UNIT-I

PLANE SURVEYING AND

THEODOLITE
 Topics
Introduction to plane surveying
Chain and tape measurement
Electronic distance measurement
Meridians, Azimuths and bearings
Theodolites
Temporary and permanent adjustment
Horizontal and Vertical angle measurements.
Electronic total station.
 Planesurveying
The earth surface is assumed to be plane

The curvature of the earth is ignored.

Extend only over small areas

The lines connecting any two points on the surface of the earth are treated as
straight lines and the angles between such lines are taken as plane angles.

Knowledge of plane geometry and trigonometry is required.

Surveys covering an area up to 260 km may be treated as plane surveys.

Note: The difference in length between the arc and the subtended chord on the earth
surface for a distance of 18.2 km is only 0.1 m.
 Scope and Use of Plane Surveying

Carried out for engineering projects on sufficiently

large scale to determine relative positions of individual
features of the earth surface.
Used for the layout of highways, railways, canals, fixing
boundary pillars, construction of bridges,factoriesetc.
For majority of engineering project, plane surveying is
the first step to execute them.
Needed for proper, economical and accurate planning
of all engineering projects and their practical
significance cannot beoverestimated.
 Rules of Surveying
1. Always work from the whole to the part i.e. think
about the whole thing before you attack the
detailed parts, or put in your control before you do
your detail work.
2. Always carry out independent checks.
3. Work to a constant and appropriate standard of
accuracy and precision.
4. Systematically record all detail. It may seem like a
lot of work at the time, but when you suddenly
realize that something has gone wrong later on, it
may save your hide.
 Principles of surveying
Working from whole to part.
After deciding the position of any point, its
reference must be kept from at least two
permanent objects or stations whose position
have already been well defined.

The purpose of working from whole to part is

To localise the errors and
To control the accumulation of errors.
Making use of reference points
 Topics
Introduction to plane surveying
Chain and tape measurement
Electronic distance measurement
Meridians, Azimuths and bearings
Theodolites
Temporary and permanent adjustment
Horizontal and Vertical angle measurements.
Electronic total station.
 Distance measurements
Horizontal distance
Vertical distance
Approximate method of measuring distances

Speedometer

odometer

passometer
pedometer Measuringwheel
CHAIN
Instruments used in Chain Surveying

1) Chains
2) Tapes
3) Arrows
4) Ranging Rods and Offset Rod
5) Pegs
6) Plumb- bob
TYPES OF CHAIN
 Chain Surveying
The basic idea is that we proceed across the
countryside, measuring with a chain or
similar piece of equipment and recording
distances to features of interest as we go.
The location of the points on features not on
the line of measurement can be picked up in
a number of ways.
These include using tie lines and offsets.
 Tie lines
Tie lines are run from points on the chain line
whose chainage (distance along the line, also
called running distance(RD)) is known. The
length of the tie lines are measured, and the
side of the line on which they were made is
established. For plotting, you need a pair of
compasses, or suitable means to convert the
data to an offset.
 Offsets
Measured by a crew member standing on the line, and
with an optical square (a right angle prism, or other device
to turn a right angle) moving until the point of interest is
exactly at right angles to the line. The chainage of this point
is noted, and the distance from the line to the point of
interest is measured. This measurement is the offset
distance.
When one is measuring a distance greater than one length
of the chain or tape, it is necessary to mark where the end
of the tape comes, so that the next person can find it. Such
marking must be sufficiently clear that it can be found. To
achieve this, a mark must be left for the rear chainman to
locate.
 Instruments used in Chain Surveying

1) Chains
2) Tapes
3) Arrows
4) Ranging Rods and Offset Rod
5) Pegs
6) Plumb- bob
CHAINS
 Takingmeasurementsonchain
Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m.
Tallies are fixed at every five-meter length and
brass rings are provided at every meter length
except where tallies are attached.
 Testing and Adjustment of chain
If chain is found to be too If chain is found to be too
long short
1) Closingupthejointsofthe 1) Straighteningthebentlinks.
ringsiffoundtobeopenedout. 2) Openingthejointsoftherings.
2) Reshapingtheelongatedrings. 3) Replacingoneormoresmall
3) Replacingdamagedrings. circularringsbybiggerones.
4) Removingoneormoresmall 4) Insertingnewringswhere
rings. necessary.
5) Adjustingthelinksattheend. 5) Adjustingthelinksattheend.
 Types of Tapes
1) Cloth or linen tape.
2) Fibre tape.
3) Metallic tape.
4) Steel tape.
5) Invar tape.
Tapes
 Arrows
Arrows are made of tempered steel wire of diameter 4mm.
One end of the arrow is bent into a ring of diameter 50mm
and the other end is pointed.
Its overall length is 400mm.
An arrow is inserted into the ground after every chain
measured on the ground.
 Ranging Rods and Offset Rod
Ranging rods are 2 to 3 m in length.
Used for ranging some intermediate points on the
survey line.
Painted with alternate bands of black and white or
red and white colours.
With length of each equalising 20 cm.
Ranging rods
 Pegs
Made of timber or steel.
Used to mark the position of stations.
Pegs are in length of 15 cm.
 Plumb-Bob
Used to transfer points on ground.
Used for fixing instrument exactly over the
stations.
 Principle of Chain Surveying
Triangulation is the principle.
In this area is divided into a number of
triangles with the suitable sides.
The plan of the area can be easily drawn.
As a triangle is the only simple plane
geometrical figure.
 Terms related with Chain Surveying
1) Survey Stations:
(a) Main stations
(b) Subsidiary stations
(c) tie stations
2) Main survey lines
3) Base line
4) Check line
5) Tie-line
 Selection of Survey Stations
1) Survey lines should be minimum as far as possible and should
be taken on fairly level ground.
2) should be intervisible.
3) Should form well conditioned triangles.
4) Should be located that tie lines, check lines, baseline etc. an
be formed.
5) Should be selected within the boundary of the area to be
surveyed.
 Operations in Chain Surveying
Chaining
Ranging
Offsetting
 Chaining on Level Ground
Chaining on level ground
It involves following operations
1) Fixing the stations.
2) Unfolding the chain.
3) Ranging.
4) Measuring the distance.
5) Folding the chain.
 Chaining on Sloping Ground
There are 2 methods:
1) Direct Method:
Also called as stepping. In this method, the distance
is measured in small horizontal stretches. Say a1,
a2 an.
with suitable length of chain or tape.
finally the total horizontal distances are added to get
the required distances
 Chain surveying (stepping)

a
w
b
x c
y

z
Chainingonslopingground
 Indirect Method
It involves calculation from directly measured
lengths.
Method1:
Horizontal distance of the segment is calculated by knowing
sloping length of the segment and angle of inclination of that
with horizontal.
The angle of the sloping surface with horizontal can be known
by instrument called Abneys Level.
 Method2:
If the elevation difference between 2
terminals points and the sloping distance
between 2 terminal points is known the
horizontal distance D can be calculated as
D = (l-h)
 Method3:
Also called as hypotenusal allowance method
Instead of putting the end arrow at actual end
of chain, it is put at some advanced distance
and that point is considered as the end of one
chain length
 Ranging
There are 2 methods:
1) Direct ranging
2) Indirect ranging or reciprocal ranging.
 Direct Ranging
When intermediate ranging rods are fixed on a
straight line by direct observation from end
stations, the process is known as direct
ranging.
Direct ranging also can be done with a line
ranger.
 Indirect or Reciprocal Ranging
When the end stations are not intervisible due
to there being high ground between them,
intermediate ranging rods are fixed on the line
in an indirect way.
The method is known as indirect ranging or

reciprocal ranging.
IndirectRanging
 Offsetting
There are 2 types of offsets:
1) Perpendicular offsets:
the offsets which are taken perpendicular to the chain are
termed as above.
2) Oblique offsets:
Oblique distance is always greater than perpendicular
distance. All the offsets which are not taken at right angle to
chain line are known as above.
 Instruments for laying Offsets
Optical square.
Indian optical square.
Open cross staff.
Prism square.
 Errors in Chaining
There are 2 types
1) Compensating errors
2) Cumulating errors
 Sources of Errors in Chaining
Instrumental Errors
Natural errors
Personal errors
Errors due to Incorrect Chain
If chain is too Measured
long distance will be
less. Correction:
positive

If chain is too Measured

small distance will be
more. Correction:
negative
 Tape corrections
Corrections for absolute length
Corrections for temperature
Corrections for pull
Corrections for sag
Corrections for slope
Example:1
Example: 2
Solution
Example: 3
Solution
Example: 4
Example:5
Solution
 Obstacles
To Chaining
When intermediate earth features like shrubs, trees and man made structures
like buildings present.

To Ranging
When source and destination are far apart or on any high rise intermediate
structures present.

To both chaining and Ranging

ReferSurveying-IbyB.C.Punmiaforsolved
numericalsinclass.