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Composite materials have emerged as the preferred material for aircraft structures due to their lower weight, higher strength and stiffness compared to metals. Their use in aircraft has increased substantially over the past few decades, starting with secondary components and now being used for primary load-bearing structures like wings and fuselages. This is due to composites' performance advantages of reducing aircraft weight, which improves fuel efficiency and operational capabilities. Modern composites have favorable properties for aircraft including high strength-to-weight ratios, stiffness, fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance. Their increasing use is driven by demands for lower-cost, higher-performance aircraft.
Исходное описание:
This gives an information on the trends on using composite materials on aircraft structures
Оригинальное название
Past Experience and Future Trends on Use of Composite Materials for Aircraft Strucuture
Composite materials have emerged as the preferred material for aircraft structures due to their lower weight, higher strength and stiffness compared to metals. Their use in aircraft has increased substantially over the past few decades, starting with secondary components and now being used for primary load-bearing structures like wings and fuselages. This is due to composites' performance advantages of reducing aircraft weight, which improves fuel efficiency and operational capabilities. Modern composites have favorable properties for aircraft including high strength-to-weight ratios, stiffness, fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance. Their increasing use is driven by demands for lower-cost, higher-performance aircraft.
Composite materials have emerged as the preferred material for aircraft structures due to their lower weight, higher strength and stiffness compared to metals. Their use in aircraft has increased substantially over the past few decades, starting with secondary components and now being used for primary load-bearing structures like wings and fuselages. This is due to composites' performance advantages of reducing aircraft weight, which improves fuel efficiency and operational capabilities. Modern composites have favorable properties for aircraft including high strength-to-weight ratios, stiffness, fatigue resistance and corrosion resistance. Their increasing use is driven by demands for lower-cost, higher-performance aircraft.
Yalew Mekonnen Defence University college of Engineering PhD scholar in IIT Kanpur, utter Pradesh India yalewnati@gmail.com yalewiitk2017@gmail.com
Abstract aerospace has doubled every five years, and new
Composite materials have emerged as the materials composites regularly appear. of choice for increasing the performance and Composite materials have been competitive reducing the weight and cost of military, general alternatives to traditional metallic materials for a aviation, and transport aircraft and space launch while, due to their lower density, higher stiffness, vehicles. In the competitive environment of aircraft higher strength, and better fatigue resistance when industries it becomes absolutely necessary to compared to steel or aluminum. Such properties improve the efficiency, performance of the aircrafts enable composites to be an ultimate candidate for to reduce the development and operating costs structural applications in aerospace and automotive considerably, in order to capitalize the market. An products. important contribution to improve the efficiency The primary benefits that composite components and performance can be achieved by decreasing the can offer are reduced weight and assembly aircraft weight through considerable usage of simplification. The performance advantages composite materials in primary aircraft structures. associated with reducing the weight of aircraft Major advancements have been made in the ability structural elements has been the major impetus for to design, fabricate, and analyze large complex military aviation composite development. [2] aerospace structures. The present paper takes a The primary benefits that composite components critical view on aircraft structural development, can offer are reduced weight and assembly design and operation of composite materials on simplification. The performance advantages aircraft structural parts. The span of aerospace associated with reducing the weight of aircraft industry increases day-to-day of its use throughout structural elements has been the major impetus for the world. A complex exercise with many different military aviation composites development. [2] disciplines involved in the analysis and design of The recent efforts by Boeing and Airbus to different composite materials. incorporate composite into primary load carrying Keywords: Composite material, aerospace structures of large commercial transports and to structures. certify the airworthiness of these structures is evidence of the significant advancements made in 1. Introduction the understanding and use of these materials in real Weight is everything when it comes to heavier- world aircraft. [3] than-air machines, and designers have striven Although commercial carriers have increasingly continuously to improve lift to weight ratios since been concerned with fuel economy, the potential for man first took to the air.[1] Composite reduced production and maintenance costs has materials have played a major part in weight proven to be a major factor in the push towards reduction. Since 1987, the use of composites in composites. Composites are also being used increasingly as replacements for metal parts of of composite materials is with primary structures, aircraft structures. like stabilizers, wings and fuselage barrels, and has occurred gradually over the last two decades. [6] 2. Historical Background The design and use of boron and carbon started with The development of high performance composites military aircraft and rapidly expanded from use on has been a primary research activity of many flight control surfaces (rudders, flaps) to stabilizers, different organizations world-wide for more than 5 wings and fuselage structures as exemplified by the decades. [4] AV-8B, B-2, F-18, Euro-fighter, and AH-66. [6] Composites were introduced in the 1950s and 1960s, fiber-reinforced plastic, was introduced to Modern Composites substitute the usage of duralumin in the structure of aircrafts. Before composites were introduced, Composites are well known for their favorable primary structure of aircrafts was made largely of properties such as high strength to weight ratio, aluminum alloy. [5] high stiffness, very high stress level, high fatigue Duralumin, a type of aluminum alloy, was widely resistance and good corrosion resistance. Some of used in aircrafts primary structure due to its high the widely used composites in aircraft structures strength to weight ratio and good toughness. will be discussed below. Furthermore, good corrosion resistance of In common, all composites are made of relatively duralumin makes it so suitable to be used under weak bonding of lamination of materials. Hence, harsh condition. However, in 1950s, a fully loaded core in composite laminate is introduced to increase De Havilland Comet jet airliner crashed due to the laminate's stiffness by effectively 'thickening' it metal fatigue. This gave rise to demand of materials with a low-density core material. This can provide a suitable for aircrafts primary structure with high dramatic increase in stiffness for very little fatigue resistance. [5] additional weight, where lightweight implication is Then, more and more composites were introduced so crucial for aircraft structure. [5] to suit certain requirement of properties of aircrafts For example, application of honeycomb core structure. Modern fibers, such as carbon-reinforced provides stronger impact resistance to composite fibers, glass-reinforced fibers and boron fibers, are laminates. With its hollow cells, it provides good the stiffest and strongest materials known. [5] energy absorption and sound dampening effect to The early use of composite materials in the aircraft the laminates. [5] industry dates back to the late 1950s and started with aircraft like the 707 and later DC-9. Due to 3. Why composite materials? high safety standards, specifically in the The continuous growth in air traffic has placed an commercial aircraft industry, implementation of increasing demand on the aerospace industry to composites occurred gradually over time in three manufacture aircraft at lower cost, while ensuring phases. First, composite materials were used on efficiency in operation, friendliness to the tertiary composite components like interior parts, environment and high safety. One of the causes of sidewalls, bag racks, and galleys. [6] cost is weight penalty.[10] These parts would not cause any harm to the aircraft Aircraft suffer a performance penalty for every flying capabilities if the parts failed in operation. In pound of weight that they lift. Much of this weight the late 1960s, only after use of composites with to be lifted is an unavoidable part of making flight interior parts proved successful, were composites possible. These unavoidable weights include the introduced into secondary aircraft structures like airframe, the engines, a large quantity of fuel, and spoilers, rudders, ailerons, and flaps. Carbon the aircraft crew. Any weight over and above these replaced fiberglass in most of these secondary unavoidable weights can be used to transport structures in the 1970s, although fiberglass was customers and ship goods for customers. retained for many interior parts and fairings. The most critical commercial aviation implementation The study on the design of aircraft structure for the aim of reduce aver all weight with-out affecting the required strength, even improvement on the stiffness of the structure, is the most promising research in aircraft industry. Beyond being an enabling technology, development of the structures of airframes and engines continues to be a key element in determining the economic success of aircraft. Structural weight is the single largest item in the empty weight of an aircraft and is, therefore, a major factor in the original acquisition and operating cost and in establishing operational performance. One pound added to structural weight requires additional wing area to lift it (all other flight variables being held constant), additional thrust to overcome the associated Fig. 1 Application of composite on flight vehicles [4] incremental drag, and additional fuel to provide the same range. All these additions result in further increases in structure. This vicious circle converges, 5. Critical design, Manufacturing and repair in typical aircraft designs, to gross weight increases issues from 2 to 10 times the 1-pound empty weight increase that began the cycle. Manufacturing of composite components are configuration sensitive and must be performed in 4. Some structural parts conjunction with the structural design effort. The components of aircraft structure should be designed Composites are currently used widely in aerospace by considering the cost factor and made as simple industry. Primary structures, for example fuselage, as possible for manufacturing. wings, ailerons, flaps, empennage, are made of Our environment is given increased thought and composites in modern aircrafts, as shown in figure1. attention by today's society. This is true for For example, composites contributed 50 per cent to composite material manufacture as well. the weight of Boeing 787 Dream-Liner (see figure As mentioned previously, composites have a lighter 2), whilst almost 100 per cent of the fuselage skin weight and similar strength values as heavier and wings surface are composites. Figure 3 below materials. When the lighter composite is used in a illustrates the usage of composites in Boeing 787 as transport application, there is a lower environmental compared to that in Boeing 777 has increased load compared to the heavier alternatives. significantly. Composites are also more corrosion-resistant than metallic based materials, which means that parts Boeing's 787 Dream-liner will be the first will last longer. These factors combine to make commercial aircraft in which major structural composites good alternate materials from an elements are made of composite materials rather environmental perspective. than aluminum alloys. There will be a shift away One big issue that comes with the increase use of from archaic fiber-glass composites to more composite materials on aircraft structure is the advanced carbon laminate and carbon sandwich method of repair during damage. it is crucial to composites in this aircraft. [7] develop repair methods that restore the original Secondary structures such as pressure bulkheads, strength of the part without compromising its floor beams, and landing gear door are also made of structural integrity. [11] composites. Furthermore, composites are also used in interior. Fig. 2 Usage of various materials in the Boeing 787 Dream-liner [7] Composite structures are primarily damaged by lightning strikes, tool drops, service vehicle 6. Mechanical properties of composites collisions, hail, runway debris, and birds. Other sources of damage include erosion, abrasion, The major constituents of a fiber reinforced manufacturing defects, excess heat exposure, and composite material are reinforced fibers, matrix, fluid infiltration. Therefore, the extent of the coupling agents, coating and fillers. Fibers are the damage determines whether the component needs to principal load carrying members while the matrix be repaired or replaced. In most cases, replacing the keeps them in proper location and correct entire part is not economically feasible; thus, orientation. [8] repairing it is the only viable solution. Furthermore, Composite laminate has more stiffness in the since the time constraint is an issue, repairs must be unidirectional orientation (longitudinal direction) performed as quickly as possible so that the aircraft than the perpendicular direction (Transverse can be returned to service as soon as possible. direction). [9] When designing a composite repair, several factors must be considered to ensure the repairs effectiveness and structural integrity. These factors include stiffness, strength, stability, operating temperature, durability, and aerodynamic smoothness.
Fig. 3 Laminate layers orientation
The analysis of composite material assumes that the material is isotropic and follows the hooks law. =E (1) Where Where f andm are Poissons ratios of fiber and matrix =stress And E=Youngs Modulus and =Strain (5) Typical tests used to measure the mechanical properties The main component of the composite that of fiber reinforced composites include: determines the strength for carrying the load is the Shear stiffness fiber reinforcement. The value of volume fraction of Tensile the fiber will indicate the resistance to failure of the Flexible Modulus and composite. Impact The failure strain of the matrix is higher than the Experimentally as well as numerically analyzed by different researchers that the matrix will have higher failure strain of the fiber. The stress (1) on the strain than the fiber. composite will be: Stress () (6) Figure 4 shows that the composite will fail at the ultimate strain of fiber (fu). Then the composite uf tensile strength can be written from equation (6) as: Fiber (7) If all fiber failed, then (8) 1 Composite Stress () fu um Matrix Eqn (6) m Strain () mu
Fig.4 Graph of Stress Vs strain for composite and the
constituents When the applied load is assumed to act in the longitudinal direction, the modulus of elasticity (E1) can be calculated as: (2) mu Eqn (8) Where Ef and Em are modulus of elasticity of fiber and Vmin VCrit matrix, respectively Vf and Vm are volume fractions of fiber and matrix If the applied load is acting in the transverse direction, Fiber volume fraction (Vf) the modulus of elasticity (E2) along this direction will be: Fig. 5 relationship between stress and fiber volume fraction A minimum fiber volume fraction Vf,min is the (3) volume fraction below which the fibers weaken the The other mechanical properties that are very important in the process of analysis for design and fabrication of material rather than strengthen it and composite composites are the Poissons ratio (12) and shear failure is controlled by the matrix. The reinforcing modulus (G12). action of the fibers is only observed once the fiber (4) volume fraction exceeds the critical fiber volume aluminum alloy that had been used for decades. Due fraction (Vf > Vf,crit). to composites superiority in corrosion resistance, Combining equations (6) and (8) will result the fatigue resistance, and weight saving, it is expected equation for minimum fiber volume fraction. that incoming models of aircrafts will use composites extensively. Application of composites (9) in modern aircrafts once again proves that The critical volume fraction (Vf,crit) for the composites are more reliable than metal alloys in composite system is the amount of fibers necessary airworthiness. However, further development of to ensure the composite strength is at least greater composites should be done to overcome weaknesses than that of the matrix ( c> m), assuming the found currently to further improve the safety of fibers are stronger than the matrix. aircrafts. Composite technologies have matured over the past 50 years to the point where high performance (10) composites are being used to enhance the performance of nearly every new flight vehicle. 7. The Future of Composites in Aerospace Primary load carrying structures on both military Industry and commercial aircraft have proven to be With ever increasing fuel costs and environmental environmentally durable and to perform well in real lobbying, commercial flying is under sustained world service environments. pressure to improve performance, and weight Composites have been and will continue to reduction is a key factor in the equation. [1] be a primary focus for use on structures and Beyond the day-to-day operating costs, the aircraft materials research for aerospace vehicles maintenance programs can be simplified by component count reduction and corrosion reduction. Major barriers have been overcome for The competitive nature of the aircraft construction application of composites on all classes of business ensures that any opportunity to reduce flight vehicles operating costs is explored and exploited wherever Composites are the materials of choice for possible.[1] reducing weight and cost of aerospace Competition exists in the military too, with vehicles continuous pressure to increase payload and range, The emergence of hybrid structures with flight performance characteristics and built in sensors and actuators will pose 'survivability', not only of airplanes but of missiles, additional challenges for analyses and too. prediction of residual life Composite technology continues to advance, and Future grand challenges such as design by the advent of new types such as basalt and carbon analyses will require significant nanotube forms is certain to accelerate and extend improvements in understanding of damage composite usage. initiation and propagation in complex New materials can be defined as materials which structural elements. have yet to be applied in an as-designed Acknowledgment application in aviation. Some of these materials, particularly metal matrix composites (MMC) and I would like to thank the Management of ceramic matrix composites (CMC) have seen some Defence University College of Engineering, the organizers of this conference for the opportunity in-flight testing and are approaching military use given to me having a contribution on this issue. but have yet to gain wide ranging acceptance. I would like also to thank my family, specially my Conclusion wife Sisay A, for her support in every aspect. Composites are currently used as a better material used in aircraft primary structures, substituting References [6] William G. Roeseler, Branko Sarh, Max U. Kismarton, Composite structures: the first 100 years, 2007. [1] Maria MRAZOVA, Advanced composite materials of [7] SIAG GD and Boeing Company, Surface Modelling for the future in aerospace industry, INCAS BULLETIN, Composite Materials. Volume 5, Issue 3/ 2013, pp. 139 150. [8] Madhujit Mukhopadhyay, Mechanics of Compoiste [2] Munnam Ali, Advancement of materials and Strucutres, Universities Press, 2006. CompositeMaterialsinAerospace Industry, unpublished. [9] Autar K. Kew, Mechanics of Compoiste materials, [3] NASA Composite Materials Development: Lessons 2006. Learned and Future Challenges, 2009. [10] Nikhil V Nayak, Composite materials in Aerospace [4] Dr. Darrel R. Tenney, Dr. John G. Davis, Jr., Dr. R. Applications Byron Pipes, Dr. Norman Johnston and NATO Research [11] Office of Aviation research Washingon, Bonded Repair and Technology Agency (RTA), NASA Composite of Aircraft Composite Sandwich Structures, 2004. Materials Development: Lessons Learned and Future 2009. [5] https://www.thoughtco.com/composites-in-aerospace- 820418