Fluid Mechanics: Open Channel Flow

7.0 Open Channel Flow

Open channel flow refers to the flow of liquids in channels open to the atmosphere or
in partially filled conduits and is characterized by the presence of a liquid-gas
interface called free surface. The examples include the river flowing in a ravine and
water flow down in the drain. Open channel flow can be divided into steady flow and
unsteady flow. The flow is steady when the flow depth and average velocity does not
vary with along the channel, and vice versa for unsteady flow.

This chapter will only introduce three concepts to be studied: (1) hydraulic diameter
and Reynolds number; (2) specific energy; and (3) Froude number.

7.1 Hydraulic Diameter and Reynolds number

When the flow depth is constant along the channel, the flow is named as uniform flow.
Uniform flow happens when the slope, roughness and cross section of the channel is
constant. The depth during uniform flow is known as normal depth, yn.

In contrast, if the flow depth is varying along the channel, the flow is called non-
uniform flow. Non-uniformed flow can be divided into two categories, the gradually
varied flow and rapidly varied flow.

The Reynolds number, Re for an open-channel flow is mathematically defined as:

= (7.1)

Rh is hydraulic radius, which is defined as:

=
(7.2)

whereAc is cross sectional flow area and p is the perimeter, both are wetted surface.
For instance, consider a circular channel (in Figure 1),

1
= 2 ( 2 2) + 2 sin( ) cos( ) 2

= 2 + 2 sin( ) cos( )

= 2 + 2 [sin() cos() sin() cos()][cos() cos() sin() sin()]

= 2 + 2 [0 sin() (1)][(1) cos() 0]

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Fluid Mechanics: Open Channel Flow

= 2 2 [sin()][cos()]

= 2 ( sin cos ) (7.3)

= 2 (7.4)

Substitute Equation (7.3) and (7.4) into (7.2), the hydraulic radius for the circular
channel is:

2 (sin cos ) (sin cos )

= = (7.5)
2 2

The Rh is varying for different kind of cross sectional shape and flow depth. This is
shown in Figure 1. The result of Reynolds number is therefore:

(sin cos )
= (7.6)
2

Figure 7.1. Hydraulic radius for channels of different cross sectional shape. (Taken from: engel, Y.,
&Cimbala, J. (2014). Fluid mechanics: Fundamentals and applications (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.)

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Fluid Mechanics: Open Channel Flow

7.2 Specific Energy

Recall from the Bernoulli equation which relates the flow energy, inertia energy and
potential/gravitational energy as the mechanical energy (E) as shown in Equation
(7.7).

2
+ 2 + = (7.7)

In open channel flow, the depth is represented by z, therefore y is replacing z. All the
flow is subjected to the similar pressure since it is opened up to the atmospheric
pressure. Therefore, the pressure difference can be ignore, and only inertia and
gravity effect is considered. Equation (7.7) is simplified into Equation (7.8).

2
= 2 + (7.8)

Recall that the volumetric flow rate, = , let the channel to be a rectangular with
the width (b) then,

= = (7.9)

Substitute Equation (7.9) into Equation (7.8),

= = + (7.10)

The mechanical energy (E) in Equation (7.10) is more famously known as specific
energy (Es) in the study of open channel flow, which is actually one form of
mechanical energy which contains the inertia effect and potential effect.

The relationship between Es and y in Equation (7.10) can be plotted and represented
as in Figure 7.2 as follows.

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Fluid Mechanics: Open Channel Flow

Case C

Case B

Case A

Figure 7.2. Relationship between specific energy and flow depth in open channel. (Modified
and taken from: engel, Y., &Cimbala, J. (2014). Fluid mechanics: Fundamentals and
applications (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.)

7.3 Froude number (Fr)

From Figure 2, there are three regions of flow:

A. The region in which the increment of y has resulted in the effect of decreasingEs.
B. The region in which the change of y does not change the Es.
C. The region in which the increment of y has resulted in the effect ofincreasingEs.

These cases can be represented mathematically in Equation (7.11) to (7.13)

respectively.

<0 (7.11)

=0 (7.12)

>0 (7.13)

Solve Equation (7.11) (7.13) using Equation (7.10) will give:

2 2 2 3 2
= ( + ) = 2 + 1 = +1<0
2 2 2 2 2 3

2
>1 (7.14)
2 3

2
=1 (7.15)
2 3

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Fluid Mechanics: Open Channel Flow

2
<1 (7.16)
2 3

Substitute Equation (7.9) into Equation (7.14) - (7.16):

2
>1 (7.17)

2
=1 (7.18)

2
<1 (7.19)

2
In order to represent Equation (7.17) and (7.19) better, the term can be reduced to

so that stands for flow speed while stands for wave speed1. The term

here is actually the so-called Froude number (Fr). Therefore, the Froude number can
be physically defined in two ways:

1. The ratio between the flow speed () and wave speed ()

2. The ratio between inertia effect () and gravitational effect ()

Meanwhile the mathematical definition of Fr is:

= (7.20)

For Case A, where Fr > 1 (higher inertia effect), it is named as supercritical flow. For
Case B, where Fr = 1 (equivalent inertia and gravitational effect), it is named as
critical flow. For Case C, where Fr < 1 (higher gravitational effect), it is named as
subcritical flow. Case A, Case B and Case C can be presented in Figure 3.

At Case A (supercritical flow), the speed will be very high with the cost of reduced
depth. At Case C (subcritical flow), the speed will slow down and it will be
compensated with the increase of depth. Upon some distance, the flow will gradually
strike a balance between the speed and the depth, to reach Case B (critical flow).

1
The derivation of wave speed can be referred to page 731-732 from the book: engel, Y., & Cimbala,
J. (2014). Fluid mechanics: Fundamentals and applications (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
The derivation is omitted here.

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Fluid Mechanics: Open Channel Flow

The flow will become the

critical flow when the
fluid keeps traveling.

Figure 7.3. Formation of subcritical and supercritical flow from a sluice gate. (Modified and
taken from: engel, Y., & Cimbala, J. (2014). Fluid mechanics: Fundamentals and
applications (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.)

Examples:

1. (a) From Bernoulli Equation, by considering an open rectangular channel,

derive the formula of specific energy(Es) in terms of volumetric flow rate (V).
(b) Derive the formula for volumetric flow rate ( ) when the flow is in
critical flow region.
(c) If the depth of the fluid is 0.50-m with channel width 1-m, determine
the volumetric flow rate ( ) of the flow.

2. Given the following specific energy equation:

2 2
= +
2 2
(a) Derive the equation for Froude number (Fr).
(b) Describe the types of flow region in open channel flow using Fr.
(c) Water at 20C flows in a partially full 2 m diameter circular channel at
an average velocity of 2 m/s. If the maximum water depth is 0.5 m,
determine the hydraulic radius, the Reynolds number, and the flow
regime.

3. Water at 15C is flowing uniformly in a 2 m wide rectangular channel at an

average velocity of 4 m/s. If the water depth is 8 cm, determine whether the
flow is subcritical or supercritical.