Turbulent Flow in Curved Elbow

Exp er im ent al st udy of t ur bulent ows t hr ough
pip e b ends
by
At hanasia K alpakli
April 2012
Technical Report s from
Royal Inst it ut e of Technology
K T H Mechanics
SE-100 44 St ockholm, Sweden
Akademisk avhandling som med t illstand av K ungliga Tekniska Hogskolan i
St ockholm framlagges t ill o ent lig granskning for avlaggande av t eknologie
licent iat sexamen den 3 maj 2012 kl 10.15 i sal D3, Lindst edt svagen 5, K ungliga
Tekniska Hogskolan, St ockholm.
At hanasia K alpakli 2012

Universit et sservice USAB, St ockholm 2012
At hanasia K alpakli 2012, Exp er im ent al st udy of t ur bulent ow s t hr ough
pip e b ends
CCGEx & Linne Flow Cent re, K T H Mechanics, Royal Inst it ut e of Technology
SE100 44 St ockholm, Sweden
A bst r act
T his t hesis deals wit h t urbulent ows in 90 degree curved pipes of circular cross-
sect ion. T he ow cases invest igat ed experiment ally are t urbulent ow wit h and wit h-
out an addit ional mot ion, swirling or pulsat ing, superposed on t he primary ow. T he
aim is t o invest igat e t hese complex ows in det ail bot h in t erms of st at ist ical quant i-
t ies as well as vort ical st ruct ures t hat are apparent when curvat ure is present . Such
a ow eld can cont ain st rong secondary ow in a plane normal t o t he main ow
direct ion as well as reverse ow.
T he mot ivat ion of t he st udy has mainly been t he presence of highly pulsat ing t ur-
bulent ow t hrough complex geomet ries, including sharp bends, in t he gas exchange
syst em of I nt ernal Combust ion Engines (ICE). On t he ot her hand, t he indust rial
relevance and import ance of t he ot her type of ows were not underest imat ed.
T he geomet ry used was curved pipes of di erent curvat ure rat ios, mount ed at
t he exit of st raight pipe sect ions which const it ut ed t he inow condit ions. T wo ex-
periment al set ups have been used. I n t he rst one, fully developed t urbulent ow
wit h a well dened inow condit ion was fed int o t he pipe bend. A swirling mot ion
could be applied in order t o st udy t he int eract ion bet ween t he swirl and t he secondary
ow induced by t he bend it self. In t he second set up a highly pulsat ing ow (up t o
40 Hz) was achieved by rot at ing a valve locat ed at a short dist ance upst ream from
t he measurement sit e. In t his case engine-like condit ions were examined, where t he
t urbulent ow int o t he bend is non-developed and t he pipe bend is sharp. I n addit ion
t o ow measurement s, t he e ect of non-ideal ow condit ions on t he performance of a
t urbocharger was invest igat ed.
T hree di erent experiment al t echniques were employed t o st udy t he ow eld.
T ime-resolved st ereoscopic part icle image velocimet ry was used in order t o visual-
ize but also quant ify t he secondary mot ions at di erent downst ream st at ions from
t he pipe bend while combined hot -/ cold-wire anemomet ry was used for st at ist ical
analysis. Laser Doppler velocimet ry was mainly employed for validat ion of t he afore-
ment ioned experiment al met hods.
T he t hree-dimensional ow eld depict ing varying vort ical pat t erns has been
capt ured under t urbulent st eady, swirling and pulsat ing ow condit ions, for paramet er
values for which experiment al evidence has been missing in lit erat ure.
D escr i p t or s: Turbulent ow, swirl, pulsat ion, pipe bend, hot -wire anemomet ry,
cold-wire anemomet ry, laser Doppler velocimet ry, st ereoscopic part icle image ve-
locimet ry.
i ii
P r eface
T his licent iat e t hesis in uid mechanics deals wit h t urbulent ows, wit h and wit hout
a swirling or pulsat ing mot ion superposed on t he primary ow, in 90 curved pipes.
T he result s in t his t hesis are from experiment al work. T he t hesis is divided int o
t wo part s, wit h Part I including an int roduct ion on t he ows under focus and t heir
applicat ions, an ext ended lit erat ure review as well as an experiment al set ups and
t echniques sect ion where t he set ups used for t he measurement s in t he present work
are present ed and t he experiment al met hods employed are described. Part I ends
wit h a sect ion where t he result s and conclusions from t his st udy are summarized
and a sect ion where t he respondent s cont ribut ions t o all papers are st at ed. Part I I
consist s of ve papers, t hree of which are published and one is in print but are here
adjust ed t o be consist ent wit h t he overall t hesis format . Paper 5 is at present an
int ernal report but it is planned t o be ext ended and submit t ed in t he fut ure.
A pril 2012, St ockholm

Athanasia K alpakli
iv
v
Cont ent s
A bst r act iii
P r eface iv
P ar t I . O ver v i ew and sum m ar y
C hapt er 1. I nt r odu ct i on 1
1.1. Towards increased engine e ciency: can fundament al research help? 1
1.2. Complex ows in nat ure and t echnology 2
C hapt er 2. F l ow s i n cu r ved pi p es 6
2.1. Dean vort ices in st eady ow 8
2.1.1. Mean ow development 8
2.1.2. Vort ex st ruct ure in t urbulent ows 14
2.2. Swirling ow 17
2.3. Pulsat ing ow wit h and wit hout curvat ure e ect s 19
2.3.1. Pulsat ing ow in st raight pipes 19
2.3.2. Pulsat ing ow t hrough curved channels 20
2.4. Summary of previous st udies 24
2.5. Flow paramet ers 25
C hapt er 3. E x p er i m ent al set u ps & t echn i ques 30

3.1. T he rot at ing pipe facillit y 30
3.2. T he CICERO rig 33
3.3. Hot / Cold-W ire A nemomet ry (HWA / CWA ) 35
3.3.1. Hot -wire calibrat ion 38
3.3.2. Temperat ure compensat ion 38
3.4. Part icle Image Velocimet ry (PIV ) 40
3.5. Laser Doppler Velocimet ry (LDV) 48
3.6. Experiment al met hods for t he st udy of complex ows 49
vi i
C hapt er 4. M ai n cont r i bu t i on and con cl usi on s 55
4.1. Highly pulsat ing t urbulent ow downst ream a pipe bendst at ist ical
analysis 55
4.2. Secondary ow under pulsat ing t urbulent ow 55
4.3. Secondary ow development 56
4.4. T he e ect of curved pulsat ing ow on t urbine performance 56
4.5. T he e ect of a swirling mot ion imposed on t he Dean vort ices 56
C hapt er 5. P ap er s and aut hor s cont r i b ut i ons 58
A ck n ow l edgem ent s 61
R efer en ces 63
P ar t I I . P ap er s
P ap er 1. E x p er i m ent al i nvest i gat i on on t he e ect of p ul sat i ons t hr ough

a 90 degr ees pi p e b end 73
P ap er 2. T ur bu l ent ow s t hr ough a 90 d egr ees pi p e b en d at h i gh D ean

an d W om er sl ey nu m b er s 89
P ap er 3. D ean v or t i ces i n t ur b ul ent ow s: r ock i n g or r ol l i ng? 103
P ap er 4. E x p er i m ent al i nvest i gat i on on t h e e ect of pu l sat i on s

on ex haust m ani fol d -r el at ed ow s ai m i n g at i m p r oved
e ci en cy 109
P ap er 5. P O D anal y si s of st er eoscop i c P I V dat a fr om sw i r l i n g

t ur b ul ent ow t h r ou gh a pi p e b end 125
vi ii
Par t I
Over view and summar y

CHAPT ER 1
Int roduct ion
Science cannot solve the ulti mate mystery of nature. And that is be-
cause, in the last analysis, we ourselves are par t of nature and therefore
part of the mystery that we are trying to solve.
Max Planck (18581947)
1.1. Towar ds incr eased engine e ciency : can fundam ent al

r esear ch help?
T he Int ernal Combust ion Engine (ICE) is st ill t he most common source for powering
bot h light and heavy-dut y road vehicles. W it h t he increasing cost and decreasing
availability of fossil fuels as well as increasing concerns of green house gases on t he
climat e, a large focus has recent ly been set on increasing t he e ciency of t he IC
engine wit hout sacricing performance. Similar concerns are relevant also for engines
running on alt ernat ive fuels, such as bio-fuels.
T he gas exchange syst em has a prominent role in t he development t owards more
e cient engines, where downsizing is, at least for light duty vehicles, t he name of t he
game. T he gas exchange syst em should e cient ly provide t he int ake of fresh air t o t he
engine as well as ut ilizing t he energy (heat ) in t he exhaust gases, where an import ant ,
if not crucial, component is t he t urbocharger. However, t he gas exchange syst em is
always a compromise between performance and what is possible from a packaging
viewpoint , e.g. t he piping syst em cannot be designed wit h st raight smoot h pipes,
t he manifolds have complex geomet ry result ing in non-ideal ow proles et c. T he
design of such syst ems is usually made wit h rat her simple one-dimensional models
alt hough one knows a priori t hat such models cannot give an accurat e descript ion of
t he ow dynamics. Test ing in engine t est benches t oget her wit h empirical knowledge,
rat her t han scient ically based experiment at ion, are also used t o a large ext ent for
developing t he design. Alt hough one should not downgrade t he import ance of t he
experienced engineer, as st at ed in Manley et al. (2008): T he chal lenge of internal
combustion require a broad col lection of research di scoveri es to make the transi tion
from hardware i ntensive, experienced based fuel development and engine design to
simulation intensive, science-based desi gn .
In t he present work cert ain aspect s of t he gas exchange syst em are approached
from a basic scient ic, rat her t han an engine applicat ion, viewpoint . T hree specic
aspect s have been addressed, namely t he st eady ow t hrough curved pipes as well
as t he e ect s of swirl and pulsat ions on such ows, all feat ures t hat are apparent
wit hin t he gas exchange syst em. A s it will be ment ioned in t he coming sect ion, such
1
2 1. INT RODUCT ION
aspect s on ows in piping syst ems are not only dominant in int ernal combust ion
engines, but also in a number of ot her ow syst ems, and quit e some e ort s have
been done earlier, but wit h ot her mot ivat ions, t o invest igat e such condit ions. On t he
ot her hand t he paramet er ranges for t he IC engine ows are quit e specic and it is
t herefore necessary t o make st udies for t he relevant values of t he paramet ers. T he
present st udies have been performed t hrough idealized experiment s, and t he fact t hat
t he quot e from M anley et al. (2008) st at es t hat one should st rive t owards simulat ion
int ensive met hods, such met hods also need qualied boundary dat a and vericat ion
t hrough quant it at ive scient ic experiment s. T he aim of t he present st udy is t herefore
t o allow t he reader mainly int erest ed in IC engines per se t o realize t hat it is bot h
import ant and rewarding t o go out side t he immediat e neighborhood of t he engine
aspect s t o get a bet t er underst anding of t he physical processes import ant for engine
performance.
1.2. Com plex ow s in nat ur e and t echnology

Nat ural phenomena including t hose init iat ed from t he mot ion of uids have been
t he subject of many scient ic st udies and even t hough t he mechanisms which t rigger
t hem remain t o a large ext ent a myst ery, science has succeeded t o answer some of
t he quest ions regarding t heir exist ence and dene t he paramet ers which govern t heir
dynamics.
One of t he subject s from t he area of uid dynamics which st ill const it ut es a
myst ery and is of vit al import ance is pulsat ing ow, i.e. t he ow composed of a
st eady and a periodic component . Pulsat ing ow is a part of our own being, since
it is t he condit ion under which t he human body operat es. For inst ance, t he heart
is probably t he most well-known pump in nat ure, it creat es a periodic mot ion and
dist ribut es t he blood t o t he whole body wit h a specic frequency rat e. T hat causes
also t he dist inct beat ing sound when list ening t o our heart s t hrough a st et hoscope
(gure 1.1).
One should however not neglect t he import ance of pulsat ile ow in t he funct ioning
of mechanical syst ems which in ret urn might not be of vit al import ance but cont ribut e
t o our well-being and have changed t he way we experience life, such as t he engine in
t he cars we drive.
On t he ot her side of t he spect rum, if we look around us (from heat exchangers t o
river banks and t he human aort a), almost not hing is st raight and how could t hat be
wit h t he conned space we have been given t o live in, t herefore most of t he syst ems of
any kind (nat ural, biological, mechanical) comprise of curved sect ions and conduit s
(gure 1.2).
Luckily or not , in many cases, t he two aforement ioned condit ions are combined
(i.e. pulsat ile ows t hrough curved pipes) and t hey can lead t o complex ow phenom-
ena. A s st at ed in lit erat ure: pulsatile ow through a curved tube can i nduce compli-
cated secondary ows with ow reversals and i s very di cult to analyze (K undu et al.
2012), unsteady ows in curved conduits are considerably more complex than those
i n straight conduits, and exhibit phenomena not yet fully understood (Hamakiot es &
Berger 1988). T his of course does not underrat e t he import ance of t he case of st eady
t urbulent ow t hrough a curved pipe on it s own, which has not been fully explored
yet and st udies on it s dynamics are being performed unt il nowdays (Hellst rom et al.
1.2. COM PLEX FLOW S IN NAT URE AND T ECHNOLOGY 3
a) b)
3
*
2
( u)
0
inst. lowpass phase averaged
3
*
2
( u)
0
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
[deg]
c) d)
F ig u r e 1.1. Examples showing how pulsat ing ows are

great ly involved in our everyday life. a) A young pa-
t ient having his heart examined by means of a st et hoscope.
(Source: http:/ / www.chatham-kent.ca) b) A Wiggers diagram
used in cardiac physiology t o show t he blood (aort ic, ven-
t ricular and at rial) pressure variat ion, t he vent ricular vol-
ume and t he elect rocardiogram in a common plot . (Source:
http:/ / www.enotes.com) c) A t urbocharger (Garret t ). d) Mass
ow rat e density at t he cent reline (top) and wall (bottom) of a
pipe. T he ow is pulsat ing (40 Hz) in relevance t o t he inow
condit ions int o a t urbine.
2011). T he irregular mot ion of t he vort ical st ruct ures in t hat case may induce vibra-
t ions and cause fat igue in t he pipes being part of e.g. t he cooling syst ems of nuclear
react ors. In such cases, t he pressure drop caused by bends has t o be est imat ed wit h
high accuracy in order t o achieve opt imal plant safety (Ono et al. 2010; Shiraishi et al.
2009; Yuki et al. 2011; Spedding & Benard 2004).
4 1. INT RODUCT ION
Varying vort ical pat t erns creat ed by t he count eract ion bet ween curvat ure and
pulsat ion e ect s bot h in shape but also in t ime of appearance might lead t o bet t er
or worse performance of syst ems. For example t he role t hat pulsat ing ow plays in
t he causes of at herosclerosis or how it a ect s t he performance of t he t urbocharger in
t he engine gas exchange syst em have not yet been claried or in many cases have not
even been considered. T hat is because, apart from t he complexity of t he ow it self
wit h t he corresponding di cult ies invest igat ing such complex ow experiment ally or
numerically, t here is a subst ant ial number of governing paramet ers t o be considered.
a) b)
c) d)
F ig u r e 1.2. Examples showing how curved geomet ries are

great ly involved in our everyday life. a) T he Sandy River
bank wit h t he curve right next t o t he int ersect ion of Whit t ier
Road and Rout e 156 in Farmingt on, Franklin County, Maine,
USA. (Source: www.dailybulldog.com) b) Illust rat ion of t he
branches of t he aort ic arch. (Source: http:/ / howmed.net ) c)
An exhaust manifold. d) Schemat ic of t he cooling syst em of
t he Japan Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (JSFR). T he hot -leg
piping which is sharply bended and is used t o t ransport t he
react or coolant t o a st eam generat or is circled. I mage taken
from Ono et al. (2010).
1.2. COM PLEX FLOW S IN NAT URE AND T ECHNOLOGY 5
T he present t hesis is organized as follows: First , an ext ensive lit erat ure review is
present ed for ows in curved pipes as well as an int roduct ion on t he ow paramet ers.
T hereaft er t he di erent experiment al set ups and t echniques used are described and in
t he last sect ion of Part I a summary of t he more import ant result s and cont ribut ions
is made. Part I I of t he t hesis, cont ains t he main result s obt ained so far, organized
in t he form of ve papers, t hree of which have been already published and one is
in print , whereas t he ft h one is planned t o be ext ended and submit t ed in t he near
fut ure.
CHAPT ER 2
Flows in curved pipes
Learn from yesterday, li ve for today, hope for tomorrow. T he impor-

tant thing is not to stop questioning.
A lbert Einst ein (18791955)
T he motion of the uid as a whole can be regarded as made up of

what are roughly screw moti ons in opposite directi ons about these two
ci rcular stream-li nes
Dean (1927)
If a uid is moving along a st raight pipe t hat aft er some point becomes curved,
t he bend will cause t he uid part icles t o change t heir main direct ion of mot ion. T here
will be an adverse pressure gradient generat ed from t he curvat ure wit h an increase in
pressure, t herefore a decrease in velocity close t o t he convex wall, and t he cont rary
will occur t owards t he out er side of t he pipe (gure 2.1).
T he cent rifugal force ( U 2 R c , where U is t he velocit y and R c t he radius of
curvat ure) induced from t he bend will act st ronger on t he uid close t o t he pipe axis
t han close t o t he walls, since t he higher velocity uid is near t he pipe axis. T his gives
rise t o a secondary mot ion superposed on t he primary ow, wit h t he uid in t he cent re
of t he pipe being swept t owards t he out er side of t he bend and t he uid near t he pipe
wall will ret urn t owards t he inside of t he bend. T his secondary mot ion is expect ed t o
appear as a pair of count er-rot at ing cells which bear t he name of t he Brit ish scient ist
Dean (1927) and are widely known t oday as Dean vortices (gure 2.2).
Being a pioneer in t he st udy of uid mot ion at low Reynolds numbers, Dean
(1927) has been acknowledged for his work on t he secondary mot ion in curved pipes
for laminar ow (Binnie 1978). His work revealed t he exist ence of t he two symmet rical
roll-cells but also int roduced t he paramet er t hat dynamically denes such ows and
is named aft er him, namely t he Dean number 1 :
1
T his is how t he Dean number is dened in t his t hesis, based on t he mean axial velocity since
it can be r eadily be measured but t his in not always t he var iant used, especially in analyt ical
or numerical st udies. A s ment ioned in Ber ger & Talbot (1983)wher e an ext ended sect ion on
t he de nit ion of t he Dean number by various aut hors can be found: T hi s [aut hors using
di erent forms of t he Reynolds number or curvat ure rat io in t heir denit ion of t he Dean
number ] makes for consi derable confusi on i n readi ng and inter preti ng the li terature . T he
r elat ion between t he rat e of ow and cur vat ure of t he pipe for a given pressure gradient was
given in Dean (1928) named as t he paramet er K (see also 2.1) and was lat er used in var ious
for ms (W hit e 1929; Taylor 1929; M cConalogue & Srivast ava 1968).
6
2. FLOW S I N CURV ED PIPES 7
a) b)
F ig u r e 2.1. Example of t he st reamwise velocity (Uz ) dist ri-

but ion at t he exit of a 90 pipe bend a) Cont our map of t he
st reamwise velocity eld at a pipe cross-sect ion b) Prole of
t he st reamwise velocity scaled by t he bulk speed (Ub) along
t he horizont al axis.
r
R
D e = Re (2.1)
Rc
where Re = Ub D denot es t he Reynolds number, wit h being t he uid density, Ub
t he bulk velocity, D = 2R t he diamet er of t he pipe and t he dynamic viscosity of
t he uid.
In real life ow sit uat ions t he ow t hrough curved conduit s may be furt her com-
plicat ed being eit her laminar, t ransit ional or t urbulent (or a combinat ion of t hese)
and t hrough t he exist ence of swirl and/ or pulsat ions. In t his chapt er a lit erat ure
review summarizes some import ant aspect s of such ows. T he chapt er is divided int o
ve part s st art ing wit h a sect ion dealing wit h Dean vorti ces in st eady ow, probably
t he most charact erist ic feat ure of ows t hrough bends. T he second and t hird sect ions
deal wit h st udies wit h a swirling or pulsat ing mot ion superposed, respect ively. A l-
t hough t his review cannot be complet e, due t o t he large amount and diversity of past
st udies, t here has been an e ort t o cover as much informat ion as possible regarding
bot h t he variety of curved geomet ries (small curvat ure, 90 t o U-bends and t orus) and
kinds of ows (laminar, st eady, pulsat ing, swirling, t urbulent ). Sect ion four provides
an overview and summary of t he references in a t able. T he chapt er nishes wit h a
sect ion describing t he paramet ers governing t he types of ows invest igat ed in t his
st udy.
One of t he aims of t his chapt er is t o learn from what has been achieved in t he
past and highlight t he di erences between t he di erent ow condit ions as well as
t he challenges researchers encount er wit h when st udying (especially experiment ally)
complex ows.
8 2. FLOW S I N CURV ED PIPES
a) b)
F ig u r e 2.2. a) W. R. Dean (18961973) Reprinted from Bin-

nie (1978). b) A schemat ic of t he Dean vort ices. Taken from
Dean (1927).
2.1. D ean vor t ices in st eady ow

T he water just rushes out agai nst the outer bank of the r iver at the
bend and so washes the bank away [. . . ] it allows deposi tion to occur
at the inner bank [. . . ] the question arose to me: Why does not the
inner bank wear away more than the outer one?
T homson (1876)
2.1.1. Mean ow development

I ndeed many of us might have observed a similar behavior of t he wat er owing when
sit t ing close t o a river bank, as expressed by T homson (1876) who explained t heoret -
ically t he ow round a bend in a river 2 . T his simple example from nat ure as well as
t he circulat ory syst ems of humans and ot her mammals t hat consist of rat her curved
veins, art eries and capillaries or t he int ernal combust ion engine wit h it s branches and
conduit s, show how curved geomet ries are great ly involved in our everyday life and
how import ant it is t o st udy t heir impact on t he funct ionalit y of bot h nat ural and
indust rial syst ems.
Not ing in an early st udy (Eust ice 1910) t hat even a small curvat ure can a ect t he
quant ity of ow of wat er t hrough a pipe, Eust ice (1911) int roduced coloured liquid
t hrough capillary nozzles in various bent congurat ions made of glass, in order t o
visualize t he st ream uid mot ion (gure 2.3). From t he behaviour of t he lament s
he observed an uneven mot ion of t he uid compared t o what had been known unt il
t hat t ime for t he mot ion of uids in st raight pipes3 :
2 His observat ions mainly concerned open-channel ow but is ment ioned here for hist orical
purposes.
3 His exper iment s were lat er cr it icized by W hit e (1929) for using non-fully circular sect ioned
pipes and by Taylor (1929) for int roducing t he dye ear ly at t he ent r ance of t he cur ved pipe,
t her efore unable t o det ect a rise in t he as referred t o t he crit ical Reynolds number for which
t urbulence br eaks in Reynolds cr iter i on due t o cur vat ur e.
2.1. DEA N VORT ICES I N ST EA DY FLOW 9
But i n a curved pi pe the water i s continual ly changing i ts posi tion

with respect to the si des of the pipe, and the water which i s owi ng
near the centre at one part approaches the sides as i t moves through
the pi pe and owing near the si des i t exerts a scouring action on the
pi pe walls
Eust ice (1911)
F ig u r e 2.3. T he di erent bend congurat ions used in t he ex-

periment s by Eust ice and t he lament s showing t he st reamline
mot ion. Reprinted from Eustice (1911).
Dean (1927, 1928) was t he rst t o provide a t heoret ical solut ion of t he uid
mot ion t hrough curved pipes for laminar ow by using a pert urbat ion procedure
from a Poiseuille ow in a st raight pipe t o a ow in a pipe wit h very small curvat ure.
He showed t hat t he relat ion between t he ow rat e and t he curvat ure of t he t ube
depends on a single variable K dened as K = 2Re2 (R R c ), where t he Reynolds
number is dened here as: Re = RUo wit h Uo being t he maximum velocity for a
ow in a st raight pipe of t he same radius and wit h t he same pressure gradient as in
a curved pipe and is t he kinemat ic viscosity. T his relat ion is only valid for small
curvat ure rat ios R R c . He derived a series solut ion expanded in K t o describe t he
fully developed, st eady ow analyt ically in a t ube wit h small K and demonst rat ed
a ow eld exhibit ing a pair of symmet rical count er-rot at ing vort ices. Since t hose
ndings many researchers have been int rigued t o invest igat e t he complicat ed ow eld
t hrough pipe bends and t he e ect of t he di erent paramet ers on t he ow development .
By t he lat e 1930s t he ow t hrough pipe bends was a t opic of high int erest
including e ect s of curvat ure on t he ow st ability whereas charact erist ics of such ows
i .e. t he count er-rot at ing cells were already being reproduced in t ext books (Goldst ein
1938). Ot her t ext books where informat ion about pipe bends can be found are t hose
by Schlicht ing (1955), Ward-Smit h (1980) (where an ext ensive sect ion on pipe bends
including mit re bends, duct s wit h non-circular cross sect ion and short circular arc-
bends is available) but also in K undu et al. (2012). T his shows t hat t he int erest and
t he knowledge on ows t hrough curved pipes has been expanding t hrough t he years
and can be viewed as of fundament al import ance t o t he eld of uid dynamics.
T he work by Dean (1927) has been ext ended bot h t heoret ically and numerically
over t he years. M cConalogue & Srivast ava (1968) ext ended t he work by Dean (1927)
solving t he equat ions numerically by Fourier-series expansion and showed t hat t he
secondary ow becomes prevalent for a higher value of t he Dean number (dened as
D = 4 K ) up t o which Dean (1927) ext ended his t heory (D 96, which was also
t heir lower limit and whereas t he upper was 600). T his st udy was lat er ext ended by
Greenspan (1973) by using a nit e-di erence t echnique and applying t he problem t o
a wider Dean number range (10 D 5000). It was found t hat by increasing t he
Dean number t he physical t rends observed by M cConalogue & Srivast ava (1968) were
st ill developing. Barua (1963) provided an asympt ot ic boundary-layer solut ion t o t he
equat ions of mot ion for large Dean numbers when t he viscous forces are signicant
only in a t hin boundary layer and t he mot ion out side t hat region is most ly conned
t o planes parallel t o t he plane of symmet ry of t he pipe. A nalyt ical approximat ion
met hods for t he ow in a curved pipe have been given in t he more recent years by
Topakoglu & Ebadian (1985) and Siggers & Wat ers (2005) by using series expansion
of t he curvat ure rat io and of t he curvat ure rat io and Dean number, respect ively.
W hit e (1929) showed t hat t he t heory est ablished by Dean (1927) can be valid for
pipes of di erent curvat ures. Somewhat unexpect edly, laminar ow can be maint ained
for larger Reynolds numbers (even by a fact or of two for t he highest curvat ure rat ios
st udied) t han for st raight pipes, even t hough curvat ure is known t o cause inst ability 4 .
4 In Schmid & Henningson (2001) a short descript ion on t he Dean vort ices as secondar y
inst ability can be found. Her e t he aim is t o invest igat e t he behavior of t he Dean vort ices in
t he t urbulent ow regime, t herefor e t he inst ability mechanisms ar e not t he subj ect of t his
t hesis and will not be furt her discussed.
Taylor (1929) veried t hose result s (gure 2.4) by int roducing a uorescent colored
band int o t he st ream only aft er it had t raversed at least one whole t urn of t he helix and
conrmed also t he exist ence of t he Dean circulat ion as indicat ed by Dean (1927). He
also observed t hat t he ow was st eady up t o a cert ain speed at which t he color band
began t o vibrat e in an irregular manner t hat increased in violence wit h increasing
speed unt il t he ow became fully t urbulent . Transit ion from laminar t o t urbulent
ow has been also examined in a number of st udies (It o 1959; Srinivasan et al. 1970).
Relat ions for t he crit ical Reynolds number as proposed by di erent st udies can be
found in Ward-Smit h (1980) and Spedding & Benard (2004) even t hough no universal
solut ion exist s since t he paramet er is highly dependent on t he curvat ure rat io.
K urokawa et al. (1998) examined t he relaminarizat ion mechanism in curved pipes
by means of ow visualizat ion and hot -lm anemomet ry employing fully developed
t urbulent ow at t he ent rance of t he bend. T he secondary ow pat t ern was (once
more) proved t o depend on t he magnit ude of t he Dean number and smoke images of
t he evolut ion of t he secondary mot ions for di erent downst ream posit ions and st at ions
along t he bend were present ed. For t he lowest Reynolds number (Re = 2 2 103 )
a weak secondary ow was formed as two count er rot at ing vort ices. For t he higher
Reynolds number (Re = 5 3 103 ) no secondary mot ions were depict ed and it was
concluded t hat for t he case of t he 90 pipe bend t he laminarizat ion process is weak
because of t he short development dist ance. Smoke visualizat ions for bends of 180
(U-bend) and 360 (t orus) as well as a 720 and a 1800 coiled pipe were addit ionally
performed and weak secondary mot ions were capt ured for t hose cases as well. T he
presence of t urbulent ow was relat ed t o t he absence of t he secondary mot ion from
p
F ig u r e 2.4. Reynolds number vs d D where d t he diamet er
of t he pipe and D t he diamet er of t he helix int o which t he pipe
was wound. Wit h + t he dat a by Whit e (1929) are shown.
indicat es lowest Re at which ow appears complet ely t urbulent
in a helical glass t ube. denot es highest Re at which ow is
quit e st eady. I mage taken from Taylor (1929).
t he images due t o smoke di usion, t herefore no secondary st ruct ures were capt ured
under t urbulent ow condit ions in any of t he aforement ioned geomet ries.
Rowe (1970) measured t he yaw angle relat ive t o t he pipe axis and t he t ot al
pressure variat ion. It was indicat ed t hat t he secondary mot ion is great est at 30
from t he inlet of t he bend reducing aft erwards it s st rengt h but st ill persist ing unt il it
reaches 90 . Lat er, Pat ankar et al. (1975) used t he k model t o calculat e t he same
cases as t hose of Rowe (1970) and obt ained qualit at ive agreement of t he mean ow
proles.
A zzola et al. (1986) invest igat ed bot h experiment ally and numerically t he devel-
oping t urbulent ow in a st rongly curved 180 pipe bend. M ean velocity and Reynolds
st ress dist ribut ions indicat ed t he exist ence of t wo cross st ream ow reversals, as also
shown in Rowe (1970). An addit ional symmet rical pair of count er-rot at ing vort ices
in t he core of t he ow was observed.
A few st udies have also invest igat ed t he ent ry ow int o curved pipes due t o it s
import ance in nding t he dist ance required for t he ow t o reach t he fully developed
st at e or where t he maximum shear st ress appears. A pioneering st udy by Singh
(1974) was made on t he ow charact erist ics near t he inlet of t he pipe. A boundary
layer is formed as t he uid ent ers t he pipe where t he viscous forces are conned while
t he core is inviscid, like in a st raight pipe. Immediat ely downst ream t he ent rance
of t he ow a considerable azimut hal ow is induced in t he boundary layer from t he
out side t o t he inside of t he bend due t o t he pressure gradient . T he secondary ow
generat ed by t he curvat ure is t herefore moving t he slower uid from t he boundary
layer inwards and t he fast er uid at t he core outwards. T he inow condit ion great ly
a ect s t he init ial development of t he ow wit h a non-uniformit y in wall shear st ress,
i.e. t he shear is largest at t he inner wall before t he maximum moves t o t he out er wall,
appearing at two t imes larger dist ance for t he rst inlet condit ion t han for t he second
one. I t was shown t hat t he smaller t he curvat ure rat io t he smaller t he dist urbances
in t he secondary mot ions and t he ent ry condit ion a ect ed t he init ial development of
t he ow but did not a ect t he ow signicant ly furt her downst ream. Smit h (1976)
ext ended t he work by Singh (1974) by applying more realist ic inow condit ions, i.e.
t he dist ort ion of t he incoming ow is due t o t he curvat ure of t he pipe and not due t o
t he inow prole. Yao & Berger (1975) t heoret ically invest igat ed t he development of
t he ow from a uniform velocity eld at t he ent rance t o a fully developed ow and
for large Dean numbers. It was shown t hat in order t o reach a fully developed st at e
in t he case of large Dean numbers, t he ent ry plengt h needs t o be O( RR c D e), (where
t he Dean number is dened here as: D e = 2 R R c (2RUb )). T his value is smaller
as compared t o t he case for a st raight pipe.
A grawal et al. (1978) performed LDV and hot -lm anemomet ry measurement s
for t he invest igat ion of t he ow in a curved pipe wit h a uniform mot ion as t he inlet
condit ion. T wo semi-circular pipes wit h di erent curvat ure rat ios were used for a
Dean number range from 138 t o 679. Comparison of t heir result s t o t hose of Singh
(1974) and Yao & Berger (1975) gave poor agreement due t o cert ain assumpt ions in
t he analyt ical procedure of t he lat t er works (small e ect of curvat ure, secondary ow
st reamlines parallel t o t he plane of symmet ry). Enayet et al. (1982) also performed
LDV measurement s ext ending t he e ort by A grawal et al. (1978) t o t urbulent ow.
T he result s showed t hat t he secondary ows were st rongly dependent on t he t hickness
of t he inlet boundary layer which in t urn depends on t he Reynolds number. For t he

t urbulent case, t he inlet boundary layers are much t hinner t han for t he laminar case
and t he presence of a large cent ral region of uniform velocity signicant ly inuences
t he development of t he secondary ow downst ream t he bend.
Soh & Berger (1984) invest igat ed t he laminar ow at t he ent rance of a bend for
di erent Dean numbers and curvat ure rat ios and observed secondary ow separat ion
at t he inner wall as t he ow developed which proved t o be highly dependent on t he
curvat ure rat io. Similarly t o A grawal et al. (1978) t hey showed a double peaked axial
velocity prole at t he plane of symmet ry for large Dean numbers and bot h for t he
fully and non-fully developed ow cases. T hat phenomenon was explained due t o t he
highly dist ort ed vort ex st ruct ure.
Bovendeerd et al. (1987) performed LDV measurement s on t he ent ry region of
a 90 bend wit h a laminar parabolic prole as t he inow condit ion. T he secondary
ow at t he ent rance was direct ed t owards t he inner wall while dist urbances were
not observed downst ream t he inlet up t o a dist ance of RR c . T hey provided a
coherent descript ion of t he ow eld t hroughout t he bend, present ing t he int ensity
of t he secondary mot ions and t he axial velocity proles for di erent st at ions along
t he bend. I t was shown t hat t he secondary ow int ensies at an early st age but t he
axial ow pat t ern does not show any changes dominat ed by t he inert ial forces up t o
some dist ance. T hey compared t heir result s wit h t hose by Soh & Berger (1984) and
A grawal et al. (1978) who used a uniform ent ry prole inst ead of a parabolic one and
point ed out major di erences in t he ow development between t he two condit ions.
Sudo et al. (1998) invest igat ed t urbulent ow t hrough a 90 curved pipe wit h
long st raight pipes bot h upst ream and downst ream at Re = 6 104 . Longit udinal,
circumferent ial and radial component s of mean and uct uat ing velocit ies as well as
Reynolds st resses were obt ained by rot at ing a probe wit h an inclined hot -wire, ex-
t ending t he work by A zzola et al. (1986) and Enayet et al. (1982) who limit ed t heir
invest igat ions on measuring only t he longit udinal velocit y component . Past st udies
which showed t hat at t he inlet t he primary ow accelerat es near t he inner wall and a
secondary ow moves from t he out er t owards t he inner wall were conrmed. At 30
bend angle t he secondary ow is formed as a pair of vort ices but t he primary ow
st ays deect ed t owards t he inner wall unt il it becomes highly dist ort ed at 75 and
90 bend angle. At some downst ream dist ance from t he bend t he vort ices st art t o
break down but t hey persist up t o a dist ance of t en pipe diamet ers.
T he secondary mot ion of a fully developed t urbulent ow in curved pipes was
analyzed t heoret ically by Dey (2002) using t he boundary-layer approach. Comput a-
t ional result s of t he boundary-layer t hickness and t he wall shear st ress were present ed
for di erent Reynolds numbers and curvat ure rat ios up t o D e = 5 105 . It was shown
t hat t he secondary boundary layer t hickness along t he out er pipe wall increases grad-
ually but it st art s growing rapidly near t he point of t he secondary boundary layer
separat ion. T he normalized t hickness (over t he radius of curvat ure) decreased wit h
increasing Reynolds number while t he wall shear st ress increased wit h increasing ra-
dius near t he out er wall unt il it reached some maximum value and t hen decreased t o
obt ain it s minimum at t he separat ion point .
A summary on t he st udies performed on bot h curved pipes and elbow bends for
laminar, t ransit ional and t urbulent ow (over 200 references) is given in Spedding
& Benard (2004), including t heir own result s on t he pressure drop in various bent
geomet ries. T hey point ed out t hat t he pressure drop is more signicant due t o ow
separat ion at t he inner wall in elbows as compared t o bends.
2.1.2. Vortex structure in turbulent ows

T he behavior of Dean vort ices in t urbulent ow, has not been st udied ext ensively
from an experiment al point of view, but numerical simulat ions (mainly Large-Eddy
Si mulati ons (LES) and Reynolds-Averaged Navi er-Stokes (RANS) modeling) have
described a complex vort ex pat t ern consist ing of up t o four or six cells under cert ain
ow condit ions (Hellst rom 2010).
Tunst all & Harvey (1968) found t hat in a sharp bend a unique vort ex pat t ern
exist s for Re = 4 104 , consist ing of a single vort ex dominat ing t he pipe cross sect ion,
swit ching it s rot at ional direct ion from clockwise t o count erclockwise. T hree decades
a) b)
F ig u r e 2.5. T he swirl swit ching of t he vort ices at two in-

st ant s. a) Velocity vect or eld ( S marks t he saddle point and
t he red line indicat es t he plane of symmet ry). b) Cont ours of
st reamwise vort icity (blue dashed lines indicat e negat ive value
and red solid lines indicat e posit ive value). Reprinted from
Br ucker (1998).
lat er, Brucker (1998) performed Part icle Image Velocimet ry (PIV ) measurement s t o
invest igat e t his phenomenon furt her (gure 2.5). Some t ime lat er, Rut t en et al.
(2005) ext ended t he analysis by means of LES for Re = 5000 27000 and proved
t he exist ence of t he swirl swit ching t hat was rst observed by Tunst all & Harvey
(1968) and not only for t he case of sharp bends where ow separat ion occurs. T he
same phenomenon was lat er capt ured also in Sakakibara et al. (2010) by means of
St ereoscopic PIV (SPIV ) for a higher Reynolds number (Re = 12 104 ). A similar
behavior of t he vort ices in t urbulent ow was also observed by Ono et al. (2010) for
Re = 5 4 105 for a long elbow and more recent ly by Yuki et al. (2011) at t he rst
sect ion of a dual elbow by means of PIV at Re = 5 104 . W hereas a few possible
explanat ions on t he mechanism behind t he swirl swit ching exist (Tunst all & Harvey
1968; Brucker 1998), it is st ill not fully underst ood.
A n insight on how t he secondary mot ions form due t o di erent paramet ers was
given in t he numerical st udies by So et al. (1991) and Lai et al. (1991) who focused
on how t he shape of di erent cells in t he ow t hrough a U-bend depends on t he inlet
ow prole, t he Dean number and t he curvat ure rat io. T he ow pat t erns were shown
t o consist of four di erent vort ex pairs: t he Dean-type vort ex pair, anot her pressure-
driven pair near t he pipe core as a consequence of local pressure imbalance (Rowe
1970; A zzola et al. 1986), a t hird separat ion cell near t he inner bend (So et al. 1991)
and a fourt h one near t he out er wall which is a t urbulence driven secondary mot ion
(Lai et al. 1991). For a uniform ent ry prole, small Dean numbers and curvat ure rat io
F ig u r e 2.6. Secondary ows in a) Laminar ow wit h para-

bolic inlet prole at D e = 277 5 b) Turbulent ow wit h fully
developed inlet prole at D e = 13874. I mage taken from An-
wer & So (1993).
F ig u r e 2.7. Velocity proles of t he st reamwise velocity com-

ponent for a non-swirling (open symbols) and a st rongly
swirling (black symbols) ow and for di erent bend st at ions.
I mage taken from Anwer & So (1993).
only t he Dean-type cell is observed while when t he ent ry ow prole t o t he bend is

parabolic two addit ional cell st ruct ures can appear. For a fully developed t urbulent
inlet prole t urbulence-driven secondary mot ion is induced due t o anisot ropy of t he
t urbulent normal st resses and t heir radial and circumferent ial gradient s (gure 2.6).
2.2. SW IRLING FLOW 17
2.2. Sw ir ling ow
Turbulent swirling ow is encount ered in many indust rial applicat ions such as in
hydraulic plant s, combust ion chambers and any machine t hat involves a t urbine or
fan. However, t he e ect s of t he swirl combined wit h e ect s from curved geomet ries,
which are widely met in pract ice, on t he t urbulence and it s st ruct ures have been
st udied only t o a very limit ed ext ent .
T he work by Binnie (1962) was among t he rst e ort s t o examine swirling ow
in a 90 pipe bend, by means of ow visualizat ion in wat er, t hough t he experiment s
were limit ed t o t he movement of part icles close t o t he wall. T he ow pat t ern was
explained by addit ional sket ches which showed t he exist ence of an air core, changing
it s posit ion t hrough t he bend.
F ig u r e 2.8. Flow st ruct ures at increasing swirl int ensit ies.

I mage taken from Pruvost et al. (2004).
T he e ect of swirling ow on hydraulic losses and t he ow in U-bends was inves-

t igat ed experiment ally by means of Pit ot t ubes in Shimizu & Sugino (1980). T hey
also considered e ect s of wall roughness and t he curvat ure rat io. A xial and periph-
eral velocity dist ribut ion plot s and cont ours for a st rong swirling ow revealed a close
relat ion between t he axial velocity and t he vort ex core cent er demonst rat ing t hat t he
maximum velocit y moves t o t he opposit e direct ion as t he vort ex core cent er. For t he
case of weak swirling ow, t he vort ex core was posit ioned at t he inlet of t he pipe and
disappeared at some downst ream angular st at ion wit h t he maximum velocity shift ing
t owards t he out er wall. A pressure di erence pushed t he uid close t o t he wall in a
count er-clockwise direct ion in t hat case, causing a reverse force which was st ronger
t han t he clockwise swirl mot ion exist ing in t he upst ream angular posit ions.
T he case of a t urbulent swirling ow t hrough a curved pipe (t wo 90 pipes con-
nect ed) was also examined experiment ally by A nwer & So (1993) for Re = 5 104
and for a high swirl int ensity (dened in t heir st udy as: N s = D 2Ub , where
t he angular speed of t he rot at ion sect ion) of N s = 1 by means of pressure t aps, a
hot -lm gauge and a rot at ing hot -wire probe. From t he mean velocity proles (g-
ure 2.7) along t he horizont al and vert ical planes it was shown t hat t he proles are
not as skewed as in t he non-swirling case which suggest ed t hat a single dominat ing
cell exist s here inst ead of mult iple secondary st ruct ures. T he ext ended work by So &
A nwer (1993) showed t hat in swirling ow, t he lengt h needed for t he ow t o become
fully developed is short er t han t hat needed in t he case of a st raight pipe and t hat t he
bend accelerat es t he decay of t he swirl.
For t he case when a swirling mot ion is superposed on t he primary ow, CFD
st udies (Pruvost et al. 2004) have shown t hat t he Dean cells merge as t he swirl
mot ion int ensies (gure 2.8) unt il t he ow eld becomes complet ely swirl dominat ed
(t he swirl int ensity in t hat case was Sn = 2 5 where Sn = R 2Ub ). Once again,
t he result s so far concerning t urbulent swirling ow t hrough bends are based eit her
on simulat ions (Pruvost et al. (2004) is one of t he few st udies considering t urbulent
swirling ow using CFD t ools) or point -wise measurement s (A nwer & So 1993) and
t herefore cannot provide an image of t he vort ices (or more specically for t he case of
simulat ions a validat ed one). T he work by Chang & Lee (2003) considered 2D-PIV
measurement s in t urbulent swirling ow in a bend. St reamwise velocity prole plot s
showed negat ive velocity at t he cent re of t he pipe at t he inlet due t o t he st rong swirl
mot ion while lat er, increased in magnit ude, it shift ed t owards t he convex wall unt il it
reached a bend angle of 45 where it allocat ed again t o t he concave wall. A ddit ional
t urbulence int ensity plot s showed t he exist ence of a two-cell phenomenon which for
t he case of t he highest Reynolds number st udied, remained dist inguishable unt il t he
exit of t he pipe.
2.3. PULSAT ING FLOW W IT H A ND W IT HOUT CURVAT URE EFFECT S 19
2.3. P ulsat ing ow wit h and w it hout cur vat ur e e ect s

With each respi ration, and to a lesser extent each heart beat, an
arrest, or reversal of ow took place
Helps & McDonald (1954)
2.3.1. Pulsating ow in straight pipes

Seminal st udies on t he fundament al charact erist ics of pulsat ing ows st art ed t ruly
in t he mid 50s (Womersley 1955) wit h t he early st udies focusing mainly on t he ow
condit ions in veins and art eries (McDonald 1952; Helps & McDonald 1954; Hale et al.
1955) and revealed some of t he charact erist ics of pulsat ing ow such as ow reversal 5
which would lat er be invest igat ed bot h experiment ally and numerically for a number
of di erent applicat ions. In pulsat ing ow inert ia forces due t o pulsat ions play an
import ant role and t heir rat io wit h t he viscous forces dene t he frequency paramet er.
Womersley (1955) has been credit ed for his work on pulsat ing ows and for providing
a solut ion for t he equat ions of mot ion for a viscous uid in a circular pipe under a
known oscillat ory pressure gradient . He connect ed t he viscous drag and ow rat e by
using a universal paramet er, named t oday as t he Womersley number, a dimensionless
expression of t he pulsat ile ow frequency in relat ion t o viscous e ect s:
r
n
= R (2.2)

wit h R being t he radius of t he t ube, n t he circular frequency (i.e. n = = 2f where
f t he frequency in cycles per second) and t he kinemat ic viscosity of t he uid (see
also 2.5).
Pulsat ing ow can appear in di erent regimes: laminar, t ransit ional and t urbu-
lent or depending on t he nat ure of t he ow in st eady-st at e or t ransient form. On t he
ot her hand, st eady-st at e pulsat ing ow is divided addit ionally int o t hree cat egories
duept o t he ows own complexity. For < 1 32 (or as shown by Shemer & K it (1984)
for St Re < 1 8 10 2 , where St is t he Strouhal number, see 2.5) t he region is
quasi-st eady i.e. it can be t reat ed as st eady. At such low pulsat ion frequencies t he
t urbulent st ruct ures have t ime t o accommodat e t o t he slowly varying ow rat e and
t herefore t he ow behaves similar t o st eady t urbulent ow. For 1 32 < < 28 t he
region is int ermediat e (passage between st eady t o pulsat ile ow) and for > 28 it
is inert ia dominat ed, t he pulsat ion frequency is so high t hat t he t urbulent st ruct ures
cannot respond t o t he rapid changes. Hence t he t urbulence becomes independent of
t he phase angle of t he pulsat ions (Carpinlioglu & Gundogdu 2001).
Even t hough t he t ransit ion of st eady laminar ow t o t urbulence has been st udied
ext ensively, t he case of t ransit ion of pulsat ing ow has only been st udied t o a cert ain
ext ent . From what has been known so far, t he passage bet ween t he di erent pulsat ing
ow regimes can be rat her complicat ed and t he Reynolds number for t he t ransit ion
t o t urbulence or for which t he ow remains fully t urbulent under t he full pulse cycle,
t here are no denit e conclusions made. In general t his is rat her complicat ed since
apart from t he t ime-averaged crit ical Reynolds number (which const it ut es t he only
crit erion for t ransit ion in st eady ows) t he occurrence of t urbulence and it s persist ence
5A ow of uid in t he opposit e direct ion of it s regular ow, known also as back ow.
t hroughout t he whole pulse cycle depend also on t he velocity amplit ude rat io (Uo s Um
where Uos is t he oscillat ory velocity component and Um t he mean velocit y) as well
as t he Womersley number (Ohmi et al. 1982; K irmse 1979).
Tu & Ramaprian (1983) performed measurement s at Re = 5 104 and examined
in det ail t he t urbulence charact erist ics of st eady, as well as quasi-st eady and int er-
mediat e oscillat ory ow. T he t ime-mean velocit y of quasi-st eady t urbulent ow was
almost ident ical t o t he st eady ow case but as t he Womersley number increased, t here
was a phase lag between t he velocity and t he pressure gradient observed while mean
axial ow proles showed increased cent erline velocity and an inexion point was seen
close t o t he wall. T he t urbulent ow was divided int o t he quasi-st eady, low-frequency,
int ermediat e-frequency, high-frequency and rapid-oscillat ion regimes according t o t he
turbulent Stokes number int roduced in Ramaprian & Tu (1983), see also 2.5. Ot her
st udies on t he e ect s of pulsat ions on t urbulence are t hose by Gerrard (1971); W int er
& Nerem (1984); Shemer & K it (1984); Shemer et al. (1985).
2.3.2. Pulsating ow through curved channels

Under pulsat ing condit ions t he laminar vort ices in a curved pipe can exhibit a highly
varied pat t ern during one pulse cycle (T imite et al. 2010; Jarrahi et al. 2010) as
illust rat ed in gure 2.9. Sudo et al. (1992) compared result s from ow visualizat ions
wit h numerical calculat ions and dist inguished t he secondary ows int o ve pat t erns
according t o di erent values of t he ow paramet ers, see gure 2.10. Type I appears
when t he frequency paramet er is so low t hat a large viscous layer forms near t he wall
and t he vort ices resemble t hose when t he ow is st eady for t he full oscillat ion period.
A s t he frequency paramet er increases but remains in t he moderat e range (O(10)),
t he viscosity e ect reduces successively t o t he wall and t he inert ial e ect increases in
t he pipe cent re. T his force imbalance favors t he cent rifugal e ect s in t he core region
of t he pipe while at t he out er wall t he t angent ial velocity becomes larger t han t he
radial velocity and t he uid at t he cent re moves t owards t he out er side of t he pipe.
Consequent ly, symmet rical, st ret ched vort ices are formed wit h t heir cent ers moving
t o t he t op and bot t om of t he pipe cross-sect ion. Furt hermore, when t he Womersley
number increases furt her, t he so-called Lyne inst ability set s in (see below).
T he rst pioneering st udy on oscillat ory laminar ow t hrough curved pipes is
credit ed t o Lyne (1970), almost 5 decades aft er t he st udy by Dean (1927) p on st eady
ow in a curved pipe. In t his st udy small values of t he paramet er = 2 R 2 were
chosen so t hat t he viscous e ect s were conned in a t hin layer at t he wall (St okes
layer 6 ) and t he rest of t he ow was assumed t o be inviscid in order t o simplify t he
problem. It was shown t hat a secondary ow was conned in t he St okes layer due t o
cent rifugal forces and in Lynes words: . . . the uid is dr iven along the wall from the
outer si de of the bend to the inner, under the action of the pressure gradient which,
i n the Stokes layer, i s no longer balanced by the centrifugal force associ ated wi th ow
along the pipe; i t returns centrifugally withi n, and at the edge of, the Stokes layer . . .
(see gure 2.11). T he secondary ow was shown t o be governed by a convent ional
Reynolds number dened as:
6 T he boundary layer in oscillat ory ows; it s t hickness is dened as: =
p
s 2 or in inner
scaling: +s = s u , where u t he frict ion velocity, t he angular fr equency of pulsat ions
and t he kinemat ic viscosity.
W 2R
Rs = (2.3)
R c
where W is a typical velocit y along t he axis of t he pipe. T he analysis performed was
valid for R s 1 or R s 1.
F ig u r e 2.9. Secondary ow variat ion in an oscillat ion period

at = 10 26. Highest velocity values (red vect ors) are indi-
cat ed t o t he left . I mage taken from Jarrahi et al. (2010).
Smit h (1975) furt her examined t he count eract ion bet ween st eady and oscillat ory
boundary layers. He also invest igat ed when t his inward-out ward mot ion observed
by Lyne (1970) occurs and dist inguished t he nat ure of primary and secondary ow
depending on t he Dean number and frequency paramet er.
Zalosh & Nelson (1973) demonst rat ed t he secondary mot ions for small values of
t he paramet er (R R c )(QR ) 2 (where Q and are t he amplit ude and frequency
of t he pressure gradient , respect ively) and for di erent pipe radii. Reversal of ow,
conrming also observat ions by Lyne (1970) was observed. T he t heory was valid
only for R s 1 but for arbit rary values of 2. Bert elsen (1975) invest igat ed
experiment ally t he case when 1 and R s . 1 (dened as in Lyne (1970); Zalosh
& Nelson (1973)) and compared his result s wit h t he two aforement ioned t heories. He
concluded t hat in pract ice t he t heories are valid for higher R s t han init ially expect ed.
T he same observat ions on t he outward-inward mot ion of t he vort ices in unst eady
ow of small pulsat ile frequency rat e and mean Reynolds number were examined
F ig u r e 2.10. Schemat ic diagrams of t he ve secondary ow

pat t erns reprinted from Sudo et al. (1992). a) Dean circula-
t ion b) Deformed Dean circulat ion c) Int ermediat e circulat ion
between Dean and Lyne circulat ions d) Deformed Lyne circu-
lat ion e) Lyne circulat ion. Each type is dist inguishable from
t he ot her by varying t he Dean (40 D e 491) and Womers-
ley (5 5 28 2) number.
a) b)
F ig u r e 2.11. Lyne-type circulat ion. a) Reprinted from Lyne

(1970) b) Reprinted from Bertelsen (1975).
numerically by Hamakiot es & Berger (1990) as well as t he shear rat es, which appeared
t o be larger at t he peak of back ow locat ed at t he inner bend.
St udies has been focused, as in t he st eady ow case as well, on t he ent rance
region of t he bend. Singh et al. (1978), ext ending his work on t he st eady inlet ow
condit ions t o a bend, performed a boundary-layer analysis using a pulsat ile velocity
prole as t he inow, relevant t o blood ow. T he st udy shows t he slower moving uid
being drift ed azimut hally from t he out er bend t o t he inner as t he secondary ow
e ect increases due t o t he curvat ure and induces a cross-ow of fast er moving uid
from t he inner bend t o t he out er. T his result s in a t hinning of t he boundary layer at
t he out er bend and a t hickening at t he inner. I t was also shown t hat as t he boundary
layer grows during decelerat ion, back ow and negat ive wall shear st ress develops.
Talbot & Gong (1983) performed an LDV st udy on t he e ect s of di erent cur-
vat ure rat io and Dean number and concluded t hat a similar classicat ion as t he one
made by Smit h (1975) for t he regimes of fully-developed pulsat ile ow in curved pipes
may also be useful t o dist inguish between di erent ent ry-ow regimes.
A not her st udy on t he charact erist ics of t he ow t hrough curved geomet ries when
pulsat ions are present wit h applicat ion t o blood ow is t he one by Chandran & Year-
wood (1981). Back ow was observed close t o t he inner wall during early diast ole
which was delayed as t he dist ance from t he inner wall increased. Proles of t he axial,
radial and t angent ial velocity component s for bot h t he vert ical and horizont al plane
were plot t ed showing t hat t he reversal of ow in t he cent ral region of t he vert ical
t raverse coincides wit h t he ow reversal observed in t he same region in t he horizont al
t raverse. Furt hermore during early diast ole, when back ow is locat ed near t he inner
wall, bot h t he t angent ial and radial component s decrease in magnit ude. T he progres-
sive reversal of t he axial ow int o t he cent ral core region as t he diast ole progresses is
explained by t he outward moment um caused by t he movement of t he radial velocity
t owards t he out er wall. It is shown t hat t angent ial and radial component s in t he
boundary layer of t he inner wall are relat ively large enough t o enhance t he rot at ional
mot ions. Last , t his st udy post ulat ed one unique charact erist ic of pulsat ing ow in
curved pipes in cont rast t o st eady ow t hrough similar geomet ries, namely t hat t he
maximum axial velocity in t he ent rance region is observed close t o t he out er wall and
not t he inner, as it has been known for t he st eady case.
T he det ailed nat ure of pulsat ile laminar ow t hrough a pipe bend was examined
by Sumida et al. (1989) who, by means of visualizat ion, provided snapshot s of t he
secondary mot ions for a whole cycle. T he result s from t he observat ions included t he
vort ex core locat ion and kinet ic energy which were compared wit h numerical analysis.
T he e ect s of t he frequency paramet er ranging from 5.5 t o 18 on t he format ion of t he
secondary st ruct ures were visualized. For t he low Womersley number case, t he ow
appeared t o be quasi-st eady while at t he highest , t he axial velocity prole did not
change wit h t he cycle phase apart from t he region where back ow occurred while in
t hat case t he core of t he vort ex did not change signicant ly. T he result s present ed
were referring t o a Dean number of 200 and an amplit ude rat io of 1. T his work
was lat er ext ended in Sumida (2007) where t he Womersley and Dean numbers were
5.5 t o 18 and 200 and 300, respect ively. Result s were obt ained by means of LDV
in order t o examine t he ent rance lengt h needed under t hose ow condit ions for t he
ow t o become fully developed. T he ow eld was found t o be more complicat ed for
moderat e values of t he Womersley number and t he ent rance lengt h was short er for
pulsat ing ow t han for st eady ow.
T he e ect of t he Womersley number was also examined numerically in Hamakiot es
& Berger (1990) for a range between 7.5 and 25 and Reynolds numbers based on t he
mean velocity between 50 and 450. A Dean-type vort ex was always present for t he
lower Reynolds number while at higher Re t he Lyne-type mot ion was observed t o
occur earlier in t he cycle for lower values of t he Womersley number.
2.4. Sum m ar y of pr ev ious st udies

I n t able 1 previous st udies on ows t hrough curved pipes have been summarized along
wit h t he paramet er range t hat t hey invest igat ed as well as t he met hod applied (not e
in t he various st udies difefrent forms of t he paramet ers have been used, see previous
paragraphs for det ails). A review of t he st udies on di erent kind of ows in curved
pipes along wit h a separat e sect ion on experiment al work can also be found in (Berger
& Talbot 1983) wit h more t han 130 references while t ext books dedicat ing sect ions
on oscillat ory ows in curved pipes are t he among ot hers ones by Ward-Smit h
(1980) and Pedley (1980). It can clearly be seen t hat whereas t here has been given
much considerat ion in laminar pulsat ing ow or t urbulent st eady ow, not many
st udies exist on t urbulent pulsat ing or swirling ow and t here is clear lack also of
experiment al work on highly pulsat ing or swirling t urbulent ow, i.e. when bot h t he
Dean and Womersley numbers are high7 .
7 High enough so t hat t urbulent ow is ensured t hroughout t he whole pulsat ion cycle.
2.5. FLOW PA RA M ET ERS 25
2.5. F low par am et er s

I t feels inherent t o close t his chapt er on ows in curved pipes wit h a furt her discussion
on t he paramet ers governing such ows t hat have been present ed in t he previous sec-
t ions. M ost of t hem have already been ment ioned but here a more det ailed descript ion
on t heir denit ions and physical meaning will be given.
T he ow can in principle be described t hrough t he conservation laws, i.e. t he
conservat ion of mass, momentum and energy. As a reference t he moment um equat ion
in it s general form (2.4) is given in t ensor not at ion and in Cart esian coordinat es.
T his will help us lat er in t he sect ion t o underst and t he physical meaning of t he ow
paramet ers which will be present ed.
u n st ea dy a ccel er a t i on con v ect i v e a ccel er a t i on

z }| { z }| {
i j p
(u i ) + uj (u i ) = + f i (2.4)
t x j xj x i | { z}
| {z } | {z } ot h er f or ces
I n er t i a di v er gen ce st r ess
where p is t he pressure, i j t he viscous shear st ress t ensor which is dened as:
u i uj 2 uk
i j = ( + i j ) (2.5)
x j x i 3 xk
| {z }
v i scou s sh ea r st r ess
T he rat io of t he inert ia forces and t he viscous forces act ing on t he uid can be
expressed in t erms of t he well-known non-dimensional Reynolds number :
Inert ia force u u x U 2 L UL
Re = (2.6)
V iscous force 2 u x 2 U L 2
3
wit h [kg/ m ] denot ing t he uid density, U [m/ s] t he charact erist ic velocity (e.g t he
bulk velocity Ub ), L [m] t he charact erist ic lengt h (for pipe ows t his is usually t he
radius R or diamet er D of t he pipe), [Pas] t he dynamic and [m2 / s] t he kinemat ic
viscosity, respect ively. One may also not e t hat t he Reynolds number can be seen as
t he rat io between t wo t ime scales, a convect ive t ime scale (L U) and a viscous one
( U 2 ).
In t he case of curved pipes, t he Reynolds number is st ill of great import ance but
here an addit ional force is added t o t he problem (equat ion 2.4), t he cent rifugal force
int roduced by t he curvat ure of t he pipe. T his is expressed t hrough t he cur vature ratio
dened as:
radius of pipe R
= (2.7)
radius of curvat ure Rc
where R c t he cent erline radius of t he bent pipe.
Toget her t he Reynolds number and t he curvat ure rat io yield t he Dean number,
dened for t he rst t ime by Dean (1927):

De = Re (2.8)
W hen an addit ional mot ion is superposed on t he primary ow, t he balance be-
t ween t he forces changes. For example when a swirling mot ion is added, a Coriolis
force is act ing on t he uid (in t he rot at ing syst em) and t he cent rifugal forces weaken
as t he swirl int ensity increases (see paper 5 ). T his is expressed t hrough t he swirl num-
ber S for which di erent denit ions exist in lit erat ure. I n cases where t he swirling
mot ion is int roduced by means of t angent ial inject ion of secondary ow or passive
met hods (guiding vanes) one needs t o calculat e t he so called integral swirl number,
t he rat io between t he uxes of angular moment um t o st reamwise moment um ( Orlu
2009). However, wit h t he present experiment al apparat us t he mean velocity bot h in
axial and t angent ial direct ion are well dened by rot at ing t he whole pipe and t he
Swirl number can be dened as:
Vw
S= (2.9)
Ub
where in t he case of an axially rot at ing pipe, Vw is t he angular speed of t he pipe wall.
T his is a convenient way t o dene t he swirl int ensit y since t he wall velocit y can be
direct ly obt ained by t he rot at ional speed of t he pipe (which is in t his st udy can be
monit ored, see also 3.1).
Last , when a pulsat ing mot ion is superposed on t he ow, t ransient inert ial forces
act on t he uid in count eract ion wit h viscous forces. T his is expressed by t he Wom-
ersley number:
r
D
= (2.10)
2
where = 2f [rad/ s] is t he angular speed wit h f being t he frequency of t he pulsa-
8
t ions. Somet imes t he Womersley number is referred t o in lit erat ure as t he di men-
sionless frequency parameter: .
Equat ion 2.10 shows t hat t he Womersley number is a composit ion of t he Reynolds
number and t he Strouhal number 9 :
unst eady accelerat ion u t U L

St 2 = (2.11)
advect ive accelerat ion u(u x) U L U
where L t he charact erist ic lengt h, in our case t he diamet er of t he pipe. Similar t o
t he Reynolds number t he non-dimensional St rouhal number can be seen as a rat io
bet ween two t ime scales, t he t ime scale inherent t o t he ow mot ion (L U) and t he
t ime scale of oscillat ory mot ion ( 1 ).
For small Womersley numbers t he ow behaves quasi-st eady since decreasing
means increasing viscous e ect s which become dominant when < 1. W it h increasing
Womersley number on t he ot her hand t he inert ial forces become more and more
8 It should be ment ioned here t hat even t hough not used wit hin t he cont ext of t his st udy
an inner scaled frequency paramet er can also be dened (i nner scaled Strouhal number ) as
+ = u 2 where u t he fr ict ion velocity, for more det ails see He & Jackson (2009).
9 It is more frequent ly used t o describe t he shedding fr equency of a vort ex behind a cylinder
since it was int roduced by V incenc St rouhal (18501922), a Czech physicist , aft er experi-
ment ing wit h vort ex shedding behind wires. It is t her efore dened as St = f L U , based on
t he vort ex shedding frequency, f .
2.5. FLOW PA RA M ET ERS 27
import ant and t he velocity st art s t o show phase lag wit h respect t o t he pressure
gradient . T his phase lag becomes 90 for laminar ow but less t han 90 for t urbulent
ow (Ramaprian & Tu 1983). In lit erat ure somet imes t he Stokes number is used
which for laminar oscillat ory ow reads:
r

Sto = R (2.12)
8
and in t urbulent ow as explained in Ramaprian & Tu (1983) becomes:
D
Sto = (2.13)
Ub
T he t urbulent St okes number is much smaller t han t he equivalent laminar one for
t he same frequency rat es and it can be seen pas t he rat io of two charact erist ic lengt h
scales, t he pipe radius and t he viscous scale 2 . T he St okes number was named
aft er G. G. Stokes (18191903) 10 in honour for his st udy on t he boundary layer in
laminar oscillat ory ows.
A n import ant paramet er for pulsat ing ows which t oget her wit h t he Womersley
and Dean number dene t he di erent regimes of t he pulsat ing ow (quasi-steady,
i ntermediate, inertia dominant, see also 5) is t he velocity amplit ude rat io:
Qo
A= (2.14)
Q
where Q o is t he ow rat e amplit ude of t he oscillat ory component and Q is t he am-
plit ude of t he mean ow rat e.
T hroughout t he t hesis, t he aforement ioned numbers are going t o be ment ioned
several t imes since t hey are t he governing paramet ers of t he ows in focus and from
now on t he reader will be referred t o t his sect ion for t heir denit ions.
10 Physicist and mat hemat ician who has been known for his great cont r ibut ion t o uid dy-
namics, including t he Navi er -Stokes equati ons on t he uid mot ion and t he Stokes law on
t he frict ional forces act ing on a spherical obj ect e.g. a part icle wit h small Reynolds number
in a viscous uid.
28
A ut hor(s) (year) Type Superposed Type Measurement Range of
of ow mot ion of approach t echnique(s) De S
2. FLOW S I N CURV ED PIPES

Dean (1927) laminar analyt ical up t o 96 0 0
W hit e (1929) t ransit ional experiment al V isualizat ion 501950 0 0
Taylor (1929) t ransit ional experiment al V isualizat ion 8861647 0 0
Tunst all & Harvey (1968) t urbulent experiment al V isualizat ion, hot -wire,
gold-shim ag 28280153440 0 0
M cConalogue & Srivast ava laminar numerical 96600 0 0
(1968)
Rowe (1970) t urbulent numerical &
experiment al yawmet er, pit ot t ube 47200 0 0
Lyne (1970) laminar oscillat ing analyt ical &
experiment al phot ographs 6.57 0.05 0
Greenspan (1973) laminar numerical 105000 0 0
Bert elsen (1975) laminar oscillat ing experiment al t racer met hod 22.81840 8.6922 0
A grawal et al. (1978) laminar experiment al LDV 138679 0 0
Chandran & Yearwood laminar pulsat ing experiment al hot -lm 320 & 1140 20.76 0
(1981)
Enayet et al. (1982) laminar &
t urbulent experiment al LDV 212, 463 & 18243 0 0
Talbot & Gong (1983) laminar pulsat ing experiment al LDV 120 & 372 8 & 12.5 0
Soh & Berger (1984) laminar numerical 108.2680.3 0 0
A ut hor(s) (year) Type Superposed Type Measurement Range of
of ow mot ion of approach t echnique(s) De S
Bovendeerd et al. (1987) laminar experiment al LDV 286 0 0

Ta bl e 1. Previous st udies on ows t hrough pipe bends.
Hamakiot es & Berger laminar pulsat ing numerical 0.7756 15 0

(1988)
Sumida et al. (1989) laminar pulsat ing numerical &
experiment al V isualizat ion 90 & 200 5.518 0
Hamakiot es & Berger laminar pulsat ing numerical 38340 7.525 0
(1990)
So et al. (1991) laminar numerical 277.51360 0 0
Lai et al. (1991) t urbulent numerical 13875 0 0
Sudo et al. (1992) laminar pulsat ing numerical &
experiment al phot ographs 40500 5.528 0
2.5. FLOW PA RA M ET ERS

A nwer & So (1993) t urbulent swirling experiment al hot -lm gauge,
rot at ing-wires &
pressure t aps 13875 0 1
Sudo et al. (1998) t urbulent experiment al hot -wire 30000 0 0
Brucker (1998) t urbulent experiment al PIV 1400 & 3500 0 0
Pruvost et al. (2004) t urbulent numerical 14000 & 30000 0 0.125, 0.25,
0.5 & 2.5
Rut t en et al. (2005) t urbulent simulat ions (LES) 1400, 2000, 3500
4000,11000 & 19000 0 0
Ono et al. (2010) t urbulent experiment al PIV 100000, 250000,
29
318000 & 381000 0 0
T imite et al. (2010) laminar pulsat ing numerical &
experiment al LDV &
V isualizat ion 2861144 120 0
Jarrahi et al. (2010) laminar pulsat ing experiment al PIV 126.6301.5 8.3724.5 0
CHAPT ER 3
Experiment al set ups & t echniques
A scientist in hi s laboratory is not a mere techni cian: he i s also a

child confronti ng natural phenomena that impress hi m as though they
were fai ry tales
Marie Curie (18671934)
No amount of experimentati on can ever prove me right; a single ex-

periment can prove me wrong
A lbert Einst ein (18791955)
In t he following chapt er t he experiment al set ups and t echniques t hat have been
used for t he purposes of t he current st udy are going t o be present ed. T wo experi-
ment al set ups have been used, one where a swirling mot ion could be generat ed by
rot at ing a long pipe upst ream t he pipe bend in order t o st udy e ect s of a swirling
mot ion on t he vort ical st ruct ures and one where pulsat ing ow could be creat ed by
rot at ing a valve in order t o st udy pulsat ile e ect s on t he ow st ruct ures downst ream
t he curved pipe. Due t o t he complexity of t he ow, di erent t echniques had t o be
used in order t o fully invest igat e t he ow eld bot h in t erms of st at ist ical quant it ies
and large scale st ruct ures. T herefore, PIV was employed t o visualize and quant ify t he
coherent st ruct ures while combined HWA / CWA was used t o st at ist ically analyze t he
ow eld. Finally, LDV has also been applied for furt her invest igat ion of some of t he
result s from t he two aforement ioned t echniques. T heir principles and how t hey have
been applied in t he present st udy are explained in det ails in t he following sect ions.
3.1. T he r ot at ing pip e facillit y

One of t he aims of t he current st udy is t o visualize t he Dean vort ices in t urbulent ow
and examine t he e ect of a swirling mot ion, superposed on t he primary ow, on t heir
behaviour. For t hat purpose T ime-resolved St ereoscopic Part icle Image Velocimet ry
(T S-PIV ) measurement s were conduct ed at t he rotating pipe faci lli ty in t he Fluid
Physics Laborat ory at K T H M echanics. Here a general descript ion of t he facilit y
(gure 3.1) will be provided, for furt her det ails on t he set up t he reader is referred t o
(Facciolo 2006; Orlu 2009).
Figure 3.2 shows a schemat ic of t he main experiment al set up. T he air is provided
by a cent rifugal fan and t he mass ow rat e can be cont rolled by means of a but t ery
valve monit ored t hrough t he pressure drop across an orice plat e. A dist ribut ion
chamber is implement ed in order t o minimize t he vibrat ions creat ed by t he fan while a
30
3.1. T HE ROTAT ING PIPE FACILLI T Y 31
F ig u r e 3.1. Close-up of t he set up showing t he rot at ing pipe

mount ed wit hin a t riangular shaped framework and connect ed
t o t he st agnat ion chamber covered by an elast ic membrane in
order t o furt her reduce pressure uct uat ions.
M K J G F E
L
A B C
F ig u r e 3.2. Schemat ic of t he experiment al set up. A ) Cen-

t rifugal fan, B ) ow met er, C ) elect rical heat er, D ) dist ribu-
t ion chamber, E) st agnat ion chamber, F ) coupling between
st at ionary and rot at ing pipe, G ) honeycomb, H ) DC mot or,
J) ball bearings, K ) rot at ing pipe, L ) circular end plat e, M )
pipe out let .
32 3. EX PERI MENTA L SET UPS & T ECHNI QUES
1.4
1.2
b
U/U
0.8
S=0
S=0.1
0.6
S=0.3
S=0.5
0.4
0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r/R
F ig u r e 3.3. Mean velocity proles at t he exit of t he 100 D

pipe (seepoint M in gure 1) for ReD = 24000 and for di erent
swirl numbers (S = 0 0 1 0 3 0 5). Repr. from Sattarzadeh
(2011)
a) b)
F ig u r e 3.4. a) Pipe bend t hat was mount ed at t he exit of

t he 100 D long st raight pipe. b) Dimensional det ails of t he
pipe bend.
honeycomb inst alled inside a st agnat ion chamber, where t he air is fed int o, dist ribut es
t he air evenly. T he air is rst led int o a one met er long st at ionary sect ion which is
connect ed t o t he rot at ing pipe, which has at it s ent rance a 12 cm long honeycomb and
brings t he ow int o more or less solid body rot at ion. T he pipe can rot at e t o speeds up
t o 2000 rpm by means of DC mot or which is connect ed t o t he pipe t hrough a belt . T he
t ot al lengt h of t he pipe sect ion is 100 D where D denot es t he inner diamet er of t he
pipe, equal t o 60 mm. Figure 3.3 shows t he mean velocity proles for di erent swirl
int ensit ies at a Reynolds number based on t he pipe diamet er, ReD = 24000 at t he exit
of t he pipe. T he prole for t he non-swirling case, depict s very closely what is known
for fully-developed t urbulent ow while as t he swirl number increases t he prole shape
approaches t hat of t he laminar pipe ow (Sat t arzadeh 2011). T his const it ut es also
3.2. T HE CICERO RIG 33
F ig u r e 3.5. Layout of t he Cicero rig. I mage taken from Lau-

rantzon et al. (2010b).
0.2
Avalve/Atube
0.1
0
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
a) b) [deg]
F ig u r e 3.6. a) T he rot at ing valve (it s housing is also shown).

b) Relat ive open area change caused by t he rot at ing valve as
funct ion of t he revolut ion angle.
t he ent rance lengt h for t he ow which is fed int o t he bent pipe (gure 3.4). Not e t hat
while t he st raight pipe is rot at ing, t he bend is remaining st ill. T he curved pipe has
an inner diamet er of D = 60 3 mm and curvat ure radius of R c = 95 3 mm, giving a
curvat ure rat io ( = D 2R c ) of 0.31. T he lengt h of t he st raight sect ion aft er t he 90
curvat ure is 0.67 D .
3.2. T he C I C ERO r ig
T he main goal of t he current work is t o invest igat e t he ow eld under t he count er-
act ion between cent rifugal, inert ial and viscous forces and for t hat purpose t he case
of a t urbulent pulsat ing ow downst ream a pipe bend is considered.
a) b)
F ig u r e 3.7. T he two bend pipes used for t he measurement s

performed in t he CICERO laborat ory. a) Bend I b) Bend I I
wit h t he 1 D ext ension mount ed on it .
T hree experiment al t echniques have been ut ilized (see 3.3-3.5) in order t o fully
examine t he complex ow eld and st ress t he applicability of classical and st at e-
of-t he-art experiment al met hods under harsh ow condit ions. T he measurement s
t ook place at t he CI CERO Laboratory at K T H CCGEx (C ompetence C entre for
G as E x change), where a compressor inst allat ion facilit y (two I ngersol l Rand screw
compressors) has been developed (Laurant zon et al. 2010b) t hat can deliver up t o
500 g/ s air ow at 6 bar. T he CI CERO ri g (see gure 3.5) can be operat ed under
bot h st eady and pulsat ing ow condit ions while t he mass ow rat e is being monit ored
by a hot -lm t ype mass ow met er (A BB T hermal M ass Flowmet er FMT 500-IG)
which is locat ed around 10 m upst ream from t he measurement sit e. T he pulsat ions
are being supplied by a rot at ing valve, consist ing of a sphere wit h a t ight t t ing in
a 55 mm pipe, which is locat ed upst ream of t he pipe t est sect ion. T he sphere is cut
o at two sides, t hereby t he valve opens twice per revolut ion (Figure 3.6 depict s t he
relat ive open area change caused by t he rot at ing valve as funct ion of t he revolut ion
angle). T he rot at ion rat e of t he valve can be set by a frequency-cont rolled AC mot or
and t he maximum open area is approximat ely 15% of t he pipe area.
T he t ot al ent rance lengt h before t he ow is fed int o t he pipe bend (Figure 3.7) is
approximat ely 20 D , t herefore t he ow reaching t he pipe bend is not fully developed;
a condit ion which is met in most indust rial applicat ions (for example in t he int ernal
combust ion engine which is t he focal point in t his st udy, due t o packaging const raint s
t he pipe sect ions connect ing t he di erent bends are quit e short ). T wo pipe bends
have been used for t he experiment s performed in t he CICERO laborat ory and are
shown in Figure 3.7 wit h t heir geomet rical det ails list ed in t able 1. At t he exit of
Bend I I st raight pipe ext ensions were connect ed in order t o st udy t he ow evolut ion,
which were 0.2, 1, 2 and 3 D long each. Bot h bends are considered t o be sharp, in
accordance wit h t he geomet rical charact erist ics of bent sect ions found in t he engine.
In order t o st udy t he e ect of t he st eady and pulsat ile ow t hrough a sharp
curved bend on t he t urbine map of a t urbocharger an addit ional set of measurement s
was performed (see paper 4 for more det ails) wit h t he pipe Bend I I having t he 0.2 D
ext ension mount ed upst ream of t he t urbocharger (Garret t ). Figure 3.8 shows t he ex-
periment al congurat ion used for t hese measurement run t est s and has been designed,
3.3. HOT / COLD-W IRE ANEMOMET RY (HWA / CWA) 35
Ta bl e 1. Geomet rical det ails of t he pipe bends used in t he

Cicero Laboratory. T he diamet er of t he pipe, t he curvat ure
radius and t he lengt h of t he ext ension downst ream t he bend
are shown.
D [mm] R c [mm] L ex t D
Bend I 39 45.8 1
Bend I I 40.5 51 0.2, 1, 2, 3
built and t aken int o operat ion in connect ion wit h t he work in Laurant zon et al. (2012).
I nst ant aneous pressure and mass ow rat e measurement s were performed across t he
t urbocharger by means of fast response pressure t ransducers (K ist ler) and t he vort ex
mass ow met er int roduced in Laurant zon et al. (2012), respect ively.
F ig u r e 3.8. Set up for t he inst ant aneous pressure and mass

ow rat e measurement s across t he t urbocharger. Hot wire
probes (see next sect ion) comprising t he vort ex ow met er
were placed downst ream and upst ream of t he t urbocharger
(Garret t ).
3.3. H ot / C old-W ir e A nem om et r y ( H W A / C W A )

T he use of a heat ed wire wit h t emperat ure dependent resist ance exposed in air ow
t o measure t he uid velocit y is t he basic principle of hot -wire anemomet ry. It is a
relat ively cheap, easy-t o use t echnique wit h high frequency response and has great ly
cont ribut ed t o develop our underst anding of t urbulence, probably more t han any
ot her t echnique1 . Evidence of int erest on t he hot -wire principle is t raced back t o
1 T his is referring most ly t o t he long t ime t hat hot -wire anemomet ry has been available (over
a cent ury) t o st udy t urbulence compar ed t o ot her t echniques which have also cont r ibut ed
(each one in di erent ways) t o our under st anding of t urbulence and it s st ruct ur es but t hey
have only been used t he last few decades ( 3.4, 3.5).
Oberbeck (1895) and K ing (1914), wit h t he rst hot -wire sensor being 10 cm long
wit h a diamet er of a few t ent hs of a millimet er (Oberbeck 1895). T his shows t he
great improvement s t hat t he t echnique has gone t hrough, since t oday subminiat ure
wires down t o 0.6 micron diamet er can be operat ed t o st udy t he smaller scales of
t urbulence (Ligrani & Bradshaw 1987).
A few t ext books have been devot ed t o hot -wire anemomet ry and it s principles
such as: Perry (1982); Lomas (1986); Bruun (1995). T he aim of t he current sect ion
is t herefore t o int roduce t he reader t o t he t echnique and highlight t he usability of t he
met hod for t he purposes of t he current st udy, for more det ails about t he progresses
on t he met hod t hrough t he years and it s applicability on various ows t he reader is
referred t o Comt e-Bellot (1976) and St ainback et al. (1996).
T he hot -wire is simply made by a probe which holds t he met al prongs on which
t he sensor element is soldered or welded on (see also gure 3.9). T he number of
prongs/ sensors as well as t he way t hey are manufact ured may vary depending on t he
applicat ions and/ or number of velocity component s t hat need t o be measured. T he
wire element is usually made of t ungst en or plat inum and t he diamet ers or lengt hs
vary depending on t he frequency and spat ial resolut ion required. Typically, a 1 mm
long sensor wit h a diamet er of a few microns is used.
T he wire is connect ed t o an elect rical circuit , so-called W heat st one bridge, and
di erent operat ion modes are available. T he most common modes are t he CTA
(Const ant Temperat ure A nemomet ry) and t he CCA (Const ant Current A nemomet ry)
mode. T he names speak for t hemselves, i.e. in CTA mode t he wire is operat ed under
const ant t emperat ure by means of a servo amplier. T his keeps t he bridge in balance
by cont rolling t he current t o t he sensor and keeps t he resist ance const ant , independent
from t he cooling of t he element due t o t he uid ow. T he change in volt age gives a
measure of t he uid velocity (indirect ly t hrough t he heat t ransfer). T he resist ance of
t he hot -wire is given by:
R w = R 0 [1 + 0 (Tw T0 )] (3.1)
F ig u r e 3.9. A single hot -wire wit h diamet er d = 2 5m and

lengt h l = 0 5 mm. T he probe has been manufact ured at t he
Fluid Physics Laborat ory, K T H Mechanics.
and is a funct ion of t he wire t emperat ure, Tw . Usually t he reference t emperat ure is
chosen as T0 = 20 C and t he t emperat ure coe cient of resist ivity of t he wire, 0 ,
can be det ermined t hrough an it erat ive met hod (see 3.3.2). T he resist ance overheat
rat io aR = (R w (Tw ) R 0 (T0 )) R 0 (T0 ) is a funct ion of t he t emperat ure overheat rat io:
aT = (Tw T0 ) T0 and det ermines t he velocity sensit ivity of t he wire.
In CCA mode t he current is kept const ant and t he decreasing volt age wit h in-
creasing e ect ive cooling velocit y is measured. T his has been t he rst mode of oper-
at ion for hot -wires but due t o t he t hermal inert ia of t he wire element t he frequency
response is limit ed and it is t oday mainly used for t emperat ure measurement s. T his
requires t hat t he response from t he wire (cold-wire in t hat case) is only due t o t em-
perat ure variat ions, t herefore t he current in CCA mode should be set by t he user
high enough t o get sat isfact ory t emperat ure resolut ion but small enough so t hat t he
sensit ivity t o velocity variat ions is negligible.
One of t he main drawbacks of hot -wire anemomet ry for measurement s in highly
pulsat ing ows is t he so-called forward-reverse ambiguit y (Bruun 1995) as well as
it s fragility. A few t echniques have been developed t hrough t he years in order t o
measure reverse ow wit h a hot -wire but t hey are cumbersome and have cert ain lim-
it at ions (M oulin et al. 1997; Gunkel et al. 1971). Furt hermore, ows t hrough bends
are t hree-dimensional and even t hough t here is t he possibility of measuring all t hree
velocity component s, t his is a complicat ed and t ime-consuming procedure. Last but
not least , anot her disadvant age of t he t echnique is t he need for compensat ion for
t he t emperat ure variat ions which can be quit e large depending on t he amplit ude of
t he periodic component in a pulsat ing ow. Measurement s performed in t he CI -
CERO Laboratory (Laurant zon et al. 2010b) have shown t emperat ure variat ions of
up t o 6 which correspond t o underest imat ion of t he ow speed by around 20 m/ sec.
T herefore, hot -wire measurement s in a highly pulsat ing environment should always
be correct ed for t emperat ure variat ions, consequent ly cold-wire measurement s should
be performed simult aneously wit h t he hot -wire measurement s (see also 3.3.2). For
a more det ailed usabilit y of t he hot -wire t echnique under pulsat ing ow condit ions,
t he reader is referred t o Berson et al. (2010). One can not neglect t hough, even
under t hose limit at ions, t he advant ages of t he hot -wire compared t o non-int rusive
t echniques (see also 3.4 and 3.5), namely it s high frequency response and t emporal
resolut ion. W hen st udying t urbulence st at ist ics for example or t he small scales of
t urbulence, hot -wires cannot be easily replaced.
In t he present st udy bot h a manual and a semi-aut omat ic t raversing mechanism
for t he movement of t he hot -wire probe have been used (gure 3.10). In t he case of
t he manual t raverse (see also Paper 1 ) t he measurement s were performed by means
of a single hot -wire, neglect ing t he e ect s from t emperat ure variat ions wit h t he aim
t o get a rst impression of t he velocit y prole at high Reynolds and Womersley num-
bers. T he semi-aut omat ic t raverse was lat er designed in order t o rot at e a combined
HW / CW probe cont rolled by a DC mot or and map t he whole cross-sect ional area of
t he curved pipe. T he reader should keep in mind t hat when comparing t he result s in
t he present st udy from t he di erent experiment al t echniques employed, t he geomet ry
was slight ly di erent , as apparent from gure 3.10, i.e. due t o t echnical rest rict ions a
6 D long st raight pipe had t o be mount ed downst ream t he measurement plane. T he
e ect s of such a congurat ion are planned t o be examined in t he fut ure. Typically
a) b)
F ig u r e 3.10. a) T he manual t raversing syst em wit h t he sin-

gle wire probe mount ed. b) Aut omat ic t raversing mechanism
showing t he direct ion of ow and t he combined HW/ CW probe
being posit ioned upst ream of a 6 D long st raight pipe.
a 5 m hot -wire wit h d = 200 was used in bot h cases while a cold-wire of 2.5 m
diamet er and d = 600 (where and d are t he lengt h and diamet er of t he wire,
respect ively) was used in t he case where hot / cold-wire measurement s were performed
simult aneously in accordance t o Bruun (1995).
3.3.1. Hot-wire calibration

Since wit h t he hot -wire we can only measure velocity indirect ly, a calibrat ion pro-
cedure in order t o t ranslat e t he measured volt age int o velocity is required. T he
calibrat ion can be done eit her in situ, which is of course recommended but also in
some cases where t his is not possible, t he calibrat ion can be done out side of t he
measurement sit e.
T he hot -wire is here calibrat ed in a nozzle facility where a di erent ial pressure
t ransducer gives t he dynamic pressure. T he volt age acquired from t he hot -wire is
plot t ed against t he velocity of t he ow (t he dynamic pressure is t ranslat ed in velocity)
for t he whole range of t he expect ed velocit ies during t he measurement s, t herefore a
complet e mapping bet ween volt age of sensor and ow velocity is obt ained by t t ing
a curve between t he acquired point s using t he following equat ion int roduced by K ing
(1914), t herefore named aft er him as K i ngs law:
E 2 = A + B (U) n (3.2)
A typical calibrat ion curve is shown in gure 3.112 .
3.3.2. Temperature compensation

A s ment ioned already, t he t emperat ure varies under one cycle in pulsat ing ows.
T his will lead t o considerable errors when measuring t he velocit y by means of a
2 Not e t hat t he volt age here is amplied as well as in gure 3.12
6
E[V]
transducer1
4
transducer2
combined
3
fitting
2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
U
F ig u r e 3.11. Calibrat ion curve for a hot -wire (E vs U).

T he calibrat ion point s have been acquired in reference wit h
two pressure t ransducers for two speed ranges.
hot -wire in CTA mode (Bruun 1995; Berson et al. 2010). In t he present st udy, cold-
wire measurement s were performed simult aneously wit h t he hot -wire measurement s
in order t o compensat e t he volt age readings for t emperat ure variat ions according t o
equat ion:
1
T T0
E c2 = E 2 1 (3.3)
R 0
where E c t he compensat ed volt age, T0 t he reference t emperat ure and 0 t he t emper-
at ure coe cient of resist ivity of t he wire.
T he calibrat ion of t he cold-wire provides a linear relat ion between t he volt age
and t he t emperat ure since t he resist ance of t he wire is proport ional t o t he volt age
and t herefore t o t he t emperat ure (T ). A typical calibrat ion curve for a cold-wire is
shown in gure 3.12.
For t he det erminat ion of t he t emperat ure coe cient of resist ivity of t he wire,
0 in relat ion 3.3, t he hot -wire is calibrat ed rst under ambient room t emperat ure
and t hen calibrat ed in heat ed ow. T he t emperat ure variat ions are monit ored by
means of a t hermocouple. T he two calibrat ion curves obt ained for t he two cases are
t hereaft er t t ed using K ings law as described above and t he value of 0 for which t he
t wo calibrat ion curves collapse on t op of each ot her is chosen. T he values found in
t he present measurement s were 0 = 0 0015K 1 when plat inum-rhodium was used
as t he hot -wire mat erial and 0 = 0 0039K 1 when plat inum was used. T hese values
are quit e close t o t hose report ed in Bruun (1995) at 20 C.
40
35
T [C]
30
25
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
E [V]
F ig u r e 3.12. Calibrat ion curve for a cold-wire (T vs E )
3.4. Par t icle I m age Velocim et r y ( P I V )

Any su ci ently advanced technology is i ndistinguishable from magic.
A rt hur C. Clarke (19172008)
A picture shows me at a glance what it takes dozens of pages of a

book to expound. (i n Father s and Sons)
I van Sergeyevich Turegev (18181883)
Phrases t hat people use in everyday life such as: A picture is worth a thousand
words 3 (gure 3.13), I believe only what i see et c, express perfect ly how a complex
idea or a large amount of dat a can be conveyed by a single image as well as t he
t endency of humans t o believe what t heir eyes can evince.
T hose fact s but also human curiosity led t o t he progress of visualizat ion. T he
rst e ort s of visualizing nat ural phenomena and t he people who mast ered t hem
can be found in Nakayama & A oki (2001), includingamong ot hers scient ist s such
as t he avant -garde Leonardo DaVinci (14521519), t he innovat ive Osborne Reynolds
(18421912) and t he fat her of modern aerodynamics Ludwig Prandtl (18751953).
3
T his adage is believed t o have it s origins in an art icle promot ing t he use of images in
adver t isement s t hat appeared on t he sides of st reet cars. T he art icle was published in 1921
and had t he t it le One look is wort h a t housand words but a few years lat er t he quot e
appeared in t he same j ournal rephrased t o One pict ure is wor t h t en t housand words and
was credit ed t o Confucius (551 B C479 BC). It is also somet imes at t ribut ed t o Napoleon
Bonapart e (17691821) who used t o say A good sket ch is bet t er t han a long speech ( Un
bon croqui s vaut mi eux qu un long di scour s ). Nevert heless, t he adage expresses perfect ly
t he aim of visualizat ion.
3.4. PA RT ICLE IMAGE V ELOCI MET RY (PIV ) 41
F ig u r e 3.13. Comical illust rat ion of t he famous quot e.

(Source: http:/ / car toosh.com/ gigglebites)
T he need t o not only visualize but also det ermine quant it at ively ow phenomena,
led t o t he development of part icle image velocimet ry. Making possible one of t he great
challenges of t he 20t h cent ury in uid mechanics, t o bot h det ermine ow st ruct ures
wit h high accuracy and visualize t hem at t he same t ime, est ablished PI V one of t he
hot t opics t he past few years in experiment al t echniques. Being a relat ively new
met hod ( making an ent rance in t he uid mechanics community almost a cent ury
aft er HWA ) it has developed rapidly t aking int o account t he cost of operat ion and
complexity of component s involved.
T he principle of PIV is quit e simple (gure 3.14). T he ow is seeded wit h part icles
mat ching t he density of t he uid medium so t hat t hey follow t he ow ideally. T his
of course is never perfect ly t he case so one has t o make t he assumpt ion t hat t he
dist ribut ion of part icles is uniform and t hat t hey t rack t he ow t ruly. How well
t he part icles follow t he ow can be indicat ed by t he part icle response t ime: p =
d2p (p 18) (where t he t ranscript p denot es particle), and is a convenient measure of
t he t endency of part icles t o follow t he ow, even if t he accelerat ion of t he uid is
not const ant or if t he St okes drag law4 does not apply. A lso t he rat io of p t o t he
K olmogorov time scales in t urbulent ows can be used and in t hat case a rat io value
less t han 0.1 is desired t o assume t hat t he part icles follow t he ow sat isfact orily.
A ft er t he ow is seeded homogeneously, t he measurement plane is illuminat ed
t wice by some light source (usually a powerful laser) in a very short int erval of t ime t
and t he light scat t ered by t he part icles is recorded eit her on a single frame or sequence
of frames. Here we will consider t he double-frame/ single-exposure recording t echnique
4 In 1851, G. G. St okes der ived an expression for t he frict ional force exert ed on spherical
obj ect s wit h very small Reynolds numbers (Re 1) in a cont inuous viscous uid making
t he assumpt ions of laminar ow, spherical part icles which do not int er act wit h each ot her .
which preserves t he t emporal order of t he PI V recordings and is usually preferred if

appropriat e equipment is available (for a descript ion of all t he possible PIV recording
t echniques t he reader is referred t o c.f. (Ra el et al. 2007)). Since t he aim of PIV is
not only t o visualize t he ow but est imat e it quant it at ively, t he post -processing and
evaluat ion of t he images and t he met hods used t o reach a high accuracy level is of great
import ance. T he basis of t he analysis of PI V dat a is cross-correlat ion. T he images
t aken at t he two di erent inst ances are divided in small int errogat ion windows (or
areas or spot s) and t hereaft er for each one of t hose areas a correlat ion peak is obt ained
which gives t he part icle (pixel) displacement . Sophist icat ed algorit hms t o increase
resolut ion and accuracy have been developed such as mult i-pass processing of t he
images wit h adapt ive int errogat ion window sizes as well as window deformat ion. T he
fundament als of PIV as well as informat ion on dat a validat ion algorit hms t o increase
accuracy and minimize t he measurement error can be found in West erweel (1994,
1997). T hereaft er, knowing t he t ime between t he illuminat ions and det ermining t he
displacement of t he part icles wit hin t hat t ime as described above, one can simply
obt ain t he ow velocity.
T he accuracy and t he resolut ion of PIV dat a can be limit ed due t o t echnical re-
st rict ions of t he PI V hardware as well as t he noise which is apparent when elect ronics
are involved in t he measurement s. Furt hermore t he Signal-t o-Noise rat io (S/ N) can
be a ect ed from velocity gradient s (for example in pulsat ing ows or ows aft er cur-
vat ures) or part icles which move out side t he int errogat ion window between one frame
and t he next . Nevert heless, t echnological advances have made it possible t o succeed
high enough spat ial resolut ion in order t o resolve small scale st ruct ures and record
F ig u r e 3.15. Geomet ric descript ion used for reconst ruct ion
of t he t hree-dimensional displacement vect or. I mage taken
from Willert (1997).
ows at supersonic speeds wit h accept able noise levels5 while t here exist s a rule t o
choose t he t ime between t he t wo illuminat ions so t hat t he part icle displacement ds
is: 0 1 pixel< ds < 1 4 (where 0.1 pixel equals t he accuracy of t he syst em) t he
int errogat ion area size t o avoid part icle image pair losses.
A t ypical 2D-PIV set up t o measure two velocity component s consist s of one cam-
era and one light source. St ereoscopic PI V (SPIV ) wit h two cameras set at a known
angle in-between t hem (typically 90 ) can be performed and t he t hird displacement
eld can be reconst ruct ed i.e. t he displacement s from each image plane are mapped
t o t he object plane and by combining t hem t he t hree-dimensional velocity vect ors is
5 Today, CM OS (Complement ary M et aloxide Semiconduct or ) camer as allow acquisit ion of
images wit h a few kHz frequency wit h an int er fr aming of less t han 1 s and diode pumped
lasers (e.g. Nd:Y L F) operat e at repet it ion r at es of t ent hs of kHz.
obt ained6 (W illert 1997; Prasad 2000; Calluaud & David 2004; Doorne & West erweel
2007).
T he reconst ruct ion geomet ry is simple, here t he imaging geomet ry shown in
W illert (1997) is considered but t he following formulae can be adapt ed t o any ot her
case. If an origin point O in t he light sheet has coordinat es (x 0 y0 z0 ) and assuming
t he coordinat e syst em shown in gure 3.15 we place two cameras at any angle in-
bet ween t hem (not e here bot h cameras are placed on eit her side of t he laser sheet i.e.
in forward scat t er mode), t he displacement vect or at a point P (x p yp zp ) wit hin t he
light sheet is given by:
dx 2 t an 1 dx 1 t an 2
dx = (3.4)
t an 1 t an 2
dy2 t an 1 dy1 t an 2
dy = (3.5)
t an 1 t an 2
dx 2 dx 1 dy2 dy1
dz = = (3.6)
t an 1 t an 2 t an 1 t an 2
where:
xp x1 xp x2
t an 1 = t an 2 =
zp z1 zp z2
yp y1 yp y2
t an 1 = t an 2 =
zp z1 zp z2
wit h dx 1 and dx 2 being t he displacement s in t he x-direct ion as viewed from t he two
cameras (which here are assumed t o be t he point s L 1(x 1 y1 z1 ) and L 2(x 2 y2 z2 )).
1 and 2 compose t he angle enclosed by t he viewing ray and t he light sheet par-
allel t o t he z-axis for t he respect ive viewing direct ions project ed ont o t he xz-plane.
A ccordingly, t he same can be dened by project ing t he yz-plane and t herefore t he
angles bet ween t he cameras are 1 and 2 and t he displacement component s are dy1
and dy2 .
In t he case when t he cameras are set in t he same vert ical posit ion as t he eld of
view t he angles 1 and 2 become small, t herefore equat ion 3.5 must be rewrit t en t o:
dy1 + dy2 dz
dy = + (t an 2 t an 1 ) = (3.7)
2 2
dy1 + dy2 dx 2 dx 1 t an 2 t an 1
+
2 2 t an 1 t an 2
(3.8)
T he aforement ioned reconst ruct ion (W illert 1997) requires t hat t he displacement
dat a set is t ranslat ed t o t rue displacement s in t he global coordinat e syst em. Addi-
t ionally, in t he case of st ereo PIV special adapt ers (Scheimpug) should be used on
6 It should be ment ioned here t hat nowadays it is also possible t o perform t omo-PIV , i.e. t o
direct ly measure t he t hree velocity component s in a volume inst ead of a plane (Elsinga et al.
2006) but t his t echnique is far beyond t he scopes of t his t hesis.
t he lenses so t hat t he image, lens and object plane int ersect in a common line (Prasad
& Jensen 1995)(gure 3.16). T his however int roduces a st rong perspect ive dist ort ion
since t he fact or of magnicat ion is no longer const ant across t he complet e eld of
view. T herefore calibrat ion of t he cameras is essent ial t o t ackle t he above issues and
di erent approaches exist in lit erat ure (Prasad 2000).
In t he present st udy, T ime-resolved St ereo-PIV (T S-PIV ) has been used t o mea-
sure t urbulent ow wit h and wit hout a swirling or pulsat ing mot ion superposed at
high velocit ies, t hat requires a high-speed PIV syst em. T wo high-speed C-M OS cam-
eras (Fast cam A PX RS, Phot ron, 3000 fps at 1024 1024 pixels) were posit ioned at
an angle of approximat ely 90 (gure 3.17) and at forward-backward scat t er mode
at t he vicinity of t he pipe bend exit and 105 mm Nikon Nikkor lenses were adjust ed
using a Scheimpug adapt er. A laser light sheet of approximat ely 1 mm t hickness
was produced by a Nd-Y LF laser (Pegasus, 10 kHz maximum frequency, New Wave
Research) and a wat er-based solut ion (Jem Pro Smoke Super ZR-M ix) was at omized
using a high volume liquid seeding generat or (10F03 Seeding Generat or, DA NT EC).
A calibrat ion-based reconst ruct ion approach t hat also provides informat ion about t he
viewing direct ion of t he cameras was undert aken. Images of a two level 7 calibrat ion
plat e (gure 3.18) which has equally spaced marks and is coincident wit h t he laser
sheet , are acquired and t hereaft er t he informat ion from t hose images are used t o map
t he object plane t o t he measurement plane. I n t he present st udy t he calibrat ion is
done using t he pinhole model in order t o t t he dewarping mapping funct ion t o t he
marks found in each image, using t he DaV is 7.2 software by LaV ision GmbH. T he
images are rst dewarped and t hen t he 2D2C vect ors are comput ed at t he correct
world grid but t he dewarping and image deformat ion is done here once before each
st ep of t he mult i-pass it erat ive scheme. In t he end, a self-calibrat ion procedure t o
eliminat e errors from misalignment of t he laser light sheet wit h t he calibrat ion t arget
7 M ult iple-level calibrat ion plat es wit h reference t arget s at di er ent height s ar e essent ial if
informat ion on t he viewing angle of t he cameras is needed t o be obt ained t o reconst ruct t he
t hree-component displacement vect or in t he case of SPIV .
a) b)
F ig u r e 3.16. a) T he cameras in an angular posit ion and ac-

cording t o t he Scheimpug condit ion. b) T he camera lens
(Nikon Nikkor, 60 mm shown here) having t he Scheimpug
adapt er mount ed on it .
is being performed. Disparity correct ion of t he recordings is advised in general when

performing SPIV since considerable errors in PIV measurement s might arise if t he
F ig u r e 3.17. Set up of t he PIV syst em at t he vicinity ( 0 5

mm from t he pipe exit ) of t he pipe bend exit .
F ig u r e 3.18. T wo-level calibrat ion plat e provided by LaVi-

sion GmbH. Levels are separat ed by 2 mm, dot s are equally
spaced wit hin 15 mm from each ot her.
light sheet does not coincide wit h t he z = 0 plane. Det ails about t he aforement ioned
approach can be found in W ieneke (2005).
For det ails on t he post -processing of t he dat a t he reader is referred t o t he corre-
sponding papers in Part I I of t he t hesis. In all t he cases a median t est 8 has been used
t o det ect outlier s, i.e. dat a deviat ing st rongly from neighboring dat a and replaced by
a linear int erpolat ion of t he neighboring vect ors.
8 A median vect or is comput ed from eight neighboring vect ors and t he middle vect or is com-
pared wit h t his median vect or. T he cent er vect or is rej ect ed when it is out side t he allowed
r ange of t he average vect or. For det ails see West erweel (1994)
3.5. L aser D oppler V elocim et r y ( L D V )

T he rst work on LDV was done in t he early 60s (Yeh & Cummins 1964) and now
almost 50 years lat er it is a well used single-point t echnique t o det ermine t he ow
velocity. A n ext ended descript ion on t he principle of LDV and it s applicat ions is
found in Zhang (2010). T he ow is seeded here as well and two coherent beams
of monochromat ic light int ersect at a point in t he measurement volume creat ing a
fringe pat t ern. T he t ransmit t er (laser) light impinges on t he moving part icle and
light is scat t ered and received by a st at ionary det ect or (gure 3.19). By knowing t he
Doppler-equivalent frequency of t he laser beam and t he frequency of t he scat t ered
light t he velocity of t he part icle and t herefore t he ow velocity can be det ermined.
In t he present st udy LDV measurement s were performed wit h a single component
DA NT EC FlowLit e syst em and a BSA 60 processor. T he emit t ing light source is a
10 mW He-Ne laser wit h wavelengt h of 632.8 mm. T he lens mount ed on t he laser is
400 mm in focal lengt h. T he liquid used for seeding is a Shell Odina 27 oil.
F ig ur e 3.19. Laser Doppler Velocimet ry set up

3.6. EX PERIM ENTA L M ET HODS FOR T HE ST UDY OF COM PLEX FLOW S 49
3.6. Ex p er im ent al m et hods for t he st udy of com plex ow s

T he t echniques ment ioned in 3.3-3.5 are t hree of t he most commonly employed
t echniques nowadays in experiment al uid mechanics for t he measurement of t he
unst eady ow velocity. Each one of t hem has it s own unique capabilit ies which can
be exploit ed t o gain specic informat ion depending on t he ow under st udy and t he
aim of t he respect ive work. A comparison between t he t hree t echniques is quit e
revealing (t able 2) and from a rst impression it is obvious t hat t he decision on which
t echnique t o choose for t he experiment relies great ly on t he nat ure of t he ow and
which feat ures need t o be invest igat ed (e.g. st ruct ures, st at ist ics). PIV for example,
provides ext reme possibilit ies for t he st udy of st ruct ures but it is st ill limit ed when
st udying st at ist ics, where t he hot -wire is unrivaled due t o it s much higher spat ial
and t emporal resolut ion. On t he ot her hand, t o consider mapping a pipe cross-
sect ion for all velocity component s wit h a single-point t echnique is t ime-consuming
and complicat ed (e.g. manufact uring of mult iple-probe hot -wires, calibrat ion and so
on).
In t he case of a complex ow, t hat might be described by t hree-dimensionalit y,
ow skewness, st reamline curvat ure, adverse and favorable pressure gradient s, t em-
perat ure and velocit y variat ions in t ime and so on, a combinat ion of t he experiment al
met hods is necessary. I n such cases, errors or limit at ions of each t echnique cannot
be neglect ed in a highly complex ow as maybe done in simpler ows. For example,
in low speed st eady ows t hrough st raight pipes, t he t emperat ure variat ions or t he
secondary ow are normally not large and t heir e ect on t he hot -wire readings can
be disregarded or t he t ime resolut ion needed for st at ist ical analysis of t he ow can
be covered sat isfact orily by t he feat ures of t he present PIV hardware available.
Ta bl e 2. Typical propert ies of experiment al t echniques for

t he measurement of ow velocity
HWA LDV PIV

Type single-point single-point mult iple point
Spat ial resolut ion 5 m 1 mm 100 m 1 mm 32 32 px

for 2048 2048 px image
Int rusive X
Dynamic Range 12-16 bit 16-bit 6-10 bit
Frequency response up t o 50 kHz up t o 30 kHz
W it hin t he framework of t his project a dat a base including hot -wire, LDV and
PIV dat a has been obt ained wit h t he aim t o furt her st udy t he feat ures of each t ech-
nique in a highly complex ow environment (curved and pulsat ing ow). Preliminary
result s will be present ed here, however fut ure analysis is int ended t o be performed.
Ta bl e 3. Flow paramet er range considered in t he present project .
Re ( 104 ) z/ D
HWA 4.2 0.4 0 1
4.2 0.4 0 2
4.2 0.4 40 3
2.7 0.4 40 3
8.7 0.4 40 3
LDV 2.7 0.4 0, 40, 70 0.2

2.7 0.4 0, 40, 70 3
PIV 2.7 0.4 0, 40, 60, 70 0.2

2.7 0.4 0, 60 1
2.7 0.4 0, 60 2
4.2 0.4 0, 40 3
2.7 0.4 0, 40, 70 3
4.2 0.4 0 3
T he hot -wire dat a have been acquired by means of t he semi-aut omat ic t raversing
mechanism described in 3.3 while for t he PIV and LDV t he respect ive set ups are
described in 3.4 and 3.5.
Table 1 shows t he paramet ers for which dat a have been acquired wit h each t ech-
nique. In t his sect ion result s will be shown only for t he dat a set s which are highlight ed
in blue.
T he paramet er range varies depending on t he t echnique used. T he reader should
not e t hat t he aim of t he st udy is not t o compare t he dat a obt ained wit h t he dif-
ferent t echniques but rat her emphasize t he necessity of combining t hem t o exploit
t he feat ures each one o ers for t he st udy of complex ows like t he ones considered
here. T herefore, t he Reynolds and Womersley numbers were higher for t he hot -wire
measurement s t han for t he PIV . At such high speeds t he part icles leave t he t hin laser
sheet while t he t ime bet ween t he laser pulses can not be easily adjust ed since t he ve-
locity gradient is becoming larger aft er t he bend wit h increase in speed and pulsat ion
frequency. On t he ot her hand at low speeds and pulsat ion frequencies, t he PIV was
employed in order t o visualize t he secondary st ruct ures. Finally, LDV was used t o
check t he dynamic range capabilit ies of t he PIV (in pulsat ing ow condit ions where
t he velocit y might range from negat ive velocit ies t o a few t imes t he bulk velocity)
and t he falsifying e ect s of t he t emperat ure variat ions and back ow on t he hot -wire
readings.
Ta bl e 4. Sampling condit ions for t he experiment s.
Sampling t ime [s] Sampling frequency [kHz] Number samples

HWA 20 20 400000
LDV 30 1 (average) 30000 (average)
PIV 1 & 0.66 1 (st eady ow )

& 1.5 (pulsat ing ow) 1000
Table 4 shows t he di erent condit ions under which t he dat a for t he present st udy
were acquired for each experiment al met hod. T he sampling di erences are quit e
remarkable due t o t he di erent feat ures of each met hod and t hey should be kept in
mind when evaluat ing t he result s from each one of t hem. A lso as ment ioned already
in 3.3, for t he hot -/ cold-wire dat a due t o t echnical rest rict ions, t he experiment al
set up was quit e di erent t han for t he PIV and LDV measurement s.
Figure 3.20 shows cont our plot s of t he mass ow rat e densit y (denot ed here as
W ) sensed by t he hot -wire. T he ast erisk denot es scaling by t he bulk mass ow rat e
density obt ained wit h t he A BB mass ow met er (see also 3.3). T he ow development
for t hree downst ream st at ions (1, 2 and 3 D ) from t he pipe bend exit is shown and
for D e = 2 7 104 . A ll t he hot -/ cold-wire dat a shown here have been obt ained
by rot at ing t he probe by means of t he semi-aut omat ic t raversing mechanism. T he
development of t he ow is illust rat ed, wit h t he ow eld being highly skewed at t he 1
D st at ion depict ing t he fast er moving uid posit ioned dist inct ively near t he out er wall
and t he slower uid close t o t he inner. However, t raveling furt her downst ream, t he
ow slowly st art s t o recover from t he bend e ect s and a more homogeneous ow eld
is being formed at t he 3 D st at ion. T he development of t he ow at di erent st at ions
downst ream t he pipe bend has also been st udied by means of PIV (papers 2 and
3 ) and t he same ow behavior was depict ed. T he advant age of using PIV compared
t o hot -wires in t his case is t he much less acquisit ion t ime but most import ant , t he
development of t he secondary ow could addit ionally be obt ained. To serve as an
indicat ion of t he complexity involved in t he mapping of a pipe cross-sect ion by means
of single-point t echniques, it should be ment ioned t hat t he sampling frequency for t he
hot -/ cold-wire measurement s was 20 kHz and t he number of samples 400000, which
yields a sampling t ime of Ts = 20 s for each measurement point . T his t ranslat es int o
a t ot al acquisit ion t ime of more t han one hour for t he posit ions t aken (8 posit ions
along t he axis and 24 angular posit ions). T his underlines t he large di erences in t he
acquisit ion t ime, needed t o map a pipe cross-sect ion between single- and mult i-point
measurement t echniques. Similar experiment s performed wit h t he PIV (see papers 2
and 3) provided t he velocity eld across a pipe cross-sect ion in a t ot al t ime of one
second. Nevert heless, t he high t emporal resolut ion of t he hot -wire dat a will be used
in t he fut ure for furt her st at ist ical analysis of t he ow, similarly t o what has been
done before (Paper 1) but for t he whole cross-sect ional area and for correct ing t he
hot -wire readings for t emperat ure variat ions which has not been done in t he previous
work.
A surface plot of t he phase-averaged mass ow rat e density for di erent phase
angles and for D e = 1 5 104 and = 40 is shown in gure 3.21. It can be seen
t hat even t hough at t he end of accelerat ion t he velocity reaches t hree t imes t he bulk
velocity, t he e ect of t he secondary ow is st ill evident from t he skewed shape of t he
velocity eld.
In gure 3.22 bot h t he inst ant aneous and phase-averaged signals at t he cent erline
of t he pipe are shown for D e = 1 5 104 and = 40 and for dat a obt ained wit h t he
t hree experiment al met hods, i.e. hot -/ cold-wire, PIV and LDV. Here, t he di erences
bet ween t he t hree t echniques are highlight ed for a complex ow (curved and pulsat -
ing). From t he inst ant aneous dat a it can be seen t hat t he samples from t he LDV
are not equidist ant , especially in low velocit ies (t his is due t o t he random arrival of
seeding part icles t o t he measuring volume which might bias st at ist ical quant it ies t hat
depend on t he t ime resolut ion) while t he t emporal resolut ion of t he hot -wire can not
be rivaled by any of t he ot her two t echniques. T he dynamic range of t he PIV seems
t o be quit e broad, expanding from almost zero velocit y t o t hree t imes t he bulk and
agreeing sat isfact orily wit h t he result s from LDV . T he low t emporal resolut ion of t he
PIV can clearly be seen in bot h gures, especially when comparing wit h t he hot -wire
where t he phase-averaged signal was calculat ed for many more valve cycles t han for
t he PIV where only a few could be used for t he number of images available.
*
(W)
1.3
1.2
1 1.1
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.7
0.2
0 0.5
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1
r/R r/R
*
(W)
1.3
1.2
1
1.1
0.8
0.6 0.9
0.4
0.7
0.2
0 0.5
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1
r/R r/R
(W)*
1.3
1.2
1 1.1
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.7
0.2
0 0.5
1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0.5 1
a) r/R b) r/R
F ig u r e 3.20. Cont our plot s (a) and velocity proles of t he

st reamwise component along t he horizont al ( ) and vert ical
( ) pipe axis (b) from hot -wire dat a acquired at t hree down-
st ream st at ions (1, 2 and 3 D from t op t o bot t om) from t he
bend exit . T he mass ow rat e density (W ) has been scaled by
t he bulk mass ow rat e density obt ained wit h t he ABB mass
ow met er. D e = 2 7 104 .
( w)*
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 90 180 270 360
[deg]
F ig u r e 3.21. Surface plot s of phase-averaged mass ow rat e

density for four di erent phase angles from hot -wire dat a
acquired t hree diamet ers downst ream from t he bend exit .
D e = 1 5 104 and = 40. Insert depict s t he phase aver-
aged () and inst ant aneous () signal at t he cent erline of
t he pipe wit h blue dashed lines indicat ing t he phase angle at
which t he surface plot s correspond t o.
4 4
PIV PIV
HW HW
LDV LDV
3 3
2 2
w/Wb
b
w/W
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
a) 0 90 180
[deg]
270 360
b) 0 90 180
[deg]
270 360
F ig u r e 3.22. Inst ant aneous (a) and phase-averaged (b) sig-

nal of t he st reamwise velocity component at t he cent erline of
t he pipe, 3 D downst ream dist ance from t he bend exit . PIV
(), hot -/ cold-wire ( ) and LDV (). Velocit ies are scaled
wit h t he bulk speed. D e = 1 5 104 and = 40.
CHAPT ER 4
Main cont ribut ion and conclusions
I n t his chapt er t he main cont ribut ions and conclusions from t he papers present ed in
Part I I are given. For det ails on t he result s t he reader is referred t o t he appended
papers.
4.1. H ighly pulsat ing t ur bulent ow dow nst r eam a pip e

b endst at ist ical analysis
Highly pulsat ing ( = 80) t urbulent ow 1 D dist ance downst ream a pipe
bend (D e = 1 5 105 ) has been examined by means of a single hot -wire
probe t raversed along t he symmet ry axis of t he pipe from t he inner t o t he
out er side. T he invest igat ion of t he e ect s of t he pulsat ile mot ion on t urbulent
ow was done by means of st at ist ical analysis and t hrough comparison wit h
t he st eady ow case.
T he mean velocity prole is not signicant ly a ect ed by t he pulsat ions (com-
pared t o t he st eady ow case) while t he r.m.s. is dominat ed by t he pulsat ions
which is furt hermore support ed by a t rimodal PDF dist ribut ion due t o t he
pulsat ions.
Back ow (a well-known phenomenon in pulsat ing ows) has been encount ered
as well and it has been indicat ed from t he weight ed PDF dist ribut ions t owards
zero and also from t he phase-averaged signal at t he pipe cent erline where a
mirrored dimple is depict ed. A ddit ional LDV measurement s (since t he
hot -wire cannot sense direct ion of ow) were performed and back ow of a
magnit ude of almost 50% of t he bulk velocity was subst ant iat ed.
T he pulsat ile ow has been decomposed by means of a high- and low-pass
lt er and it has been shown t hat t he pulsat ile mot ion is superposed on t he
t urbulence wit h t he high-pass lt ered signal being not only qualit at ively, but
also t o some degree quant it at ively ident ical t o t he r.m.s. dist ribut ion of t he
st eady ow.
4.2. Secondar y ow under pulsat ing t ur bulent ow

Pulsat ing and st eady t urbulent ow ( = 72 D e = 1 5 104 ) was visualized
and measured quant it at ively by means of T S-PIV 3 D downst ream a sharp
pipe bend ( = 0 4). T he ow eld at a pipe cross-sect ion under st eady
condit ions exhibit s two vort ices which on average appear symmet rical t o each
ot her whereas inst ant aneously t heir behavior is unst eady, oscillat ing between
t hree st at es, viz. a clockwise, an ant i-clockwise and a symmet rical one.
55
56 4. MA IN CONT RIBUT ION A ND CONCLUSIONS
During high pulsat ions, t he vort ical pat t ern appears t o depend highly on t he
cycle phase, wit h no secondary mot ions being evident during accelerat ion
while symmet rical vort ical st ruct ures are formed during decelerat ion and a
st rong back ow set s in.
4.3. Secondar y ow developm ent

T he t hree-dimensional ow eld development at t hree di erent st at ions down-
st ream a sharp pipe bend was capt ured by means of T S-PIV for D e = 1 5 104 .
A highly skewed velocit y eld was depict ed at t he closest t o t he bend st at ion.
For t hat case, symmet rical vort ices smaller in size as for t he ot her bend st a-
t ions were conned on t he most upper and lower pipe walls and depict ed
t he same behavior bot h on average and inst ant aneously. For t he more down-
st ream posit ions t he ow eld st art s t o recover from t he curvat ure e ect s,
even t hough secondary mot ion is st ill evident wit h a more unst eady behavior
inst ant aneously as observed according t o a previous work.
T he development of t he secondary mot ions was capt ured also for t he case of a
pulsat ing t urbulent ow ( = 30). For t he st at ion closest t o t he bend, similar
vort ical st ruct ures as t hose appearing in t he st eady ow case were depict ed
during decelerat ion and accelerat ion (where t he st reamwise velocity reaches
almost four t imes t he bulk velocity) while at t he end of decelerat ion t hey
change shape int o more rounded roll cells which vanish soon aft er t he onset
of reversed ow.
4.4. T he e ect of cur ved pulsat ing ow on t ur bine

p er for m ance
Turbine maps at two di erent mass ow rat es and at a pulsat ion frequency
of 40 Hz are plot t ed for t he case when a sharp bend, as t he one used for t he
PIV measurement s, is mount ed upst ream t he t urbine in order t o account for
e ect s of t he presence of curvat ure on t he t urbocharger performance. T he
hyst eresis loop due t o t he lling and emptying of t he t urbine under a pulse
period, was observed t o expand t o great er magnit udes as t he mass ow rat e
increased. A slight e ect of t he presence of t he bend at t he inlet of t he t urbine
was shown on t he average quant it ies but a signicant change was observed in
t he inst ant aneous result s wit h t he hyst eresis loop signicant ly damped due t o
t he presence of t he bend.
4.5. T he e ect of a sw ir ling m ot ion on t he vor t ices

Fully developed t urbulent ow at di erent Reynolds numbers t hrough a curved
pipe bend wit h R c D = 1 6 was examined by means of T S-PI V . T he e ect of
Reynolds number on t he secondary ow appeared t o be insignicant , at least
for t he range t hat was considered in t his st udy.
T he unst eady behavior of t he Dean vort ices was visualized and t he so-called
swirl-swit ching phenomenon was st udied t hrough t he POD reconst ruct ed
elds from t he T S-PI V measurement s. T he analysis showed t hat only a few
modes were needed t o reconst ruct t he ow eld and reveal t he unst eady vor-
t ical mot ion while t he inhomogeneous lt ering t hat t he POD is applying on
4.5. T HE EFFECT OF A SW IRLING M OT ION ON T HE VORT I CES 57
t he ow eld helped in order t o st udy t he phenomenon furt her by means of

spect ral analysis.
Turbulent swirling ow t hrough t he bend was st udied for a wide range of swirl
numbers. T he Dean vort ices become pert ubed even for a weak swirl mot ion
imposed, wit h t he lower vort ex being more sensit ive t o t he mot ion since it
is rot at ing at t he opposit e direct ion (count er-clockwise) as compared t o t he
applied mot ion (clockwise direct ion). T he upper vort ex grows in st rengt h and
size as t he swirl number increases unt il t he ow becomes fully swirl dominat ed
wit h a single vort ex locat ed at t he cent re of t he pipe. Velocity proles of t he
st reamwise component for t he di erent swirl numbers show t hat t he ow eld
gradually becomes symmet rical and t he cent rifugal e ect s become weaker as
t he swirl number increases.
T he e ect of t he swirling mot ion on t he secondary ow has been furt her
examined by means of POD. It was shown t hat t he swirling mot ion cont ribut es
most ly t o t he t ot al energy of t he ow eld, being t he most energet ic st ruct ure.
T he energy percent age of t he 0-mode (mean eld) increases from 60% for t he
lowest swirl number t o almost 90% for t he swirl dominat ed ow eld. From
t he rst two spat ial modes (considering only t he uct uat ing part of t he ow
eld) it is shown t hat coherent st ruct ures, const it ut ing t he most energet ic
feat ures (regardless t he 0-mode which shows t he swirling mot ion) resemble
t he Dean vort ices for all t he swirl number cases st udied. T hese st ruct ures are
not as well st ruct ured as t he Dean vort ices but show t he exist ence of ot her
large scale feat ures in t he ow eld, co-exist ing wit h t he swirling mot ion.
T he e ect of swirl and curvat ure on t he very-large-scale mot ions (V LSM)
has been examined. Bot h inst ant aneous and reconst ruct ed st reamwise ve-
locity uct uat ions by using t he most energet ic POD modes were visualized,
const ruct ed using Taylors hypot hesis. Elongat ed meandering st ruct ures, as
described in lit erat ure were observed spanning a st reamwise ext ent of about
5R. Nevert heless, t he e ect of curvat ure was seen as an inclinat ion of t he
st ruct ures as compared t o t he case of a corresponding ow case in a st raight
pipe, considered in t he lit erat ure. M oreover, in a swirling mot ion t he st ruc-
t ures are t ilt ed due t o t he change in t he mean ow direct ion while for t he swirl
dominat ed ow mot ion t hey are t eared up int o short er and wider st ruct ures.
CHAPT ER 5
Papers and aut hors cont ribut ions
Paper 1
Experimental i nvestigation on the e ect of pulsati ons on turbulent ow through a 90
degrees pipe bend
A . K alpakli (A K ), R. Orlu (R O), N. T illmark (NT ) & P. H. A lfredsson (HAL).
3r d I nt. Conf. on Jets, Wakes & Separated Flows.
T his work deals wit h hot -wire measurement s on pulsat ing t urbulent ow downst ream
a pipe bend in order t o assess t he e ect s of pulsat ions on t he st at ist ics of t urbulence.
T he experiment s were performed by A K under t he supervision of R O & NT . T he
dat a analysis and t he writ ing was done joint ly by A K & R O wit h help by HA L. T he
work has been present ed in Cincinnat i, OH, USA , 2010.
Paper 2
Pulsati le turbulent ow through pi pe bends at high Dean and Womersley numbers
J. Phys.: Conf. Series, 318, 092023
T he t hree-dimensional ow eld at a cross-sect ion at t he exit of a pipe bend under

pulsat ing t urbulent ow condit ions has been capt ured by means of Part icle Image
Velocimet ry (PIV ). T he experiment s were done by A K in t he facility designed by
NT . T he dat a analysis was done by A K wit h help by R O. T he writ ing was done by
A K wit h input from R O & HA L. T he work has been present ed at t he 13t h European
Turbulence Conference (ET C13) , 12-15 Sept ., in Warsaw, Poland, 2011.
58
5. PAPERS A ND AUT HORS CONT RIBUT I ONS 59
Paper 3
Dean vortices in turbulent ows: rocking or rolli ng?
A . K alpakli (A K ), R. Orlu (R O) & P. H. Alfredsson (HA L).
J. Visualization, 15, 37-38, 2011
T his work present s clear snapshot s of t he secondary mot ions as well as t he mean
t hree-dimensional ow eld at a cross-sect ion downst ream a curved pipe. T he ex-
periment s were done by A K . T he dat a analysis and t he writ ing was done joint ly by
A K & R O wit h input from HAL. T his work has been published in Journal of V isu-
alizat ion. Part of t his work has been present ed at t he 64t h Annual Meeting of the
American Physical Society (DFD) , 20-22 Nov., Balt imore, MD, USA , 2011 and has
been select ed t o appear online at t he APS Gallery of uid moti on, Virtual Pressroom
(ht t p:/ / www.aps.org/ unit s/ dfd/ pressroom/ gallery/ kalpakli11.cfm).
Paper 4
Experimental investi gati on on the e ect of pulsations on exhaust mani fold-related
ows aimi ng at improved e ciency
10t h I nt. Conf. on Turbochargers and Turbocharging
T his work is a cont inuat ion of paper 2. A ddit ional measurement s t o examine t he
e ect of a pipe bend at t he inlet of a t urbocharger have been performed. T he experi-
ment s were done by A K . T he set up for t he t urbocharger measurement s was designed
by NT 1 . T he dat a analysis was done by A K (PIV dat a) & R O (t urbine maps). T he
writ ing was done by A K wit h input from R O and HA L. T his work has been accept ed
for present at ion at Inst it ut e of M echanical Engineers (I MechE), 15-16 M ay, London,
2012 and will be published in t he conference proceedings.
Paper 5
POD analysis of stereoscopi c PI V data from swirling turbulent ow through a pipe
bend
A . K alpakli (A K )
I nternal Techni cal Report
T his work deals wit h swirling t urbulent ow downst ream a pipe bend. T he report is
a work in progress and is planned t o be submit t ed.
1 Fr edrik Laurant zon is also great ly acknowledged for his help wit h t his set up and for pro-
viding t he L abV iew code for t he t urbocharger measurement s

60
A ck nowledgement s
T his research was st art ed wit hin t he compet ence cent re CICERO and is since 2011
support ed by it s successor CCGEx (Compet ence Cent re for Gas Exchange). Bot h cen-
t res were/ are support ed by t he Swedish Energy Cent re, Swedish vehicle indust ry and
K T H. T he Linne FLOW Cent re at K T H has also provided support t hrough ext ensive
use of t heir infrast ruct ure in t erms of ow inst rument at ion (hot -wire anemomet ry,
LDV and PIV ).
First of all I would like t o express my grat it ude t o my main supervisor Prof. P.
Henrik A lfredsson not only for accept ing me as his st udent but also for his always
friendly at t it ude. His act ive involvement in all part s of my work by sharing and
init iat ing ideas as well as his support and encouragement for my part icipat ion in
int ernat ional conferences are great ly acknowledged.
Special t hanks go t o bot h my co-advisors. Dr. Nils T illmark for keeping t he
CICERO lab up and running and for having a solut ion for any kind of t echnical mat t er
whenever needed. Credit for designing and bringing t he HW / CW semi-aut omat ic
t raversing syst em int o life goes also t o him. Dr. Ramis Orlu is great ly acknowledged
not only for being available 24/ 7 t o discuss any kind of research relat ed t opic but
most ly for t ransmit t ing his ent husiasm on uid dynamics and t eaching me (probably
wit hout his awareness) how a researcher should t hink and approach problems. T he
help and guidance I received from you in my rst st eps as a PhD st udent , from
building hot -wires t o set t ing up a whole experiment is invaluable.
Our skillful t oolmakers, Joakim K arlst rom and Goran Radberg deserve special
t hanks for being t here whenever I had problems in t he laborat ory but also for pro-
viding many t imes advice and guidance for t he building of set ups.
Many t hanks go t o Dr. Gabriele Bellani for helping me in my rst PIV st eps
but also for passing along his ent husiasm on t he t echnique. T he set up of t he PIV
experiment s would have t aken a much longer t ime if it wasnt for your advice.
Tekn.Lic. Onofrio Semeraro is acknowledged for spending t ime t he last few weeks,
while t he writ ing of t his t hesis, on fruit ful discussions about modal analysis.
MSc. Markus Past uho deserves many t hanks for t he designing of t he DC mot or
used as part of t he semi-aut omat ic t raversing mechanism as well as for being a great
o ce mat e.
Tekn.Lic. Fredrik Laurant zon is acknowledged for his help wit h t he t urbocharger
measurement s and t he vort ex owmet er as well as for creat ing a nice at mosphere in
t he CI CERO lab.
61
62 ACK NOW LEDGEMENT S
MSc. Sohrab Sat t arzadeh is t hanked for providing t he hot -wire dat a for valida-
t ion of t he PIV measurement t act ique as well as for being a nice colleague.
Everyone at t he Fluid Physics lab but also at OB18 are acknowledged for creat ing
a nice and cheerful working environment . Special t hanks go t o: Bengt , A nt onio,
A lexandre, Renzo, Julie, Shahab, Johan, Malt e, K arl, M at t hias, Emma, Olle, Enrico.
Shint aro Imayama and A lexander Sakowit z are t hanked for creat ing a friendly and
fun at mosphere in t he o ce and for all t he nice discussions (t echnical and non).
Dr. Mihai Mihaescu is t hanked for reading and providing comment s on t his
t hesis.
I would like t o devot e a small part of t his sect ion and t hank t he people from
whom I get support out side work. M iriam, t hank you for an incredible summer t ime
in Sicily and for all t he nice t imes spent in St ockholm. But most ly t hank you for
being a t rue friend and for propagat ing your inexhaust ible energy every t ime Im
t ired from work. Grazi e.
A ll my love and t hought s go t o t he people wit hout whom I wouldnt be here.
M y mum and dad for always being by my side support ing me by any means and for
let t ing me always choose my own pat h. My sist er for all t he love and support but
also for sharing her knowledge and ent husiasm on art and di erent cult ures. Last but
denit ely not least all my love goes t o t he one person who shares his days and night s
wit h me and has made Sweden feel like home. Tack Johan.
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Exp er im ent al st udy of t ur bulent ows t hr ough

At hanasia K alpakli 2012

A pril 2012, St ockholm

A bst r act iii

P ar t I . O ver v i ew and sum m ar y

C hapt er 3. E x p er i m ent al set u ps & t echn i ques 30

C hapt er 5. P ap er s and aut hor s cont r i b ut i ons 58

P ap er 1. E x p er i m ent al i nvest i gat i on on t he e ect of p ul sat i ons t hr ough

P ap er 2. T ur bu l ent ow s t hr ough a 90 d egr ees pi p e b en d at h i gh D ean

P ap er 3. D ean v or t i ces i n t ur b ul ent ow s: r ock i n g or r ol l i ng? 103

P ap er 4. E x p er i m ent al i nvest i gat i on on t h e e ect of pu l sat i on s

P ap er 5. P O D anal y si s of st er eoscop i c P I V dat a fr om sw i r l i n g

Over view and summar y

Int roduct ion

Max Planck (18581947)

1.1. Towar ds incr eased engine e ciency : can fundam ent al

1.2. Com plex ow s in nat ur e and t echnology

F ig u r e 1.1. Examples showing how pulsat ing ows are

F ig u r e 1.2. Examples showing how curved geomet ries are

Flows in curved pipes

Learn from yesterday, li ve for today, hope for tomorrow. T he impor-

T he motion of the uid as a whole can be regarded as made up of

F ig u r e 2.1. Example of t he st reamwise velocity (Uz ) dist ri-

F ig u r e 2.2. a) W. R. Dean (18961973) Reprinted from Bin-

2.1. D ean vor t ices in st eady ow

2.1.1. Mean ow development

But i n a curved pi pe the water i s continual ly changing i ts posi tion

Eust ice (1911)

F ig u r e 2.3. T he di erent bend congurat ions used in t he ex-

of t he inlet boundary layer which in t urn depends on t he Reynolds number. For t he

2.1.2. Vortex structure in turbulent ows

F ig u r e 2.5. T he swirl swit ching of t he vort ices at two in-

F ig u r e 2.6. Secondary ows in a) Laminar ow wit h para-

F ig u r e 2.7. Velocity proles of t he st reamwise velocity com-

only t he Dean-type cell is observed while when t he ent ry ow prole t o t he bend is

F ig u r e 2.8. Flow st ruct ures at increasing swirl int ensit ies.

T he e ect of swirling ow on hydraulic losses and t he ow in U-bends was inves-

2.3. P ulsat ing ow wit h and w it hout cur vat ur e e ect s

2.3.1. Pulsating ow in straight pipes

2.3.2. Pulsating ow through curved channels

F ig u r e 2.9. Secondary ow variat ion in an oscillat ion period

F ig u r e 2.10. Schemat ic diagrams of t he ve secondary ow

F ig u r e 2.11. Lyne-type circulat ion. a) Reprinted from Lyne

2.4. Sum m ar y of pr ev ious st udies

2.5. F low par am et er s

u n st ea dy a ccel er a t i on con v ect i v e a ccel er a t i on

where p is t he pressure, i j t he viscous shear st ress t ensor which is dened as:

unst eady accelerat ion u t U L

of ow mot ion of approach t echnique(s) De S

2. FLOW S I N CURV ED PIPES

of ow mot ion of approach t echnique(s) De S

Bovendeerd et al. (1987) laminar experiment al LDV 286 0 0

Hamakiot es & Berger laminar pulsat ing numerical 0.7756 15 0

2.5. FLOW PA RA M ET ERS

Experiment al set ups & t echniques

A scientist in hi s laboratory is not a mere techni cian: he i s also a

No amount of experimentati on can ever prove me right; a single ex-

3.1. T he r ot at ing pip e facillit y

F ig u r e 3.1. Close-up of t he set up showing t he rot at ing pipe

F ig u r e 3.2. Schemat ic of t he experiment al set up. A ) Cen-

F ig u r e 3.3. Mean velocity proles at t he exit of t he 100 D

F ig u r e 3.4. a) Pipe bend t hat was mount ed at t he exit of

F ig u r e 3.5. Layout of t he Cicero rig. I mage taken from Lau-

F ig u r e 3.6. a) T he rot at ing valve (it s housing is also shown).