E586B: Course Project

Transformer Protection

Harkishan Jashnani Student ID: 250441311

 Table of Contents

Section I 1
Introduction 1

Section 2 3
Electrical Protection 3

Transformer Over Current Protection 3

Transformer Through Fault Withstand Standards 3
Transformer Differential Protection 6
Factors to be Considered 6
Transformer Differential Relay 7
Transformer Differential Relay Connections 7
Example - Transformer Differential Relay Connection 7
Section III 10
Gas Analysis 10

References: 10
Transformer Protection

Section I
Introduction
The primary objective of the Transformer Protection is to detect internal faults in the
transformer with a high degree of sensitivity and cause subsequent de-energisation and, at the same
time be immune to faults external to the transformer i.e. through faults. Sensitive detection and de-
energisation enables the fault damage and hence necessary repairs to be limited. However, it should
be able to provide back up protection in case of through faults on the system, as these could lead to
deterioration and accelerated aging, and/or failure of the transformer winding insulation due to over
heating and high impact forces caused in the windings due to high fault currents. In addition to the
internal faults, abnormal system conditions such as over excitation, over voltage and loss of cooling
can lead to deterioration and accelerated aging or internal failure of the transformer. Hence protection
again these failures should be considered in as part of the comprehensive transformer protection
scheme.

Transformer protection can be broadly categorized as electrical protection implemented by

sensing mainly the current through it, but also voltage and frequency and, as mechanical protection
implemented by sensing operational parameters like oil pressure/ level, gas evolved, oil & winding
temperature.

Like in most things in Transformer Protection too, the extent of protective devices applied to
a particular Transformer is dictated by the economics of the protection scheme vis--vis the
probability of a particular type of failure and the cost of replacing and repairing the transformer as
well the possibility of the failure leading to damage of adjacent equipment or infrastructure. Failure
costs include all the direct and indirect costs associated with it. The protection scheme cost includes
the cost of the protective device but is mainly the cost of the disconnecting device i.e. the Circuit
Breaker and other auxiliaries like batteries and necessary infrastructure. Further the life cycle cost is
taken into account.

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Transformer Protection

There are no strict guidelines as to what protection devices should be used for a particular
transformer. However, typically Transformers below 5000 KVA (Category I & II) are protected using
Fuses. Transformers above 10,000KVA (Category III & IV) have more sensitive internal fault
detection by using a combination of protective devices as shown in Figure 1. For ratings between the
above a protection scheme is designed considering the service criticality, availability of standby
transformers, potential of hazardous damage to adjacent equipment and people etc.

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Transformer Protection

Section 2
Electrical Protection
The electrical protection of the Transformer comprises of the following and each is
elaborated further.
Fused Protection
Differential Current Protection
Over Current Protection
Over Excitation Protection
Over Voltage Protection

Transformer Over Current Protection

Over current protection is commonly used for protection from phase and ground faults. Its
used as primary protection where differential protection is not used typically for category I & II
transformers and as backup protection if differential protection has been used typically for category
III & IV transformers. The protection zone of over current devices is normally more than the
transformer. Hence they are part of the system protection and need to be coordinated with the other
system protection devices.

Typically, fuses are used as primary protection for transformers below 10MVA. Above
10MVA over current relays are used as back up along with differential relays as primary protection
for transformers. Instantaneous over current relays are also used for back up where differential relays
have been used. Typically they are set to 150% to 200% of the maximum of
1. Magnetising current inrush (If harmonic restraint is not used)
2. Short time load Cold Pickup
3. Maximum 3 phase short circuit current

Transformer Through Fault Withstand Standards

The philosophy of transformer over current protection is to limit the fault current below the
transformer through fault with stand capability. The fault withstand capability in turn is based on the
possibility of mechanical of the windings due to the fault current, rather than on thermal
characteristics of the transformer.

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Transformer Protection

The fault withstand capability is defined by the IEEE standard C57.91 1995 and is
summarized below
Transformer Rating

Use Curve

Frequent
KVA
Category

Faults
b
Dotted Curves Apply From
1 Phase 3 Phase

a
25 501, where
I 1250 f 1250
5 500 15 500 a
t= = 2 at 60 Hz
60 I 2 I
a 70% 100% of max possible fault where
II 501 1,667 501- 5,000 or 10
a+b I 2t = K , K is determined at max I; where t = 2
a 50% 100% of max possible fault where
1668 5,001
III or 5
10,000 30,000
a+c I t = K , K is determined at max I; where t = 2
2

IV > 10,000 > 30,000 a+c As Above

Note:
a) Its classified as Frequent Faults if the number of faults over the transformer life time is more than the
number shown. Else its classified as infrequent faults.
For category II & III the frequent fault curve may be used for backup protection in case its exposed to
frequent faults, but is protected by high speed primary relays
See Figure 3 Guide to determine fault frequency

b) I, symmetrical short circuit current in per unit of normal base current based on minimum nameplate
KVA rating; t, time in seconds; f, frequency in HZ.

For Category I frequent & For Category II frequent

Category II & III infrequent

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Transformer Protection

For Category III Frequent Figure 3 Guide to Fault Frequency

& Category IV infrequent
The procedure to decide on, over current protection rating, as per the transformer fault
withstand ratings is as follows:
1. Determine the transformer category from the above table
2. If in category II or III determine if it will be subject to faults frequently or
infrequently. Use figure 3 Guide to fault frequency
3. Based up on the above determine the curve applicable
4. Replot the curve determined in step 3 specifically for the transformer under
consideration using the secondary or the primary amperes as the abscissa,
secondary amperes is preferred for coordination with down stream protective
devices.
5. Select the proper fuses or relays tap, time dial setting etc such that coordination is
maintained and within the within the transformer withstand curve determined
above.
The determination of the transformer fault withstand curve using above procedure is
explained using an example below:
Example:
Consider a 3 phase, 2500KVA, 12KV/ 480V, Z - 5.75%, /Y transformer. The transformer
has fuse protection on the primary side and a direct acting main secondary CB.
1. Category
Category II - from the table above
2. Fault Frequency infrequent From figure 3 and the data given
3. Curve Applicable (a) Using 1 & 2 and curve applicability
4. Curve Plot
To plot the curve we determine the points as follows.
Z = 5.75% = 0.0575 pu
V 1
Max 3phase short circuit current I = = = 17.93 pu
Z 0.0575
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Transformer Protection

1250 1250
Max withstand time curve ends point t = = = 4.13sec
I2 17.932
We now need to determine the points on the curve. The points above the dashed
line can be directly determined from the standard curve. The points on the dashed
part of the curve up to the end point as determined above are determined using the
1250
equation t = . Some of the points are tabulated below:
I2
Current PU
Time t Current PU From
from Curve From Curve 1250 Current @ 480V
(a) (a) I=
t
1000 2.3 6,916
500 2.8 8,419
300 3.0 9,021
100 4.0 12,028
50 5.0 15,035
12.5 10.0 30,070
4.13 17.39 52,296

Transformer Differential Protection

Factors to be Considered
Differential Protection provides the best overall protection. However in case of ungrounded
or high impedance grounding it cannot provide ground fault protection. Differential protection is
normally applied to Transformers 10MVA and above or depending upon its criticality.
The following factors affect the differential current in transformers and should be considered
while applying differential protection. These factors can result in a differential current even under
balanced power in & out conditions
1. Magnetising inrush current The normal magnetizing current drawn is 2 5% of the
rated current. However during Magnetising inrush the current can be as high as 8 30
times the rated current for typically 10 cycles, depending upon the transformer and
system resistance.
2. Over excitation This normally of concern in generator transformer units. But it can
also be of concern in certain transmission transformers where line capacitance is
dominant and light load conditions can lead to high voltage on the transformer.
Transformers are typically designed to operate just below the flux saturation level. Any
further increase from the max permissible voltage level (or Voltage / Frequency ratio),
could lead to saturation of the core, in turn leading to substantial increase in the
excitation current drawn by the transformer.
3. CT Saturation External fault currents can lead to CT saturation. This can cause relay
operating current to flow due to distortion of the saturated CT current. Alternatively the
harmonic current present in the saturated CT can cause a delay in the operation of the
differential relay during internal faults.
Proper selection of CT ratios is essential to minimize problems due to the saturation.
CT selection is discussed later
4. Different primary and secondary voltage levels, that is the primary & secondary CTs are
of different types and ratios
5. Phase displacement in Delta-Wye transformers.

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6. Transformer voltage control taps

7. Phase shift or voltage taps in regulating transformers

Transformer Differential Relay

To account for the above variables less sensitive Percentage Differential Relays with
percentage characteristics in the range of 15 to 60% are applied to transformers. Additionally, in
modern microprocessor and numeric relays harmonic restraints can be applied.
The second harmonic is the dominant harmonic in the magnetic inrush current. Hence a
second harmonic restraint is utilised to prevent the relay from operating during the inrush.
The excitation current contains high magnitudes of the odd harmonic, typically 25% of the
third component and 11% of the fifth component. The fifth component is utilised to sense over
excitation. If an over excitation relay has been applied, the fifth harmonic signal is used to block the
differential trip signal so as to have easy fault discrimination during trip analysis. Otherwise, it is
used to restraint the relay operation.
In addition to the fixed the percentage differential relays, variable percentage relays are also
used. In this case, the percentage restraint increases as the transformer through current increases. This
limits the adverse effect of CT saturation if any.

Transformer Differential Relay Connections

The following rules are to be followed for connecting a transformer differential relay; the
fundamental rule being all the currents into and from the differential zone should be accounted for 1
unit per phase:
1. The number of restraint windings used should be at least equal to the number of
transformer windings.
2. A restraint winding should be used for each fault source.
3. If feeder side CTs are paralleled, they should be done carefully.
The current through the relay restraint windings should be in phase as well as the current
difference (i.e. current through the relay operating winding) should be small (ideally zero) for load
and through fault conditions. The way to method to achieve this is a two step process as below:
1. Phasing By suitably using Wye or Delta CT units to ensure that the primary and
secondary currents through the relay restraint windings are in phase.
2. Ratio Adjustment Having decided on the CT connections, the CT ratio and/ or the
relay tap is selected so as to have minimum relay operating current.
The above process is illustrated by the example below

Example - Transformer Differential Relay Connection

Consider a 138/69KV, 75 MVA, /Y transformer as shown below.

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Transformer Protection

Figure 3

Step 1 Phasing
The first step is to connect the CTs so that the currents in the restraint windings are in phase.
There are to ways that this can be tried
a) Connecting the side (ABC) CTs in and the Y side (abc) CTs in Y. However, in
case of a through ground fault, the secondary Y CTs would circulate the zero
sequence currents through the restraint winding and as the HV primary windings are
connected the corresponding zero sequence current would flow through the and
the same would not be sensed by the primary CTs and hence the primary restraint
winding. This would lead to a current difference and cause the relay to operate on a
through fault. Therefore this would not be a correct option.
b) Connect side (ABC) CTs in Y and, the Y side (abc) CTs in . In this case the
zero sequence currents would be restricted within the CT on the abc side and
within the main winding on the ABC side. Thus no zero sequence would flow
through the restraint winding and the balance maintained.

Next the CTs must be connected so that the currents are in phase. Do this we assume
balanced current to be flowing through the transformer. Though we can assume flow in any direction
its easier to start with the Wye side. Assume Ia, Ib and Ic to be flowing out of the marked polarity this
will cause the current in the respective side windings to be (Ia Ib), (Ib Ic) and (Ic Ia) and into the
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polarity marked. The corresponding (ABC) CT current in the respective phase A, B & C restraint
winding would be (Ia Ib), (Ib Ic) and (Ic Ia) and flowing from left to right as shown in figure 3. To
maintain the same phase in the abc restraint windings the current in these should be the same i.e. (Ia
Ib), (Ib Ic) and (Ic Ia) and flowing from left to right. The same can be obtained by connecting the
abc side CTs in as shown in the figure 3.
Step 2 CT Ratio and Tap selection
Differential relay restraint windings typically have taps whereby difference in the restraint
current ratio can be set in the range of 2:1 or 3:1. The mismatch in the restraint currents is defined by
IH
IL TTHL
M = 100 Abs %
S
Where:
I H = High Side Current
I L = Low Side Current
TH = High Side Tap
TL = Low Side Tap
IH
S = Smaller Ratio of IL & TTHL
Continuing with the transformer in our example
75000
IH = = 313.8 A at 138 KV
3 138
Choosing CT ratio as 400:5
313.8
IH = = 3.92 A at CT Secondary And
80
75000
IL = = 627.6 A at 69 KV
3 69
Choosing CT ratio as 700:5
627.6
IL = = 4.48 A at CT Secondary and
160
I L = 3 4.48 = 7.59 A at restraint winding
Now
I H 3.92
= = 0.516
I L 7.59
Lets assume that we select relay taps as
TH = 1 & TL = 2
Therefore
TH 1
= = 0.5
TL 2
Using the mismatch equation
IH
IL
TH
TL

M = 100 Abs
S
We get

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Transformer Protection

0.516 0.5
M = 100 Abs M = 3.2
0.5
Transformer differential relays typically have percentage characteristic in the range of 20 to
60%. Thus the mismatch factor of 3.2% is highly acceptable as there is an ample margin to account
for unforeseen mismatch due to CT saturation and other errors.

Effect of Voltage Changing Taps

Power transformers typically have taps to change the nominal voltage ratio by 10%. In this
case, the procedure remains the same only that all the calculations are carried out at the nominal
voltages. To the mismatch factor so obtained, half the adjustable range is added to obtain the final
mismatch percentage.
In our example, considering the voltage adjustable range 10% by tap, the final mismatch
would be
M = 3.2 + 10 = 13.2%

Section III
Gas Analysis
In oil immersed transformers different types of gases are generated due to different faults or
due to degradation of different materials in the transformer. The major advantage of this gas evolution
is that substantial amount of gas is evolved even for very incipient faults or material degradations.
Thus analysis of this gas forms a very important means for monitoring the health of the transformer
or for determining the fault in case of a fault.
The gas evolved is present dissolved in the oil. The gas is analyzed either online in case of
such systems have been installed on the transformer. Alternatively, oil samples are periodically
withdrawn and the oil is analysed in a lab. The periodicity depends on the size and criticality of the
transformer. In case a Gas Accumulation Relay (Buchholz Relay) is installed. These gases do get
accumulated in it. Gas samples or gas relays can be used in this case.
The implication of a few of the gases that may be observed in the oil is mentioned below.
Actual cause analysis is done by observing the ratio in which these gases are observed and is beyond
the scope of this report.
Hydrogen is generated by Corona or partial discharges. In conjunction with other gases
observed with it the source of the discharge can be determined
Ethylene is associated with thermal degradation of oil. Trace quantities of methane and ethane
are generated at 150 C. Ethylene is generated in significant quantities at 300 C.
Carbon dioxide &Carbon monoxide are evolved on when cellulose (paper) insulation gets over
heated.
Acetylene is produced significant quantities by arcing in oil

References:
1. Protective Relaying Principles and Applications, 3rd Edition
by J Lewis Blackburn & Thomas J Domin
2. IEEE Std. C37.91-2000
IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power Transformers

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