CyTA - Journal of Food

ISSN: 1947-6337 (Print) 1947-6345 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tcyt20

Oil production from sardine (Sardinops sagax

caerulea) Produccin de aceite a partir de sardina
(Sardinops sagax caerulea

J. A. Noriega-Rodrguez , J. Ortega-Garca , O. Angulo-Guerrero , H. S. Garca ,

L. A. Medina-Jurez & N. Gmez-Meza

To cite this article: J. A. Noriega-Rodrguez , J. Ortega-Garca , O. Angulo-Guerrero , H. S.

Garca , L. A. Medina-Jurez & N. Gmez-Meza (2009) Oil production from sardine (Sardinops
sagax caerulea) Produccin de aceite a partir de sardina (Sardinops sagax caerulea , CyTA -
Journal of Food, 7:3, 173-179, DOI: 10.1080/19476330903010243

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19476330903010243

Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

Published online: 08 Mar 2010.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 1070

View related articles

Citing articles: 5 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tcyt20

Download by: [78.101.77.184] Date: 25 February 2017, At: 05:31

CyTA Journal of Food
Vol. 7, No. 3, November 2009, 173179

Oil production from sardine (Sardinops sagax caerulea)

Produccion de aceite a partir de sardina (Sardinops sagax caerulea)
J.A. Noriega-Rodrgueza,b*, J. Ortega-Garcaa,b, O. Angulo-Guerrerob, H.S. Garcab, L.A. Medina-Juarezc and
N. Gamez-Mezac
a
Departamento de Ciencias Qumico Biologicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad de Sonora Unidad Regional Norte, H. Caborca,
Sonora, Mexico; bUnidad de Investigacion y Desarrollo de Alimentos, Instituto Tecnologico de Veracruz, Veracruz Ver, Mexico;
c
Departamento de Investigaciones Cientcas y Tecnologicas, Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
(Received 15 October 2008; nal version received 20 March 2009)

Sardine (Sardinops sagax caerulea) oil was rened and the fatty acid composition as well as the physical and the
chemical quality variables were monitored. The rening of crude sardine oil was carried out in three stages: alkali-
rening, clay-bleaching, and steam-deodorizing. Results show that the rening process signicantly improved
(p 5 0.05) the chemical quality of the oil, by decreasing its peroxide value (from 10.05 to 0.81 meq/kg), p-anisidine
value (from 3.67 to 1.63 mmol/kg), and free fatty acids content (from 0.21 to 0.052% as oleic acid). The oxidative
stability increased from 10.39 to 17.55 h (using Rancimat at 608C, and 7 L/h air ow). These values are within the
acceptable standards for edible sh oils. No signicant dierences (p 5 0.05) were observed in fatty acids
composition. The notable improvement in the physical properties of rened sardine oil produced high quality sh oil
in terms of color (golden yellow) and odor (odorless).
Keywords: fatty acid composition; sh oil processing; marine oil; n-3 PUFA; sardine

En este trabajo, el aceite de sardina (Sardinops sagax caerulea) fue renado y la composicion de acidos grasos, as
como las variables de calidad fsica y qumica fueron monitoreadas. La renacion del aceite crudo se llevo a cabo en
tres etapas: Neutralizacion con alcali, blanqueado con tierras y desodorizacion con vapor. Los resultados mostraron
que el proceso de renacion mejoro signicativamente (p 5 0,05) la calidad qumica del aceite, por la disminucion de
su valor de peroxido (de 10,05 a 0,81 meq/kg), valor de p-anisidina (de 3,67 a 1,63 mmol/kg) y el contenido de acidos
grasos libres (de 0,21 a 0,052% como acido oleico). La estabilidad oxidativa aumento de 10,39 a 17,55 h (utilizando
Rancimat a 60 8C, y 7 L/h ujo de aire). Estos valores estan dentro de las normas aceptables para los aceites
comestibles de pescado en terminos de color (amarillo dorado) y olor (inodoro).
Palabras clave: aceite marino; aceite de pescado renado; composicion de acidos grasos; n-3 PUFA; sardina

Introduction Inbaraj, & Chen, 2007; Shahidi, 2005). Ingestion of

The well-documented benecial eects of n-3 poly-
unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on the prevention of
coronary, neuromuscular, immunological, allergic dis-
eases, and cancer (Bougnoux, 1999; Cleland, Caughey,
James, & Proudman, 2006; Hals, Bjerve, Nilsen,
Svalastog, & Ek, 2000; Li, Bode, Drummond, &
Sinclair, 2003; Mantzioris, Cleland, & Gibson, 2000)
have promoted the fast growing nutraceutical and
pharmaceutical markets which require high-quality sh
oils (Young, 2003). Commonly, sh oils are destined
for the manufacture of low-cost margarines after a
chemical hydrogenation process. However, during
hydrogenation the sh oil loses its polyunsaturation,
and produces a variety of geometric and positional
isomers (Leth, Bysted, Hansen, & Ovesen, 2003; Liu,
these isomers causes damages on microsomal mem-
branes, inhibits the action of desaturases of essential
fatty acids, contributes to increase low-density lipo-
proteins levels, and decreases the high-density lipopro-
tein levels, leading to an enhanced risk of coronary
heart disease (Costa, Bressan, & Sabarense, 2006;
Dickson et al., 1995; Lemaitre, King, Mozaarian,
Sootodehnia, & Siscovick, 2006; Morgado, Sanhueza,
Nieto, & Valenzuela, 2003). Consequently, direct
consumption of marine oils after a proper rening, or
through fortied foods like meats, mayonnaises,
dressings and canned products is preferred (Bimbo,
1997; Kolanowski & Laufenberg, 2006).
Sardine (Sardinops sagax Caerulea) is the main
specie captured in the Gulf of California in Mexico,

*Corresponding author. Email: janoriega@guayacan.uson.mx

ISSN 1947-6337 print/ISSN 1947-6345 online

2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/19476330903010243
http://www.informaworld.com
174 J.A. Noriega-Rodrguez et al.
totaling 576,443 tons/year, which represents 37% of
the world sardine shery. About 70% of this sardine is
processed by plants producing sh meal, which has
commercial importance as raw material in animal feed
that produce 10,000 tons/year sh oil as by-product
with little or no commercial value (CONAPESCA,
2007, http://www.conapesca.sagarpa.gob.mx/wb/cona/
cona_anuario_estadistico_de_pesca).
According to Gamez-Meza et al. (1999), the most
abundant fatty acids in crude sardine oil, caught o in
the Gulf of California are: palmitic (19%), palmitoleic
(8.5%), stearic (6%), oleic (14%), eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA, 20%), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA,
13%). Therefore, sardine oil can be considered an
important source of n-3 PUFA, because EPA and DHA
together represent one third of the total fatty acids and
90% of total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).
The chemical and physical properties of edible oils
depend primarily on the composition of the raw
materials and processing temperatures. Normally,
sardine processing is carried out by heating the sh in
large, continuous cookers at 951008C for 1530 min
(Bimbo, 2007). The crude oil obtained by traditional
heat processing tends to be dark in color and contains a
large amount of impurities. Therefore, rening steps
including neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization
are necessary. However, the high temperatures and
chemical treatments utilized during these steps may
cause isomerization of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs) such as EPA and DHA, producing trans
isomers with a concomitant decrease in its nutritional
value (Berdeaux et al., 2007). It is generally recognized
that high temperatures inuence sh oil deterioration
and can accelerate lipid oxidation. When sh oils
oxidize, they produce unstable intermediary com-
pounds, such as free radicals and hydroperoxides,
which are susceptible to further decomposition into
products such as aldehydes and ketones (Moriya et al.,
2007). These decomposition products adversely aect
avor, taste, nutritional value, and the overall quality
of sh oils (Bimbo, 2007). The aims of oil processing are
to maximize yield while maintaining high quality and to
produce highly stable oils by eliminating undesirable
compounds. The high levels of PUFAs in sardine oil are
subjected to rapid and extensive oxidation by exposure
to high temperature, air, or light (Sang & Jin, 2004).
Consequently, it is necessary to control and monitor
this process in order to avoid these collateral eects.
For this reason, in this work crude sardine (S. sagax) oil
was rened and the physical, chemical quality, and the
fatty acid composition during the alkali-rening,
bleaching, and deodorization stages were monitored.
Materials and methods
Crude sardine oil and reagents
Fresh crude oil obtained from sardine was provided by
Productos Pesqueros Industrializados S.A. de C.V.,
located in Yavaros Sonora, Mexico. The crude
sardine oil was transported to the laboratory in 4 L
amber glass sealed containers at 08C, and stored
until analyzed and processed at 7308C in custom-
made portions ushed with nitrogen. All reagents
(analytical grade) and the solvents (chromatographic
grade) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St.
Louis, MO).
Sardine oil rening
Rening of crude sardine oil was carried out in three
stages: alkali-rening, clay-bleaching, and steam-
deodorizing. These stages were conducted at labora-
tory scale in glass equipment following procedures
recommended by Bimbo (1998). The oil yield on
each stage was determined by weight during the
rening process. In the alkali-rening stage, 1 kg of
crude oil and 16 g of a 4.2 M NaOH solution were
mixed at room temperature with continuous stirring
(300 rpm) for 15 min. Subsequently, the system was
heated to 658C to break the emulsion and facilitate
soap removal by ltration. Bleaching was carried out
at 908C using partial vacuum (15 mbar) and 3.0% of
acid-activated diatomaceous earths (Tonsil optimum
320 FF, Sud Chemie de Mexico). The spent earths
were separated by ltration after of 30 min of
agitation. Deodorizing was performed at 1408C for
5 h under a pressure of 1.5 mbar in a laboratory
distillation unit that consisted of a 2000 mL round
bottom boiling ask with three outlets. A continuous
stream of water steam (5% w/w oil) was directly
injected to the oil and the volatile compounds were
condensed using double cold trap (748C). During
cooling of the oil, 0.2 g of ter-butylhydroxyquinone
(TBHQ) and 0.1 g of an aqueous citric acid solution
(150 g/L) were added to 1 kg of oil as antioxidant
agents. A sample with no-antioxidant added was
previously withdrawn to evaluate its oxidative
stability.
Sardine oil quality
The physical and chemical quality of the crude sardine
oil during the dierent stages of the rening process
was evaluated according to the ocial analytical
methods (AOCS, 1998).
Physical quality
The crude sardine oil physical quality was monitored
through the rening process by measuring its density,
refractive index, and color. The refractive index and
the color were measured using the Abbe refractometer
and the Lovibond1 tintometer, respectively (Cc 725
and Cc 13e-92; AOCS, 1998). Specic gravity was
determined at 258C using a picnometer, according to
technique Cc 10a-25 (AOCS, 1998).

Chemical quality
The crude sardine oil chemical quality was monitored
through the rening process by measuring free fatty
acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), p-anisidine value
(AV), oxidative stability index (OSI), conjugated
dienes (CD), soap, saponication index (SI), moisture
and volatile compounds, phosphorus, and trace metals.
FFA was calculated as percent of oleic acid by titration
with a 0.01 M NaOH solution (AOCS, Ca 5a-40). The
PV was calculated as miliequivalents of peroxide/kg of
oil (AOCS, Cd 8-53). The AV was determined
spectrophotometrically and expressed in mmol of 2-
alquenal/kg of oil (AOCS, Cd 18-90). CD, were
measured by absorption spectrophotometry (AOCS,
Cd 7-58). The presence of soap was determined as ppm
of sodium oleate by titration with a 0.01 M HCl
solution (Cc 17-79). The SI was determined by titration
with a 0.8 M KOH alcoholic solution (AOCS, Cd 3b-
76). Moisture and volatile compounds were determined
using vacuum stove (AOCS, Ca 2d-25). The evaluation
of the OSI (AOCS, Cd 12b-92) was carried out in a
Rancimat equipment model 679 (Methrom, Herisau,
Switzerland) at 608C, with an air ow of 7 L/h
(Mendez, Sanhuez, Speisky, & Valenzuela, 1996).
Phosphorus and trace metals (copper, iron, calcium,
and magnesium) were determined diluting the oil
samples in querosene and analyzed by optical emission
spectroscopy inductively coupled to plasma (ICP-OES,
Optima 3100 XL), with detection levels smaller than
0.01 mg/L (Dijkstra & Meert, 1982).
Fatty acid composition
Fatty acids of the sardine oil were converted into fatty
acid methyl esters (FAME) according to AOCS method
(Ce 2-66; AOCS, 1998), and their composition was
determined by GC/FID (Ce 1f-96; AOCS, 1998) in a
Varian 3400 gas chromatograph. A 100 m 6 0.25 mm
i.d. fused silica capillary column coated with a 0.25 mm
thick lm SP 2560 (Supelco-Sigma, Mexico) was used.
Oven temperature was set at 1808C. Injector and
detector temperatures were held at 2508C and nitrogen
was used as a carrier gas (20 cm/s). FAME peaks were
identied by comparison with the retention time of the
Table 1. Evaluation of the physical quality of crude sardine oil during the rening stages.
Tabla 1. Evaluacion de la calidad fsica de aceite crudo de sardina durante las etapas de la renacion.
Analysis Crude
Density, g/mL 0.920+0.001a
Refractive index 1.4767+0.002a
Color* 9.8500+0.070a
Values (w/w %) are mean+standard deviation of triplicates. Values in each row with dierent superscript (ac) indicate signicant dierences
(p 5 0.05).
*Red Lovibond1 units measured with the 5.25 cm cell.
Los valores (w/w %) son la media+desviacion estandar de triplicados. Los valores en cada la con diferente superndice (ac) indican una
diferencia signicativa (p 5 0,05).
*Unidades Lovibond1 de rojo, medidas con celda de 5,25 cm.
CyTA Journal of Food 175
corresponding standards (Sigma Chemical, St. Louis,
MO). Quantication was done using C17:0 (Sigma
Chemical, St. Louis, MO) as an internal standard.
Menhaden sh oil was used as reference oil (Mossoba,
Kramer, Delmonte, Yurawecz, & Rader, 2003).
Statistical analysis
All analyses were run in triplicate, and the results were
presented as mean and standard deviation. Statistical
comparisons were made between treatments by analy-
sis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukeys test using
JMPin v. 4.0.1 software (SAS Institute). The results
were presented in terms of p values (p 5 0.05).
Results and discussion
The crude sardine oil met the specications of chemical
quality of edible sh oils (Ackman, 2005; Bimbo,
1998). The crude sardine oil had a dark and opaque red
color with the typical aroma of sh oils. The global
yield of the rening process was 84.4%, and the alkali-
rening stage was the step that produced the highest
oil losses (12.4%), as a great amount of fatty and
non-fatty components of the crude oil were removed
by ltration. Furthermore, part of the oil is lost
during the elimination of emulsion formed with the
soap produced in this stage. This loss is typical in
laboratory process, but it can be reduced at industrial
scale.
Crude sardine oil physical quality during the rening
The sardine oil density and refractive index were
practically constants through the rening stages
(Table 1). However, the physical aspect of the sardine
oil was improved by a signicant reduction of the red
coloration (p 5 0.05), mainly after the bleaching stage.
The nal rened sardine oil showed a brilliant and trans-
parent light yellow color (20A84.1R). This coloration is
within the standards for deodorized sh oils (Young,
1985). The color of oils is a determining factor in
quality because dark-colored oils require high-cost
processing to achieve an acceptable light-colored product.
Neutralized Bleached Deodorized
0.919+0.002a 0.9200+0.000a 0.9170+0.000a
1.4769+0.001a 1.4770+0.002a 1.4769+0.001a
9.5500+0.49b 3.7500+0.353c 4.1500+0.212c
176 J.A. Noriega-Rodrguez et al.

analysis of volatile compounds (p-anisidine method)

Crude sardine oil chemical quality during the rening
The rening process removed the 75.3% of the FFA of
the crude sardine oil. The most eective stage to remove
the FFA was the alkali-rening, where the initial
content of 0.21% was reduced to 0.08% (Table 2). In
contrast, the bleaching stage increased to 0.12% the
FFA content. This eect was probably because of
partial-hydrolysis of triacylglycerides caused by the
diatomaceous earths activated with acid that were used
at relatively high temperature of 908C (Jung, Yoon, &
Min, 1989). The FFA value can be used as indicator of
the eciency of the deodorization process, as the
impurities present in crude oils (aldehydes and ketones
that confer to the oil a disagreeable odor) have vapor
pressures similar to those of the FFA (De Greyt &
Kellens, 2005).
The rening process reduced the PV by 92% of the
crude sardine oil. During the alkali-rening stage, the
PV decreased to 4.16 meq/kg, whereas in the bleaching
stage this value increased to 5.98 meq/kg. This eect
might have occurred because of the type and amount
of earth used during this process (Zschau, 2000). In this
work, the rening process diminished signicantly the
FFA (0.052%) and PV (0.81 mEq/kg) content at levels
below the quality standard for sh oils (Bimbo, 1998).
This reduction in acid and peroxide value imply that
there was an improvement in oil quality, as it decreased
the susceptibility of the rened oil to rancidity and thus
improve its stability.
To evaluate the oxidative stability of rening
sardine oils, it is important to include the PV and
produced by the oxidation of FFA to aldehydes and
ketones in addition to the OSI determination (De
Greyt & Kellens, 2005). Therefore, in this work, the
signicant (p 5 0.05) reduction of AV (from 3.67 to
1.63 mmol/kg), and increased OSI (from 10.39 to
17.65 h) in the oil (Table 2), conrm that the rening
process was suitable to prepare a stable oil. When
TBHQ was added to the oil (0.02% w/w) as
antioxidant, stability of the oil was greater than 72 h
(data non-reported). This means that it is possible to
produce highly polyunsaturated rened oils, as sardine,
with good oxidative stability through an adequate
rening process and the use of antioxidants.
No signicant changes (p 5 0.05) were detected in
the CD content (dienes, trienes, and pentaenes) during
the rening stages (see Table 2). Nevertheless, con-
jugation of the tetraenoic fatty acids during deodoriza-
tion, was possibly caused by heating of the oil for a
long period (1408C for 5 h), which promotes the
conjugation of the double bonds of PUFA (White,
1994).
The SI value of crude oil (186.85+2.07) was
practically equal to those reported for oils of other
sardine species (Bimbo, 1997). This index was not
altered (p 5 0.05) by the rening process (Table 2).
Moisture of the crude sardine oil was reduced
during the rening process from 0.578 to 0.049%
(Table 2), which lies within quality standard values
(50.2%). Higher moisture values cause deterioration
during the storage and heating of the oil, and should be
avoided (Bimbo, 1998).

Table 2. Evaluation of the chemical quality of crude sardine oil during the rening stages.
Tabla 2. Evaluacion de la calidad qumica del aceite crudo de sardina durante las etapas de la renacion.

Analysis Crude Neutralized Bleached Deodorized

a b c
Free fatty acids (% as oleic acid) 0.21+0.009 0.08+0.000 0.12+0.003 0.05+0.001
Peroxide value (meq/kg) 10.05+0.110a 4.16+0.130b 5.98+0.150c 0.81+0.001d
p-anisidine value (mmol/kg) 3.67+0.290a 3.09+0.080b 2.19+0.070c 1.63+0.160d
Soap (mg/kg of sodium oleate) 0.00+0.000a 0.63+0.001b 0.35+0.007c 0.25+0.016d
Saponication index (mg KOH/g) 186.85+2.070a 187.61+1.130a 183.52+1.470a 187.50+0.219a
Moisture and volatiles (%) 0.57+0.039a 0.10+0.004b 0.07+0.000b 0.04+0.001b
Oxygen stability index (h)* 10.39+0.390a 9.65+0.035a 13.15+0.050b 17.65+0.050c
Phosphorous, P (mg/kg) 1.86+0.200 50.40
Trace metals (mg/kg)
Copper, Cu 0.05+0.001a 0.03+0.002b
Iron, Fe 0.77+0.018a 0.05+0.002b
Calcium, Ca 1.40+0.004a 0.29+0.001b
Magnesium, Mg 0.34+0.002a 0.05+0.001b
Conjugated acids, CA (%)
Dienes 0.606+0.091a 0.524+0.073a 0.465+0.064a 0.337+0.039a
Trienes 0.014+0.001a 0.012+0.002a 0.018+0.001a,b 0.007+0.000a,c
Tetraenes 0.010+0.001a 0.012+0.002a 0.017+0.001a 0.036+0.008b
Pentaenes 0.020+0.001a 0.016+0.001a 0.017+0.001a 0.024+0.009a
Total CA 0.652+0.097a 0.565+0.080a 0.518+0.059a 0.405+0.057a

Values (w/w %) are mean+standard deviation of triplicates. Values in each row with dierent superscripts (ad) indicate signicant dierences (p 5 0.05).
*
Using Rancimat at 608C; 7 L/h of air ow rate. , not determined.
Los valores (w/w %) son la media+desviacion estandar de triplicados. Los valores en cada la con diferente superndice (ad) indican una
diferencia signicativa (p 5 0,05).
*
Usando Rancimat a 608C; 7 L/h de ujo de aire. , no determinado.
 CyTA Journal of Food 177

A low phosphorus level in the crude sardine oil was
found (1.86 mg/kg). The level reported for this element
in crude sh oils varies from 5 to 100 mg/kg (Bimbo,
1998). The phosphorus determination is useful to know
the content of hydrated gums. Degumming is not
usually carried out with animal fats and sh oils
because they are low in phosphatides. Crude oils with
values greater than 100 mg/kg require a degumming
process, before the alkali-rening (Erickson, 1995).
For crude sh oils, the recommended values for
copper and iron were smaller than 0.3 and 0.5 mg/L,
respectively; whereas for rened sh oils, these values
should be below 0.05 mg/kg for copper and 0.12 mg/L
for iron (Young, 1985). In this work, the levels of
copper and iron (pro-oxidants) in the crude and rened
sardine oil, were below these values reported for sh
oils (Table 2). During the rening process, copper was
reduced by 40% and iron by 93.5%. The calcium and
magnesium levels were 1.4 and 0.34 mg/L, respectively.
Rened oils must have contents smaller than 1 mg/L of
calcium and magnesium (Erickson, 1995). Normally,
these elements are present in oils forming non-hydrated
gums with liposoluble phospholipids. These gums are
considered pro-oxidant and can aect oil stability.
Fatty acid composition
The composition of main fatty acids found in the
sardine oil during the rening stages is shown in
Table 3. The fatty acid prole of the crude oil is similar
to previously reported for sardine oils (Ackman, 2005;
Bandarra, Batista, Nunes, Empis, & Christie, 1997;
Gamez-Meza et al., 1999). GC analysis showed that
saturated fatty acids (SFA) represented the most
abundant oil fraction, ranging from 24.98 to 26.62
(w/w %) of oil, followed by PUFAs, which ranged
from 20.48 to 25.02 (w/w %) of oil. The analysis shows
high levels of n-3 PUFAs (17.99 to 22.51 w/w %) in
oils extracted from sardines caught out in the coast of
the Gulf of California. The major fatty acids in sardine
oils were 16:0, 18:1 n-9c, 20:5 n-3c, and 22:6 n-3c,
being 20:5 and 22:6 the highest of the PUFAs, which is
consistent with another recent report (Okada &
Morrissey, 2007).
In the CG/FID analysis of the sardine oil during
the rening stages, trans-FA was not detected. This
could be due to the maximum temperature using
during the rening in this work that was of 1408C.
According to Dinamarca, Garrido, & Valenzuela
(1990), the use of deodorization temperatures higher
than 1408C probably causes a reduction in the content
of EPA and DHA in the sh oil by the formation of
trans fatty acid by thermal degradation. Fairly recent
studies (Fournier et al., 2007; Shativel, Prinyawiwat-
kul, Negulescu, King, & Basnayake, 2003) have shown
that degradation (loss) of PUFA occurred readily at
temperatures above 1808C, cyclization of unsaturated
fatty acids takes place at higher temperatures
(42008C), whereas triacylglycerols polymers and
dimers were found in the polar fraction of deodorized
sh oil at temperatures higher than 2208C. Therefore,
the quality of the rened oil is strongly dependent on
the operation conditions used during rening and
specially during deodorizing. In this work, fatty acids
analysis did not show signicant dierences (p 5 0.05)
in the individual content of these compounds except

Table 3. Fatty acid composition of crude sardine oil during the rening stages.
Tabla 3. Composicion de acidos grasos del aceite crudo de sardina durante las etapas de la renacion.

Fatty acid prole (w/w oil percent)

Fatty acid Crude Neutralized Bleached Deodorized
C14:0 5.58+0.53a 5.14+0.54a 5.65+0.60a 5.65+0.08a
C16:0 17.07+0.29a 16.68+1.36a 17.76+1.22a 17.07+0.08a
C18:0 3.10+0.05a 3.16+0.32a 3.21+0.19a 3.19+0.23a
SFA 25.75+0.94a 24.98+1.95a 26.62+1.83a 25.91+0.13a
C16:1 n-7c 5.57+0.21a 5.50+0.43a 5.76+0.36a 5.71+0.15a
C18:1 n-9c 8.79+1.05a 9.29+1.00a 9.55+0.50a 9.15+0.47a
C20:1 n-9c 2.92+0.23a 2.90+0.15a 3.05+0.22a 2.97+0.13a
C22:1 n-9c 1.31+0.04a 1.29+0.02a 1.32+0.13a 1.18+0.08a
MUFA 18.59+0.99a 18.98+1.60a 19.68+1.21a 19.01+0.28a
C18:2 n-6c 1.24+0.33a 1.36+0.31a 1.45+0.19a 1.34+0.45a
C18:3 n-3c 0.21+0.01a 0.17+0.01a 0.18+0.02a 0.18+0.05a
C18:4 n-3c 1.46+0.14a 1.63+0.12a 1.65+0.04a 1.57+0.13a
C20:4 n-6c 1.25+0.08a 0.97+0.06a 1.06+0.10a 1.42+0.11a
C20:5 n-3c 8.04+1.15a 8.25+0.87a 8.97+0.48a 8.64+0.88a
C22:5 n-3c 1.39+0.09a 1.57+0.21a 1.75+0.12a 0.50+0.88b
C22:6 n-3c 6.89+0.17a 8.81+0.79b 9.96+0.47b 10.16+0.94b
PUFA 20.48+0.75a 22.76+2.17a 25.02+1.40a 23.81+1.52a
n-3 17.99+1.35a 20.43+1.93a,b 22.51+0.91b 21.05+1.95a,b

Values (w/w oil%) are mean+standard deviation of triplicates. Values in the same row with a dierent letter are signicantly dierent (p 5 0.05).
Los valores (w/w oil%) son la media+desviacion estandar de triplicados. Los valores en cada la con diferente letra indican una diferencia
signicativa (p 5 0,05).
178 J.A. Noriega-Rodrguez et al.
DHA, which was slightly increased during rening
process. Then, the conditions used in the oil rening
process kept the initial composition and the chemical
structure of fatty acids.
Conclusion
A study on the lipid fraction of whole sardine (S. Sagax
caerulea) was carried out during rening process through
the determination of physical and chemicals properties.
All parameters for chemical quality of sardine oil are in
accordance with the recommendation for the process of
rening sh oils. This brought a notable improvement in
the quality of the sh oil in terms of color, odors, and
oxidative stability. On the basis of these improved
characteristics and the market value, rened sardine oil
from sh meal factories could be suitable for applica-
tions as nutraceutical in the food industry.
References
Ackman, R.G. (2005). Fish oils. In F. Shahidi (Ed.), Baileys
industrial oil and fat products (6th ed., Vol. 3, pp. 279
317). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
AOCS (1998). In D. Firestone (Ed.), Ocial methods and
recommended practices of the American Oil Chemists
Society (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: AOCS Press.
Bandarra, N.M., Batista, I., Nunes, M.L., Empis, J.M., &
Christie, W.W. (1997). Seasonal changes in lipid compo-
sition of sardine (Sardina pilchardus). Journal of Food
Science, 62, 4042.
Berdeaux, O., Fournier, V., Lambelet, P., Dionisi, F.,
Sebedio, J.L., & Destaillats, F. (2007). Isolation and
structural analysis of the cyclic fatty acids monomers
formed from eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic
acids during sh oil deodorization. Journal of Chromato-
graphy A, 1138, 216224.
Bimbo, A.P. (1997). Menhaden oil: The GRAS petition from
hell. Inform, 8, 10691074.
Bimbo, A.P. (1998). Guidelines for characterizing food-grade
sh oil. Inform, 9, 473483.
Bimbo, A.P. (2007). Processing of marine oils. In H. Breivik
(Ed.), Long-chain omega-3 specialty oils (pp. 77109).
Oily Press Lipid Library. Bridgwater, UK: P.J. Barnes &
Associates.
Bougnoux, P. (1999). n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and
cancer. Clinical Nutrition Metabolic Care, 2, 121126.
Cleland, L.G., Caughey, G.E., James, M.J., & Proudman,
S.M. (2006). Reduction of cardiovascular risk factors
with long term sh oil treatment in early rheumatoid
arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology, 33, 19731979.
CONAPESCA (2007). Anuario Estadstico de la Produccion
Pesquera y Acucola 20002005. Retrieved December 2,
2007, from Secretara de Agricultura, Ganadera y
Recursos Pesqueros.
Costa, A.G.V., Bressan, J., & Sabarense, C.M. (2006).
Trans fatty acids: Foods and eects on health. Archivos
Latinoamericanos de Nutricion, 56, 1221.
De Greyt, W., & Kellens, M. (2005). Deodorization. In
F. Shahidi (Ed.), Baileys industrial oil and fat products:
Processing technology (6th ed., Vol. 5). New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons.
Dickson, J.H., Allison, D.B., Denke, M.A., Dietschy, J.M.,
Emken, E.A., & Nicolosi, R.J. (1995). Trans fatty acids
and coronary heart disease risk. American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition, 62, 655S708S.
Dijkstra, A.J., & Meert, D. (1982). Determination of trace
elements in oils by plasma emission spectroscopy. Journal
of the American Chemists Society, 59, 199204.
Dinamarca, E., Garrido, F., & Valenzuela, A. (1990). Simple
high vacuum distillation equipment for deodorizing sh
oil for human consumption. Lipids, 25, 170171.
Erickson, D.R. (1995). Degumming and lecithin processing
and utilization. Practical handbook of soybean processing
and utilization (pp. 174183). Champaign, IL, USA:
AOCS press.
Fournier, V., Destaillats, F., Lambelet, P., Dionisi, F.,
Sebedio, J.L., & Berdeaux, O. (2007). Degradation
products formed from long-chain PUFA during deodor-
izing of sh oil. Lipid Technology, 19, 911.
Gamez-Meza, N., Higuera, I., Calderon, A.M., Vazquez, L.,
Noriega-Rodrguez, J., et al. (1999). Seasonal variation in
the fatty acid composition and quality of sardine oil from
Sardinops sagax caerulea of the Gulf of California.
Lipids, 34, 639642.
Hals, J., Bjerve, K.S., Nilsen, H., Svalastog, A.G., & Ek, J.
(2000). Essential fatty acids in the nutrition of severely
neurologically disabled children. Journal of Nutrition, 83,
219225.
Jung, M.Y., Yoon, S.H., & Min, D.B. (1989). Eects of
processing steps on the content of minor compounds and
oxidation of soybean oil. Journal of the American Oil
Chemists Society, 66, 118120.
Kolanowski, W., & Laufenberg, G. (2006). Enrichment of
food products with polyunsaturated fatty acids by sh oil
addition. European Food Research and Technology, 222,
472477.
Lemaitre, R.N., King, I.B., Mozaarian, D., Sootodehnia, N.,
& Siscovick, D.S. (2006). Trans-fatty acids and sudden
cardiac death. Atherosclerosis Supplements, 7, 1315.
Leth, T., Bysted, A., Hansen, K., & Ovesen, L. (2003). Trans
FA content in Danish margarines and shortenings.
Journal of the American Chemists Society, 80, 475478.
Li, D., Bode, O., Drummond, H., & Sinclair, A.J. (2003).
Omega 3 (n-3) fatty acids. In F.D. Gunstone (Ed.), Lipids
for functional foods and nutraceuticals (pp. 225262).
Bridgewater, UK: Oily Press.
Liu, W.H., Inbaraj, B.S., & Chen, B.H. (2007). Analysis and
formation of trans fatty acids in hydrogenated soybean
oil during heating. Food Chemistry, 104, 17401749.
Mantzioris, E., Cleland, L.G., & Gibson, R.A. (2000).
Biochemical eects of a diet containing foods enriched
with n-3 fatty acids in sh oil. American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition, 72, 4248.
Mendez, E., Sanhuez, J., Speisky, H., & Valenzuela, A.
(1996). Validation of the Rancimat test for the assess-
ment of the relative stability of sh oil. Journal of the
American Chemists Society, 73, 10331037.
Morgado, N., Sanhueza, J., Nieto, S., & Valenzuela, A.
(2003). Eect of the degree of hydrogenation of sh oil on
the enzymatic activity and on the fatty acid composition
of hepatic microsomes from young and aged rats. Annals
of Nutrition and Metabolism, 47, 124131.
Moriya, H., Kuniminato, T., Hosokawa, M., Fukunaga, K.,
Nishiyama, T., & Miyashita, K. (2007). Oxidative
stability of salmon and herring roe lipids and their
dietary eect on plasma cholesterol levels of rats.
Fisheries Science, 73, 668674.
Mossoba, M.M., Kramer, J.K.G., Delmonte, P., Yurawecz,
M.P., & Rader, J.I. (2003). Ocial methods for the
determination of trans fat. Champaign, IL: AOCS Press.
Okada, T., & Morrissey, M.T. (2007). Recovery and
characterization of sardine oil extracted by pH adjust-
ment. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 55, 1808
1813.

Sang, W., & Jin, Z.T. (2004). Lipid oxidation of sh liver oil
as aected by light, antioxidants and temperature.
Journal of Food Processing Preservation, 28, 110.
Shahidi, F. (2005). Edible oil and fat products: Processing
technology. Baileys industrial oil and fat products (6th ed.,
Vol. 4). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Shativel, S., Prinyawiwatkul, W., Negulescu, I.I., King, J.M.,
& Basnayake, B.F.A. (2003). Thermal degradation of FA
in catsh and menhaden oils at dierent rening steps.
Journal of the American Chemists Society, 80, 11311134.
White, P.J. (1994). Conjugated diene, anisidine value, and
carbonyl value analyses. In K. Warner & N.A. Michael
Eskin (Eds.), Methods to assess quality and stability of oils
and fat-containing foods (pp. 159178). Champaign, IL:
AOCS press.
CyTA Journal of Food 179
Young, F.V.K. (1985). The rening and hydrogenation of
sh oil (International Association of Fish Meal
Manufacturers. Fish Oil Bulletin No. 17. 67). St Albans,
UK.
Young, J. (2003). Introduction. In D. Gunstone Frank (Ed.),
Lipids for functional foods and nutraceuticals (pp. 123).
Bridgwater, UK: Oily Press.
Zschau, W. (2000). Bleaching. In R.D. O Brien & W.W.P.
Farr (Eds.), Introduction to fats and oils technology (2nd
ed., pp. 158178). Champaign, IL: AOCS Press.