team
from another nation? State yes or no............If yes, give details:
H-7
C1, FM 6-2
9 . Did the nation using the form require any additional survey information that cannot be shown
on the form? State yes or no............ If yes, give details:
10. Was the survey data shown on the form given to sufficient accuracy to enable the receiving
nation to use it? State yes or no . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Was survey carred forward to the weapon/equipment position from the Artillery Survey
Control Point? State yes or no.. . . . . . . . . . .If yes, how far?...............................................
12. If an Artillery Survey Control Point was not used to provide survey information how was
survey initiated? Mark those used:
13. Were gross-error checks on accuracy conducted during the survey process (e.g. compass
checks)? State yes or no . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Were the accuracies achieved at the weapon/equipment in accordance with the figures
shown at Annex A? State yes or no . . . . . . . . . . . .
15. Do national publications reflect the national accuracies shown at Annex A? State yes or
no . . . . . . . . . . . .
16. Were there any observations made by exercise participants concerning survey that should be
considered by the Arty WP. State yes or no . . . . . . . . . . . . If YES give:
a. Nation
b. Rank and position of participant
c. Observation
17. Evaluators own observations:
H-8
C1, FM 6-2
GLOSSARY
ARTEP Army training and evaluation program AZ/MK azimuth to azimuth mark (BUCS)
astro alt astronomic observation (altitude method) BA=1 side of triangle between Points A and B (BUCS)
azimuth angle the angle less than 180 between the basic control horizontal or vertical control, in which the
plane of the celestial meridian and the vertical plane locations of the stations have been accurately
containing the observed object, reckoned from the coordinated and correlated and forming a framework to
Glossary-1
C1, FM 6-2
which other surveys are adjusted. For artillery purposes, (Practical astronomy assumes that the earth is
this term can be applied to control points established by stationary and that the celestial bodies rotate about the
fourth-order accuracy or higher orders of accuracy. earth from east to west on this sphere.)
BC battery center CEP circular error probable
B/C Point B or C (BUCS) CEWI combat electronic warfare intelligence
BCS battery computer system ck check
bde brigade CK check (BUCS)
bldg building CM central meridian
blvd boulevard cmd command
bn battalion colatitude the side of the PZS triangle from the celestial
pole to the zenith. The complement of altitude, or 90
bn SCP battalion survey control point minus the altitude. The term has significance only
BOIP basis of issue plan when used in connection with altitude measured from
the celestial horizon, when it is synonymous with
BRP boresight reference point zenith distance.
btry battery C2 command and control
BUCS backup computer system CMPTD computed (BUCS)
BWI British West Indies COLT combat observation/lasing team
C Celsius comm communication
CA comparative accuracy (BUCS); course acquisition cont continue
CA=2 side of triangle between Points C and A (BUCS) CONUS continental United States (also in BUCS)
cav cavalry CONV conversion (BUCS)
CDU control and display unit (PADS) CONVG convergence (BUCS)
celestial coordinates the coordinates used to locate a COP chief of party
heavenly body by various systems. The coordinates
used in the field artillery are declination and right CORR correction (BUCS)
ascension. COS cosine (BUCS)
celestial equator the great circle on the celestial cot cotangent
sphere whose plan is perpendicular to the axis of
rotation of CPT captain
the earth. A great circle is a circle, the plane of which
passes through the center of a sphere. CST central standard time
celestial horizon that circle on the celestial sphere CTOC corps tactical operations center
formed by the intersection of the celestial sphere and a CTR center (BUCS)
plane through the center of the earth and perpendicular
to the zenith-nadir line CUCV commercial utility cargo vehicle
celestial North and South Poles the points at which the culmination the passage of the celestial body across the
prolonged polar axis of the earth intersects the celestial meridian of the observer. Every celestial body will
sphere have two culminations. The passage across the upper
branch of the observers meridian is upper culmination
celestial sphere an imaginary sphere of indefinitely (or upper transit), and the passage across the lower
large radius whose center is the center of the earth. branch is lower culmination (or lower transit).
Glossary-2
C1, FM 6-2
Glossary-3
C1, FM 6-2
geo geographic hour circle any great circle on the celestial sphere
whose plane is perpendicular to the plane of the
GEO geographic (BUCS) celestial equator
Glossary-4
C1, FM 6-2
ID identification It light
Glossary-5
C1, FM 6-2
OMB Office of Management and Budget prime vertical the vertical circle that is perpendicular to
the plane of the observers meridian and intersects the
one-position, two-position refers to initial readings on celestial horizon at the points directly true east and
the circle of the instrument measuring an angle and is west of the observers meridian
used to determine the degree of refinement in the
performance of angular value determinations with the pro forma provided in advance to prescribe form or to
theodolite describe items (according to form)
Glossary-6
C1, FM 6-2
P/Y precise (PPS code) right ascension the right ascension of a celestial body is
the arc on the celestial equator measured from the
R reverse; right (BUCS); reinforcing vernal equinox eastward to the hour circle of the body.
RA right ascension (also in BUCS) It is measured in units of time from 0 to 24 hours.
Right ascension corresponds to longitude on earth.
RAM random-access memory
rotation the turning of a body on its axis. The terminal
points of the axis of the earth are the North and South
RATELO radiotelephone operator Poles. The rotation is from west to east.
Glossary-7
C1, FM 6-2
sin sine survey, geodetic survey that takes into consideration the
size and shape of the earth; implies a reference
SIN sine (BUCS) spheroid that mathematically represents the geoid and
SL slope (BUCS) the horizontal and vertical control datums
SLGR small lightweight GPS receiver survey, plane those survey procedures common to field
artillery in which the effect of the curvature of the
slope distance the straight-line distance between two earth is almost entirely neglected, and computations of
points of unequal heights. Normal usage is associated the relative positions of the stations are made by using
with electronic distance-measuring equipment. (Do not the principles of plane geometry and plane trigonometry
use the term slant distance.)
SUSV small-unit support vehicle
SM soldiers manual
SV satellite vehicle (AN/PSN-11)
SO south (BUCS)
svy survey (radio net)
SOI signal operation instructions
SW southwest
SOJT supervised on-the-job training
SYS system (BUCS)
solar time time determined by the sun
T telescope (field notebook)
solstices the solstices are two points on the ecliptic
midway between the equinoxes. When the ecliptic is TA target acquisition
north of the celestial equator, the midpoint is called the TAB target acquisition battery
summer solstice and occurs about 21 June. When the
ecliptic is south of the celestial equator, the midpoint is TACFIRE tactical fire direction system
called the winter solstice and occurs about 21
TAN tangent (BUCS)
December. As can easily be seen, the solstices occur
when the sun is at its greatest distance north or south TASCP target area survey control point
of the equator.
TA2 true azimuth
SOP standing operating procedure
TBL table (BUCS)
SOR Sorol
temp temperature
SPC specialist
TG trainers guide
SPCE survey planning and coordination element
tgt target
SPCO survey planning and coordination officer
Thai Thailand (BUCS)
sph spheroid
theod theodolite
SPS standard positioning system
TM technical manual
SRP/PDS stabilization reference
package/position-determining system TOC tactical operations center
Glossary-8
C1, FM 6-2
Glossary-9
C1, FM 6-2
REFERENCES
DA Form 5593-R. Computation of Coordinates and Height DA Form 7357-R. Computation of Coordinates and
by Three-Point Resection (BUCS). December 1986. Height From Azimuth, Distance, and Vertical Angle (FED
MSR). Sep 96.
DA Form 5594-R. Computation of Astronomic Azimuth by
Altitude Method, Sun (BUCS). December 1986. DA Form 7358-R. Computation of Plane Triangle
DA Form 5595-R. Computation of Astronomic Azimuth by Coordinates and Height From One Side, Three Angles, and
Altitude Method, Star (BUCS). December 1986. Vertical Angle (FED MSR). Sep 96.
DA Form 5598-R. Computation of Astronomic Azimuth by DA Form 7359-R. Computation of Coordinates and
Polaris Tabular Method (BUCS). December 1986. Height by Three-Point Resection (FED MSR). Sep 96.
DA Form 5599-R. Computation-Convergence of True DA Form 7360-R, Computation of Astronomic Azimuth
Azimuth to Grid Azimuth (BUCS). December 1986. by Altitude Method (FED MSR). Sep 96.
References-1
C1, FM 6-2
DA Form 7361-R. Computation of Astronomic Azimuth by FM 90-6 (HTF). Mountain Operations. 30 June 1980. FM
the Hasty Astro Method (FED MSR). Sep 96. 90-10 (HTF). Military Operations on Urbanized Terrain
(MOUT) (How to Fight). 15 August 1979.
DA Form 7362-R. Computation of Azimuth and Vertical
FM 101-5-1. Operational Terms and Symbols. 21 October
Angle to Selected Star (Star ID) (FED MSR). Sep 96.
1985.
DA Form 7363-R. Computations of Astronomic Azimuth by TM 5-6675-200-14. Operator's, Organizational, Direct
Polaris Tabular Method (FED MSR). Sep 96. Support and General Support Maintenance Manual for
Theodolite: Directional, 5.9 Inch Long Telescope;
DA Form 7364-R. Computation-Convergence of True
Detachable Tribrach w/Accessories and Tripod (Wild
Azimuth to Grid Azimuth (FED MSR). Sep 96. Heerbrugg Model T-16-0.2 Mil) . . . . 31 May 1973.
DA Form 7365-R. Computation of Trig Traverse (FED TM 5-6675-205-20P. Organizational Maintenance Repair
MSR). Sep 96. Parts and Special Tool Lists: Theodolite: Directional;
0.002 Mil Graduation: 5.9-Inch Long Telescope, Detachable
DA Form 7366-R. Computation of Coordinates and Height Tribrach; w/Accessories and Tripod (Wild Heerbrugg Models
by Intersection (FED MSR). Sep 96. T-2-56-C-MIL)... (Model T-2-56-M-MIL). . . (Model
T-2-56-M-MIL, Reference and T-2-56-C-MIL, Reference) . . . .
DA Form 7367-R. Computation ofAstronomic Azimuth by
10 December 1969.
the Arty Astro Method (FED MSR). Sep 96.
TM 5-6675-233-20P. Organizational Maintenance Repair
DA Form 7368-R. Computation-Conversion UTM to GEO Parts and Special Tools List: Theodolite: Directional;
Coordinate, GEO to UTM Coordinate, Zone-to-Zone 0.002 Mil Graduation; 5.9-Inch Long Telescope; Detachable
Transformation (FED MSR). Sep 96. Tribrach w/Accessories and Tripod (Wild Heerbrugg Models
T2-63 MIL)... (Model T2-67 MIL)...and (Model T2-66-C
DA Form 7369-R. ComputationDatum-to-Datum MIL) . . . . 25 June 1970.
Coordinate Transformation Listed Datums (FED MSR). Sep
96. TM 5-6675-243-15. Operator s, Organizational, Direct
Support, Genera! Support, and Depot Maintenance Manual
DA Form 7370-R. ComputationDatum-to-Datum (Including Repair Parts List): Light, Target, Surveying u/w
Coordinate Transformation Gauss Kruger (GK) Datums (FED Range Pole, Self-Iluminating w/Carrying Case (Military
MSR). Sep 96. Design) . . . . 3 March 1966.
TM 5-6675-250-10. Operators and Organizational
DA Form 7371-R. Computation-Datum-to-Datum
Maintenance Manual: Survey Instrument, Azimuth, Gyro,
Coordinate Transformation User-Defined Datums (FED Lightweight Model AG-8, Type 1 ....30 June 1986.
MSR). Sep 96.
TM 5-6675-270-15. Operator's, Organizational, Direct and
FM 6-50. Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for the Field General Support and Depot Maintenance Manual:
ArtilIery Cannon Battery. 20 November 1992. Theodolite: Directional; 0.2 Mil Graduation; 5.9 In. Long
Telescope w/Accessories (Wild Heerbrugg Models) (Mode!
FM 6-300. Army Ephemeris, 1993-1997. 23 July 1992. T16-MIL66, Type II)..., (Model T16-MIL-68, Type II.. and
Theodolite, Directional, 1 Min Graduation; 5.9 Inch Long
FM 21-26. Map Reading and Land Navigation. 30 September Telescope w/Accessories (Wild Heerbrugg Model T16-68
1987. DEG Type I) . . . . 12 March 1970.
FM 21-31. Topographic Symbols. 19 June 1961. TM5-6675-296-14. Operators, Organizational, Direct Support
FM 25-100. Training the Force. 15 November 1988. and General Support Maintenance Manual for Theodolite,
Directional: 0.002 Mil Graduation, 5.9 Inch Long Telescope,
FM 25-101. Battle Focused Training. 30 September 1990. Detachable Tribrach w/Accewories and Tripod (Wild Heerbrugg
Models T2-56-C-MIL)..., (Model T2-56-M-MIL)..., (Model
FM 31-70. Basic Cold Weather Manual. 12 April 1968. T2-63-MIL)..., (Model T2-66-C-MIL)..,, (Model T2-68-MIL)...;
Theodolite, Directional (Reference) (Wild Heerbrugg Models
FM 31-71. Northern Operations. 21 June 1971.
T2-56-C-MIL, T2-56-M-MIL, T2-63-MIL, T2-66-C-MIL,
FM 90-5 (HTF). Jungle Operations. 16 August 1982. T2-67MIL and T2-68MIL) . . . . 28 June 1977.
References-2
C1, FM 6-2
References-3
C1, FM 6-2
References-4
C1, FM 6-2
INDEX
This index is organized alphabetically by topic and subtopic. Topics and subtopics are identified by page number.
Accessories Angle
distance-measuring equipment (SEDME-MR), 2-12 azimuth, 7-7
Index-1
C1, FM 6-2
Index-2
C1, FM 6-2
Battalion and battery survey, field artillery Coast and geodetic survey publications. See National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Publications.
assumed data, 14-2
Collimation adjustments
astronomic observation, 7-1
theodolite, T16, 3-15
connection survey, 14-7
theodolite, T16-84, 3-15
converting to higher-echelon grid, 14-2
theodolite, T2, 3-23
position area survey, 14-4
Common grid, 14-1
survey control
Comparative accuracy of taped distances, 2-9
methods, 14-2
Computations
points, 14-5
astronomic observations, 7-33, 7-39, 7-45, 10-9, 10-19,
target area
10-25
survey, 14-7
coordinates, 5-8, 10-5
Bearing, 5-12 distance, 5-8, 10-5
Blunders, 2-9 intersection, 6-12, 10-19
Breaking tape, 2-6 resection, 6-20, 10-9
Computers
Celestial
accessories, 10-1, 12-1
bodies, 7-1
keyboard entries, 10-1, 12-2
equator, 7-4
keyboard computations, 10-3, 12-7
meridian, 7-3
maintenance, 12-12
simultaneous observation, 7-48
Computer (survey party), 1-10, 5-6
sphere, 7-2
Connection survey, 14-7
triangle, 7-5
Control
Chain of triangles, 6-5
point, survey, 14-5
Chart, star. See Star chart.
starting, 5-2
Chief of party, 1-10
Index-3
C1, FM 6-2
conversion, 14-2
Duties of survey personnel, 1-10
geographic, 11-1
Execution of survey order, 15-10
transformation, 11-6
Factors affecting survey planning, 15-8
Data, assumed, 5-3, 14-2
Field artillery (FA)
Data, starting, 5-2
battalion and battery. See Battalion and battery survey.
Declination
target acquisition battery. See Target acquisition
celestial body, 7-4 battery survey.
lndex-4
C1, FM 6-2
Index-5
C1, FM 6-2
Index-6
C1, FM 6-2
computations, 6-20
Plumb bob
definition, 6-20
used in taping, 2-2, 2-5
three-point, 6-20
used with theodolite, 3-1
Restrictions on survey operations, 15-8
Pointings, 3-20
Right ascension (RA), 7-4
Pole, celestial north and south, 7-2
Satellite signals navigation set AN/PSN-11, 13-1
Position
Scales, reading
area survey, 14-4
theodolite, T16, 3-5
taken with theodolite. See Theodolite, T16, T16-84 and
Theodolite, T2. theodolite, T16-84, 3-5
Index-7
C1, FM 6-2
operation, 8-7
Standing operating procedure (SOP), 15-12
setting up, 8-2
Star
taking down, 8-8
chart, 7-23
Swinging the grid, 14-4
identification, 7-20
Systematic errors, 2-9
Starting
Tape
control, traverse, 5-2
alignment, 2-3
data, traverse, 5-2
breaking, 2-6
Station
lengths, measuring, 2-5 through 2-7
forward. See Forward station.
maintenance, 2-10
occupied. See Occupied station.
repair, 2-11
orienting, 14-5
Tapeman, 2-1
rear. See Rear station.
Tapes
traverse, 5-4
description, 2-1
Survey planning and coordination element (SPCE),
14-14 Taping
Index-8
C1, FM 6-2
Temperature, astronomic observations, 7-15 Training the field artillery surveyor, C-1
computing horizontal and vertical angles, 3-9 adjustment, 5-33 through 5-35
reading and setting horizontal and vertical circles, 3-5 computations, 5-16
Index-9
C1, FM 6-2
intersection
Vernal equinox, 7-4
computations, 6-16
Vertical angle correction (VAC), 9-5
limitations, 6-15
Index-10
C1, FM 6-2
determining, with theodolite. See Theodolite, T16, Weapon position, field artillery, 14-4, 4-8, 14-10
T16-84 and Theodolite, T2.
Weather, effects of, on survey, 15-8
reciprocal measuring, 5-22, 6-4
Zenith, 7-5
Vertical scales. See Scales, reading. Zone-to-zone transformation, 11-6
Index-11
FM 6-2
23 SEPTEMBER 1993
GORDON R. SULLIVAN
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff
MlLTON H. HAMILTON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
04922
DISTRIBUTION: