A Big Data Approach for Smart Transportation
Management on Bus Network
Yun Wang, Sudha Ram, Faiz Currim
MIS Department, Eller College of Management
University of Arizona
Tucson, USA
AbstractUrbanization in developing countries has resulted in
increased demand for public transportation in the face of limited
resources. This requires smart transportation management that
allows urban planners to evaluate the impact of their policies and
design targeted interventions. This paper proposes a three-layer
management system to support smart urban mobility with an
emphasis on bus transportation. In Layer-1, we apply novel Big
Data techniques to compute bus travel time and passenger
demands in an efficient and economical way. Layer-2 contains two
analytic components: network analysis of passenger transit
patterns and causal relationship analysis for bus delays. The third
layer provides decision support in an interactive visualization
environment. The proposed system is developed and validated in
cooperation with the city of Fortaleza in Brazil. The use of
generally available urban transportation data makes our
methodology adaptable and customizable for other cities.
KeywordsSmart City; Urban Transportation; MapReduce;
Network Analysis
I. INTRODUCTION
Global development trends are creating a surge in urban
development and associated population sizes. Much of the
growth is expected to take place in cities of developing
countries, resulting in widening the gap between urban mobility
demands and the existing transportation infrastructure.
Encouraging the use of public transportation options, such as
buses, is one of the prospective solutions to alleviate this
problem. However, bus transportation in developing countries
typically must address issues such as overcrowding, delays and
traffic congestion, owing to the high population density and lack
of efficient system management [1]. One of the critical issues in
developing smart cities, is monitoring and evaluating the
performance of a bus transportation system. Of particular
interest to urban planners are fundamental performance
indicators such as passenger demands or bus travel speeds and
times.
Many existing studies have examined various issues such as
forecasting passenger demands [2], [3] or predicting bus arrival
time [4], [5]. However, most existing approaches require data
from Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) and Automatic
Passenger Counter (APC) devices, which limits the
generalizability and transferability of their findings due to the
considerable costs of AVL-APC systems. A TCRP (Transit
Cooperative Research Program) synthesis report in 2008
978-1-5090-1846-8/16/$31.00 2016 IEEE
Ezequiel Dantas, Luiz Alberto Sabia
Secretaria Municipal de Conservao e Servios Pblicos
Prefeitura Municipal de Fortaleza
Fortaleza, Brazil
conveyed that for bus systems with fleet sizes below 750
vehicles, the cost of installing AVL was roughly $2.5 million
plus a cost between $2,500 and $10,000 per bus for APC
equipment [6]. On the other hand, Global Positioning System
(GPS) tracking along with Automatic Fare Collection (AFC)
provide a more economical alternative for capturing data on bus
trips and passenger mobility. This is because a GPS tracking unit
cost approximately $200 per bus and AFC is already widely used
in many countries [7]. The challenges preventing widespread use
of data from GPS-AFC systems for decision support by urban
planners are twofold: data integration and data volumes. While
the AFC and GPS systems were designed for different purposes
(and typically independently collected by different agencies), by
connecting the two with other related datasets, we can derive
very useful insights into bus movement patterns on a route and
passenger boarding counts. This process is non-trivial because
the GPS tracking signals and AFC records are coarse-grained.
Careful processing is needed to extract arrival time at each bus
stop from GPS sensor data streams. Similarly, most AFC
systems provide a transaction history, but do not associate
transactions with a particular bus stop. Further, the prodigious
amounts of data generated by a city-wide transportation system
means insufficient computing or inefficient algorithms can be a
barrier to information extraction.
In this study, we address the challenges described above, by
leveraging the power of Big Data. This includes novel ways of
analyzing data using distributed processing techniques for
efficient handling of large data streams. A three-layer system is
proposed to support smart transportation management in
developing countries where buses are the primary method for
public transportation. The first layer serves as the support layer
where we process large amounts of GPS signals and AFC
records to compute bus travel time and passenger boarding
locations using MapReduce [8]. The second layer contains two
components that take the indicators from the first layer for data
analysis. The first component uses boarding information to
cluster bus stops into regions based on their geographic distance
and user base. Using sequential boarding records of all
passengers across the entire city, a novel trip transfer network is
extracted to measure importance of regions based on PageRank
centrality [9] modified for bus system analysis. The second
component applies regression analysis to investigate a variety of
factors affecting bus travel time. The last layer implements a
map-based visualization tool that enables urban planners to
interactively monitor and evaluate various performance TABLE I. EXAMPLE OF GPS AND AFC DATA
outcomes for decision making. (a) GPS Records
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section II Bus ID Latitude Longitude Speed Timestamp
reviews related work. Section III describes our methodology for B1 -3.74473 -38.5182 0.43 2014-09-11
the design of each layer in the system. Section IV presents a case 09:03:30
of use in the city of Fortaleza in Brazil. Finally, Section V B3 -3.81002 -38.4321 0 2014-09-11
09:03:45
provides conclusions and future directions.
(b) AFC Transactions
II. LITERATURE REVIEW Card ID Bus ID Route Direction Timestamp
The development of location tacking technology in urban U1 B1 34 G a
2014-09-11
transportation such as GPS, AVL and APC systems has greatly 09:03:45
enriched the amount and variety of available data. For example, U2 B3 55 R 2014-09-11
09:04:02
AVL systems provide observations of vehicle arrival and
departure time at each stop. These facilitate predictive modeling a.
Every route has two directions: G for going direction and R for return direction

of bus arrival time [4], [5], aiming at improving passenger
experiences. Research has also suggested building an intelligent
transportation management system through investing in AVL-
APC systems [10]. However, due to its high cost, this solution
may not be feasible for developing countries where the access to
expensive equipment on a system-wide is usually limited by
resource constraints [1]. With the wide usage of AFC, passenger
boarding information can be extracted even without AVL-APC
systems, by integrating the AFC data with other data streams like
GPS.
Forecasting passenger demands has attracted increased
attention in the past years. Predictions are made based on time
series models including Autoregressive integrated moving
average (ARIMA), seasonal ARIMA (SARIMA) or a hybrid
approach [2], [3]. In these studies, passenger demands are
modeled in an aggregated way, therefore individual transit
patterns are not considered. Another limitation is that these
approaches are built on a limited number of routes. As a result,
passenger transfer behavior is usually ignored.
Recent work on smart transportation systems have used
smartphone applications to collect information such as bus
trajectory and passenger on-board experience via crowd-sensing
[11]. This approach does not depend on special bus equipment.
However its data quality largely depends on how many users are
motivated to download and use the app. Also the collected data
may be biased due to self-reporting errors.
Human movement behaviors exhibit reproducible patterns
[12]. Yet, few research studies have been devoted to the study of
human mobility patterns in the context of bus transportation. The
challenge here is obtaining the passenger alighting information
(if passengers scan their card during boarding). Ground truth has
to be collected through special surveys [13] which is expensive.
This limits the number of trips observed and in turn reduces the
generalizability of results. In this study, we examine bus
passenger patterns using clustering techniques with innovative
network analytics in place of recording the actual alighting
location of a passenger.
III. METHODOLOGY
In this section, we first describe the data used in our study
with an overview of the system architecture. The discussion then
focuses on the mechanism we used to process input data
followed by quantitative techniques that utilize the outcomes.
A. System Overview
Our study used real world data obtained from a large bus
system containing 300 routes spanning nearly 5,000 bus stops in
the city of Fortaleza, the fifth largest city in Brazil. The data were
generated from approximately 2,000 buses for a period of 7
months from May. 2014 thru Nov. 2014. Most buses are
equipped with GPS tracking devices sending latitude/longitude
coordinates every 15- 30 seconds. The AFC system supports
both cash and smart card. The AFC data contain transactions at
all bus stops except terminals. During the period of study, the
city introduced several dedicated bus lanes to reduce bus delays.
Table I shows examples from the two major components of
the dataset. Other complimentary datasets include stop locations,
bus schedules and dedicated lane locations. As mentioned
previously, one objective of this study is extracting fined-
grained information (e.g., bus travel time and passenger
boarding locations) from raw data to work as a more economical
and generalizable alternative to AVL-APC systems. This
processing is non-trivial, considering a typical month generates
200 million GPS signals and 30 million AFC records.
The architecture of our system is shown in Fig. 1. We
designed a MapReduce algorithm in Layer-1 to efficiently
compute bus travel time and passenger boarding stops as the
fundamental indicators. They are then used by the two
components in Layer-2 to extract insights of the current system.
In Layer-3 we implemented a data visualization dashboard
providing urban planners with metrics about the bus network on
a city map.
Fig. 1. Architecture of the three-layer system
B. Computing Fundamental Indicators in MapReduce TABLE II. LAYER-1 MAPREDUCE ALGORITHM

Conceptually, the computation of fundamental indicators Map function: partition GPS stream
can be solved as a multi-step Nearest Neighbor Search (NNS): Input GPS Stream G of tuples < Bi , Ci , Ti > where B i is bus ID,
C i is a pair of coordinates and Ti is timestamp
For an AFC record, search GPS of the bus on the same Output id: a composite key of date and bus ID
day for the record that has a closest timestamp. Then point: a tuple of coordinates and time in seconds
using the GPS record, search for the nearest stop on the 1. for all < Bi , Ci , Ti > G
route as the boarding location. Meanwhile, we also 2. Extract date from Ti as D i and convert time of day
estimate the bus arrival time at that stop. to seconds stored as Si
3. Store id= < Bi , Ci , Ti > point = < Bi , Ci , Ti >
For the same bus trip, if the arrival time of a stop has not
4. end for
been resolved (e.g., no boarding records), we first
5. yield all < id , point> pairs
identify the nearest resolved stop to this target stop. We
use its arrival time to filter GPS records within a time Reduce function: estimate boarding stop and bus arrival time
interval determined by the scheduled trip time. Finally, Input < id , point> pairs merged by id
we search the filtered GPS for a record closest to the One trip of AFC records A containing tuples
target stop. < U i , B , R ,V , Ti > where U i is card ID, B is bus ID, Ti is
timestamp, R is route and V is direction. For a single
In practice, AFC records of a same boarding event can be trip B, R and V are fixed
grouped together to reduce search attempts. GPS data are Output id: a bus stop ID, estimation: a tuple of estimated
indexed by timestamps in B-Trees for time based NNS or arrival time and boarding passengers
indexed by coordinates in R-Trees for distance based NNS. Still, 1. Retrieve stops P on route ( R,V )
processing all buses across the city can be time-consuming due 2. for all < U i , B , R , V , Ti > A
to the input scale. 3. Extract date from Ti as D i and convert time of day
to seconds stored as Si
MapReduce as a programming framework simplifies the
4. Search Si in point for closest S n and record (C n , S n )
complexity of distributed computing [8]. Given the fact that the
previous computation can be performed simultaneously for each 5. Search C n in P for nearest stop Pm and store arrival
individual bus on a particular day, we implemented a time Qm = S n ,Um U i
MapReduce algorithm to arrange the computation in a parallel 6. end for
7. for all Pi in P
manner. GPS data are streaming signals received citywide. In
this study, we simulate the process by streaming archived GPS 8. if Qn = None then
data on a monthly basis. AFC records are organized by trips, 9. Search Pi in P for nearest stop Pi and Qk None
therefore we can segment the data by each trip. In the map phase, 10. Filter point by a time range [Qk T , Qk + T ]
the GPS data are partitioned by a composite key of bus ID and store result in target
date. Searching is executed in the reduce phase. A detailed 11. Search Pi in target for nearest (C v , S v ) and store
algorithm is listed in Table II. arrival time Qn = S v
12. end if
C. Network Analysis of Transit Patterns 13. Store id= Pi , estimation= (Qi , Um )
In this section, we explore transit patterns that are commonly 14. yield all <id, estimation> pairs
15. end for
shared by passengers. Relying on this insight, urban planners can
evaluate if the current bus system meets all passengers needs. Instead of determining the number of clusters in advance, we
In a bus network, a transit pattern is characterized by a pair of start with an informed seeding strategy. Let B = {b1 , b2 ,..., bn } be
boarding and alighting stops. Boarding stops are estimated in
Layer-1. However, alighting location is not directly available a set of bus stops we want to cluster, U (bi ) be the number of
(the AFC system is designed to collect fares, and generates a passengers who boarded at bi in a past period. A new initial
single transaction for a passenger). To address this issue, we first center comes from a subset D B defined as:
apply a bus stop clustering algorithm to increase the reliability
of pattern extraction. Then we introduce our network analysis D = {bx | bx ( B \ C ), U (bx ) a and by C : E (bx , by ) d } (1)
method to reveal passenger transit patterns without explicitly
knowing their alighting locations. where C is the set of selected centers, E (bx , by ) calculates
1) Bus Stop Clustering: A transit pattern can be inferred by Euclidean distance between bx , by , a is the threshold to control
observing people who have similar demands. For example, the minimum boarding passengers of an initial center and d
school students who live nearby in neighborhoods would share controls the minimum distance between the new center and old
a commuting pattern. For this reason, a single pair of ones (a minimum distance ensures each cluster corresponds to a
boarding/alighting bus stops is not enough to capture all trips different region). A bus stop bi D is randomly selected based
following the same pattern. It is better to use a region
(approximating a neighborhood) to represent the origin and on a probability:
destination in a transit pattern. In this study, we used a modified U (bi )
k-means clustering to identify these regions. P(bi ) = (2)
U ( x)
xD
 The seeding process will stop when D is empty. The
algorithm proceeds with standard k-means. Intuitively this
strategy is designed to form clusters that have a high user base
and are evenly distributed across the city. Using parameters a
and d , a pre-defined cluster number is not needed. Besides, the
two parameters are domain-related, making them more friendly
for transportation engineer to adjust compared with tweaking the
value of k .
2) Rank Region importance in a Transfer Network:
Alighting stops can be inferred if a passenger has multiple
boarding records. Given that a passenger made n trips in a day,
the ith trip can be denoted as < Bi , Li > with Bi represents the
estimated boarding stop and Li indicates unknown alighting
stop. If the distance between Bi +1 to a certain stop on the route
of Bi is within a walking range, we assume this stop to be Li
(the latter may represent a transfer stop on a different route or
the boarding point for the return trip). Using this heuristic
requires additional assumptions: Passengers do not commonly
take other transportation methods in transit and the last trip in a
day marks a return trip. These assumptions are more likely to
hold for frequent passengers whose transit sequences contain
the pattern we want to learn.
In our dataset, over 75% of smart card users have at least
two boarding records on a day. We set a walking distance
constraint to 2 km as suggested in [13]. To support the
additional assumptions, we examine passengers who make
more than 20 trips in a month and only use their boarding
sequences on a day if the next day also had the same first
boarding stop.
These sequences are then used to generate a directed
network reflecting passenger transit patterns. As illustrated in
Fig. 2, a passenger made four trips starting from B1 in region
R1 . The link from R1 to R2 captures the transfer behavior at B2
without the necessity of knowing L1 . By grouping bus stops in
a region, this link can also capture transfers between other bus
stop pairs within this area.
From a passengers daily boarding sequence, we either add
new nodes (regions) to the network or update the frequency of
edges between existing links. In order to calculate PageRank,
Fig. 2. Generate directed network from boarding sequences.
self-loop is avoided during the network generation. Considering
the seasonal pattern of urban mobility, we generate the transfer
network on a monthly basis. From our dataset, about 2 million
sequences were used for the monthly network generation. Edge
weight wi j of an outgoing edge from Ri to R j was normalized
following Equation (3):
Cijp
wi j = (3)
k N ip
C p
ik
k
p
where C is the number of trips observed from Ri to R j in month
ij
p and N ip is the set of out-neighbors of Ri in the network.
Based on (3), we update nodes weighted PageRank in
iteration t in (4):
PRt ( Ri ) = PRt 1 ( R j ) w j i (4)
R j Iip
where I ip is a set of all incoming neighbors in month p . Using
(3), we come up with a score measuring the probability of a bus
stop cluster as destinations for other stop clusters. We modify
the basic PageRank calculation which assesses the importance
score of a website based on link-based user browsing behavior.
In each iteration, a nodes PageRank value is divided to its
outgoing neighbors based on the edge weight value. Our goal is
to identify important regions in terms of passenger needs so that
planners can evaluate if the region and transit pattern has already
been considered or it is a new discovery and some intervention
is needed (e.g., setup a terminal or improve connectivity between
regions).
D. Analysis of Bus Delays
In the second component of Layer-2, we analyze the bus
delays based on bus travel time estimated at each bus stop.
Travel time is obtained by subtracting arrival between adjacent
bus stops. Bus delays are identified at two levels: route level and
segment level. At the route level, delays are the difference
between the scheduled and calculated trip times from origin to
destination. At the segment level, we use average bus speed to
infer road congestion. In particular, a speed below 10 km/h is
considered as a signal of delay.
For delays at the segment level, average travel speed is
aggregated and presented in Layer-3 for users to explore it on
map. In this way, urban planners are able to evaluate the results
by incorporating their domain knowledge of the city.
For delays at route level, we performed a regression analysis
to understand the impacts of factors on bus delays. The result
can help planners understand the impact of their decisions and
better identify the reasons that caused delays. In this study, time
variables (e.g., weekday, peak hour), number of boarding
passengers, number of stops and road interventions (e.g.
dedicated lane) are used in the regression.
IV. SYSTEM EVALUATION
In this section, we evaluate the system performance in a real
world setting. A few use cases are introduced to demonstrate the
way of rendering outcomes from previous analysis in the
visualization environment of Layer-3. Particularly, we show
how our system provides decision support for domain experts to
intelligently manage the transportation system.
A. Comparison of MapReduce with Single Node
To evaluate the performance boost from MapReduce, we
compared MapReduce and single node solution with different
input data sizes from one month (approx. 25 GB) to 7 months
(approx. 175 GB). The Hadoop cluster used for testing contains
a total of 6 slave nodes, each of which has a 24 core CPU, 64
GB RAM and 6 HDD (4 TB each). After testing jobs on the
Hadoop cluster, we simulated the performance if we were to use
a single-machine by using a single node for the processing. Fig.
3 shows that using MapReduce significantly reduces the job
execution time. In particular, once the dataset size exceeds
available RAM size, the single node performance degrades
Fig. 3. Comparison of MapReduce with single node
sharply, as it has to use virtual memory swaps (involving disk
I/O). For this reason, we did not do all tests on a single node. regard, we consider our modified PageRank as a more effective
B. Identify Region of High Mobility Demands metric in capturing mobility demands.
In this study, we empirically set a as 600 (trips), d as 1,000 We feel this approach is useful for urban planners to review
(meters) and obtained 174 regions. We compared two metrics existing terminals and determine new terminal locations. For
for the identification of high demand region: average passenger instance, if a terminal is in a low-ranking region according to
boarding volume per stop within a region and modified region both metrics, planners can examine the reasons behind maintain
PageRank value. For each metric, we selected top 10% highest the location (e.g., planned future growth or for providing low-
regions, normalized their values to 0-1 range and color-coded income residents with options for work commutes). Conversely,
them as shown in Fig.4. In addition, we displayed existing bus if regions score highly on the metrics we define (but do not
terminals (labeled as 1 to 9 in blue makers) on the map to aid in currently have a terminal), it may be worth considering the
the comparison. feasibility of a terminal there, e.g., in Fig. 4(b), R0 may be
considered based on its high PageRank value. This is also
Because boarding inside terminals is not recorded in the supported by the fact that this region is part of a university.
current AFC system, regions containing terminals may not be
highly-ranked by boarding volumes. As illustrated in Fig. 4(a), C. Route Level Delay Analysis
terminal 2, 3 and 7 are not inside any colored regions. On the For the route level delay, we first show the results of the
other hand, these terminals are captured by PageRank in Fig. regression analysis. This analysis is executed for a specific bus
4(b). In particular, R78 and R116 are two large residential areas. route that has a dedicated bus lane introduced to support a
Their high PageRank values are generated by their connections before/after analysis. The normalized coefficients indicate that
to the central business areas such as R7 and R23, which implies the dedicated lanes have a positive impact on reducing bus
commuting patterns between south and north of the city. In this delays but its impact is constrained by the fact that only part of
bus any specific route is supported by dedicated lanes. Other

Fig. 4. Identified region of high mobility demands based on: (a) average passenger boarding volume and (b) PageRank centrality
 TABLE III. REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF ROUTE-LEVEL DELAYS indicators (e.g., bus travel time, bus speed, or passenger
Independent Type B Std. Error boarding counts) are provided on the map so that the users can
Variables apply their domain knowledge to evaluate the metrics.
Weekday Binary -12.196 2.704 -.069***
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Morning Rush Binary -20.840 1.790 -.165***
Hour In this paper, we have presented a systematic solution for
Afternoon Binary 10.056 1.888 -.077*** smart transportation management on bus networks. A three-
Rush Hour layer system is proposed to help urban planners, managers and
Rain Binary -.290 1.868 -.002
technicians in their management work. We leverage the power
Number of Numeric -3.68 .018 -.306*** of Big Data in the implementation of the system. The system is
Passengers being tested in cooperation with the city of Fortaleza in Brazil.
Dedicated Binary 5.311 1.427 .052***
Lane
We have several working directions for future research. To
validate our analyses, we are in the process of collecting ground
analyses show that in the segments where dedicated lanes are truth on passenger alighting locations using surveys. This can be
implemented, there is an improvement in average transit speeds. used to build a boarding/alighting prediction model at the
Another result worth mentioning is the low negative impact of individual level. Another direction being worked on, is to use the
afternoon peak hour compared with the morning peak hour. By analytic insights from the bus transportation system to design
further investigation of the schedule data, we learned that this is and implement actionable interventions and test the outcomes in
in part due to the route schedules budgeting on average 15-20 the field (for example, anomalous speed patterns on dedicated
more minutes during afternoon peak hours (relative to the lanes may indicate a need to examine patterns of parking
morning). For more details on this analysis, we refer the reader obstructions). Lastly, we plan to examine how bus transportation
to our earlier work [7]. works with other smart city urban mobility programs such as
bike sharing.
D. Segment Level Delay Analysis
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Fig. 5. Interfaces of segment level delay analysis