Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228

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A Late Pleistocene and Holocene pollen and charcoal record from

peat swamp forest, Lake Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West
Kalimantan, Indonesia
Gusti Anshari*, A. Peter Kershaw, Sander van der Kaars
Centre for Palynology and Palaeoecology, School of Geography and Environmental Science, Monash University, Monash, Vic. 3800, Australia
Received 20 October 1999; received in revised form 20 April 2000; accepted for publication 25 September 2000

Abstract
A preliminary palynological record is presented from a peat swamp forest in the Upper Kapuas River Basin in West
Kalimantan. Although the record is discontinuous, it provides a picture of changing vegetation, riverine and swamp environ-
ments, and climate through parts of at least the last 30,000 years. During the Late Pleistocene, the composition of both riverine
and swamp forests was different to that of the Holocene. Temperatures were cooler, especially during the Last Glacial
Maximum, as indicated by the presence of components of submontane and montane vegetation. The presence of charcoal
demonstrates that the tropical lowland forests experienced re through the whole of the recorded period. However, charcoal
values generally rise through the period suggesting increased human impact through time. Highest burning levels and forest
indicators of disturbance indicate most intensive human impact within the last 1400 years. q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Quaternary; Indonesia; Palynology; Peatland forest; Climate change; Biomass burning

1. Introduction and local inuences of sea level variation and vegeta-

Late Quaternary records of environmental change
in the Indonesian region, derived from pollen analy-
sis, have largely focused on montane environments,
which have been sensitive to changes in temperature
but have revealed little information regarding changes
in precipitation, a critical variable within this region
(Flenley, 1998). Some attention has been paid to
coastal swamp forests (Anderson and Muller, 1975;
Caratini and Tissot, 1988; Morley, 1981) (see Fig. 1)
but records have been limited to the Holocene period
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 161-3-9905-2929; fax.: 161-3-
9905-2948.
E-mail address: gusti.anshari@arts.monash.edu.au (G. Anshari).
0031-0182/01/$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0031-018 2(01)00246-2
tion succession have masked regional environmental
changes. More recently, lowland records have been
constructed from discrete basins within lowland
areas (Hope and Tulip, 1994; Van der Kaars et al.,
2001) but these sites are also near coastal in their
location.
A study has been initiated in the Lake Sentarum
Wildlife Reserve of West Kalimantan, which is situ-
ated in the central part of the island of Borneo (Fig. 1),
primarily to provide an inland, and more regional,
record of environmental change. The area was
selected also because it possesses some unique char-
acteristics and a knowledge of the history may contri-
bute to the future management of what is a very
sensitive system. Lake Sentarum is an extensive
214 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228

Fig. 1. Location of study area within the Indonesian region and with respect to previous palynological studies at Berakas and Marudi (Anderson
and Muller, 1975), Sebangau (Morley, 1981) and Mahakam Delta (Caratini and Tissot, 1988).

uviolacustrine basin, much of which is ooded
during wet seasons when incoming rivers ll some
80 lakes. These lakes partially or totally drain during
dry periods. Interuve areas largely support a range of
swamp forests that are inundated to varying degrees.
Due to this environmental variability, exacerbated by
the strong inuence that the El NinoSouthern Oscil-
lation exerts on the hydrology and other environ-
mental components, the system is delicately
balanced. The stability of the system is further inu-
enced by the large number of landuses, despite the
reserve status of the basin. The local Dayak popula-
tion, mainly the Iban tribe, traditionally practice shift-
ing cultivation in the dry land areas and wet rice
paddy cultivation in swamp environments, while the
Malays engage in intensive commercial shing within
the lakes. Further disturbance to forests results from
local timber usage, commercial logging by private
companies, and forest re.
This paper presents results of the pollen and char-
coal analysis of one core (HN3) extracted from a peat
swamp forest in the vicinity of Lake Pemerak, a small
lake near the Tawang river (see Fig. 2). The core was
taken in late August 1997, during an extremely dry
period attributed to El Nino. At this time, most lakes
in the reserve were totally dry while peat swamp
forest appeared to maintain relatively high water
tables. The signicance of ENSO and human inu-
ences appeared very evident at the time of eldwork
as the exceptionally dry conditions restricted access
into the lakes any further than Lake Pemerak, while a
hazardous plane landing at Pontianak airport and
subsequent, continuous haze paid testimony to the
opportunistic burning practised throughout the island
as a result of the severe drought conditions.
2. The study area
Lake Sentarum Wildlife Reserve is located in the
upper Kapuas River basin, some 700 km east of
Pontianak, the capital of West Kalimantan Province
G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228 215

Fig. 2. Location of the study site.

216 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
(Fig. 2). The reserve, which lies virtually on the equa-
tor at an altitude of between 35 and 50 m asl, contains
some 80 seasonal and shallow lakes that can be
regarded as temporary oodplain extensions of the
Kapuas River. These lakes occupy 27% of the total
80,000 hectares of the reserve. The remaining area
consists mainly of seasonally or permanently ooded
swamp forests (Giesen, 1996).
The geology of the reserve is poorly known. The
sediments are mainly clays in the lake basins and
peats and peat soils in the terrestrial lowlands with
sandstone forming the surrounding hills. The low
nutrient status of parent soils materials has been
considered to be responsible for the stunted and
pole-like nature of the vegetation around the lakes
(Giesen, 1996). However, structural features of the
vegetation may also be a result of regular oods that
produce an inundated environment.
The upper Kapuas basin experiences a wet tropical
climate with average annual rainfall estimated to be
over 4000 mm. Rainfall exhibits some seasonality
with a weak monsoon inuence extending from
August to May. The wettest months are November
and April while the driest months, which still average
at least 100 mm of rainfall, are June to August
(MacKinnon et al., 1996). However, Borneo regularly
faces seasonal droughts. El NinoSouthern Oscilla-
tion (ENSO) is being increasingly recognised as a
major inuence on interannual rainfall variability
and consequently on lake level uctuations. The few
temperature measurements available suggest a range
of between 30 and 368C during the day and between
23 and 298C at night throughout the year.
Several types of forest dominate the region. Tropi-
cal lowland forests grow in the hills, tall swamp
forests are common on peat soils while stunted and
dwarf swamp forests are found in riparian habitats.
Floating grass mats occur within the lakes. Agricul-
tural elds, mainly swiddens, are common in upland
sites, usually close to human settlements. Plant divers-
ity is not very high, at least in comparison to other
lowland tropical forests in Borneo. The common plant
families found in the reserve are Dipterocarpaceae
(40 species), Euphorbiaceae (36 species), Rubiaceae
(35 species), Myrtaceae (26 species), Fabaceae (21
species), Lauraceae (20 species), Melastomaceae (20
species), Guttiferae (19 species), Moraceae (14
species), and Arecaceae (14 species). About three-
quarters (73%) of these families are trees and shrubs
(Giesen, 1996).
The upper Kapuas basin is surrounded on its
northern, eastern and southern boundaries by chains
of low mountain ranges. These chains mark the
boundaries between Sarawak and West Kalimantan
in the north and West and Central Kalimantan in the
south (Fig. 2). Occasional peaks, rising to above
2000 m asl., support both lower and upper montane
vegetation and these occurrences are between 100 and
200 km from the study site. Some information on the
nature of vegetation associated with the highest of
these mountains, Bukit Raya (Fig. 2), is provided in
Nooteboom (1987) although detailed description is
restricted to lowland forest in the foothills. An altitu-
dinal transect of surface pollen samples from above
1670 m revealed very high percentages of the oaks
(Lithocarpus/Castanopsis and or Quercus), indicative
of lower montane forest, to about 2000 m, and signi-
cant percentages of Ericaceae (including Vaccinium
and Rhododendron types), well represented in upper
montane forest, above this altitude (Maloney, 1987).
The southern conifers, Dacrydium, Podocarpus,
Dacrycarpus and Phyllocladus were also recorded.
Of these taxa, only Lithocarpus/Castanopsis and
Dacrydium have been detected growing in the Lake
Sentarum area. The surface samples also showed high
levels of ferns and Casuarinaceae, and Myrtaceae
above 2000 m.
3. The study site
Lake Pemerak represents the ooded area of a
small river that originates in the surrounding hills
and disgorges into the Tawang River (Fig. 2). At
the time of eldwork, the basin was dry except for
a reduced meandering river channel. The basin
was sparsely vegetated with low growing grasses
and sedges, except around the margins that supported
a riparian tree cover of Barringtonia agutanguia.
Tree cover was dense at the very margins but
became progressively lower and more open into
the lake basin. The lake margin was dened by a
terrace that became more pronounced downstream
from about 1 m adjacent to the coring site to about
10 m near the conuence with the Tawang River.
Rainforest surrounds the lake and in places, like the
G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228 217
Fig. 3. Pollen diagram from Pemerak peat Core HN3.
218 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
Fig. 3. (continued)
G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228 219
Fig. 3. (continued)
220 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
Fig. 3. (continued)
 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228 221

Table 1
Radiocarbon dates from Pemerak peat Core HN3. Calibrated ages were calculated using CALIB 4.2 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993), calibrated age
in years B.P. and two sigma range are given

Sample ID Depth (cm) Radiocarbon age (years B.P.) Calibrated age (years B.P.) d 13C () Remarks

OZE-133 1415 265 ^ 35 300 (430153) 230.0 AMS date

Wk-6278 4142 1366 ^ 72 1290 (14071171) 229.9 AMS date
OZE-134 6061 2290 ^ 50 3075 (32402888) 230.0 AMS date
Wk-6275 6768 3117 ^ 57 3355 (34673170) 229.4 AMS date
OZE-135 7172 13070 ^ 70 15713 (1619014652) 229.5 AMS date
Wk-6277 91.592.5 16840 ^ 120 20058 (2075819393) 229.5 AMS date
OZE-136 9495 28600 ^ 250 230.0 AMS date
Wk-5779 104124 28780 ^ 100 230.1 ^ 0.2 Conventional date

coring area, occurs on peat that extends to the lake
edge.
4. Field and laboratory methods
The core, 124 cm in length, was collected with a
modied Livingstone sampler within the swamp
forest about 100 m from the lake. It was wrapped in
plastic and protected in PVC tubing. In the laboratory
1 cm slices were taken at 4 cm intervals along the core
length. From each slice an uncontaminated cm 3 was
extracted for pollen analysis while the remainder of
the sediment was oven dried for 24 h at 1008C to
allow a measure of the water content, and dried sedi-
ment ignited in a furnace at 5508C to remove the
organic content and provide an estimate of the in-
organic matter content. A basal sample was taken
originally for conventional radiocarbon dating to get
some general estimate of the age of the sequence.
Subsequently, additional samples were submitted for
accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating to
age major changes in the constructed pollen record.
These samples were pretreated in a similar manner to
those for pollen analysis in an attempt to exclude
possible contamination from penetrating roots and
mobile humic acids. Determinations were made at
the University of Waikato Laboratory in New Zealand
and the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organisation (ANSTO).
A standard methodology was followed to concen-
trate the pollen (Lowe et al., 1996). Initially, each
sample was disaggregated in 10% Na-pyrophosphate
for 24 h before sieving through a 180 mm mesh to
remove larger fragments. The residue was then
ltered through a 7 mm sieve to remove ne particles
before the dissolution of cellulose substances by a
10 min acetolysis. Remaining organics were then
separated from mineral matter using the heavy liquid,
sodium polytungstate, and the residue washed in
acetic acid, distilled water and 100% ethanol before
being mounted on microscope slides in glycerol.
Pollen counts were undertaken on an Olympus BH-2
microscope at a magnication of 750. Initial iden-
tications were veried using a 100 oil immersion
objective, giving a magnication of 1875. A total
of 200 pollen grains per sample were counted where
possible but, due to low pollen concentrations, only
about 100 pollen grains were counted in some
samples. Identication was assisted by comparison
with reference slides in the collection of the Centre
of Palynology and Palaeoecology, School of Geo-
graphy and Environmental Science, Monash Univer-
sity, and published pollen oras especially Huang
(1972) and Tissot et al. (1994). Most taxa could
only be identied to genus level while a proportion
of pollen types, between about 10 and 20% in indivi-
dual samples, could not be identied. All black,
opaque, angular particles, greater than or equal to
10m maximum diameter, were counted as charcoal
particles along three transects from each pollen slide.
5. Stratigraphy and dating of Core HN3
The core can be divided into three sections on the
physical nature of the peat sediment. The upper
section from 0 to 66 cm depth is brous (bris) peat
222 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
with wood remains, the middle section from 66 to
95 cm is humied and compact sapris peat, while
the bottom section is sub-brous peat (Fig. 3). The
base of this peat deposit was not reached. The Munsell
colours of these sections overlap, from dull yellowish
brown (10Y R4/3) to brown (10YR4/4). Moisture
content averages 78% of wet weight with the top
section slightly wetter than the lower sections while
the inorganic residue after ignition is extremely low,
averaging only 3%.
Results of radiocarbon dating are presented in
Table 1. At a depth between 104 and 124 cm, the
conventional radiocarbon age is 28,780 ^ 10 years
B.P. The seven AMS dates are younger and all dates
conform to the stratigraphic sequence.
6. The pollen diagrams
All pollen and charcoal data, along with features of
the core stratigraphy and radiocarbon dates, are shown
in Fig. 3ad. Fig. 3a provides a summary of strati-
graphic and pollen data with the sums of pterido-
phytes and indeterminate or unidentied taxa
percentaged against the sum of trees and shrubs plus
herbs. In Fig. 3bd, total woody plant pollen provides
the sum on which percentages for all taxa from each
stratigraphic level are based. Herbaceous taxa, repre-
sented only by Poaceae and Cyperaceae, and pterido-
phyte taxa are excluded from the sum. Woody plant
taxa, which are predominantly trees, are divided into
broad ecological groups although, as indicated by the
categories, lowland peatland/riparian and lowland
peatland/dryland, there is substantial overlap between
groups as a great deal of ecological diversity is
contained within many represented taxa. In addition,
the identication status of taxa is variable. The sufx
`comp.' indicates that the pollen grain compares well
with the given taxon although this does not exclude
the possibility that it could be derived from another,
closely related, taxon whose pollen is not represented
in the reference collection. The sufx `type' relates
more generally to a group of taxa of which the most
likely one is named. Pollen morphological sufxes are
added to taxa either to indicate a particular type within
that taxon or where, in the case of `monolote' and
`trilete', the pteridophyte spores have either lost
their exosporia preventing more rened identication
or to fern taxa whose taxonomic status is unknown.
Concentrations of total pollen and charcoal particles
per cm 3 and charcoal values expressed as percentages
of the pollen sum, i.e. charcoal/pollen ratios, are
included in Fig. 3d.
The diagrams were constructed using the program
TILIA 2.0 B4 (Grimm 1991) and zoned with the aid
of a stratigraphically constrained classication sub-
routine (CONISS) contained within the TILIA pro-
gram. All taxa were used as input into CONISS.
The CONISS dendrogram is included on Fig. 3a and
allowed the recognition of 6 zones. Zones B3-B1
show high levels of internal spectrum similarity
except for the topmost sample of zone B1 (the surface
sample). As the difference between this sample and
others in B1 is the result largely of a single high value
for Gymonstoma sumatrana, it is considered that this
is insufcient to warrant a separate zone allocation.
Internal variation between samples is greater in the
lower zones of B6B4 but, again, much of this varia-
tion is caused by occasional high taxon values which
do not alter the general composition of zones.
6.1. Zone B6 (120110 cm): .ca. 30,000 years B.P.
This basal zone has consistent representation of the
riparian tree Gluta renghas and relatively high values
for Ilex, palms, Gonystylus bancanus, Meliaceae/
Sapotaceae and Rosaceae within the peat forest
component. The three latter taxa, together with the
palm taxon with small echinae (spines) are also char-
acteristic of this zone. Pteridophyte representation is
high with signicant contributions from Polypodia-
ceae type and from both Monolete and Trilete spores.
Pollen and charcoal concentrations are low but the
charcoal/pollen ratio is notable.
6.2. Zone B5 (11094 cm): ca. 30,00028,000 years
B.P.
This zone shows similar values for riparian taxa
including relatively high Gluta renghas percentages
to those in zone B6, but no other consistently high
woody plant percentages apart from Palaquium
Type 1, whose values rise abruptly at the beginning
of the zone and Ilex whose percentages are maintained
from zone B6. There are notable percentages of Ster-
culiaceae, Sterculiaceae (Reevesia comp.) and Tecoma
comp. in one or more samples. The Pteridophyte
 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
percentages are very similar to those in the basal zone
but concentrations are much higher. Charcoal values
are, on average, the lowest for the whole record.
6.3. Zone B4 (9466 cm): ca. 17,00013,000 years
B.P.
This zone shows strong pollen domination by Gluta
renghas and Palaquium Type 1. There is highest
representation for the diagram of Sterculiaceae
(Reevesia comp.), Quercus, Longetia and the Podo-
carpaceae, including Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Phyl-
locladus which are all restricted to the zone, and
Podocarpus, as well as a peak towards the top of the
zone in Gymnostoma. Pteridophytes also have their
highest percentages, largely due to very high values
of Trilete spores and additional signicant presence,
except for the top two samples, of Lycopodium
cernuum and L. phlegmaria. Pollen and charcoal
concentrations achieve high levels and there is a
strong increase in the charcoal/pollen ratio.
6.4. Zone B3 (6640 cm): ca. 30001350 years B.P.
There are major changes at or close to the zone B4-
3 boundary with sustained sharp declines in Gluta
renghas and Palaquium Type 1 and the pteridophytes
Monolete and Trilete spores as well as Polypodiaceae
type, sustained increases in Calophyllum and Com-
bretocarpus rotundus and generally higher values
for the riparian taxa Anacardiaceae type, Baccaurea
type and Carallia, and for the herbs Poaceae and
Cyperaceae. The riverine taxon Barringtonia occurs
for the rst time.The zone is characterised by high
values for Planchonella type and Nephelium. This
and the previous zones are the only ones containing
more than the occasional value of Ericaceae (probably
derived from Rhododendron or Vaccinium). Pollen
concentrations are slightly reduced, those of charcoal
are variable but include highest values for the
diagram, while the charcoal/pollen ratio is similar to
that in the previous zone.
6.5. Zone B2 (4018 cm): ca. 1350300 years B.P.
There is little consistent change in the woody plant
spectra from the previous zone, apart from a strong
increase in Pandanus, with the only other major
features being a further decrease in pteridophytes,
223
assisted by the near elimination of Lycopodium
species, and higher values of herbaceous taxa, parti-
cularly Poaceae. Pollen and charcoal concentrations
are low but there are high values in the charcoal/
pollen ratio.
6.6. Zone B1 (180 cm): ca. 3000 years B.P.
The base of the zone is marked by the rst presence
and substantial representation of Palaquium type II
while Gymnostoma increases substantially through
the zone. Rutaceae type and Trema, both of which
are rst recorded in the top sample of zone B2, are
well represented. The herbs Cyperaceae and Poaceae
maintain signicant representation but values do not
achieve those recorded in the previous zone. Pollen
concentrations continue to be low but there is a
marked increase in charcoal concentrations and
attainment of highest average charcoal/pollen ratios
for the record.
7. Vegetation and environmental reconstruction
The topmost samples of the core provide some
basis for interpretation of the record in that they can
be compared directly with the present day landscape.
The extremely high proportion of rainforest taxa, most
of which can be found in peat swamp forests, reects
well the local vegetation and suggests that most pollen
may be derived from trees growing in close proximity
to the core site. Unfortunately there are few vegetation
data to allow a more detailed assessment of pollen/
vegetation relationships. The vegetation of nearby
Lake Pemarak is probably reected in the values for
Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Barringtonia, in particular,
while the charcoal level would be reecting the
degree of burning that was noted to have taken
place both within the forest and on the dry lake
surface where there was sufcient fuel to burn, during
the present dry period. Disturbance to the forest itself
is best indicated by the signicant values for indicator
taxa such as Trema, Terminalia and Pandanus.
In reconstructing the history of the site, it must be
stressed that it is likely that only short periods of time
within the last 30,000 years or so are represented.
Estimates of average rates of tropical peat accumula-
tion from elsewhere in Indonesia suggest values of
between 0.3 and 13.3 mm/yr (Neuzil, 1997) and
224 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
even using the lowest gure, an accumulation of some
10 m rather than 1.24 m would be expected if accu-
mulation had been continuous and regular. Further-
more, even in peats which have achieved a thickness
of over 10 m in the last few thousand years, recent
dating has indicated major phases of non-deposition
(Page et al., 1999). The radiocarbon dates provide
some basis for assessment of the timing and length
of non-depositional periods although contamination is
always a possibility in discontinuous sequences. The
basal date, taken from bulk sediment, is likely to be
the most suspect as a large component of tropical
peatlands are composed of penetrated roots (Brady,
1997) which will date younger than the sediment
matrix. The AMS dates should be less inuenced
by rootlet contamination although the prepared
samples contained resistant plant material other than
pollen that may have derived from decomposed root
material.
The earliest period, indicated by zone B1, may date
to around or beyond 30,000 years B.P. The subbrous
nature of the peat, together with substantial variation
in composition of pollen spectra and the low pollen
concentration values, suggest that accumulation was
fairly rapid and that it covers a short period of time.
The composition of the swamp forest was clearly
different to that of today, suggesting perhaps different
climatic conditions. But what these conditions were is
difcult to determine. The relatively high values for
ferns could suggest higher effective precipitation than
today and more frequent ooding on the basis that
ferns are not a major component of any recognised
peat swamp forest and that fern spores, being well
dispersed by water, could have derived from dry
land rainforest in the upper catchment. There is no
evidence of vegetation types like those of Lake
Pemerak within the region today and it is possible
that the lake did not exist, at least in its present
form, and that the area was more generally ooded
rather than the water being concentrated within the
lake area. Evidence for peat sediments including
tree stumps exposed in the margins of the small
stream meandering across the dry bed of Lake
Pemerak suggest that, at this time, the present lake
area may have been part of the peat swamp forest
system. However, the presence of Gluta renghas
does indicate that some form of river system did
exist. In addition, the postulation of more general
inundation appears to be contradicted by the consis-
tent presence in the pollen samples of Gonystylus
bancanus which is a peat swamp forest tree that is
not tolerant of water logging (Soerianegara and
Lemmens, 1994). Under these circumstances, the
possibility that the ferns were local, either growing
within the immediate peat forest or within the `lake'
system, has to be considered. Although ferns are not
very evident today, they may well have been during
the last glacial period when temperatures were pos-
sibly lower. The occurrence of Podocarpus, and
Quercus, are the only other possible indicators of
reduced temperatures and perhaps suggest regional
expansion of montane and submontane forest in the
highlands, but are insufcient to indicate a local
presence and therefore any substantial temperature
lowering in the lowlands.
Gonystylus bancanus virtually disappears during
the period represented by zone B5, eliminating but
not clarifying the fern problem. This decline was
probably a regional feature as today it is a relatively
rare species. Despite the decline of G. bancanus and
other marked changes in the composition of the peat
swamp forest at the zone B6-5 boundary, there is little
change in riparian vegetation or differences in hydrol-
ogy between the two periods. The consistent presence
of Ericaceae, in addition to Quercus, Podocarpus, and
the maintenance of relatively high pteridophyte
percentages, provides greater condence in the postu-
lation of temperatures lower than today. As the two
basal dates are so similar, it cannot be determined
whether or not there is a time gap between the periods
represented by zones B6 and B5.
The dates bracketing the zone B54/B4 boundary of
around 29,000 and 17,000 years B.P. indicate a long
period of non-deposition, or erosion of accumulated
sediment, that included the earlier part of the Last
Glacial Maximum. The date of the end of the period
represented by zone B4 is less certain. Judging by the
date of 3117 years B.P., the zone could extend well
into the Holocene. However, the date of 13,070, only
4 cm below the 3117 years B.P. date, makes it likely
that most of the zone falls into the Last Glacial Maxi-
mum and Late Glacial. Support for a Last Glacial
Maximum date is provided by highest representation
of the montane taxa Podocarpus, Phyllocadus and
Quercus, together with some representation of
Ericaceae, the only representation in the diagram of
 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
Dacrycarpus and Dacrydium and, possibly, the very
high values for pteridophyte spores. It is surprising,
however, that the montane conifers are best repre-
sented towards the end of the period, which dates
less certainly to the Last Glacial Maximum than the
early part of the period. Either the dates are not totally
reliable or it took montane taxa some time to arrive
within the pollen catchment area of the site from the
mountains, some 100200 km away.
It appears that at least part of the Last Glacial Maxi-
mum experienced sufciently wet conditions to allow
peat development although precipitation levels lower
than those of the other peat-forming periods might be
inferred from the decomposed nature of the peat
during the period represented by zone B4, as well as
the fact that temperatures are likely to have been
lower than today. Drier conditions might also be
suggested from the relatively high representation of
species of Lycopodium that are indicative of open
canopied vegetation and increased charcoal levels
that indicate greater re frequency or effectiveness
than previously.
The zone B4/B3 boundary marks the largest
changes in the pollen and sedimentary record and
supports the evidence for a major time gap, possibly
extending from about 13,000 to 3000 years B.P. It
may be surprising that the late Holocene period, rather
than the early-mid Holocene, is represented consider-
ing that the bulk of peat in other parts of Kalimantan
was formed during the earlier period (Neuzil, 1997;
Page et al., 1999). However, a second phase of peat
growth is evident within the last 2000 years in other
areas and the early growth phase was probably more
related to sea level rise and the subsequent attainment
of hydrological equilibrium than any climate change.
Consequently it could be that, regionally, effective
precipitation has been higher in the late Holocene
than it was in the early Holocene. Alternatively
some change in the hydrology of the system may
have prompted renewed peat growth in the Late
Holocene.
In comparison with the late Pleistocene, riparian
components of the vegetation were very different
with a mix of taxa including Barringtonia replacing
Gluta renghas A. more open environment is indicated
by increasing representation of Poaceae and Cypera-
ceae, as well as some maintenance of Lycopodium
values. One explanation for these features is increased
225
environmental variability, which initiated or caused
further development of the discrete lake system
which dries periodically. The destruction of Gluta
communities may have been a cause or effect of this
variability, the latter possibly the result of human
activity. This tree species would have been vulnerable
due to its high timber quality and location in relation
to more open environments and shing grounds. As
this riparian environment was opened up, sustained
disturbance and perhaps increased variability would
have resulted in the replacement of Gluta by a variety
of other colonists that formed a more open and stunted
vegetation. The sharp reduction in fern spores is
consistent with greater channelling of water within
the lake basin and consequently less ooding of the
peatlands, although fern reduction is likely to have
been predominantly a response to increased tempera-
tures from the Pleistocene to Holocene, indicated by
the disappearance of montane elements and increased
representation of the lowland dipterocarps. Charcoal
levels were as high if not higher than during the Last
Glacial Maximum and a further increase in burning is
indicated, most likely the result of environmental
variability induced by climate, people, or a combina-
tion of the two inuences.
There is little change in the riparian environment
through zones B2 and B1 where peat accumulation is
likely to have been continuous. Higher values for
grasses may indicate more frequent lake drying
although the lack of any similar response in Cypera-
ceae suggests that the grasses may be reecting an
opening up of terrestrial and peatland forests.
Increased representation of other opportunistic taxa
such as Terminalia, Trema and Pandanus, as well as
highest charcoal/pollen ratios for the whole recorded
period, provide supporting evidence for increased
forest disturbance. It is likely that these changes
reect increased human impact on the landscape
although ENSO variability would most likely have
facilitated high disturbance levels.
8. General discussion and conclusions
This study has temporally extended the late
Quaternary record of peat swamp forest environments
by some 20,000 years and provided the rst evidence
for the nature of these environments during the last
226 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
glacial period. The record demonstrates substantial
vegetation and environmental change that can be
linked largely to regional inuences rather than auto-
genic successional processes that appear to dominate
other more coastal peat forest sequences from the
region. In line with other studies on the history of
tropical peatlands, the record is discontinuous and it
is possible that gaps are caused by periods of erosion
or wastage as well as non-deposition. Based on the
radiocarbon dates and changes in pollen spectra,
major gaps incorporated the major transitions into
the Last Glacial Maximum (from about 28,000 to
17,000 years B.P.) and between the Pleistocene and
Holocene (between about 13,000 and 3000 years
B.P.) with the possibility of one at or beyond
30,000 years B.P. Underlying causes of times of
peat growth and disconformity are difcult to deter-
mine, particularly as they do not conform with region-
ally established patterns of climate change (Van der
Kaars et al., 2000; Van der Kaars et al., 2001). It is
tempting to equate times of peat accumulation with
highest effective precipitation but some inconsistency
is suggested by the formation of distinctly different
peat types (i.e. bris and humic peat) within the
sequence. The fact that there is no evidence of peat
accumulation during the early to mid Holocene,
regionally the period of highest recorded rainfall
within the last 30,000 years, and a time of major
peat accumulation elsewhere in Indonesia, could indi-
cate that peat accumulation was restricted to times of
lower effective rainfall. Such a situation could be
explained by high water discharge during wetter peri-
ods ooding the peats and inhibiting sediment accu-
mulation or causing erosion of accumulated peat. This
scenario does not, however, explain the lack of sedi-
ment accumulation during the early part of the Last
Glacial Maximum that experienced regionally similar
conditions to the later part of this period. It is also
possible that in such a hydrologically complex
system, times of growth and stability vary substan-
tially over the peatland and that there is no clear regio-
nal climatic signal discernable from the pattern of peat
accumulation at any one spot.
Palynologically, the glacial phases represented are
characterised by high values of Gluta renghas which
probably dominated closed, riparian forest adjacent to
the peat forest, while the peat forest component itself
is dominated by pollen of a species of Palaquium
although the peat forest assemblages are diverse.
High percentages of fern spores were most likely
derived from locally growing species and, together
with the presence of conifers, Ericaceae, and Quer-
cus, indicate the local presence of a montane element
in the forest vegetation. The data add weight to the
proposition of Colinvaux (2001) that equatorial rain-
forests, during the height of the last glacial period, had
no modern analogue but were composed of a mix of
lowland and montane taxa.
Major changes to the vegetation are indicated mid-
way through the record although the abrupt nature of
the change is likely to be a product of an inferred gap
between the Last Glacial Maximum and late Holo-
cene. By at least 3000 years B.P. the stable closed
riverine forest dominated by Gluta had been replaced
by a more open and stunted riverine vegetation indi-
cating higher levels of disturbance and most likely the
development of the present dened lake system. It is
difcult to allocate a cause for these changes, espe-
cially as they most likely occurred during the gap
phase, but both the development of ENSO climatic
variability, which would have stressed the pre-
existing stable riverine forest, and physical destruc-
tion by people could have contributed. Major
Holocene peat forest taxa include Calophyllum,
Combretocarpus and Hopea that are common in
other Holocene peat sequences in Borneo (Anderson
and Muller, 1975; Morley 1981). Unlike the riparian
forest, there is no apparent change in the diversity of
the peat swamp forest and unlike the other Holocene
sequences, there is no clear evidence of successional
vegetation changes. However, human impact is
evident, particularly with increases in disturbance
taxa, both woody plants and grasses, especially
since about 1400 years B.P.
The presence of at least some charcoal in all
samples demonstrates that re has been a component
of these humid tropical environments through the last
30,000 years. However, the evidence for the presence
of people within inland Borneo from at least
35,000 years ago (Flood, 1995) prevents a determina-
tion of whether lowland rainforests did burn under
natural conditions. There is a general increase in the
charcoal/pollen ratio throughout the record suggesting
that the inuence of people has increased through time
although the beginning of a sustained rise during the
Last Glacial Maximum may, as previously implied,
 G. Anshari et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 213228
have been, at least partially, a result of lower effective
precipitation. As with the pollen evidence, greatest
human impact is witnessed within the last 1400 years.
The study has provided a general picture of
environmental change within the region. It has also
raised some interesting questions relating to environ-
mental stability, which can be addressed in the
immediate future for the Lake Pemerak area by exam-
ination of additional cores taken from peat swamp
forest and also from the present lake basin. Future
research should be directed towards other parts of
Lake Sentarum to examine the regional signicance
of the patterns of change recorded, towards the exten-
sion of records to provide baseline data for assessment
of the initial impact of people on the landscape, and
towards ne resolution studies of the last few
thousands years in an attempt to decouple the inu-
ence of people and climate variability on the devel-
opment of this unique landscape.
Acknowledgements
We thank Ir. Adi Susminanto, MSc., the Head of
Sub Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam Kalimantan
Barat, for allowing us to do this important research in
the Lake Sentarum Wildlife Reserve Region; Yefri
Dahrin, Ismail, Ruslan Kabulman, Pak Tangkong,
Darwis, Adi and other friends in the village of
Nanga Pemerak for accommodation and great assis-
tance with eld work; Gary Swinton for preparing the
nal gures; Rona Dennis for contributing a base map
of Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve; and Raymonde
Bonnelle and Azmi Mohd Yakzan for very valuable
comments on the manuscript. Gusti Anshari has been
supported by an AusAid scholarship, while nancial
support was provided by an ARC large grant to Peter
Kershaw, Nigel Tapper and Paul Bishop and an
Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Technol-
ogy (AINSE) grant to Peter Kershaw and Gusti
Anshari.
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