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CHAPTER 12: VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
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12.1.1 Distance and Spheres in Space
( 0 )2 + ( 0 )2 + ( 0 )2 = 2
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12.2 Vectors
12.2.1 Component Form
A vector is represented by a directed line segment. The arrow points in the direction of the
action and its length gives the magnitude of the action in terms of a suitably chosen unit.
Eg.
Notation:
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Position Vector
Let v =
. There is one directed line segment equal to
whose initial point is the origin. This
is the representative of v in standard position and is the vector we normally use to represent v.
(Figure 12.10).
It is called the position vector of
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In Fig. 12.10, = 2 1 , 2 1 , 2 1
Note:
Eg. 1:
Find the
(b) length
of the vector with initial point P(-3, 4, 1) and terminal point Q( -5, 2, 2).
Answers:
(a) = 2, 2, 1
(b) || = 3 units
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Eg. 2: A small cart is being pulled along a smooth
horizontal floor with an 80-N force F making a 45 angle to
the floor. What is the effective force moving the cart
forward?
Answer:
402 56.57 N
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If > 0, has the same direction as.
Eg. 3:
(a) 2 + 3
(b)
1
(c) |2 |
Answers:
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12.2.3 Unit Vectors
A unit vector is a vector of length 1. The standard unit vectors in space are
= 1, 0, 0, = 0, 1, 0, = 0, 0, 1
Any vector = 1 , 2 , 3 can be written as a linear combination of the standard unit vectors
as follows:
= 1 , 2 , 3
= 1 , 0, 0 + 0, 2 , 0 + 0, 0, 3
= 1 1, 0, 0 + 2 0, 1, 0 + 3 0, 0, 1
= 1 + 2 + 3
1 1
| | = || = 1.
|| ||
Thus,||is a unit vector in the direction of , called the direction of .
Eg. 4:
Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector from 1 (1, 0, 1)to 2 (3, 2, 0).
2 2 1
Answer: 3 , 3 , 3
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Eg. 5:
If = 3 is a velocity vector, express as a product of its speed times a unit vector in the
direction of motion.
3 4
Answer: 5 (5 5 )
Eg. 6:
A force of 6 newtons is applied in the direction of the vector v 2i 2 j k . Express the force
F as a product of its magnitude and direction.
Answer:
2 2 1
= 6 ( + )
3 3 3
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12.2.4 Midpoint of a line segment
Eg 7:
3 + 7 2 + 4 0 + 4
( , , ) = (5, 1, 2).
2 2 2
12.2.5 Applications
Eg8: Finding ground speed and direction
Answers:
353
New direction: = tan1 6.5
535
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Eg 9:
Answer:
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12.3 The Dot Product
12.3.1 Angle Between Vectors
Here, 0 . If the vectors lie along the same line, the angle between them is 0 if they point
a) = 1, 2, 1and = 6, 2, 3
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b) = 2 + 3 + and = 4 + 2
Answers:
a) 7
b) 1
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Eg. 2:Find the angle between = 2 2and = 6 + 3 + 2.
-Thus cos = cos = 0.
2
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Eg. 4:Determine if the vectors below are orthogonal.
a) = 3, 2and = 4, 6
b) = 3 2 + and = 2 + 4
c) = and = + +
Answers: Yes to all three questions.
Vector Projection
onto a non-zero vector
The vector projection of =
v =
is the vector
determined by dropping a
perpendicular from point to the line .
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Eg. 5: Find the vector projection of = 6 + 3 + 2onto = 2 2and the scalar
component of u in the direction of v.
4 8 8 4
Answers: proj = 9 + 9 + 9 and|| cos = 3.
Eg. 6: Find the vector projection of a force = 5 + 2onto = 3and the scalar
component of F in the direction of v.
1 3 1
Answers: proj = 10 + 10 and|| cos = .
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Writing a Vector as a Sum of Orthogonal Vectors
Eg. 7:A force = 2 + 3is applied to a spacecraft with velocity = 3 . Express F as a sum
of a vector parallel to v and a vector orthogonal to.
1 1
Answer: = 2 (3 ) + [(2 + 3) 2 (3 )]
12.3.4 Work
The formula
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If the force Fmoving anobject through some
displacement = has some other
direction, the work is done by the component
of F in the direction of. If is the angle
between F and , then
= || cos ||
= FD
Eg. 7: If|| = 40N (newtons), || = 3m, and = 60, the work done by in acting from P to
Q is
Work = F D
= || ||cos
= 40(3) cos 60
=60 J (joules)
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12.4.1 The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
Consider and two nonzero vectors in space. If
and are not parallel, they determine a plane.
Select a unit vector perpendicular to the plane by
the right-hand rule.
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To visualize Property 4, note that when the fingers of a
right hand curl through the angle from , the thumb
points the opposite way, and the unit vector we choose in
forming is the negative of the one we choose in
forming (Figure 12.28).
= ( ) =
= ( ) =
= ( ) =
and
= = =
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12.4.3 Determinant formula for :
The determinant of a 2x2 matrix a b is a b
ad bc
c d c d
a a a
b .
1 2 3
b b b b b
b 1
b
2
b a
3 1
2
a
3
2
1 3
a3
1 2
c 2
c 3
c 1
c
3
c 1
c2
c 1
c
2
c3
Answer: -12
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Eg 2: Find a vector perpendicular to the plane of P(1, -1, 0),
Q(2, 1, -1) and R(-1, 1, 2) (Figure 12.31).
Eg. 3:Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(1, -1, 0), Q(2,
1, -1) and R(-1, 1, 2) (Figure 12.31).
Answer: 32
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Eg. 4: Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of P(1, -1, 0), Q(2, 1, -1) and R(-1, 1, 2)
(Figure 12.31).
1 1
Answer: +
2 2
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12.5 Lines and Planes in Space
We will use scalar and vector products to write equations for lines, line segments, and planes in
space.
Suppose that L is a line in space passing through a point P0(x0,y0,z0) parallel to a vector
v v i v j v k . Then L is the set of points P(x,y,z) for which 0 is parallel to.
1 2 3
Thus, 0 = for some scalar parameter.
Expanding,
( x x )i ( y y ) j ( z z )k t (v i v j v k )
0 0 0 1 2 3
or, xi yj zk x i y j z k t ( v i v j v k )
0 0 0 1 2 3
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Eg.1: Find parametric equations for the line through
(2, 0, 4)parallel to = 2 + 4 2(Figure 12.36).
Answer: = 2 + 2, = 4, = 4 2
Eg. 2: Find parametric equations for the line through P(-3,2,-3) and Q(1,-1,4).
Answer: = 1 + 4, = 1 3, = 4 + 7,
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Eg.3:Parametrize the line segment joining the pointsP(- 3,2,-3)
and Q(1,-1,4) (Figure 12.37).
Answer: = 3 + 4, = 2 3, = 3 + 7, 0 1
That is, the position of a moving particle at time t is its initial position plus its distance moved in
the direction || of its straight line motion.
Eg. 4:A helicopter is to fly directly from a helipad at theorigin in the direction of the point
(1,1,1)at a speed of 20 m/sec. What is the position of the helicopterafter 10 sec.?
200 200 200
Answer: ( , , )
3 3 3
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12.5.2 The Distance from a Point to a Line in Space
Observe that
| = |
| ||| sin (definition of cross product)
|
|
|| = || sin
Eg. 5: Find the distance from the point S(1, 1, 5) to the line
: = 1 + , = 3 , = 2.
Answer: 5 units
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Eg. 6: Find an equation for the plane through P0(-3,0,7) perpendicular to the vector
= 5 + 2 .
Answer: 5 + 2 = 22
Note: 3 points can determine a plane because 3 points can determine 2 vectors with the same
initial point. We know that 2 vectors can determine a plane.
Eg.7: Find an equation for the plane through A(0,0,1),B(2,0,0) and C(0,3,0).
Answer: 3 + 2 + 6 = 6
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12.5.4 Lines of Intersection
Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are
parallel. Two planes that are not parallel intersect
in a line.
Answers:
8. 14 + 2 + 15 or its multiple.
9. = 3 + 14, = 1 + 2, = 15
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Eg. 10:Find the point where the line = 3 + 2, = 2, = 1 + intersects the plane 3 +
2 + 6 = 6.
Answer: (2/3, 2, 0)
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12.5.5 The Distance from a Point to a Plane
If P is a point on a plane with normal n, then the distance from any point S to the plane is the
length of the vectorprojection of PS onto n. That is, the distance from S to the plane is
n
d PS .
n
3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z=5.
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12.6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces.
12.6.1 Cylinders
A cylinder is a surface that is generated by moving a straight line
along a given planar curve while holding the line parallel to a
given fixed line.
Eg. 1:Find an equation for the cylinder made by the lines parallel to
the z-axis that pass through the parabola y x 2 , z 0.
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Conclusion from the example, any curve f ( x, y) c in the xy-plane defines a cylinder
parallel to the z-axis whose equation is also f ( x, y) c .
The equation g ( x, z ) c in the xz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the y-axis whose
equation is also g ( x, z ) c .
The equation h( y, z ) c in the yz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the x-axis whose
equation is also h( y, z ) c .
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12.6.2 Quadric Surfaces
These surfaces are the three-dimensional analogues of ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas.
A quadric surface is the graph in space of a second- degree equation in x, y, and z. The most
general form is
where A, B, C and so on are constants. We will study only the simpler equationsellipsoids,
paraboloids, elliptical cones and hyperboloids.
12.6.2.1 Ellipsoids
The ellipsoid x 2
y2 z2
2
1
a b2 c2
-The surface is symmetric with respect to each of the coordinate planes because each variable
in the defining equation is squared.
-The curves in which the three coordinate planes cut the surface are ellipses.
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- The section cut from the surface by the plane z z , z c , is the ellipse
0 0
x2 y2
1
z0 2 z0 2
a (1 (
2
) ) b (1 (
2
) )
c c
- If any two of the semiaxes a, b, and c are equal, the surface is an ellipsoid of revolution.
12.6.2.2 Paraboloids
The elliptical paraboloid x 2 y 2 z is symmetric with respect to the planes x 0, y 0. The only
a2 b2 c
intercept on the axes is the origin. Except for the origin, the surface lies above(if c 0 ) or
below(if < 0 ) the xy-plane. Intersections
with the coordinate planes are
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Exercise: Sketch the surface z x 9 y
2 2
12.6.2.3 Cones
The elliptical cone
x2 y2 z 2
a2 b2 c2
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12.6.2.4 Hyperboloids
The hyperboloid of one sheet
x2 y2 z 2
1
a2 b2 c2
z 2 x2 y2
1
c2 a2 b2
xy-plane: no intersection
The hyperbolas
have their vertices and foci on the z-axis.
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12.6.2.5 A Saddle Point
The hyperbolic paraboloid
y2 x2 z
c0
b2 a2 c
has symmetry with respect to the planes x = 0 (yz-plane) and y = 0 (xz-plane). The intersections
with these planes are:
x 0 :the parabola c 2
z y
b2
y 0 :the parabola c 2
z x
a2
In the plane x = 0 (the yz-plane), the parabola opens upward from the origin. The parabola in
the plane y = 0 opens downward.
With its focal axis parallel to the y-axis and its vertices on the parabola c 2.
z y
b2
If z0< 0, the focal axis is parallel to the x-axis and its vertices on the parabola c 2
z x
a2
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