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Introduction to Microbiology

Eukaryote microorganisms:
The Fungi

Dr A. Fleming

Lecture Preview: The Fungi

What you will learn:

1. Fungi are eukaryotes

2. Usually filamantous (hyphae)

3. Spore bearing

4. Can be pathogenic or beneficial to plants

and animals

5. Can reproduce asexually and sexually

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Domain:

The Fungi:
Constitute a monophyletic group - derived from a common ancestor

FUNGAL EVOLUTION
evolved between 1000 and 700 million years ago

Fungi

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Evidence suggests fungi are more closely

related to animals
than either plants or protists

Fungal general features:

Generally composed of filamentous hyphae

(A mass of hyphae = a mycelium)

Non-photosynthetic

Non-motile

most are saprophytic absorb organic materials from dead organisms

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Fungal distribution
Primarily terrestrial

Global - from polar to tropical regions

Associate with plants and animals

Can be pathogenic

Can form beneficial symbiotic relationships

90,000 species so far, maybe >1.5 million species

Fungal general structure:

Vegetative structure is called a thallus
It varies in size from single cell yeasts

-to multicellular molds

(Penicillium)

-and macroscopic mushrooms

(densely packed hyphae

form a large mycelial mass)

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Fungal cell wall

Cell can be encased in chitin
Tough polysaccharide containing N-acetylglucosamine

e.g. The yeast

Saccharomyces
cerevisiae

Hyphae
Hyphae define fungi
The thallus of a mold comprises long thread-like hyphae

Hyphae Mycelial mass

The hyphae that compose the mycelium can form a macroscopic mass

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Some hyphae have cross-walls

These hyphae are termed septate

Septate

The cross walls are called septa

Other hyphae have no cross walls :

Hyphae can be coenocytic
-cytoplasm can flow uninterrupted by the absence of cross walls

Coenocytic
(aseptate)

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Hyphae

Coenocytic hyphae
-no cross walls

Septate Hyphae have cross walls

some septa form at regular intervals

Other septa isolate old or damaged hypha,

or isolate reproductive structures

Septa can have single or multiple pores

Septa divide hyphae into COMPARTMENTS

Septate hyphae are not discrete cells

Cytoplasm can flow through each compartment

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Each hyphal compartment can

contain one or more NUCLEI

If septa have large pores, the number of nuclei within a

hyphal compartment can change

nuclei can pass between compartments

Hyphal structure
is essentially a tube

There is an outer wall

The inner lumen contains the cytosol and organelles

A plasma membrane surrounds the cytoplasm

This filamentous structure offers a large surface to volume ratio

allows very efficient nutrient absorption

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The hyphal tip

The GROWING TIP is structurally and functionally unique:

its cytoplasm is more dense

the extreme tip essential for apical growth

Fungal Nutrition
Three major types of heterotrophic nutrition

Saprophytic digests dead organisms

Parasitic digests live organisms

Symbiotic mutual benefit of two independent

organisms

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Fungal metabolism
Fungi are usually aerobic

Some yeasts are facultatively anaerobic

- they can derive energy by fermentation

Saccharomyces cerevisiae: The Alcohol Fermentation

Alcohol
Dehydrogenase

Pyruvate
decarboxylase

Glucose is oxidised to Pyruvate

Pyruvate is decarboxylated to Acetaldehyde
Acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol

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The Fungal Life Cycle

sexual

Asexual

Shows the alternation of haploid and diploid stages

Asexual reproduction:
Mitosis

Segregation

DNA
Replication

Separation

Each new cell acquires a duplicate set of chromosomes

Progeny are gene<cally iden<cal

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Asexual Fungal Reproduction:

Fragmentation
Fission
Budding
Asexual spore formation
Haploid spores arise via mitosis
Spores germinate and produce haploid mycelium

Results in the rapid production of genetically

identical clones

Asexual reproduction by fission and budding

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Saccharomyces cerevisiae

(fission yeast) (budding yeast)

Transverse fission Buds

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Asexual fragmentation
and spore formation

Fungal Sexual Reproduction

Typically occurs under conditions of stress

Genetically
Distinct
progeny

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Sexual reproduc<on: Meiosis

Diploid DNA is replicated and re-packaged aDer two sequen<al cell divisions
Chromosome number is reduced from diploid (2N) to haploid (1N)
chromosomal recombina<on occurs

Diploid
2 x 2N
(2N)

Replica<on

2 x 2N

Haploid
4 x 1N

Gene<cally dis<nct spores

Classification of fungi

DNA sequence analysis has revealed 8 subdivisions:

Chytridiomycetes
Zygomycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
Urediniomycetes
Ustilaginomycetes
Glomeromycota
Microsporidia

Often defined by the structure in which

sexual spores form

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1. Chytridiomycota
-or Chytrids
-the most simple fungi
-Aquatic
-Exhibit asexual and sexual life cycles
-Produce a unique sexual spore with a single flagellum
-Saprophytic or parasitic

flagellated sexual spore

UNIQUE !
Allomyces sporangia
(asexual spores)

2. Zygomycota
Contains the Zygomycetes
Most live on decaying organic matter

Hyphae are coenocytic with multiple nuclei

Asexual spores wind dispersed

Sexual reproduction produces tough ZYGOSPORES

Can be parasitic

Moldy strawberries (Rhizopus)

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Zygomycota
the bread mold, Rhizopus stonifer
Colonises moist, carbohydrate rich foods

Moldy bread

Hyphae called rhizoids penetrate the bread and absorb nutrients

Other hyphae (stolons) stand upright and produce asexual sporangia

These sporangia contain black spores

A decaying peach

The frames were taken ~12 hours apart over a period of six days

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Zygomycota Life Cycle

1N
Meiosis

2N, Zygote

1N

Stolon

Mitosis

1N

3. Ascomycota
contain the Ascomycetes

Live on land or water

Reproduce asexually and sexually

Sexual spores form in saclike ASCI

Asci of the fungus

Morchella elata (morel),

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Ascomycota
examples include:
Many food-spoiling molds

Edible Morels and truffles (delicacies)

Penicillium, the mold that produces penicillin

Yeasts (single-celled fungi)

The life cycle of the budding yeast

Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Ascus
(4 haploid ascospores)

Yeast are unicellular

They do not form hyphae

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Some more Ascomycetes

Scarlet Cup Fungus

Morel

Chapter 22

4. Basidiomycota
-contain the basidiomycetes (mushrooms)

Live on land or water

Characterized by perforate septate hyphae
Usually reproduce sexually
Sexual spores form in club-shaped BASIDIA

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Basidiomycota
-contain the basidiomycetes
The mushroom is a reproductive structure of aggregated hyphae

The cap gills bear numerous basidia

In each basidium, haploid nuclei fuse to produce a diploid zygote

Meiosis yields haploid basidiospores that are released

n+n 2n (zygote)

Basidia on
Meiosis gills

Mushroom gills
Haploid
Diploid bear reproductive
basidiospores
2n basidia

Haploid
1n

Basidiomycota
Examples include:

Mushrooms
Puffballs
Shelf fungi (decomposers of wood)
Stinkhorns

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Fairy Rings
A fairy ring is a circular pattern of mushroom
growth
Fairy rings form at the edge of an underground
fungal mycelium
The wider the diameter of the ring, the older the
mycelium
Some fairy rings are estimated to be 700 years old

5. Glomeromycota
Contain the Glomeromycetes

Ecologically very important

They are symbionts of plants

Associate with the roots of plants and trees

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Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between fungi and
plant roots
Fungus provides plant with water, minerals, and organic
nutrients it absorbs from the soil
Plant provides fungus with sugar

80% of plants with roots have mycorrhiza

Relationship may have helped plants colonize land

6. Microsporidia
This group has a controversial taxonomic history

Intracellular parasites of fish, insects and humans

Infect immunocompromised people

Pathogens include:

Enterocystozoon bieneusa- causes diarrhoea or pneumonia

Encephaolitozoon cuniculi causes encephalitis and nephritis

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Microsporidian spore structure

Coiled polar filament

Spores are viable outside the host cell

Spore germination triggers expulsion of a filament - the polar tube
The polar tube pierces the host cell to allow parasite entry
Inside the cell more spores multiply

Microsporidian spore structure

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Microsporidian spore structure

Alien Egg

Ecological importance of fungi

Recycle nutrients
They are decomposers:

break down complex organic compounds to

simple organic and inorganic elements

These elements can be used as nutrients

- replace essen<al nutrients that plants remove from the soil

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The fungi: ecological importance

Lichens are symbiotic associations between fungi

and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria

Fungus provides its photosynthetic partner with shelter

and protection

Photosynthetic partner provides fungus with sugar (food)

Lichens:
Symbiotic Partnerships

Algal Layer

Fungal Hyphae

Attachment
Structure

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lichens are often the first organisms to

inhabit barren areas

create soil by breaking down rock and

adding organic nutrients (from their
decay)

lichen growing on rock

Beneficial role of fungi

Penicillium roqueforti

Beer
Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Model
Organisms
for research

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Negative role of Fungi:

Play a major role in disease

Plants are particularly vulnerable to fungal attack

Fungi can invade plants through the stomates

Fungal parasites cause the

majority of plant diseases
Rusts and smuts are basidiomycete parasites
that damage grain crops

Corn Smut

Fungi are responsible for 15-20% of crop loss yearly

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Fungal parasites can cause animal

diseases

Athletes foot - caused by Tricophytom ruburm

lives within and eats outer skin layers (parasite)

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Ringworm
- can be caused by the same organism that causes Athletes Foot
or other organisms,

- eats skin (parasite)

Fungi can produce toxins

Claviceps purpurea (an ascomycete) produces ergot alkaloids
Infects rye plants and causes ergotism
Symptoms include constriction of blood vessels,
vomiting, convulsive twitching, hallucinations, and death

Salem witch trials of 1692

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Fungi can produce good toxins

Penicillium (an ascomycete) produces Penicillin
First antibiotic to be discovered (1928)
Used to combat bacterial diseases

Alexander Fleming

Penicillium

Magic Mushrooms
-Psilocybe semilanceata

Psylocin

Break down product of

psilocybin

This is the psychoactive

compound

The mushrooms contain psilocybin

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DEADLY MUSHROOMS

Amanita Amanita
Phalloides verna
(Death cap)

Some Amanita species contains -amanitin which inhibits RNA

polymerase II

It affects the central nervous system, liver and kidneys.

Death can result

Extra Reading
Prescott, LM et. Al.,
Microbiology
7th edition
McGraw-Hill, Boston, 2008
Pages 630 - 641

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