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These are answers for (nearly) all the essay questions in all the past chemistry papers (2001-

2011), in the core topic and in the Industrial Chemistry option.

The essays are ordered by topic, but there is a list of the questions by year at the end if you
need it. Ive reused diagrams and some information for questions that are similar, but always
tried to answer the question in the introduction and conclusion.

When answering essay questions, it is best to logically plan out your response first so that
you wont leave anything out and your response will still be succinct. You can do this by just
writing out the topic of each paragraph somewhere on the side of the page, as well as using
things like tables, subheadings, bullet points and phrases like in conclusion. Make sure to
put in ALL the equations you know that are relevant to the question, and any diagrams that
might be in the marking criteria (for example in any essay question about production of
esters, there should always be a diagram and description of the laboratory setup). Whenever
an essay question is about an experiment you have done in class, make sure you put in as
much detail as possible, including variables, controls, a diagram, amounts of substances you
used, and results.

Many textbooks and study guides say that the amount of writing space given in the exam is
all you need to use to answer the question. I think that it is fine to get extra paper, especially
for essay questions, in order to properly answer the question, but keep in mind that you can
lose marks if your answer contains extra information that does not answer the question. If
you want to add something extra, like a statistic you somehow memorized, just to show off
your knowledge of the topic, make sure you try to link it in to the question.

Hope these help in your study and good luck.

1
Contents

Topic Page

AAS 3
Acid-base history 5
Acidity of oxides 6
Batteries 7
Biomass 10
Biopolymers 12
Buffers 14
CFCs 15
Combustion 17
Electrolysis of NaCl (Industrial) 19
Esters 20
Ethanol 22
Eutrophication 27
H2SO4 production (Industrial) 28
Haber process (Industrial) 33
NaOH production (Industrial) 35
Natural resource rubber (Industrial) 40
Neutralisation of chemical spills 41
Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen 42
Ozone 47
Polymers 49
Radioisotopes 55
Soaps and detergents (Industrial) 57
Solvay process (industrial) 60
Water treatment 66
Index of questions by year: Core 69
Index of questions by year: Option (Industrial) 72

2
AAS

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 24 Assess the impact of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) on the scientific 4
2 understanding of the effects of trace elements.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) is a qualitative method of finding the concentrations of a


known cation in a sample. Its key advantage is that it can measure concentration in the parts per
million, or even parts per billion ranges.

Trace elements are elements found in animals and plants and are needed in tiny amounts for proper
enzyme function. For example, humans need very small amounts of selenium in their diet in order to
stay healthy. Other trace elements include zinc and cobalt (used in the production of haemoglobin).

The invention of AAS led to the discovery of some trace elements (because it is very accurate and
other quantitative analysis techniques cannot measure in such small concentrations) as well as
helping scientists to understand the significance of trace elements. In conclusion, AAS has had a
significant impact on the scientific understanding of the effects of trace elements.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 24 Describe the principle of atomic absorption spectroscopy and its application in 5
9 environmental monitoring. Include a diagram in your answer.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) is based on the principle that each element absorbs different
wavelengths of light. An atom will absorb light when a wavelength of light hits it with enough energy
to excite an electron to jump to a higher, more excited energy level (absorbance). When the
electron moves back to its original energy level, it releases a photon of light of the same wavelength
(emission).

The sample that is to be analysed is vaporised in a reducing flame, usually an acetylene air mix. This
causes any molecules to be reduced to their atomic state. A beam of light is shone through this
vapour, with a specific wavelength that corresponds to the element being tested for. For example, if
Lead was being tested for, a cathode lamp producing a wavelength of 218 nm (the wavelength that
excites lead electrons) would be used. The beam of light then passes through a monochromator and
diffraction grating, which, respectively, remove any interference and split the light into different
wavelengths. The wavelength being analysed (in the case above, 218 nm) hits a photomultiplier and
its intensity is measured. Because the amount of light absorbed corresponds to the concentration of
the element in the sample, the intensity of the specific wavelength can be measured before and after
passing through the flame and compared, giving an absorbance reading. This absorbance reading is
compared to absorbance readings obtained from a series of standards made up with known
concentration, and the concentration of the element in the sample can be found.

3
AAS is used widely in environmental monitoring because it can be used to quickly determine the
concentration of up to 60 different metals in a sample, to very low concentrations (ppm). For
example, heavy metals such as Pb, Cr and Cd can enter waterways and oceans from pollution and
rain run-off. These metals bio-accumulate (build up in the tissues of organisms that digest them, and
are passed up the food chain). If heavy metals are present in organisms such as fish or oysters, they
can cause serious health problems for humans who eat them, even at very low concentrations. AAS
is used to find concentrations of heavy metals like lead in fish and oysters, and also in waterways and
the environment. Before the development of AAS, other gravimetric and volumetric techniques
werent accurate enough to be used in applications like this.

4
Acid-base history

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 21 Analyse how knowledge of the composition and properties of acids has led to 5
5 changes in the definition of acids.

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)


The presence of oxygen in non-metal compounds makes those compounds acidic when dissolved in
water.
Explained why compounds like CO2 and SO2 formed acids.
E.g. SO2 + H2O H2SO3
Did not explain why metal oxides were not acidic.

Humphry Davy (1778-1829)


Discovered acids like HCl and HCN, which contain no oxygen. Theorised that acids contain hydrogen
Explained why some compounds that do not contain oxygen are acidic.
E.g. HCl
Did not explain why some compounds containing hydrogen are not acidic.
E.g. CH4

Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927)


Theorised that acids dissociate in water, producing hydrogen ions, forming acidic solutions.
Theorised that some acids arent as strong as others because they dont dissociate completely.
Theorised that a base is a substance that dissociates in water to give OH + ions.
Proposed that when an acid neutralises a base, it is the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions that react
to form neutral water.
Explained what makes solutions acidic (H +).
Explained that a higher [H+] would increase the acidity.
Explained basic solutions.
Explained neutralisation reactions.
Did not explain why metallic oxides and carbonates are basic.
E.g. MgO, Na2CO3
Not all salts are neutral. Some are acidic (NH 4Cl) or basic (CH3COONa).

Bronsted-Lowry (1879-1947), (1874-1939)


Bronsted and Lowry defined acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors.
Acid-base reactions involve proton exchange. I.e. a substance cannot act as an acid without another
acting as a base.
In the reaction HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-, the HCl donates a proton to the H2O, becoming Cl-. The H2O
accepts a proton from the HCl, becoming H 3O+
Explained why substances that dont have H or OH can be acids or bases (they can donate or accept
protons)
Doesnt just apply to aqueous environments.
HCl (g) + NH3 (g) NH4Cl (s)

5
Acidity of oxides

Year No. Question Mar


k
2004 18 Analyse the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic 4
Table, and the acid-base behaviour of their oxides.

General trends can be seen, when looking at the Periodic Table, in the acid-base behaviour of oxides.

When moving from left to right along the Periodic Table, the oxides of elements tend to become
more acidic. For example, potassium oxide (K 2O) reacts with water to form potassium hydroxide,
which is basic.
K2O(s) + H2O (l) 2KOH (aq) 2K+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

Further to the right of the Periodic Table is zinc. Zinc oxide is an amphoteric oxide. It reacts with acts
as both an acid and a base.
ZnO(s) + 2HCl (aq) H2O (l) + ZnCl2 (aq)
ZnO(s) + H2O (l) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2[Zn(OH)4] (aq)

Sulfur, on the right side of the Periodic Table, has an acidic oxide. Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to
form sulfurous acid, which is acidic.
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq) H+ (aq) + HSO3-(aq)

Group 8 elements do not normally form oxides because they are stable and unreactive.

In conclusion, it can be seen that as you move from left to right across the periodic table, the oxides
of the elements tend to go from basic, to amphoteric, to acidic.

6
Batteries

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 19 Name one type of cell, other than the dry cell or lead-acid cell, you have 7
1 studied, Evaluate it in comparison with either the dry cell or lead-acid cell, in
terms of chemistry and the impact on society. Include relevant chemical
equations in your answer.

LEAD-ACID SILVER-OXIDE
Electrolyte H2SO4 (aq) (4.2 M) KOH or NaOH (KOH gives a longer life
of up to 3 years, making them suitable
for applications like analog watches
while NaOH is more suited to higher
bursts of current that are required
from LCD watches with backlights)
Anode (-) Pb(s) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4 (s) + 2e- Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-
Cathode (+) PbO2 (s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e- 2PbSO4 Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- 2Ag(s) + 2OH-(aq)
(aq) +2H2O(l)

Net reaction Pb(s) + PbO2 (s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42-(aq) PbSO4 Zn(s) + Ag2O(s) ZnO(s) +2Ag(s)
(s) + 2PbSO4 (aq) +2H2O(l)

Chemistry At the anode, lead is oxidised to form At the anode, zinc is oxidised to form
lead sulfate (which precipitates onto the zinc oxide, releasing water and 2
anode) and releases 2 electrons. electrons. The zinc oxide precipitates
At the cathode, the lead oxide is reduced onto the anode.
to also form lead sulfate (which The electrolyte is in the form of a
precipitates onto the cathode) and water. powdered gel and thus highly porous
2 electrons are used, completing the and so can deliver a higher and faster
circuit. current for a longer period.
At the cathode, silver oxide is reduced
to form silver solid. This absorbs 2
electrons. The silver precipitates onto
the cathode.
The cathode is a silver grid covered in
silver oxide, which, by increasing
surface area, increases reactivity and
so energy output.
Voltage (V) 2 volts per cell (usually combined in 6 cell 1.6 V
groups to form a 12 volt battery)
Operating -20 60 -10 55
temperature
(C)
Advantages Rechargeable, can be charged and Silver-oxide batteries have fitted well
discharged many times. into a couple of niche markets,
Low cost, some of the materials especially as batteries for small,
(including the lead) can be recycled. portable devices. This is due to a
Portable number of characteristics:
Dependable, tested technology. Superior long-term reliability
Small cells can provide considerable
amounts of electricity

7
Versatile and can be made in different
sizes and requirements.
Flat discharge curve
Long shelf life
Disadvantages Heavy, bulky, less durable Non---rechargeable
Low energy to weight ratio
Not suitable for compact, portable
applications
Uses Used in radiotelegraphic apparatus, Used in wrist watches, cameras and
portable AV equipment, vacuum small electronic devices like calculators
cleaners, power tools, medical and hearing aids. Early cordless
instruments, electric motorcars, telephones, medical devices and
automobiles, golf cars, forklifts, marine security wands at airports used these
and uninterruptible power supplies batteries.
(UPS). Medical implants, watches, hearing
aids, car keys and memory backup.

Impact on The lead-acid cell had a large impact on Smaller devices required a more
society society as lead-acid batteries became the compact cell design, and in the 1980s
battery used in cars. Its large size and the button cell met this need. The
weight werent big concerns in cars and desired voltage was achieved by
it was relatively cheap to produce and stacking the cells into a tube.
could provide a large current.
Furthermore, the battery could be
recharged by the cars engine, giving it a
very long life.
Impact on If the batteries are not disposed of Up until recently, silver-oxide batteries
environment properly, the sulfuric acid can leak into have used small amounts of mercury
waterways, polluting and raising the in their production, to stop swelling of
acidity. The lead from the electrodes can the battery. If one of these batteries
also cause environmental problems as it containing mercury were to leak it
is a heavy metal and toxic to many could be a serious environmental
organisms including humans. hazard. This problem is increased as
The materials used in production of lead- most batteries arent recycled, leading
acid batteries (lead, plastic, sulfuric acid) to excess waste and production costs.
arent very costly on the environment.
Most of the battery, especially the plastic
case and lead electrodes can be recycled,
which means they arent
environmentally taxing. These batteries
could be seen to have an indirect effect
on the environment: When these
batteries were developed, cars became
cheaper and easier to run and
manufacture. A greater number of cars
would have a negative effect on the
environment.

8
Diagrams of a Lead-acid battery and a silver-oxide button cell.

In conclusion, both cells are well suited to their respective uses. The lead-acid battery has had little
direct impact on the environment directly, but indirectly caused an increase in car usage, which has
had negative impacts on the environment. These batteries have had an overall positive impact on
society as they have made cars widely available, increasing the standard of living. The silver-oxide cell
has had little impact on the environment, especially as mercury is no longer used in their production.
Their impact on society has been very beneficial as they have allowed for portable devices such as
hearing aids and wristwatches to become available to many members of society.

9
Biomass

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 20 Asses the suitability of biomass as a future source of energy and chemicals for 5
3 industry.

Biomass is obtained from plant matter and contains cellulose. This can be removed by crushing and
pulping the biomass. The cellulose then undergoes acid hydrolysis to convert it to glucose:
Acid
(c6H10O5) n + nH2O nC6H12O6

Then bacterial fermentation to convert it to ethanol:


Yeast enzymes
C6H12O6 (aq) C2H5OH (aq) + CO2 (g)

The ethanol is distilled and then can be used for a wide number of applications. Ethanol is widely
obtained by hydration of ethene:

Dilute acid
C2H4 (g) + H2O (l) C2H5OH (aq)

This process is cheaper than cellulose-derived ethanol because of the high energy requirements of
distillation of ethanol and growing and harvesting of biomass.

Ethanol as an energy source:


Ethanol, being a short chain hydrocarbon, has a very low oxygen to fuel ratio for combustion. When
compared to octane, a major component of petrol, it can be seen that ethanol undergoes complete
combustion with far fewer moles of oxygen needed.

Ethanol:
C2H5OH (aq) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)

Octane:
C8H18 (l) + 12 O2 (g) 8CO2 (g) + 9H2O (l)

This makes ethanol desirable over petrol for use as a fuel, because it will not contribute as much to
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide production (caused by incomplete combustion). Because
current car engines cannot run on 100% ethanol, it is used as a petrol extender, and is commonly
found in a 10% ethanol/petrol blend in developed countries including Australia, America and Brazil.

Biomass as a source of chemicals for industry:

Biomass can be further converted to ethene by dehydration of ethanol (catalysed by concentrated


sulfuric acid):

Conc. H2SO4
C2H5OH (aq) C2H4 (g) + H2O (l)
Ethene is a versatile starting material for production of synthetic polymers. It can be modified, and
then used to make a number of different polymers by undergoing addition polymerisation.

10
E.g.

Ethene Polyethene Ethenylbenzene Polystyrene

Since their development, polymers have been used as replacements for wood and metal as they are
cheaper and have a range of desirable properties. For example, polystyrene comes in two forms, high
density and expanded. High density polystyrene is transparent, chemically inert and rigid, while
expanded polystyrene has good thermal insulating properties.

In this way, biomass is a good source of energy and chemicals for industry because it can be
converted to ethanol and ethene. But both ethanol and ethene can be more cheaply derived from
crude oil (by fractional distillation) as there is much more infrastructure in place and methods have
been developed over time. Biomass derived ethanol and ethene will become desirable when sources
of crude oil run out because, unlike crude oil, biomass is a renewable resource. More research needs
to increase the efficiency of growing and harvesting biomass, as well as converting it to usable
materials, in order for it to become more widely used.

11
Biopolymers

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 18 Assess current developments in the use of biopolymers. 5
2 (b)

Biopolymers are becoming more widely used throughout the developed world as research into their
properties and production has progressed. Biopolymers are desirable because they are
biodegradable, unlike other polymers, which dont break down for hundreds of years. PLA (poly-
lactic acid) is a synthetic biopolymer made from lactic acid, derived from starch in biomass. Starch
waste is crushed to extract starch, and then dextrose is obtained by acid hydrolysis. This is
anaerobically fermented with microorganisms such as Lactobacillus bacteria to form the lactic acid
monomer. This then undergoes condensation polymerisation to form PLA.

Most research on PLA goes in to one of two fields: One is trying to make the manufacture of PLA
more sustainable and less energy consuming. This is done through using different derivatives of lactic
acid or different catalysts, additives, etc. The other research field is trying to develop more uses for
PLA. For example, researchers have improved the temperature that PLA can stand to up to 110C
which will improve its uses in applications like food containers.

There have been attempts to modify PLA by adding plasticizers (like polyethylene glycol) or by
blending PLA with other polymers (like citrate esters). The resulting polymers had increased
resistance to deformation and resilience. Various non-biodegradable blends of PLA have been tried,
but without much success.

Developments leading to new properties for biopolymers like PLA lead to more uses becoming
available. PLA is now widely used for fabrics, dinnerware, food-wraps, rigid containers, dairy
containers, food trays and garbage bags. But developments need continue for biopolymers to
become more widely used over petro-chemical based polymers.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 18 Assess the impact of the recent development of a named biopolymer on 4
5 society and the environment.

PLA (poly-lactic acid) is a recently developed biopolymer. It is made by fermenting starch-derived


dextrose with Lactobacillus bacteria, then polymerising the resulting molecule.

PLA has had positive impacts on society because of its many uses and desirable properties. PLA and
other biopolymers are starting to replace petroleum-derived polymers like polyethylene and
polystyrene. PLA has many similar properties to PET, like heat resistance and chemical inertness, and
is starting to replace PET in many disposable applications like plastic crockery and cutlery, and
medical applications like gauze. The increase in use and availability of PLA has led to a more
widespread awareness of the problems associated with the use and production of petroleum-based
polymers. This has driven further research into making biopolymers more economically viable (as
they are currently more expensive to produce).

12
PLAs main advantage over petroleum-based polymers is that it is biodegradable. This means it wont
spend hundreds of years in landfill, which is an eyesore, and will cause less damage to animal and
plant life. This greatly benefits the environment as there will be less pollution and damage of natural
habitats.

Unfortunately, PLA is not ready to replace PET and other petroleum-based plastics because it is more
expensive and energy intensive to produce. Much research is being done into creating new ways to
make the monomer (using different microorganisms or enzymes), as well as making the
polymerisation process more efficient. This research will lead to PLA becoming an economically
viable replacement for some petroleum-based plastics, which will greatly benefit society and the
environment.

Year No Question Mar


. k
201 27 The following extract was taken from a blog about environmental issues. 5
1 ...the use of long-lasting polymers for short-lived applications can cause
problems for the preservation of living systems... Plastic debris has a costly
impact on waste management for municipalities.
Assess the uses of polystyrene and a named biopolymer in terms of their
properties, with reference to the statements made in this blog.

Polystyrene is a synthetic polymer made from the styrene (ethenylbenzene) monomer. Expanded
polystyrene contains many small air bubbles, which makes it a good heat insulator and light. It is
insoluble and non-toxic and is easily produced in large amounts (using industrial polymerisation
processes). Because of these properties, expanded polystyrene is used widely in short-lived
applications such as disposable cups and cutlery. Plastic debris like polystyrene is often dumped in
landfill, which is an eyesore and has negative impacts on nearby environments, which incurs large
costs on municipalities who have to deal with it. Furthermore, polystyrene is long-lasting, taking
hundreds of years to decompose, meaning it stays in the environment.

PLA (poly-lactic acid) is a synthetic biopolymer made from the lactic acid monomer (derived from
starch). PLA is non-toxic and insoluble and can be easily moulded or extruded. This makes it suitable
for short-lived applications such as medical gauze and disposable cups and cutlery. Because PLA is a
biopolymer, the time it takes for it to decompose is far shorter than that of other plastics like
polystyrene. Because of this, it has a far smaller impact on the cost of waste management for
municipalities as it breaks down quickly. Furthermore, this means it will not stay in the environment
where it could have negative effects on the surrounding environment.

Both polystyrene and PLA are used for short-lived applications such as disposable cups and cutlery.
But polystyrene is not biodegradable, and so has a costly impact on waste management for
municipalities. On the other hand, PLA is biodegradable, and so has a lesser impact. Unfortunately
PLA is currently more expensive to produce than similar petroleum-based polymers and more
research needs to be done before it can economically replace plastics like polystyrene to reduce the
impact on local municipalities.

13
Buffers

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 26 Explain how a buffer works with reference to a specific example in a natural 4
8 system.

A buffer is a solution that contains comparable amounts of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a
weak base and its conjugate acid. Buffers reduce the impact of the addition of any acid or base to a
solution. This is done through the construction of an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate
base.

An example of a buffer in a natural system is blood. Blood needs to be kept at a pH of 7.4 so that
enzymes can function properly. This is achieved because the H 2CO3 (aq)/HCO3- (aq) present in the blood
forms a natural buffer system. This can be seen in the equilibrium equation:

H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)

If CO2 is added to this buffer (which could happen due to breathing difficulties such as emphysema),
it will dissolve in water and increase the concentration of carbonic acid. According to Le Chateliers
Principle, increasing the concentration of carbonic acid will cause the equilibrium to shift to favour
the forward reaction in order to decrease the concentration of carbonic acid. This will also cause the
concentration of hydronium ions to increase. Because carbonic acid is a weak acid, the increase in
concentration of hydronium ions will not be as big as an equimolar addition of a strong acid,
meaning the pH value will stay relatively constant.

If a base is added or CO2 is removed (for example by hyperventilation), the concentration of carbonic
acid will decrease (as CO2 in the blood forms the equilibrium CO 2 (aq) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq)). According to
Le Chateliers Principle, decreasing the concentration of carbonic acid will cause the equilibrium to
shift to favour the reverse reaction in order to increase the concentration of carbonic acid. This will
also cause the concentration of hydronium ions to decrease. This decrease will have a similarly
negligible effect to if CO2 is increased.

This buffer system is effective at keeping the bodys blood at a constant pH level, unless the
concentration of CO2 become too high or too low that all of one of the constituents of the buffer
(carbonic acid or bicarbonate) are used up. This would cause acidosis (a low pH) or alkalosis (a high
pH). Fortunately, a healthy body can produce carbonic acid (by causing hyperventilation) and
bicarbonate to restore the buffer and the bloods pH.

14
CFCs

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 27 Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the suitability 7
4 of alternative chemicals as replacements.

Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, are compounds containing carbon, chlorine, fluorine and other
halogen atoms. Before 1987, CFCs were widely used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants because
of their low toxicity, stable nature and low boiling points. CFCs decompose in the stratosphere,
releasing a chlorine free radical.

CCL3F (g) + UV CCL2F (g) + Cl (g)

This is a problem because it can destroy ozone molecules.

Cl (g) + O3 (g) ClO (g) + O2 (g)


ClO (g) + O (g) O2 (g) + Cl (g)

The effect of the chorine free radical is compounded by the fact that it destroys ozone and also uses
up oxygen free radicals which would normally form ozone.

O (g) + O2 (g) O3 (g)

On top of this, the chlorine free radical is released after each reaction, meaning it can destroy
thousands of ozone molecules in its catalytic role.

Stratospheric ozone is important because its cycle of formation and decomposition uses up UVB and
UVC light from the sun, stopping it from reaching earth and causing problems like skin cancers and
eye cataracts.

O2 (g) + UVC 2O (g)


O (g) + O2 (g) O3 (g)
O3 (g) + UVB O (g) + O2 (g)

As can be seen in the equations, only the harmful UVB and UVC are used up, while the UVA
penetrates the ozone layer to be used in photosynthesis.

In this way, CFCs released into the air can be harmful for the environment. If the large amount of
stratospheric ozone depletion caused by CFCs had continued past the Montreal Protocol, there
would be large scale health problems for humans.

Two possible replacements for CFCs are HCFCs (containing hydrogen, fluorine, carbon and chlorine)
and HFCs (containing hydrogen, carbon and fluorine).

HCFCs, or hydrochlorofluorocarbons, are chemically similar to CFCs, meaning the infrastructure in


place for the production and application of CFCs could be easily adapted. HCFCs advantage over CFCs
is that the presence of H-C bonds, which are weaker than the other bonds, means the compounds
usually decompose before reaching the stratosphere. This means there is less chlorine getting to the

15
stratosphere. This is represented by HCFCs Ozone Depletion Potential of 0.02 0.11, compared to
CFCs Ozone Depletion Potential of 0.8 1.

HFCs, or hydrofluorocarbons, are also chemically similar to CFCs. The advantage of HFCs is that they
contain not chlorine atoms at all, which means there will be no chlorine getting to the stratosphere.
This is seen in HFCs Ozone Depletion Potential of 0.

In conclusion, CFCs pose multiple problems to human and environmental health and replacements
for them need to be found. Replacements like HCFCs and HFCs are suitable because they are
chemically similar (so can be used in the same applications) and have a lower chance of destroying
the ozone layer.

16
Combustion

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 25 Explain the need for monitoring the products of a chemical reaction such as 7
1 combustion.

Combustion reactions are very common in engines in cars and other vehicles that are present in large
numbers around the world. Incomplete combustion in engines because of insufficient oxygen can
cause the release of harmful substances including carbon monoxide and soot. Furthermore, gasses
like nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide can also be released as products of combustion from
improperly tuned engines.

Complete and incomplete combustion of octane (a major component of petrol):

C8H18 (l) + 12O2 (g) 8CO2 (g) + 9H2O (l)


C8H18 (l) + 7O2 (g) 5CO (g) + 3C (s) + 9H2O (l)

Carbon monoxide, released when there is insufficient oxygen in a car engine, is a carcinogen and is
toxic to humans and animals because of its high reactivity. In humans and animals, carbon monoxide
binds to haemoglobin and lowers the bodys capability to transport oxygen.

Soot, or amorphous carbon, is a product of incomplete combustion. Soot contributes to


photochemical smog and pollutes the environment. Its small particles can cause complications for
people with breathing difficulties such as asthma and emphysema as it clogs up the lungs.

Sulfur dioxide is formed when sulfur is burned in air (S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)). This reaction happens in
car engines, and electricity generators, where fossil fuels containing sulfur are burnt, as well as
during the smelting of metal sulfides. Sulfur dioxide is extremely irritating to the eyes and respiratory
tract, causing lung damage and asthma. Sulfur dioxide reacts with water and oxygen in the air when
it is released into the atmosphere, forming acid rain:

SO2 (g) + O2 (g) SO3 (g)


SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq)

Acid rain causes erosion of marble statues and monuments, as well as environmental damage. It
increases the acidity of soils and waterways, which kills plants, animals and aquatic life. Acid rain is
known to have caused severe deforestation in forests near industrial sites.

Nitrogen dioxides and other oxides of nitrogen (NO x) are produced in car engines when there is too
much air going through the engine. The excess oxygen in the engine reacts with nitrogen gas in the
air to form oxides of nitrogen which are released into the environment.
NOx can also cause complications for people with respiratory problems, irritating the respiratory tract
and causing breathing discomfort at concentrations about 3-5 ppm. NO x can react with organic
compounds in the presence of sunlight to form ozone (also a serious lung irritant), which contributes
to photochemical smog:

NO2 (g) NO (g) + O*


O* + O2 (g) O3 (g)

17
NOx also contributes to acid rain, reacting with oxygen and water in the atmosphere to form nitric
acid:

NO2 (g) + O2 (g) NO3 (g)


NO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2NO4 (aq)

In conclusion, products of combustion in car engines and in other industrial processes need to be
monitored for the presence and concentration of harmful gasses that can be produced, including
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen. If production of these
gasses is high in combustion engines and factory emissions, technology including scrubbers and
catalytic converters can be used to remove them before they are released.

18
Electrolysis of NaCl

Year No. Question Mar


k
201 32 Compare the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride and aqueous sodium 5
0 (b) chloride. Write the relevant half equations and overall reaction for each
process.

The electrolysis of molten NaCl, concentrated NaCl solution and dilute NaCl solution each produce
different products. This can be seen through a comparative table:

Molten NaCl Aqueous NaCl (>1M) Aqueous NaCl (<1M)


Anode 2Cl- (l) Cl2 (g) + 2e- 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e- H2O (l) 2H+ (aq) + 2e- + O2 (g)
reaction
Cathode 2Na+(l) + 2e- 2Na (l) 2H2O (l) + 2e- 2OH- (aq) + H2 (g) 2H2O (l) + 2e- 2OH- (aq) + H2 (g)
reaction
Overall 2Na+(l) + 2Cl- (l) Cl2 (g) + 2Na 2H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq) Cl2 (g) +2OH- (aq) + 3H2O (l) 2H+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq) +O2
reaction (net (l) H2 (g) (g) + H2 (g)
ionic)
Overall 2NaCl (l) Cl2 (g) + 2Na (l) 2H2O (l) + 2NaCl (aq) Cl2 (g) +2NaOH H2O (l) H2 (g) + O2 (g)
reaction (aq) + H2 (g)

Products Cl2 (g) and Na (l) Cl2 (g), NaOH (aq) and H2 (g) H2 (g) and O2 (g)
Explanation for At the anode, the species At the anode, water has the highest At both the anode and the
products that most wants to be potential to be oxidised, but the cathode, water has the highest
oxidised is the molten chloride ions are attracted to the potential to be oxidised and
chloride ions, so it is anode (positive attracting negative), reduced, respectively. The
oxidised to give chlorine gas. so instead the chloride ions are concentration of chloride ions is
At the cathode, the species oxidised to chlorine gas. not high enough to affect the
that most wants to be At the cathode, water has the anode.
reduced is the molten highest potential to be reduced, so it
sodium ions, so it is reduced is reduced to give
to give solid sodium.

19
Esters

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 22 Justify the procedure you used to prepare an ester in a school laboratory. 6
1 Include relevant chemical equations in your answer.

Procedure to
Vapours rise, then condense, then fall back into the reaction flask
H2O out prepare ethyl
butanoate:

Apparatus:
4 ml
ethanol
10 ml 1-
butanoic
Condenser / Refluxer acid
Concentrat
H2O in
ed H2SO4
Boiling
chips
Round-
bottomed
Reaction flask containing alkanol, alkanoic acid, sulfuric acid and boiling chips
flask
Heating
mantle
Heating mantle
Condenser
Piping

Method:

1. Put the ethanol, butanoic acid, 3 drops of the H 2SO4, and boiling chips into the round-
bottomed flask.
2. Fix the condenser on the top of the flask with water going in at the bottom and out at the
top (as in the diagram).
3. Put the whole setup into the heating mantle and make sure it is secure.
4. Turn the heating mantle on.
5. Heat the mixture for 30-40 mins in a fume cupboard.
6. Turn the heating mantle off and allow the reaction flask to cool before removing.

At this point, the reaction mixture still contains water, sulfuric acid, and some of the reactants, as
well as the ester. These can be separated using two different methods, depending on the reactants
used.

Method 1
1. Carefully pour the reaction mixture into a separating funnel.
2. If the reactants and products have different densities, they should separate into distinct
layers (research these before trying this method).
3. Then each constituent can be removed separately.

20
Method 2
1. Use distillation apparatus to fractionally distil the reaction mixture.
2. If the reactants and products have different boiling points, they will each evaporate one by
one (research these before trying this method).
3. Use a thermometer to carefully control the temperature of the reaction mixture in the
distillation apparatus to ensure there is only one constituent evaporating.

Ethanol and 1-butanoic acid combine to form ethyl butanoate, an ester, and water:

C2H5OH (aq) + C3H7COOH (l) C2H5O(CO)C3H7 (aq) + H2O (l)

In a school laboratory, the reaction is conducted under reflux conditions, which allows pressure to be
released without the volatile reactants escaping. If any vapours are produced during the reaction,
they rise up the refluxing tube and are condensed, and then they run back down the sides into the
reaction flask to continue participating in the reaction. The sulfuric acid is added to remove water
from the reaction flask because, as the reaction is an equilibrium reaction, removing water will cause
the yield of ester to increase (according to Le Chateliers Principle). Boiling chips are added to ensure
even heating. The reaction mixture is heated in a round-bottomed flask, on a heating mantle, which
is gentler and less dangerous than a Bunsen flame (which could ignite the volatile gasses). The
experiment is conducted in a fume cupboard because volatile gasses are produced during the
reaction (the alkanol, alkanoic acid, and ester are all highly flammable).

When separating the ester in a school laboratory, I used method 1. This method was easy to use as
the individual components of the reaction mixture separated out quite easily.

21
Ethanol

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 25 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel. 5
4

Ethanol (C2H5OH) is a short chain hydrocarbon that is suitable for use as a fuel in combustion engines.
It is a liquid and burns completely with far fewer moles of oxygen needed than standard petrol.

Combustion of octane (a major component of petrol):


C8H18 (l) + 12O2 (g) 8CO2 (g) + 9H2O (l)

Combustion of ethanol:
C2H5OH (l) +3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)

This means less carbon dioxide and soot (products of incomplete combustion) are released when
ethanol is used as a fuel compared to octane.

Ethanol is produced from renewable plant sources usually from sugar cane or corn plants that are
grown especially for converting to ethanol. This is much better than fossil fuel derived energy sources
as they are non-renewable.

But, ethanol has a number of disadvantages. The biomass used has to be grown, and this takes up
energy and resources. Furthermore, the arable land used for growing the biomass isnt available to
grow food for people who dont have enough to eat. At the moment, ethanol is more expensive than
petrol to produce due to the high energy requirements of growing the biomass and distilling the
ethanol. This means it requires large government subsidies to make it attractive to businesses and
consumers. Also, to have a big enough effect on the environment, larger concentrations of ethanol
need to be used in fuel mixes (like the E85 used in USA). This requires car engines to be modified in
order to handle the higher concentrations of ethanol. These factors mean that wide scale use of
ethanol is not currently feasible without further research and large government subsidies.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 20 Describe the chemistry and procedure involved in each of these steps (glucose 7
5 mixture containing ethanol pure ethanol ethyl butanoate), using
diagrams where appropriate.

Glucose mixture containing ethanol

Fermentation of glucose:

Glucose is fermented using yeast enzymes seen in the following reaction:


Yeast
C6H12O6 (aq) CO2 (g) + C2H5OH (aq)

22
Thermometer

The process is carried out in an anaerobic


environment at a temperature of Cotton wool
approximately 36C, which allows the yeast
to function most efficiently. As it is produced,
the ethanol needs to be removed as a Flask containing glucose, ethanol, water and sugar
concentration of ethanol of more than 14%
v/v will poison the yeast and stop the Hot plate
reaction.

Mixture containing ethanol pure ethanol

Distillation of ethanol:

If the previous reaction was


carried out to completion, there
Thermometer will only be water and ethanol in
the mixture. These two miscible
liquids can be separated by
H2O out distillation as they have different
boiling points (78C compared to
Distillation apparatus
100C). The mixture is heated
and the ethanol will start to
evaporate at around 78C. This
will condense and run-off into a
Round-bottomed flask
separate container. Because of
the highly hydrophilic nature of
ethanol (it forms strong
H2O in
hydrogen bonds with water
molecules); the distillation will
not be 100% effective. The
Bunsen burner
Distillate distillate will contain some water
and the remaining water will
contain some ethanol. The
distillate can be distilled again,
but it is almost impossible to distil it to 100% ethanol.

23
Pure ethanol ethyl butanoate

Esterification of
ethanol and 1-
butanoic acid:
H2O out
Vapours rise, then condense, then fall back into the reaction flask
In this process,
ethanol and 1-
butanoic acid
combine to form
ethyl butanoate, an
ester, and water:
Condenser / Refluxer
C2H5OH (aq) +
C3H7COOH (l) H2O in
C2H5O(CO)C3H7 (aq) +
H2O (l)
In a school
laboratory, the
reaction is Reaction flask containing alkanol, alkanoic acid, sulfuric acid and boiling chips
conducted under
reflux conditions,
which allows
Heating mantle
pressure to be
released without
the volatile
reactants escaping. Sulfuric acid and boiling chips are added to help speed up the reaction and
ensure even heating, respectively. The reaction mixture is heated in a round-bottomed flask, on a
heating mantle, which is gentler and less dangerous than a Bunsen flame (which could ignite the
volatile gasses).

[Note if this question specified in a school laboratory the answer would need to include more
detailed method and results for each process.]

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 20 Analyse why ethylene is such an important starting material for the chemical 7
6 industry. In your answer, include relevant chemical equations, and a description
of new materials and fuels that can be prepared from ethylene.

Ethene is a widely used starting material for making addition polymers. It is useful because its double
bond can be broken open easily to form polymers. Also, it has a simple structure and is easy to
produce.

In addition polymerisation, the double bond is broken open by an initiator molecule (often a
peroxide). This forms free radicals which bond with other ethene molecules in the propagation stage.
The propagation continues until termination. With the introduction of the Ziegler-Natta catalyst, this
polymerisation method became economically viable and is now widely used to make polyethylene, a
versatile plastic.

24
Before polymerisation, the ethene monomers can undergoe substitution reactions so that polymers
with different properties can be produced, for example, the chloroethene monomer can be derived
from ethene and polymerised to form polyvinylchloride (PVC), which has a high tensile strength and
rigidity due to the large chlorine atoms increasing the intermolecular forces between chains. Another
example is polystyrene (PS). The styrene (ethenylbenzene) monomer is also derived from ethene.
Crystalline polystyrene is used in applications such as CD cases because it is transparent and has a
high refractive index (1.6), while expanded polystyrene is used in packaging applications because the
air bubbles give it good resistance to impacts.

Ethylene can be converted to a fuel by a hydration reaction to produce ethanol. Ethanol (C 2H5OH) is a
short chain hydrocarbon that is suitable for use as a fuel in combustion engines. It is a liquid and
burns completely with far fewer moles of oxygen needed than standard petrol.

Combustion of octane (a major component of petrol):


C8H18 (l) + 12O2 (g) 8CO2 (g) + 9H2O (l)

Combustion of ethanol:
C2H5OH (l) +3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)

There is much research going into increasing the efficiency of ethanol production as it is an important
source of fuel that is renewable (it can be produced from biomass which can be grown quickly).

In conclusion, ethylene is an important starting material for the chemical industry because it has a
wide variety of uses including making different plastics and producing renewable fuel.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 22 The following extract was taken from the website of a leading car manufacturer. 5
8 The CO2 released from combustion of bio-ethanol is balanced by CO 2 captured
through photosynthesis. Therefore combustion of bio-ethanol does not increase
the total amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Thus bio-ethanol has attracted
attention as a carbon-neutral fuel an energy source effective as a
countermeasure to global warming
Critically evaluate the extract with reference to ethanol being a carbon-neutral
fuel. Support your answer with relevant chemical equations.

The claims in the quote are based on the following equations that describe the production and
consumption of ethanol from biomass:

Photosynthesis:
6CO2 (l) + 6H2O (l) C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)

Fermentation of glucose:
C6H12O6 (aq) 2CO2 (g) + 2C2H5OH (aq)

Combustion of ethanol (for example, in a combustion engine):


2C2H5OH (aq) + 6O2 (g) 5H2O (l) + 4CO2 (g)

25
As can be seen, the reactants are 6CO2 and 6H2O, and the final products are 6CO2 and 6H2O. This
means, according to the statement, that the process doesnt require any additional materials and it is
carbon neutral.

But, there are a number of processes that are not represented by the three equations, which do
need an input. After fermentation, the ethanol needs to be distilled so any water doesnt interfere
with combustion. This is very energy intensive because ethanol is highly hydrophilic (due to the
hydrogen bonding between ethanol and water). This energy commonly comes from burning fossil
fuels, which is definitely not a carbon-neutral process. Furthermore, the crops for making biomass
require energy and arable land to produce, which could be used to grow crops to feed people who
dont have enough to eat.

In conclusion, the statement given is correct in some aspects, as the reactants used are produced at
the end. But the energy needed for distillation and growing of biomass produces CO 2, making bio-
ethanol not a carbon-neutral fuel.

Year No Question Mar


. k
201 21 What features of the molecular structure of ethanol account for its extensive 4
1 use as a solvent? Include a diagram in your answer

The structure of ethanol:

As can be seen in the diagram, an ethanol molecule has two similarly


sized sections, one polar and one non-polar. The CH 3 end of the
ethanol molecule is non-polar, meaning it will readily form dispersion
intermolecular forces with non-polar substances. This makes it a
good solvent for non-polar substances. The CH 2OH end of the
ethanol molecule is polar, meaning it will readily form dipole-dipole
and ion-dipole intermolecular forces with polar substances. This
makes it a good solvent for non-polar substances.

Because of ethanols ability to dissolve both polar and non-polar substances, it is used extensively as
a solvent in many applications such as in industry and cosmetics.

26
Eutrophication

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 26 Describe the process of eutrophication, and assess the suitability of water 4
3 quality tests used to monitor it.

Nitrates and phosphates are common chemicals in synthetic fertilisers and detergents. When run-off
from farms or sewage containing detergents gets washed into waterways, they can cause
eutrophication.

The nitrates and phosphates act as nutrients for algae, which grow rapidly, forming algal blooms.
These blooms block sunlight from entering the water, killing aquatic plants, and also absorb oxygen
that is dissolved in the water, killing many fish. The algal blooms grow so large they run out of
nutrients, die and start to decay.

Aerobic bacteria thrive on all the dead organic matter (plants and fish) and decompose it. In doing so
they absorb dissolved oxygen from the water, which causes more fish and plants to die. The aerobic
bacteria will run out of oxygen (especially if the water body is stagnant), and anaerobic bacteria will
start to grow. These bacteria release toxic gasses like H 2S as they break down organic matter. This
state is called eutrophication.

Because eutrophication is a process, rather than an event, it cannot be directly tested or measured.
Instead, the causes and effects of eutrophication are measured using a number of chemical tests:

The concentration of nitrates and phosphates is important as high concentrations of these


chemicals can lead to eutrophication. The concentrations can be tested for using
precipitation tests or Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) is an important test for eutrophication. A low DO
count could indicate eutrophication. DO is measured using an oxygen probe, or the Winkler
titration method.
The Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is another test that can indicate whether
eutrophication has occurred. BOD is the change in concentration of dissolved oxygen in a
sample that sealed and kept in the dark for a set amount of time (usually 5 days). This
measures the amount of aerobic bacteria and microorganisms. A high BOD may indicate
eutrophication is developing.
Observational tests such as seeing if there are any algal blooms or dead aquatic life will also
be useful to determine if eutrophication is emerging.

In conclusion, eutrophication is damaging to the environment and can be dangerous to humans and
animals. The tests to determine if eutrophication is present are effective, but need to be used in
conjunction with each other to be sure of reliable results (for example, a high DO could just indicate
thermal pollution, not eutrophication).

27
H2SO4 production

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 Explain why sulfuric acid is an important industrial chemical. Include balanced 5
1 (c) chemical equations in your answer.

Sulfuric acid is used widely in industry as its diprotic, hydrophilic nature make it useful for a number
of roles.

Sulfuric acid is used in the manufacture of synthetic fertilisers such as ammonium sulfate:
2NH3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) (NH4)2SO4 (aq)

It is also used as a dehydrating agent in many industrial reactions, such as drying the air for use in the
contact process, and dehydration of alcohols:
C2H5OH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) H2O (l) + C2H4 (g) + H2SO4 (l)

A third use for sulfuric acid is in pickling steel. It is used to remove any rust (Fe 2O3) from steel before
it is sold.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) 3H2O (l) + Fe2(SO4)3

As can be seen from the above examples, sulfuric acid has a large number of uses, making it an
important industrial chemical.

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 30 Assess how environmental issues have been addressed in an industrial method 6
3 (e) of production of an acid, and an industrial method of production of a base.

Industrial processes are inherently on a large scale. This means there can be large amounts of waste
that need to be safely disposed, as well as volatile products that need to be handled carefully.

In the production of sulfuric acid, there are a number of factors that need to be addressed. The solid
sulfur that is a product of the Frasch process is very easily oxidised by oxygen or hydrogen to give
sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, both of which are harmful pollutants and can cause problems
like asthma in humans and acid rain. This successfully is addressed by transporting the sulfur in an
airless environment.

Sulfur dioxide is also involved in the production process and the release of this gas needs to be as
little as possible (because of the negative effects discussed above). To achieve this, the contact
process plants make sure the conversion of SO2 to SO3 is very high (99.7%) by using a low
temperature to increase the yield. Furthermore, the SO 3, which contains traces of SO2, is passed
through the reaction tower multiple times to make sure it is all converted. The low emissions of SO 2
and decreased occurrence of acid rain near sulfuric acid plants show these measures have been
effective.

A further environmental issue is that of thermal pollution. The three following reactions are all highly
exothermic.

28
S (l) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) H2S2O7 (aq)
H2S2O7 (aq) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (l)

If the heat was released into the environment (for example in the form of water that had been used
to cool the reactors), it would cause thermal pollution, which can damage ecosystems, especially
waterways as the high temperature lowers the solubility of oxygen. To stop this, the heat is captured
and used to boil water to drive turbines, creating electricity, or used to roast metal sulfides to extract
the sulfur. This issue has been addressed successfully and stopped any heat pollution escaping into
the environment.

Although the Solvay process (production of the base sodium carbonate) has been optimised to
recycle many of its raw materials, there are still some environmental issues that need to be
addressed.

Calcium chloride is released as a by-product of the ammonium recovery process (NH 4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2
(aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)). Calcium chloride is used in other countries for salting roads to
remove ice, but in Australia it has few uses and much of it needs to be discarded. If the Solvay plant
is close to the ocean, calcium chloride waste can be safely dumped there as calcium and chloride
ions are already present in high concentrations in the ocean. If the Solvay plant is inland however,
the calcium chloride cannot be dumped in rivers or other waterways as the calcium causes increased
water hardness and the chlorine causes increased salinity, killing aquatic plants and animals.
Sometimes the calcium chloride is buried, but this is not a complete solution as it can leech into
nearby waterways (as the compound is very soluble).

Thermal pollution can be a problem if water used for cooling is transferred directly into water bodies.
Thermal pollution in waterways can cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen in the water (because
solubility of gasses is related to temperature), and this can cause problems for fish and aquatic
plants. Instead, water is either discharged into the sea or cooled in large cooling ponds before being
discharged into waterways.

The Solvay process is optimised to recycle ammonia and carbon dioxide. This stops any
environmental problems that would be caused by the release of these gasses.

In conclusion, environmental issues are easily addressed when the Solvay plant is located at the coast
as the safe disposal of calcium chloride is only really possible if it is put into the sea. The other
environmental issues are all successfully addressed through the design of the plant and other
measures.

[Note for the base, you could also have done NaOH.]

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 29 Justify the conditions you would use to maximise the rate and yield of the 4
6 (d) conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the Contact process. Include
(iii) a balanced chemical equation in your answer.

29
The conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the contact process is an equilibrium reaction
and so the right conditions need to be used to maximise the yield of sulfur trioxide and rate of
reaction.

SO2 (g) + O2 (g) SO3 (g) (H < 0)

Temperature is an important condition in this process. A high temperature increases the rate of
reaction because the reactants have a high kinetic energy, meaning there will be more successful
collisions. On the other hand, a high temperature, according to Le Chateliers Principle, will cause the
exothermic equilibrium to favour the reverse reaction, in order to absorb heat. This will cause the
yield to decrease. A low temperature will decrease the rate of reaction because the reactants will
have a low kinetic energy, meaning there will be fewer successful collisions. On the other hand, a low
temperature, according to Le Chateliers Principle, will cause the exothermic equilibrium to favour
the forward reaction, in order to produce heat. This will cause the yield to increase. So a compromise
of 450C is used to ensure an acceptable yield, while still maintaining a high enough rate to keep the
process economically viable.

The catalyst used is V2O5, which greatly increases the rate of reaction because it offers an alternate
reaction pathway. This means the effects of the low rate, caused by a low temperature, will be less
detrimental.

As can be seen in the equation, the left side of the equilibrium contains more moles of gasses than
the right (1 compared to 1). According to Le Chateliers Principle, high pressures will cause the
equilibrium to favour the forwards reaction, in order to use up moles of gas and decrease the
pressure. This will cause an increase in yield. Because the effects of the temperature on optimising
yield are so great (99.7% yield), very high pressures are not needed, so just 1-2 atm are used.

Excess oxygen is used in the reaction chamber to drive the reaction forward. A high concentration of
oxygen, according to Le Chateliers Principle, causes the equilibrium to shift to favour the forward
reaction in order to use up some of the excess oxygen. This further increases the yield.
Additionally, sulfur trioxide is removed as it is produced, similarly increasing the yield as the
equilibrium shifts to produce more.

Year No. Question Mar


k
201 32 Evaluate the impact on society of the environmental issues associated with 7
1 (e) three of the industrial processes that you have studied in this option.

Industrial processes are inherently on a large scale. This means there can be large amounts of waste
that need to be safely disposed, as well as volatile products that can have negative impacts on
society. It is the success handling these environmental issues that determines their effect on society.
If the measures to prevent them are successful, there will be little or no impact on society. This can
be seen in the industrial production of sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate.

In the production of sulfuric acid, there are a number of factors that could impact negatively on
society. The solid sulfur that is a product of the Frasch process is very easily oxidised by oxygen or
hydrogen to give sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, both of which are harmful pollutants and can
cause problems like asthma in humans and acid rain. The impact of these gasses on society is
diminished as by transporting the sulfur in an airless environment.

30
Sulfur dioxide is also involved in the production process and the release of this gas needs to be as
little as possible (because of the negative effects discussed above). To achieve this, the contact
process plants make sure the conversion of SO2 to SO3 is very high (99.7%) by using a low
temperature to increase the yield. Furthermore, the SO 3, which contains traces of SO2, is passed
through the reaction tower multiple times to make sure it is all converted. The low emissions of SO 2
and decreased occurrence of acid rain near sulfuric acid plants show these measures have been
effective.

The mercury cell, used in the production of sodium hydroxide, has possible problems associated with
the use of mercury. Mercury is a heavy metal and is toxic in any concentration to humans and
animals. It can damage the nervous system and cause mental retardation and growth, especially in
children. Furthermore, mercury bioaccumulates in the food chain (as it is not excreted, it stays in the
food chain and is passed up in increasing concentrations to consumers higher up the food chain).
This means the misuse of mercury in the mercury cell could lead to large impacts on society. But
measures have been taken to avoid this, including recycling the mercury and phasing out the use of
the mercury cell.

The diaphragm cell, also used in the production of sodium hydroxide, has fewer potential health
risks. The diaphragm separating the two half cells is made from asbestos, which is a known
carcinogen. The asbestos can cause harm during its production as well as when the cell comes to the
end of its usable lifetime and is discarded. The diaphragm cell is also being phased out in order to
avoid any negative impacts on society.

Both cells described above are being replaced by the membrane cell, which has no potential health
risks and no associated environmental issues. This dramatically lowers the risk of a negative impact
on society associated with the production of sodium carbonate.

Although the Solvay process has been optimised to recycle many of its raw materials, there are still
some environmental issues that may have an impact on society.

Calcium chloride is released as a by-product of the ammonium recovery process (NH 4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2
(aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)). Calcium chloride is used in other countries for salting roads to
remove ice, but in Australia it has few uses and much of it needs to be discarded. If the Solvay plant
is close to the ocean, calcium chloride waste can be safely dumped there as calcium and chloride
ions are already present in high concentrations in the ocean. If the Solvay plant is inland however,
the calcium chloride cannot be dumped in rivers or other waterways as the calcium causes increased
water hardness and the chlorine causes increased salinity, killing aquatic plants and animals.
Sometimes the calcium chloride is buried, but this is not a complete solution as it can leech into
nearby waterways (as the compound is very soluble).

Thermal pollution can be a problem if water used for cooling is transferred directly into water bodies.
Thermal pollution in waterways can cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen in the water (because
solubility of gasses is related to temperature), and this can cause problems for fish and aquatic
plants. Instead, water is either discharged into the sea or cooled in large cooling ponds before being
discharged into waterways.

The mining of limestone in open cut mines itself causes a number of problems and would have an
adverse impact on society if not addressed properly. Dust is a problem and this is addressed by
improved truck loading facilities, upgrading of dust suppression systems in the plant, using a wetting
solution to suppress dust in open areas, and the installation of dust scrubbing systems. Furthermore,

31
noise can be a problem if the mine is near housing areas. Noise is reduced by enclosure of noisy
areas.

The Solvay process is optimised to recycle ammonia and carbon dioxide. This stops any
environmental problems that would be caused by the release of these gasses.

The impact on society of the environmental issues associated with the Solvay process is quite low
because most of the issues have been addressed and do not pose a problem to society.

In conclusion, each of the discussed industrial processes has its own environmental issues and much
effort has been put into addressing these issues in order to lessen the impact on our society, with
many successful results.

32
Haber process

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 29 Evaluate the importance of monitoring and managing the conditions used in 7
3 the Haber process.

The equilibrium equation involved in the Haber process is N 2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) H = -92 kJ/mol.
Le Chateliers Principle states that a closed equilibrium system will shift to minimise any changes to
the system. The different conditions of temperature, pressure, composition of reactants, the health
of the catalyst, and the liquefaction process must be managed and monitored in order to maximise
yield, rate and safety, as well as to minimise costs.

A high temperature will increase the rate of reaction because the reactants have more kinetic energy,
which will result in more successful collisions. But, according to Le Chateliers Principle, a high
temperature will result in the exothermic equilibrium favouring the reverse reaction in order to
decrease the energy of the system. On the other hand, a low temperature will decrease the rate of
reaction because the reactants will have less kinetic energy, which will result in less successful
collisions. But a low temperature, according to Le Chateliers Principle, will cause the exothermic
reaction to favour the forward direction in order to create more heat energy. This will increase the
yield. So a compromise of yield and rate is found at 500C, which needs to be monitored and
managed to maximise yield and rate.

A high pressure in the reaction chamber will increase the yield. As seen in the equation, there are
more moles of gas on the left side of the equation (4 moles) than on the right side (2 moles).
According to Le Chateliers Principle, an increase in pressure to this system will cause the equilibrium
to shift to favour the forward reaction in order to decrease the pressure of the system. This will
increase the yield. A high pressure will also increase the kinetic energy of the reactants, leading to
more collisions and a higher rate of reaction. But high pressures are expensive to produce and
maintain, and can be dangerous, so a compromise of 350 atm is used and has to be monitored and
managed to ensure safety and a high rate and yield.

A magnetite (Fe3O4) catalyst is used to increase the rate of reaction and make the process economic
to run. This catalyst must be monitored and managed and replaced if needed.
The composition of input gasses must be monitored for a number of reasons: The ratio of N 2 to H2
must be maintained at 1:3 to ensure there are fewer useless collisions and no space is wasted in the
reaction chamber. The input gasses must also be kept free from pollutant gasses such as CO (a by-
product of the process used to make H2, which can pollute the catalyst) and O2 (a by-product of the
process used to make N2, which could cause dangerous explosions in the high-pressure environment
containing hydrogen).

The liquefaction process, which is used to remove the produced NH 3 and recycle the unused N2 and
H2, must also be monitored. It needs to be at the correct temperature to condense all the NH 3 and
not the H2 and N2. The removal of the NH3 from the equilibrium causes the reaction, according to Le
Chateliers Principle, to favour the forward reaction in order to produce more NH 3. This increases the
yield.

In conclusion, it is very important to monitor and manage the many conditions used in the Haber
process in order to maximise yield, rate and safety, and to minimise costs.

33
Year No. Question Mar
k
200 24 Evaluate the significance of Habers discovery at that time in world history. 4
6 (b)

Before the start of World War 1, Germany imported guano from Chile to use to get the nitrate salts
needed to make fertilisers and explosives. At the onset of the war, the Allies blockaded the Atlantic
trade routes, stopping Germanys supply of guano and greatly reducing Germanys capacity to
produce fertilisers and explosives, both of which were very important to the war effort. Haber
discovered a method of economically producing ammonia, which could be used to make nitrate. This
helped sustain Germanys war effort by supplying explosives to fight the war and fertilisers for the
efficient growth of food. Because of Habers significant work, the war went on much longer than it
otherwise would have.

34
NaOH production

[Note all the questions for this topic are very similar. I just re-wrote the information to suit each
question. The diagrams of each cell and reactions should be included in all of the following questions
for this topic.]

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 Evaluate changes in industrial production methods for sodium hydroxide. 6
2 (e)

Industrial production methods for sodium hydroxide have changed over time as new techniques and
materials have been developed.

The mercury cell was the


first method used for
production of NaOH.
Concentrated brine is
pumped into the first
chamber, where the
chloride ions are oxidised
to chlorine gas. The
sodium ions form an
amalgam with the mercury
cathode, which is pumped
into a second chamber, the
decomposer. Here, the
amalgam reacts with water
to form sodium hydroxide
solution and hydrogen gas.
The mercury is then
released and pumped back to the first chamber after being purified. The problem with the mercury
cell is that care needs to be taken to make sure there is no mercury leaked into the environment.

Reactions:
Anode reaction 2Cl-(aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e-
Cathode reaction 2Na/Hg (l) + 2H2O (l) + 2e- 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) + 2Hg (l)
Overall reaction 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) Cl2 (g) +2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

35
The diaphragm cell was
developed as a new technique
which would solve the problems
with mercury disposal and the
high energy requirements of the
mercury cell. In a diaphragm
cell, concentrated brine is
pumped in and chloride ions are
oxidised at the anode. Water is
reduced at the cathode to
hydroxide ions and hydrogen
gas. The sodium ions pass
through the diaphragm and
combine with the hydroxide
ions to leave the cell as sodium
hydroxide solution. Although
the diaphragm cell is cheap to run, the products are very impure (because the diaphragm allows all
ions to pass through it) so the cell requires large amounts of energy to refine the products.
Furthermore, the diaphragm is usually made out of asbestos, a material that can cause major health
problems during production.

Reactions:
Anode reaction 2Cl-(aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e-
Cathode reaction 2H2O (l) + 2e- 2OH- (aq) + H2 (g)
Overall reaction 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) Cl2 (g) +2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

To solve the problem posed


by the diaphragm cell, a new
membrane was developed.
This polymer only allows
sodium ions to pass through
it, meaning there are no
chloride or hydroxide ions
that can pass through to
contaminate the products.
This means the membrane
cell has very pure products
with a lower energy
requirement than the
mercury cell.

Reactions:
Anode reaction 2Cl-(aq) Cl2 (g) + 2e-
Cathode reaction 2Na+ (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2e- 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Overall reaction 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) Cl2 (g) +2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

36
In conclusion, each of the three cells has its own advantages and disadvantages, and each sought to
improve on the previous one. This method of scientific improvement on industrial processes is
greatly beneficial to the scientific community and the environment.

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 Advances in chemistry have impacted on the development of technologies. 7
5 (c) Discuss this statement by analysing changes that have occurred in industrial
methods for the production of sodium hydroxide.

See pages 34-35 for diagrams, equations and description of the chemistry involved.

Advances in chemistry have allowed the methods used to industrially produce sodium hydroxide to
change over time to become more efficient, safer, and cheaper.

The mercury cell was the first industrial method for the production of NaOH. Although the products
of this cell are very pure (because oxidation and reduction happen in different chambers), mercury is
used, which is toxic and hard to dispose of safely. This factor led to a search for a method of NaOH
production that didnt have these health and safety problems.

The diaphragm cell was allowed by the development of a new technique for NaOH production, as
well as the diaphragm that allows ions to pass through it. It was also an improvement on the mercury
cell in that there was no hazardous waste to dispose of. On top of that, the diaphragm cell itself was
relatively cheap to run compared to the mercury cell. But the diaphragm cell had its own problems:
The products of the diaphragm cell are very impure as chloride and other ions can pass through the
barrier to contaminate the NaOH product, as well as producing other unwanted products like
hypochlorite. These impure products require a lot of energy to separate (for example, concentrating
the very dilute NaOH solution that is produced). Also, the diaphragm is made of asbestos, which can
cause serious health problems during its production. These factors contributed to another change in
the production process.

The membrane cell is the most recently developed cell for the production of NaOH, and the most
widely used around the world. The membrane cell was possible because of the advances in
technology that led to the development of the ion-selective polymer membrane. This was able to
solve both the problems of the diaphragm cell simultaneously. The polymer is produced easily and
with little damage to the environment. Furthermore, its special properties mean that it only allows
sodium ions to pass through it, meaning pure products.

In conclusion, as advances in chemistry have been made, new technologies have been developed to
help with issues such as health and safety concerns, and purity of products.

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 Over the past century the production of sodium hydroxide has evolved from 6
7 (b) the mercury process, to the diaphragm process, to the membrane process.
Analyse the factors that contributed to each of the changes in the production
process.

37
See pages 34-35 for diagrams, equations and description of the chemistry involved.

Over the past century the production of sodium hydroxide has evolved from the mercury process, to
the diaphragm process, to the membrane process. Each of these changes has been due to factors
including safety, purity of products, and cost.

The mercury cell was the first industrial method for the production of NaOH. Although the products
of this cell are very pure (because oxidation and reduction happen in different chambers), mercury is
used, which is toxic and hard to dispose of safely. This factor led to a search for a method of NaOH
production that didnt have these health and safety problems.

The diaphragm cell was an improvement on the mercury cell in that there was no hazardous waste to
dispose of. On top of that, the diaphragm cell itself was relatively cheap to run compared to the
mercury cell. But the diaphragm cell had its own problems: The products of the diaphragm cell are
very impure as chloride and other ions can pass through the barrier to contaminate the NaOH
product, as well as producing other unwanted products like hypochlorite. These impure products
require a lot of energy to separate (for example, concentrating the very dilute NaOH solution that is
produced). Also, the diaphragm is made of asbestos, which can cause serious health problems during
its production. These factors contributed to another change in the production process.

The membrane cell is the most recently developed cell for the production of NaOH, and the most
widely used around the world. The membrane cell uses an ion-selective polymer membrane to solve
both problems with the diaphragm cell simultaneously. The polymer is produced easily and with little
damage to the environment. Furthermore, its special properties mean that it only allows sodium ions
to pass through it, meaning pure products.

In conclusion, as new technologies have become available, better methods of sodium hydroxide
production have become more widely used. The factors that contributed to each of the changes in
the production process were health and safety concerns, and purity of products.

Year No. Question Mar


k
201 32 Evaluate the impact on society of the environmental issues associated with 7
1 (e) three of the industrial processes that you have studied in this option.

Industrial processes are inherently on a large scale. This means there can be large amounts of waste
that need to be safely disposed, as well as volatile products that can have negative impacts on
society. It is the success handling these environmental issues that determines their effect on society.
If the measures to prevent them are successful, there will be little or no impact on society. This can
be seen in the industrial production of sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate.

In the production of sulfuric acid, there are a number of factors that could impact negatively on
society. The solid sulfur that is a product of the Frasch process is very easily oxidised by oxygen or
hydrogen to give sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, both of which are harmful pollutants and can
cause problems like asthma in humans and acid rain. The impact of these gasses on society is
diminished as by transporting the sulfur in an airless environment.

Sulfur dioxide is also involved in the production process and the release of this gas needs to be as
little as possible (because of the negative effects discussed above). To achieve this, the contact
process plants make sure the conversion of SO2 to SO3 is very high (99.7%) by using a low

38
temperature to increase the yield. Furthermore, the SO 3, which contains traces of SO2, is passed
through the reaction tower multiple times to make sure it is all converted. The low emissions of SO 2
and decreased occurrence of acid rain near sulfuric acid plants show these measures have been
effective.

The mercury cell, used in the production of sodium hydroxide, has possible problems associated with
the use of mercury. Mercury is a heavy metal and is toxic in any concentration to humans and
animals. It can damage the nervous system and cause mental retardation and growth, especially in
children. Furthermore, mercury bioaccumulates in the food chain (as it is not excreted, it stays in the
food chain and is passed up in increasing concentrations to consumers higher up the food chain).
This means the misuse of mercury in the mercury cell could lead to large impacts on society. But
measures have been taken to avoid this, including recycling the mercury and phasing out the use of
the mercury cell.

The diaphragm cell, also used in the production of sodium hydroxide, has fewer potential health
risks. The diaphragm separating the two half cells is made from asbestos, which is a known
carcinogen. The asbestos can cause harm during its production as well as when the cell comes to the
end of its usable lifetime and is discarded. The diaphragm cell is also being phased out in order to
avoid any negative impacts on society.

Both cells described above are being replaced by the membrane cell, which has no potential health
risks and no associated environmental issues. This dramatically lowers the risk of a negative impact
on society associated with the production of sodium carbonate.

Although the Solvay process has been optimised to recycle many of its raw materials, there are still
some environmental issues that may have an impact on society.

Calcium chloride is released as a by-product of the ammonium recovery process (NH 4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2
(aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)). Calcium chloride is used in other countries for salting roads to
remove ice, but in Australia it has few uses and much of it needs to be discarded. If the Solvay plant
is close to the ocean, calcium chloride waste can be safely dumped there as calcium and chloride
ions are already present in high concentrations in the ocean. If the Solvay plant is inland however,
the calcium chloride cannot be dumped in rivers or other waterways as the calcium causes increased
water hardness and the chlorine causes increased salinity, killing aquatic plants and animals.
Sometimes the calcium chloride is buried, but this is not a complete solution as it can leech into
nearby waterways (as the compound is very soluble).

Thermal pollution can be a problem if water used for cooling is transferred directly into water bodies.
Thermal pollution in waterways can cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen in the water (because
solubility of gasses is related to temperature), and this can cause problems for fish and aquatic
plants. Instead, water is either discharged into the sea or cooled in large cooling ponds before being
discharged into waterways.

The mining of limestone in open cut mines itself causes a number of problems and would have an
adverse impact on society if not addressed properly. Dust is a problem and this is addressed by
improved truck loading facilities, upgrading of dust suppression systems in the plant, using a wetting
solution to suppress dust in open areas, and the installation of dust scrubbing systems. Furthermore,
noise can be a problem if the mine is near housing areas. Noise is reduced by enclosure of noisy
areas.

39
The Solvay process is optimised to recycle ammonia and carbon dioxide. This stops any
environmental problems that would be caused by the release of these gasses.

The impact on society of the environmental issues associated with the Solvay process is quite low
because most of the issues have been addressed and do not pose a problem to society.

In conclusion, each of the discussed industrial processes has its own environmental issues and much
effort has been put into addressing these issues in order to lessen the impact on our society, with
many successful results.

40
Natural resource rubber

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 29 In this option you studied one natural product that was not a fossil fuel. 7
6 (c) Describe the issues associated with shrinking world supplies of this natural
product, and evaluate progress being made to solve the problems identified.

Rubber is a natural product that is used widely around the world and is prized because of its unique
elastic structure. Originally, rubber was produced on large plantations in South America and South
Asia. Rubber was extracted from the sap of plants and trees such as the Para rubber tree.

With the introduction of automobiles, rubber was seen as the perfect material for making tyres, and
as the use of automobiles increased, so did the demand for rubber. An added increase in tyres for
military vehicles during World War II, on top of ever-increasing demand for rubber used in gloves,
adhesives, conveyer belts, and rubber bands, soon drove the need to increase the supply of rubber.

Because of this, American and German scientists developed synthetic rubber. The most common
synthetic rubber is styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) which is a polymer produced using the styrene
(CH2CHC6H6) and butadiene (CH2CHCHCH2) monomers. Synthetic rubbers are more chemically
resistant and physically durable than natural rubber, and also cheaper to produce.

This synthetic rubber was extremely effective at solving the problems associated with the high
demand for natural rubber, as it was able to increase the supply of rubber to the world at a low cost.
But progress still needs to be made on developing a synthetic rubber not derived from fossil fuels, a
non-renewable resource. If an alternative source of energy can be harnessed, such as the use of
ethanol converted from biomass, then synthetic rubber will become widely accepted as a versatile,
renewable material.

[Note each teacher teaches a different resource for this section, for example, ammonia, wool, soap
and fabric dyes. It is best to follow what your teacher teaches because they will give you info on that
resource and will be able to help you.]

41
Neutralisation of chemical spills

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 24 Discuss factors that must be considered when using neutralisation reactions to 4
3 safely minimise damage in chemical spills.

When neutralising chemical spills, a number of factors must be considered including what pH the
spill is, whether any has got on anybody, and the safety of using the neutralising substance.

If the pH of the spill is unknown, it needs to be tested and an appropriate weak acid or base used. Or,
use an amphiprotic substance like NaHCO3. NaHCO3 is an amphiprotic substance that can neutralise
an acid or a base and still give neutral products:

As a base: NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) H2O (l) + NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g)
As an acid: NaHCO3 (s) + NaOH (aq) H2O (l) + Na2CO3 (aq)

If the spill has got on anybody, flood the affected area with large amounts of water. This will dilute
and wash off the spill, and the large amount of water will dissipate any heat caused by the dilution of
a concentrated acid. Water is preferable to use over NaHCO 3 or an acidic or basic substance, as
neutralisation reactions often release large amounts of heat, which could worsen the condition.

The substance used for neutralisation should itself be safe and easy to use. NaHCO 3 is a non-toxic
substance and is found in powdered form, meaning it can be used in excess for any acid or base, and
transported easily.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 25 Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3, is commonly used to neutralise chemical 5
7 spills that are a potential hazard to the environment. Assess the effectiveness of
NaHCO3 in this role, with reference to its chemical properties.

Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) can effectively neutralise acids or bases, because it can act as
an acid or a base (amphoteric) e.g.

As a base: NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) H2O (l) + NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g)
As an acid: NaHCO3 (s) + NaOH (aq) H2O (l) + Na2CO3 (aq)

It comes in easily transportable solid form, and is not toxic, meaning it will not damage the
environment if used to clean up chemical spills. Furthermore, excess can be used without fear of the
pH being adjusted too far (as would happen if a base was being neutralised by a strong acid).

In conclusion, sodium hydrogen carbonate is an effective chemical for use in neutralising chemical
spills.

42
Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 21 Evaluate the impact of industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides 7
2 on the environment, making use of appropriate chemical equations.

Sulfur dioxide and NOx (oxides of nitrogen including NO and NO 2) can cause concern when found in
increasing concentrations in the atmosphere. SO 2 is released into the atmosphere through a number
of industrial sources. When coal with sulfur impurities is combusted, the sulfur also combusts and
forms sulfur dioxide:

S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

When metal sulfides such as pyrite are roasted to extract the metal, sulfur dioxide is also formed:

4FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2 (g)

NOx is also released due to industrial sources. The burning of fossil fuels that contain nitrogen
impurities forms both NO2 and NO:

2N2 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2NO2 (g) + 2NO (g)

The same reaction is seen when nitrogen in air is combusted with a fuel, for example in a cars
combustion engine.

Sulfur dioxide at concentrations as low as 1 ppm can have negative effects on human health as if it is
inhaled it can complicate respiratory problems and increase the chance of them developing. NO x can
also cause complications for people with respiratory problems, irritating the respiratory tract and
causing breathing discomfort at concentrations of about 3 to 5ppm. NO x can react with organic
compounds in the presence of sunlight to form ozone (also a serious lung irritant) in a series of
reactions:

NO2 (g) NO (g) + O*


O* + O2 (g) O3 (g)

Both SO2 and NOx are contributors to the formation of acid rain. Clean rain water has a pH level of
about 5.7, which is slightly acidic due to dissolved CO 2 forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). Acid rain has a
pH level of less than 5, meaning it can be quite corrosive. SO 2 forms sulfuric acid when it reacts with
rain in a series of reactions:

SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)


2H2SO3 (aq) + O2 (g) 2H2SO4 (aq)

Nitric acid is formed in a similar fashion:

2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)


HNO2 (aq) + O2 (g) HNO3 (aq)

As both these acids are soluble, they dissolve (releasing hydrogen ions and increasing acidity) in rain.

43
Acid rain has a variety of negative effects on the environment:
Acid rain can cause defoliation and stunted growth in plants. Some trees can be completely
destroyed. There have been cases of whole spruce forests being destroyed due to acid rain.
The sulfate ions that are formed when sulfuric acid is dissolved in rain water react with
calcium and magnesium ions that occur naturally in soil and are essential for plant growth,
leaving the soil low in these minerals.
Insoluble compounds in soil such as aluminium sulfate become soluble in acidic water,
releasing toxic aluminium ions into the soil.
Acid rain increases the acidity of lakes and streams which can directly damage fish, their
eggs, and aquatic plants, and can also dissolve toxic ions from the surrounding soil (like
aluminium) and transport them into the waterways.
Sulfate particles from acid rain in the atmosphere contribute to a reduction in visibility.

There is concern about the release into the environment of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
because, as industrialised processes become more common, the concentrations of these gasses
increase, leading to the problems discussed earlier. Measures are being taken to decrease SO 2 and
NOx output. For example, many coal-burning power plants use flue-gas desulfurization (or
scrubbers) to remove sulfur-containing gases from their released gases. The scrubbers turn sulfur
pollution into industrial sulfates like calcium sulfate. Other measures like catalytic converters in cars
turn SO2, NOx and other pollutants into non-harmful substances like water.

In conclusion, the impact of industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides on the
environment is large as they pose health risks and their release is increasing due to increases in
industry throughout the world.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 22 The atmosphere contains acidic oxides of sulfur which have been increasing in 4
6 concentration since the Industrial Revolution. Discuss the evidence for this
statement, and include relevant balanced chemical equations.

Many industrial processes produce oxides of sulfur, especially sulfur dioxide. When coal with sulfur
impurities is combusted, the sulfur also combusts and forms sulfur dioxide:

S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

Also, when metal sulfides such as pyrite are roasted to extract the metal, sulfur dioxide is also
formed:

4FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2 (g)

Since the Industrial Revolution, there has been an increase in the use of these industrial processes,
which should lead to an increase in the concentration of atmospheric sulfur dioxide. This increase
cannot be measured directly because the concentrations these gasses are found in are very low and
hard to measure accurately.

Instead, evidence for the increase in concentration of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere can be seen
indirectly from the effect it has on the environment. SO2 is a contributor to the formation of acid rain.

44
Clean rain water has a pH level of about 5.7, which is slightly acidic due to dissolved CO 2 forming
carbonic acid (H2CO3). Acid rain has a pH level of less than 5, meaning it can be quite corrosive. SO 2
forms sulfuric acid when it reacts with rain in a series of reactions:

SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq)


2H2SO3 (aq) + O2 (g) 2H2SO4 (aq)

As this acid is soluble, it dissolves (releasing hydrogen ions and increasing acidity) in rain.

Acid rain has a variety of negative effects on the environment:


Acid rain can cause defoliation and stunted growth in plants. Some trees can be completely
destroyed.
The sulfate ions that are formed when sulfuric acid is dissolved in rain water react with
calcium and magnesium ions that occur naturally in soil and are essential for plant growth,
leaving the soil low in these minerals.
Insoluble compounds in soil such as aluminium sulfate become soluble in acidic water,
releasing toxic aluminium ions into the soil.
Acid rain increases the acidity of lakes and streams which can directly damage fish, their
eggs, and aquatic plants, and can also dissolve toxic ions from the surrounding soil (like
aluminium) and transport them into the waterways.

An example of evidence is the case of the Black Forest in Germany, half of which was destroyed by
acid rain caused by emissions from nearby industrial areas. The increase in these negative effects is
evidence for an increase in the concentration of oxides of sulfur in the environment. Although the
evidence is fairly conclusive in showing that contains acidic oxides of sulfur which have been
increasing in concentration since the Industrial Revolution, there is little direct evidence. With the
invention of more accurate technologies (such as Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy), the levels of
oxides of sulfur in the atmosphere can be measured to give more direct evidence.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 18 There has been an increase in the concentration of the oxides of nitrogen in the 5
9 atmosphere as a result of combustion. Assess both the evidence to support this
statement and the need to monitor these oxides.

Oxides of nitrogen are released into the atmosphere through both industrial and natural causes. The
burning of fossil fuels that contain nitrogen impurities forms both NO2 and NO:

2N2 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2NO2 (g) + 2NO (g)

The same reaction is seen when nitrogen in air is combusted with a fuel, for example in a cars
combustion engine. Lightning, because it causes such high temperatures, causes gaseous nitrogen
and oxygen in the air to combine in a series of reactions:

N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g)


2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)

Since the Industrial Revolution, there has been an increase in the use of these industrial processes,
which should lead to an increase in the concentration of atmospheric oxides of nitrogen. This

45
increase cannot be measured directly because the concentrations these gasses are found in are very
low and hard to measure accurately.

Instead, evidence for the increase in concentration of nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere can be seen
indirectly from the effect it has on the environment.

An example of evidence is the case of the Black Forest in Germany, half of which was destroyed by
acid rain caused by emissions from nearby industrial areas. The increase in these negative effects is
evidence for an increase in the concentration of oxides of nitrogen in the environment. Although the
evidence is fairly conclusive in showing that contains acidic oxides of nitrogen which have been
increasing in concentration since the Industrial Revolution, there is little direct evidence that the
increase has been caused primarily as a result of combustion. With the invention of more accurate
technologies (such as Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy), the levels of oxides of nitrogen in the
atmosphere can be measured to give more direct evidence.

Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) can cause concern when found in increasing concentrations in the
atmosphere. NOx can cause complications for people with respiratory problems, irritating the
respiratory tract and causing breathing discomfort at concentrations of about 3 to 5ppm. NO x can
react with organic compounds in the presence of sunlight to form ozone (also a serious lung irritant)
in a series of reactions:

NO2 (g) NO (g) + O*


O* + O2 (g) O3 (g)

NOx is a contributor to the formation of acid rain. Clean rain water has a pH level of about 5.7, which
is slightly acidic due to dissolved CO2 forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). Acid rain has a pH level of less
than 5, meaning it can be quite corrosive. Nitric acid is formed when oxides of nitrogen react with
water:

2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)


HNO2 (aq) + O2 (g) HNO3 (aq)

As this acid is soluble, it dissolves (releasing hydrogen ions and increasing acidity) in rain.

Acid rain has a variety of negative effects on plant and animal life, and humans:
Acid rain can cause defoliation and stunted growth in plants. Some trees can be completely
destroyed. There have been cases of whole spruce forests being destroyed due to acid rain.
Insoluble compounds in soil such as aluminium sulfate become soluble in acidic water,
releasing toxic aluminium ions into the soil.
Acid rain increases the acidity of lakes and streams which can directly damage fish, their
eggs, and aquatic plants, and can also dissolve toxic ions from the surrounding soil (like
aluminium) and transport them into the waterways.
Acidic rain can corrode marble, limestone and stone structures. For example, calcium
carbonate, the main component of marble, is quickly dissolved by the hydrogen ions in acid
rain (CaCO3 (s) + 2H+ (aq) Ca2+ (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)). It can also affect iron and steel structures
(Fe (s) + 2H+ (aq) Fe2+ (aq) + H2 (g)).

These oxides need to be monitored because, as industrialised processes become more common, the
concentrations of these gasses increase, leading to the problems discussed earlier. Measures are
being taken to decrease NOx output. For example, many coal-burning power plants use scrubbers to

46
remove nitrogen-containing gases from their released gases. Other measures like catalytic converters
in cars turn NOx and other pollutants into non-harmful substances like water and nitrogen gas.

In conclusion, there should be concern about the release into the environment of oxides of nitrogen
as a product of combustion because it poses health risks and its release is increasing due to increases
in industry throughout the world. Furthermore, the evidence that these problems are caused, at
least in part, by nitrogen oxides, is quite conclusive even though it is not direct evidence.

[Note this last question is just a combination of the previous two. I just re-wrote the info to answer
the question.]

47
Ozone

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 28 Outline the changes that have occurred in atmospheric ozone concentrations 4
6 above Antarctica during the past twenty years.

During the past 20 years, atmospheric ozone concentrations above Antarctica have fluctuated
greatly, but mainly shown a downward trend. This is due to the overuse of CFCs (molecules
containing carbon, fluorine and chlorine atoms), which were used widely in aerosol cans as
repellents and in refrigerators as refrigerants because of their low toxicity, stable nature and low
boiling points. CFCs decompose in the stratosphere, releasing a chlorine free radical.

CCL3F (g) + UV CCL2F (g) + Cl (g)

This is a problem because it can destroy ozone molecules.

Cl (g) + O3 (g) ClO (g) + O2 (g)


ClO (g) + O (g) O2 (g) + Cl (g)

The effect of the chorine free radical is compounded by the fact that it destroys ozone and also uses
up oxygen free radicals which would normally form ozone.

O (g) + O2 (g) O3 (g)

On top of this, the chlorine free radical is released after each reaction, meaning it can destroy
thousands of ozone molecules in its catalytic role.

Antarctica is especially prone to ozone depletion by CFCs as the higher exposure to UV rays allows
the reactions to happen more quickly, depleting more ozone. The ozone concentrations are lowest
during spring, because this is when there is a large amount of exposure to the sun.

In 1987, the Montreal Protocol was introduced. This was a very successful international treaty that
sought to stop the use of CFCs around the world. It suggested replacing CFCs with HCFCs (that
break down before they reach the stratosphere) and HFCs (that do not contain any chlorine), which
have much lower ozone depletion potentials. Due to the Montreal Protocol, concentrations of CFCs
in the stratosphere have started to decrease, but because of the long-living nature of the chlorine
radicals already in the stratosphere, it will take some time before ozone levels get back to how they
were before the introduction of CFCs.

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 16 Ozone is a gas found in the troposphere and the stratosphere. Explain the 4
7 (b) effect of ozone in each of these layers.

Ozone (O3) is an allotrope of oxygen formed naturally in the atmosphere by the decomposition of an
oxygen molecule producing an oxygen free radical, which then combines with another oxygen
molecule to form ozone.

48
Ozone in the troposphere has multiple negative effects for humans and their environment. Ozones
structure of three oxygen atoms joined by a double bond and a coordinate covalent bond give it a
number of properties. Ozone is a very strong oxidising agent because of its less stable structure. In
this way it can cause damage to plants and animals. Ozone can also form a mixture with oxides of
nitrogen (released primarily from car exhausts and lightning) and other volatile organic compounds
(like unburnt hydrocarbons from cars) to form photochemical smog. Photochemical smog can cause
visibility issues as well as health complications for people with respiratory problems like asthma.

On the other hand, stratospheric ozone is important because its cycle of formation and
decomposition uses up UVB and UVC light from the sun, stopping it from reaching earth and causing
problems like skin cancers and eye cataracts.

O2 (g) + UVC 2O (g)


O (g) + O2 (g) O3 (g)
O3 (g) + UVB O (g) + O2 (g)

As can be seen in the equations, only the harmful UVB and UVC are used up, while the UVA
penetrates the ozone layer to be used in photosynthesis.

In conclusion, it can be seen that ozone has negative effects for humans and their environment when
found in the troposphere, but has positive effects when found in the stratosphere.

49
Polymers

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 20 Analyse why ethylene is such an important starting material for the chemical 7
6 industry. In your answer, include relevant chemical equations, and a description
of new materials and fuels that can be prepared from ethylene.

Ethene is a widely used starting material for making addition polymers. It is useful because its double
bond can be broken open easily to form polymers. Also, it has a simple structure and is easy to
produce.

In addition polymerisation, the double bond is broken open by an initiator molecule (often a
peroxide). This forms free radicals which bond with other ethene molecules in the propagation stage.
The propagation continues until termination. With the introduction of the Ziegler-Natta catalyst, this
polymerisation method became economically viable and is now widely used to make polyethylene, a
versatile plastic.

Before polymerisation, the ethene monomers can undergoe substitution reactions so that polymers
with different properties can be produced, for example, the ethenylbenzene monomer can be
derived from ethene and polymerised to form polyvinylchloride (PVC), which has a high tensile
strength and rigidity due to the benzene molecule increasing the intermolecular forces between
chains. Another example is polystyrene (PS). The styrene (ethanylbenzene) monomer is also derived
from ethene. Crystalline polystyrene is used in applications such as CD cases because it is transparent
and has a high refractive index (1.6), while expanded polystyrene is used in packaging applications
because the air bubbles give it good resistance to impacts.

Ethylene can be converted to a fuel by a hydration reaction to produce ethanol. Ethanol (C 2H5OH) is a
short chain hydrocarbon that is suitable for use as a fuel in combustion engines. It is a liquid and
burns completely with far fewer moles of oxygen needed than standard petrol.

Combustion of octane (a major component of petrol):


C8H18 (l) + 12O2 (g) 8CO2 (g) + 9H2O (l)

Combustion of ethanol:
C2H5OH (l) +3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l)

There is much research going into increasing the efficiency of ethanol production as it is an important
source of fuel that is renewable (it can be produced from biomass which can be grown quickly).

In conclusion, ethylene is an important starting material for the chemical industry because it has a
wide variety of uses including making different plastics and producing renewable fuel.

50
Year No Question Mar
. k
200 26 Explain how the structure and properties of polyethylene and polystyrene 4
7 relate to the way each is used.

Polyethylene

Polyethylene is made in low density (LDPE) or high density (HDPE) and each has different properties
and uses.

Both types of polyethylene can be easily moulded, making them useful for many different
applications like bottles and containers.

LDPE contains chain branching, which gives it certain properties like flexibility, transparency, and low
density. LDPE is quite tough and resistant to chemicals, meaning it can be used for food and drink
containers. Its flexibility, chemical inertness, and ability to be extruded make it suitable for use as
cling wrap.

HDPE contains very little chain branching, and a high amount of crystalline regions, which gives it a
high tensile strength and higher resistance to extremes of temperature than LDPE. Its uses include
agricultural pipes, buckets and bowls.

Polystyrene

Polystyrene also comes in two common forms expanded and non-expanded. Expanded polystyrene
contains air bubbles which give it good thermal insulating properties, making it useful for hot
beverage cups. The air bubbles and the ease with which it is moulded also make expanded
polystyrene useful for packing, as it is light and the air bubbles absorb the force of impacts.

Non-expanded polystyrene has more crystalline regions as it is packed more densely than expanded
polystyrene. Because of these crystalline regions, light is let through, making the plastic transparent.
The large benzene molecule present in each monomer exerts large dispersion forces which give non-
expanded polystyrene high rigidity and tensile strength. These properties make polystyrene useful
for applications such as CD cases.

In conclusion, by looking at the properties of polyethylene and polystyrene, it can be seen how their
structure and properties relate to the way each is used.

51
Year No Question Mar
. k
200 19 Outline the chemical and physical processes involved in the production of ONE 6
9 of the following from a natural raw material:
A polyethylene bottle
A polyvinyl chloride pipe
A polystyrene cup.
Include relevant chemical equations in your answer.

A polyethylene bottle:

Ethene, the monomer used, is extracted from crude oil (a natural raw material), by fractional
distillation. This process relies on the physical property of different boiling points to separate out the
components of crude oil.

Addition polymerisation is the chemical process used to convert ethylene to polyethylene. First, the
double bond is broken open by an initiator molecule (often a peroxide). This forms free radicals
which bond with other ethene molecules in the propagation stage. The propagation continues until
termination. A Ziegler-Natta catalyst (often titanium(III) chloride), is used to speed up the reaction
and make it economical. The conditions used during the polymerisation process to make low density
polyethylene (used in bottles) are 100-300C and 1500-3000 atm.

The pellets of low density polyethylene are extruded (a physical process) into a mould of a plastic
bottle. This is done by heating the polyethylene, then blowing air into the middle of it until it expands
to fit the shape of the mould.

Mould
Hot air blown in Polyethylene expands to fit the moul

Polyethylene

A polyvinyl chloride pipe:

Ethene is extracted from crude oil (a natural raw material), by fractional distillation. This process
relies on the physical property of different boiling points to separate out the components of crude
oil.

Ethene is converted to 1, 2-dichloroethene using a substitution reaction (with an iron(III) catalyst),


then to chloroethene using thermal cracking (at 500C and 15-30 atm):

C2H4 + Cl2 ClCH2CH2Cl


ClCH2CH2Cl CH2CHCl + HCl

52
This gives chloroethene, the monomer used in the production of PVC. Addition polymerisation, a
chemical process, is used to convert chloroethene to polyvinyl chloride. First, the double bond is
broken open by an initiator molecule (often a peroxide). This forms free radicals which bond with
other chloroethene molecules in the propagation stage. The propagation continues until termination.
Additives such as plasticisers, heat stabilisers and UV stabilisers are used to change the properties of
the PVC to ones that will be desirable for the specific application the PVC is to be used in. For a PVC
pipe, heat stabilisers and UV stabilisers are important to stop the pipe from degrading when exposed
to hot water or sunlight. The PVC powder is physically melted and moulded into a pipe.

A polystyrene cup:

Ethene is extracted from crude oil (a natural raw material), by fractional distillation. This process
relies on the physical property of different boiling points to separate out the components of crude
oil.

Ethene is then reacted with benzene to produce ethylbenzene. Catalytic dehydrogenation of the
ethylbenzene gives hydrogen and styrene (ethanylbenzene):

Addition polymerisation is the chemical process used to convert styrene to polystyrene. First, the
double bond is broken open by an initiator molecule. This forms free radicals which bond with other
ethene molecules in the propagation stage. The propagation continues until termination. The
reaction temperature range is 90-95C, and as the reaction is exothermic, heat exchangers are used
to keep the temperature stable. The catalysts are usually peroxides.

Air is blown through liquid polystyrene to form expanded polystyrene. This is injected into a mould to
form a polystyrene cup.

[Note, the question asks for only 1 of the 3 options given.]

53
Year No. Question Mar
k
201 30 Compare the process of polymerisation of ethylene and glucose. Include 3
0 (a) relevant chemical equations in your answer

The polymerisations of ethylene to polyethylene and glucose to cellulose are two different processes
addition polymerisation and condensation polymerisation respectively.

Addition polymerisation is used to convert ethylene to polyethylene. First, the double bond is broken
open by an initiator molecule (often a peroxide). This forms free radicals which bond with other
ethene molecules in the propagation stage. The propagation continues until termination. With the
introduction of the Ziegler-Natta catalyst, this polymerisation method became economically viable
and is widely used to make polyethylene.

The diagram shows an ethene monomer forming the free radical,


then bonding with other radicals to form a polyethylene chain.
This process can also be represented with equations (R
represents the initiator molecule):

Initiation:

CH2=CH2 + R R CH2 CH2 *

Propagation:

n(CH2=CH2) + R CH2CH2 * R CH2CH2(CH2 CH2)n

Termination:

2 R CH2CH2(CH2 CH2)n R(CH2 CH2)2n R

In contrast, the polymerisation of glucose to cellulose,


condensation polymerisation, involves a different process. When
two glucose monomers combine during polymerisation, The OH and H groups on carbons 1 and 4
react:

In this way, the glucose monomers join together. The polymerisation of glucose can be represented
by the structural equation:

54
In conclusion, the two processes have similarities and differences: Both use a single monomer, which
combine together in long chains. In the addition polymerisation of ethene, double bonds are broken
to form free radicals, while in the condensation polymerisation of glucose, the OH and H functional
groups combine to form an R-O-R bond, releasing a water molecule.

[Note this answer is too long for a 3 mark question. Not as much detail is needed on the production
of the polymers, the comparison (similarities and differences) is most important.]

Year No. Question Mar


k
201 30 Explain the relationship between the structures and properties of THREE 5
0 (b) different polymers from ethylene and glucose, and their uses.

The relationship between the structures, properties and uses of expanded polystyrene, PVC, and
starch can be seen through the use of a table relating their respective structures and properties to
their uses:

Structure Properties Uses


Expanded Made from The air bubbles have good Used in hot beverage cups
Polystyrene ethenylbenzene thermal insulating and packaging.
monomers. properties because they
The polymer is expanded can hold heat well.
by blowing air through it. They also can absorb the
This creates air bubbles. force of impacts.
PVC Made from chloroethene The chlorine atoms, which Used for hot water pipes,
monomers. Long straight are relatively large, give the in preference over metal,
chains with a high material rigidity and a high because it is inert and will
proportion of crystalline tensile strength. not rust or expand in hot
regions. The hydrocarbon chains weather.
have high dispersion forces,
making it insoluble.
Starch Made from glucose Starch is soluble because Starch is used by plants to
monomers in plants. the OH functional groups store sugar in the form of
Starch is stored in the are accessible to water, glucose. Because it is
lignin (woody parts of the which forms hydrogen soluble, the glucose is
plant). bonds to dissolve the readily accessed by the
starch to glucose. plant if it is needed.

55
Radioisotopes

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 18 Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced, and how transuranic 4
3 elements are produced.

Commercial radioisotopes are made in nuclear reactors, or in cyclotrons:

In a nuclear reactor, target nuclei are bombarded with neutrons that they absorb into their
nucleus. For example, technetium-99m is made by bombarding molybdenum-98 with
neutrons.

98 1 99 m
42 Mo + 0n 42 Mo

99 m 99
42 Mo 42Mo +

0
1
99 99 m
42 Mo Tc + 43

In a cyclotron, charged particles such as electrons, protons and small nuclei (He, C) are fired
at great speed at larger nuclei so that they fuse together when they collide. This results in
neutron-deficient radioisotopes, e.g. iodine-123 results from protons being fired at xenon-
124.

124 1 123 1 1
54 Xe + 1 p 55 Cs + 0n + 0n

123 123 0
55 Cs 54 Xe + 1

123 123 0
54 Xe 53 I +1

Transuranic elements, with an atomic number greater than uranium, are made in nuclear reactors,
linear accelerators and cyclotrons. The target nuclei (e.g. uranium, plutonium, lead) are usually
already large. One transuranic element, americium-241, is made in a nuclear reactor by bombarding
plutonium with neutrons.

239 1 1 241
94 Pu + 0n + 0n 94 Pu

0
1
241 241
94 Pu Am +95

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 26 Discuss the benefits and problems associated with the use of ONE radioactive 4
4 isotope in industry.

56
Americium-241 is a radioactive isotope used in industry in smoke alarms. It emits alpha radiation,
which have a very low penetrating power. This means if smoke passes between the source and the
detector, the alpha rays are blocked, setting of an alarm. It also means there are no health hazards as
the radiation cannot travel very far from the source. Am-241 has a half-life of over 400 years,
meaning it does not need to be replaced, which means there is no need for people to be exposed to
the radiation.

But the use of any radioactive isotope has its inherent problems. During the production of both Am-
241 and the smoke alarm, great care must be taken that workers avoid coming into contact with the
harmful radiation, which is highly ionising and could cause things like cancer if taken internally by
mistake. Furthermore, because of its long half-life (over 400 years), smoke alarms cannot be
disposed of normally, but should be carefully treated to remove any traces of radiation before it is
disposed of.

The benefits of having an early warning system for fires outweigh the potential health problems, so
Am-241 is used widely in smoke alarms.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 19 There are many benefits and problems associated with the use of radioisotopes 7
7 in industry and medicine. Evaluate the impact on society of the use of
radioisotopes in both industry and medicine. In your answer, give examples of
specific radioisotopes, making reference to their chemical properties.

There are many benefits and problems associated with the use of radioisotopes in industry and
medicine. They are used widely in society when it is deemed that their benefits outweigh their
problems. Technetium-99m and Americium-241 are two radioisotopes that have positive impacts on
our society, and increase the standard of living.

Technetium-99m is a radioactive isotope used in many applications in medicine. It is not chemically


reactive, and is water soluble, meaning it will not damage the body and will be excreted quickly. It
has a short half-life (6 hours), so the body is not overly exposed to radiation, but long enough that it
can be measured. Tc-99m emits gamma radiation, which is highly penetrating and has a low ionising
power. This means the radiation can be detected from the outside of the body, and wont excessively
damage the body. Tc-99m can be bonded to other substances, and then injected into the body,
where it will migrate to certain points. Because of these properties, it can be used to safely measure
blood flow and examine the brain and kidneys.Tc-99m has allowed doctors to more easily diagnose
health problems, leading to a better standard of living.

Americium-241 is a radioactive isotope used in industry in smoke alarms. It emits alpha radiation,
which have a very low penetrating power. This means if smoke passes between the source and the
detector, the alpha rays are blocked, setting of an alarm. It also means there are no health hazards as
the radiation cannot travel very far from the source. Am-241 has a half-life of over 400 years,
meaning it does not need to be replaced, which means there is no need for people to be exposed to
the radiation. Because of these properties, Am-241 can be used in smoke alarms to help increase
safety of houses.

In conclusion, radioactive isotopes create many benefits to society when used the right way and with
care. Problems can occur when radioactive isotopes are misused, as they can damage cells and cause

57
mutilations like cancer. So a balance a needs to be found between the use of radioisotopes and
restrictions on them.

58
Soaps and detergents

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 30 Analyse how an understanding of the structure and cleaning action of soaps 5
3 (c) led to the development of synthetic detergents.

The cleaning action of soap can be explained by the structure of its molecules. Soap molecules are
composed of a long hydrocarbon tail with a polar head. Soap is a surfactant and an emulsifier. A
surfactant is a substance that lowers the surface tension of a liquid, while an emulsifier allows two
immiscible liquids to mix.

Soap acts as a surfactant because it breaks the surface tension of water by disrupting hydrogen
bonds between water molecules. This allows the water to wet surfaces more easily.

Furthermore, soap acts as an emulsifier by allowing oil droplets to remain dispersed and suspended
in a body of water, rather than separating. To do this, soap molecules bind together in a micelle,
which has the hydrophobic non-polar tails clumped together and the hydrophilic ionic heads facing
out. The non-polar tails form dispersion forces with any grease or oil droplets and the soap
molecules clump around it. The hydrophobic heads form ion-dipole forces and hydrogen bonds with
water molecules, allowing the micelle to be suspended in the water.

In conclusion, scientists developed synthetic detergents to try to emulate the useful cleaning action
of soaps, while still being able to clean in hard water. An understanding of how the structure of soaps
affects their cleaning action led to the development of synthetic detergents with a similar structure
to soaps a long hydrocarbon tail and an ionic head.

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 (b) Assess the environmental impacts of the different classes of detergents. 4
4 (ii)

Anionic and cationic detergents are highly sudsing and form a lot of foam. This foam, when released
into waterways can block oxygen and sunlight from reaching aquatic plants and fish. Fortunately,
most of these detergents are now made only with straight-chain hydrocarbons, which biodegrade
quickly and stop any build-up of foam.

Anionic detergents also can contain nitrates and phosphates as part of the anionic head. When
released into waterways, they can act as nutrients for algae, which grow rapidly, forming algal
blooms. These blooms block sunlight from entering the water, killing aquatic plants, and also absorb
oxygen that is dissolved in the water, killing many fish. The algal blooms grow so large they run out of
nutrients, die and start to decay. Aerobic bacteria thrive on all the dead organic matter (plants and
fish) and decompose it. In doing so they absorb dissolved oxygen from the water, which causes more
fish and plants to die. The aerobic bacteria will run out of oxygen (especially if the water body is
stagnant), and anaerobic bacteria will start to grow. These bacteria release toxic gasses like H 2S as
they break down organic matter. This state is called eutrophication. Many countries are now starting
to ban anionic detergents containing nitrates and phosphates to attempt to stop eutrophication of
waterways.

59
Non-ionic detergents have few environmental impacts as they do not form much foam and
biodegrade easily.

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 (d) Explain how the industrial method of producing soap differs from that used 4
4 (iii) in school laboratories.

The following table summarises how the industrial method of producing soap differs from that used
in school laboratories.

School laboratory Industrial production


Size About 10g of oil Up to 130 tonnes of fat/oil
Reactants Fat or oils are mixed with alkali
Conditions Standard room temperature and High pressures (5 MPa) and high
pressure temperatures (250C).
Catalyst No catalyst ZnO
Separation of Glycerol is not removed Glycerol is distilled to use as a by-product
glycerol
Washing of soap The soap curd is washed with water to remove excess salt and alkali

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 Describe the impact that saponification products have had on society and the 4
7 (d) environment.

The products of saponification are soap and glycerol.

Soap has had a positive impact on society as its unique cleaning action and cheapness to produce
allowed a higher standard of living and increased health and cleanliness for people around the world.
Glycerol is used in antifreeze, pharmaceuticals and the food industry.

Calcium and magnesium ions in water form insoluble precipitates with soap molecules, called soap
scum. This scum can build up in the environment if waste water is not properly treated. Accidental
spills of glycerol into waterways result in the death of animals, birds and fish.

In conclusion, saponification products have had a positive impact on society, and do not have
negative impacts on the environment unless handled or processed incorrectly.

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 29 Synthetic detergents have been developed over the past 60 years. Compare 7
8 (d) anionic, cationic and non-ionic synthetic detergents in terms of their use and
chemical composition and the impact that these detergents have had on the
environment.

60
The following table compares anionic, cationic and non-ionic synthetic detergents in terms of their
use and chemical composition and the impact that these detergents have had on the environment.

Chemical composition
Anionic A tail made of a non-polar hydrocarbon chain and a polar, hydrophilic head, usually with a
sulfate or sulfonate group as the head.

SO3-

Cationic A tail made of a non-polar hydrocarbon chain and a polar, hydrophilic head, usually with
an ammonium compound as the head.
CH3

N+ CH3

CH3

Non- A tail made of a non-polar hydrocarbon chain and a polar, hydrophilic, non-polar head.
ionic Scattered along the hydrocarbon chain there are many polar oxygen atoms.
O O O OH
O

Uses
Anionic Used in dishwashing liquids and laundry detergents.
Cationic Used as fabric softeners and as germicides in mouthwashes, nappy washes and antiseptic
soaps.
Non- Used as detergents for the laundry, for automatic dishwashers and for washing cars. They
ionic are good for cleaning synthetic fabrics.

Impact on the environment


Anionic Highly sudsing and form a lot of foam which can block oxygen and sunlight from reaching
aquatic plants and fish in waterways. Fortunately, most of these detergents are now made
only with straight-chain hydrocarbons, which biodegrade quickly and stop any build-up of
foam.
Anionic detergents also can contain nitrates and phosphates as part of the anionic head.
When released into waterways, they can cause eutrophication. Many countries are now
starting to ban anionic detergents containing nitrates and phosphates to attempt to stop
eutrophication of waterways.
Cationic Highly sudsing and form a lot of foam which can block oxygen and sunlight from reaching

61
aquatic plants and fish in waterways. Fortunately, most of these detergents are now made
only with straight-chain hydrocarbons, which biodegrade quickly and stop any build-up of
foam.
Non- Few environmental impacts as they do not form much foam and biodegrade easily.
ionic

62
Solvay process

[Note many of the following questions are very similar so Ive recycled a lot of the answers.]

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 Evaluate how environmental issues are addressed in the Solvay process. 7
1 (e)

Although the Solvay process has been optimised to recycle many of its raw materials, there are still
some environmental issues that need to be addressed.

Calcium chloride is released as a by-product of the ammonium recovery process (NH 4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2
(aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)). Calcium chloride is used in other countries for salting roads to
remove ice, but in Australia it has few uses and much of it needs to be discarded. If the Solvay plant
is close to the ocean, calcium chloride waste can be safely dumped there as calcium and chloride
ions are already present in high concentrations in the ocean. If the Solvay plant is inland however,
the calcium chloride cannot be dumped in rivers or other waterways as the calcium causes increased
water hardness and the chlorine causes increased salinity, killing aquatic plants and animals.
Sometimes the calcium chloride is buried, but this is not a complete solution as it can leech into
nearby waterways (as the compound is very soluble).

Thermal pollution can be a problem if water used for cooling is transferred directly into water bodies.
Thermal pollution in waterways can cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen in the water (because
solubility of gasses is related to temperature), and this can cause problems for fish and aquatic
plants. Instead, water is either discharged into the sea or cooled in large cooling ponds before being
discharged into waterways.

The mining of limestone in open cut mines itself causes a number of problems. Dust is a problem and
this is addressed by improved truck loading facilities, upgrading of dust suppression systems in the
plant, using a wetting solution to suppress dust in open areas, and the installation of dust scrubbing
systems. Furthermore, noise can be a problem if the mine is near housing areas. Noise is reduced by
enclosure of noisy areas.

The Solvay process is optimised to recycle ammonia and carbon dioxide. This stops any
environmental problems that would be caused by the release of these gasses.

In conclusion, environmental issues are easily addressed when the Solvay plant is located at the coast
as the safe disposal of calcium chloride is only really possible if it is put into the sea. The other
environmental issues are all successfully addressed through the design of the plant and other
measures.

63
Year No. Question Mar
k
200 30 Assess how environmental issues have been addressed in an industrial method 6
3 (e) of production of an acid, and an industrial method of production of a base.

Industrial processes are inherently on a large scale. This means there can be large amounts of waste
that need to be safely disposed, as well as volatile products that need to be handled carefully.

In the production of sulfuric acid, there are a number of factors that need to be addressed. The solid
sulfur that is a product of the Frasch process is very easily oxidised by oxygen or hydrogen to give
sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, both of which are harmful pollutants and can cause problems
like asthma in humans and acid rain. This successfully is addressed by transporting the sulfur in an
airless environment.

Sulfur dioxide is also involved in the production process and the release of this gas needs to be as
little as possible (because of the negative effects discussed above). To achieve this, the contact
process plants make sure the conversion of SO2 to SO3 is very high (99.7%) by using a low
temperature to increase the yield. Furthermore, the SO 3, which contains traces of SO2, is passed
through the reaction tower multiple times to make sure it is all converted. The low emissions of SO 2
and decreased occurrence of acid rain near sulfuric acid plants show these measures have been
effective.

A further environmental issue is that of thermal pollution. The three following reactions are all highly
exothermic.

S (l) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)


SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) H2S2O7 (aq)
H2S2O7 (aq) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (l)

If the heat was released into the environment (for example in the form of water that had been used
to cool the reactors), it would cause thermal pollution, which can damage ecosystems, especially
waterways as the high temperature lowers the solubility of oxygen. To stop this, the heat is captured
and used to boil water to drive turbines, creating electricity, or used to roast metal sulfides to extract
the sulfur. This issue has been addressed successfully and stopped any heat pollution escaping into
the environment.

Although the Solvay process (production of the base sodium carbonate) has been optimised to
recycle many of its raw materials, there are still some environmental issues that need to be
addressed.

Calcium chloride is released as a by-product of the ammonium recovery process (NH 4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2
(aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)). Calcium chloride is used in other countries for salting roads to
remove ice, but in Australia it has few uses and much of it needs to be discarded. If the Solvay plant
is close to the ocean, calcium chloride waste can be safely dumped there as calcium and chloride
ions are already present in high concentrations in the ocean. If the Solvay plant is inland however,
the calcium chloride cannot be dumped in rivers or other waterways as the calcium causes increased
water hardness and the chlorine causes increased salinity, killing aquatic plants and animals.
Sometimes the calcium chloride is buried, but this is not a complete solution as it can leech into
nearby waterways (as the compound is very soluble).

64
Thermal pollution can be a problem if water used for cooling is transferred directly into water bodies.
Thermal pollution in waterways can cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen in the water (because
solubility of gasses is related to temperature), and this can cause problems for fish and aquatic
plants. Instead, water is either discharged into the sea or cooled in large cooling ponds before being
discharged into waterways.

The mining of limestone in open cut mines itself causes a number of problems. Dust is a problem and
this is addressed by improved truck loading facilities, upgrading of dust suppression systems in the
plant, using a wetting solution to suppress dust in open areas, and the installation of dust scrubbing
systems. Furthermore, noise can be a problem if the mine is near housing areas. Noise is reduced by
enclosure of noisy areas.

The Solvay process is optimised to recycle ammonia and carbon dioxide. This stops any
environmental problems that would be caused by the release of these gasses.

In conclusion, environmental issues are easily addressed when the Solvay plant is located at the coast
as the safe disposal of calcium chloride is only really possible if it is put into the sea. The other
environmental issues are all successfully addressed through the design of the plant and other
measures.

[Note for the base, you could also have done NaOH.]

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 28 (d) Identify possible environmental issues that may arise from the Solvay 5
5 (iii) process, and evaluate methods of dealing with those environmental issues.

In the Solvay process, there are a number of potential environmental issues that have to be
addressed.

Calcium chloride is released as a by-product of the ammonium recovery process (NH 4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2
(aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)). Calcium chloride causes increases water hardness and salinity,
killing aquatic plants and animals.

This environmental issue may be dealt with by disposing of the calcium chloride in the ocean as
calcium and chloride ions are already present in high concentrations in the ocean. Another, less
desirable option is burying the calcium chloride but this is not a complete solution as it can leech into
nearby waterways (as the compound is very soluble).

Thermal pollution can be a problem if water used for cooling is transferred directly into water bodies.
Thermal pollution in waterways can cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen in the water (because
solubility of gasses is related to temperature), and this can cause problems for fish and aquatic
plants.

This issue is addressed by discharging water either into the sea or cooling it in large cooling ponds
before being discharged into waterways.

The mining of limestone in open cut mines itself causes a number of problems. Dust is a problem and
this is addressed by improved truck loading facilities, upgrading of dust suppression systems in the

65
plant, using a wetting solution to suppress dust in open areas, and the installation of dust scrubbing
systems. Furthermore, noise can be a problem if the mine is near housing areas. Noise is reduced by
enclosure of noisy areas.

The Solvay process is optimised to recycle ammonia and carbon dioxide. This stops any
environmental problems that would be caused by the release of these gasses.

In conclusion, only the environmental issue of the disposal of calcium chloride is not adequately
addressed in inland Solvay plants. All the other issues are successfully dealt with.

Year No. Question Mar


k
200 27 The fundamental criteria that must be considered in order to find a suitable 7
9 (e) location for an industrial plant are raw materials, production, use and waste.
Explain the significance of each criterion to determine a suitable location for an
industrial plant to manufacture sodium carbonate.

Raw materials:
The raw materials needed for the Solvay process are calcium carbonate and brine (ammonia is not
needed in large quantities because it is recycled). This means the plant needs to be close to a
limestone quarry and close to the sea. If this is not possible, there needs to be a way to easily
transport these materials to the plant. For example, limestone is easily transported by train.

Production:
The Solvay plant itself should be close to a town or city to supply labour, but not too close that it
intrudes on the city.

Use:
The sodium carbonate produced needs to be easily transportable to places that need it. For example,
a train line to a glass making factory.

Waste:
The only waste product is calcium chloride. It is released as a by-product of the ammonium recovery
process (NH4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)). Calcium chloride causes increases
water hardness and salinity, killing aquatic plants and animals. It should be disposed of in the ocean
as calcium and chloride ions are already present in high concentrations in the ocean. This means the
plant should preferable be on the coast.

Year No. Question Mar


k
201 32 Assess both the importance and resulting environmental impacts of using 7
0 (e) limestone in the Solvay Process.

Limestone supplies an essential material for the production of sodium carbonate, and also for the
recycling of ammonia.

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)


H2O (l) + CO2 (g) + NaCl (aq) + NH3 (g) NaHCO3 (aq) + NH4Cl (aq)

66
As can be seen in the equations, the carbon dioxide is needed to form sodium hydrogen carbonate,
which is then decomposed to form sodium carbonate.

CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (aq)


NH4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

The calcium oxide from the limestone is also used in the very important ammonia recovery process.
This process is important because ammonia is a toxic gas that is expensive to transport safely. This
process also addresses the problem of disposing of the NH 4Cl, which would change the pH and
increase salinity if it was disposed of into waterways.

There are a number of environmental impacts associated with the use of limestone in the Solvay
process. The mining of limestone in open cut mines causes a number of problems. Dust is a problem
and this is addressed by improved truck loading facilities, upgrading of dust suppression systems in
the plant, using a wetting solution to suppress dust in open areas, and the installation of dust
scrubbing systems. Furthermore, noise can be a problem if the mine is near housing areas. Noise is
reduced by enclosure of noisy areas. Furthermore, some of the limestone is not fully converted to
calcium oxide in the kilns. This material can be sold either to the construction industry or to farmers
who can use it to treat acidic soils. However, much of it is disposed in landfill.

Overall, the importance of limestone to the Solvay process, as well as the environmental benefits it
gives (helping to recycle ammonia) outweigh the disadvantages. Many of these issues associated
with the use of limestone have been successfully addressed, leading to less environmental impact.

Year No. Question Mar


k
201 32 Evaluate the impact on society of the environmental issues associated with 7
1 (e) three of the industrial processes that you have studied in this option.

Industrial processes are inherently on a large scale. This means there can be large amounts of waste
that need to be safely disposed, as well as volatile products that can have negative impacts on
society. It is the success handling these environmental issues that determines their effect on society.
If the measures to prevent them are successful, there will be little or no impact on society. This can
be seen in the industrial production of sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, and sodium carbonate.

In the production of sulfuric acid, there are a number of factors that could impact negatively on
society. The solid sulfur that is a product of the Frasch process is very easily oxidised by oxygen or
hydrogen to give sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, both of which are harmful pollutants and can
cause problems like asthma in humans and acid rain. The impact of these gasses on society is
diminished as by transporting the sulfur in an airless environment.

Sulfur dioxide is also involved in the production process and the release of this gas needs to be as
little as possible (because of the negative effects discussed above). To achieve this, the contact
process plants make sure the conversion of SO2 to SO3 is very high (99.7%) by using a low
temperature to increase the yield. Furthermore, the SO 3, which contains traces of SO2, is passed
through the reaction tower multiple times to make sure it is all converted. The low emissions of SO 2
and decreased occurrence of acid rain near sulfuric acid plants show these measures have been
effective.

67
The mercury cell, used in the production of sodium hydroxide, has possible problems associated with
the use of mercury. Mercury is a heavy metal and is toxic in any concentration to humans and
animals. It can damage the nervous system and cause mental retardation and growth, especially in
children. Furthermore, mercury bioaccumulates in the food chain (as it is not excreted, it stays in the
food chain and is passed up in increasing concentrations to consumers higher up the food chain).
This means the misuse of mercury in the mercury cell could lead to large impacts on society. But
measures have been taken to avoid this, including recycling the mercury and phasing out the use of
the mercury cell.

The diaphragm cell, also used in the production of sodium hydroxide, has fewer potential health
risks. The diaphragm separating the two half cells is made from asbestos, which is a known
carcinogen. The asbestos can cause harm during its production as well as when the cell comes to the
end of its usable lifetime and is discarded. The diaphragm cell is also being phased out in order to
avoid any negative impacts on society.

Both cells described above are being replaced by the membrane cell, which has no potential health
risks and no associated environmental issues. This dramatically lowers the risk of a negative impact
on society associated with the production of sodium carbonate.

Although the Solvay process has been optimised to recycle many of its raw materials, there are still
some environmental issues that may have an impact on society.

Calcium chloride is released as a by-product of the ammonium recovery process (NH 4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2
(aq) 2NH3 (g) + CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)). Calcium chloride is used in other countries for salting roads to
remove ice, but in Australia it has few uses and much of it needs to be discarded. If the Solvay plant
is close to the ocean, calcium chloride waste can be safely dumped there as calcium and chloride
ions are already present in high concentrations in the ocean. If the Solvay plant is inland however,
the calcium chloride cannot be dumped in rivers or other waterways as the calcium causes increased
water hardness and the chlorine causes increased salinity, killing aquatic plants and animals.
Sometimes the calcium chloride is buried, but this is not a complete solution as it can leech into
nearby waterways (as the compound is very soluble).

Thermal pollution can be a problem if water used for cooling is transferred directly into water bodies.
Thermal pollution in waterways can cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen in the water (because
solubility of gasses is related to temperature), and this can cause problems for fish and aquatic
plants. Instead, water is either discharged into the sea or cooled in large cooling ponds before being
discharged into waterways.

The mining of limestone in open cut mines itself causes a number of problems and would have an
adverse impact on society if not addressed properly. Dust is a problem and this is addressed by
improved truck loading facilities, upgrading of dust suppression systems in the plant, using a wetting
solution to suppress dust in open areas, and the installation of dust scrubbing systems. Furthermore,
noise can be a problem if the mine is near housing areas. Noise is reduced by enclosure of noisy
areas.

The Solvay process is optimised to recycle ammonia and carbon dioxide. This stops any
environmental problems that would be caused by the release of these gasses.

The impact on society of the environmental issues associated with the Solvay process is quite low
because most of the issues have been addressed and do not pose a problem to society.

68
In conclusion, each of the discussed industrial processes has its own environmental issues and much
effort has been put into addressing these issues in order to lessen the impact on our society, with
many successful results.

69
Water treatment

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 27 Describe the physical and chemical processes need to purify and sanitise a 5
2 town water supply.

Town water supplies go through a number of physical and chemical processes before they are used.
The processes are; flocculation and settling, filtration, aeration, pH adjustment, chlorination and
fluoridation.

Iron (III) chloride is added to start flocculation where small particles in the water clump together
and grow larger, then settle to the bottom.

The water is then often sprayed onto beds of sand or activated charcoal. The sand beds filter out all
the solid matter and the activated charcoal helps to filter out organic matter. The water is sprayed in
order to increase the concentration of dissolved oxygen, which makes the water taste better.

The pH of the water is measured, and then adjusted by adding lime or sodium hydroxide. Generally a
slightly alkaline pH is preferred as it wont corrode any metal pipes the water is transported in.

Chloride ions are added to disinfect the water kill microorganisms like E. coli. Fluoride is also added
to prevent tooth decay.

Year No Question Mar


. k
200 17 Using TWO examples analyse how the features of catchment areas will 5
8 determine the water treatment necessary to make the water safe to drink.

The placement of a catchment area determines where any rainwater will flow before it reaches the
catchment. Different areas change the content of the water and often treatment is necessary to
make the water safe to drink.

If a catchment area is near farming and agricultural areas, synthetic fertiliser runoff containing
nitrates, phosphates, sulfates and ammonium could be present in the water supply. These could lead
to eutrophication or large amounts of organic growth. These could be removed by precipitation
reactions.

If a catchment area is surrounded by limestone (CaCO 3), the rainwater running through there to the
catchment will contain higher concentrations of calcium ions. These ions need to be precipitated out,
possibly using an ion exchange membrane, to avoid hard water (which stops soap lathering and leads
to soap scum). Furthermore, the water will contain carbon dioxide, which will lower the acidity. The
pH will have to be adjusted by adding sodium hydroxide or lime.

70
Year No Question Mar
. k
201 25 What is the relationship between dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen 5
0 demand and why is it important to monitor both in natural waterways?

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen gas dissolved in a body of water, measured in parts
per million. Dissolved oxygen is affected by how fast the water is moving, and the temperature of the
water. DO is measured using an oxygen probe or the Winkler method of titration.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a test measuring the change in DO over a period of time
(usually 5 days). A high BOD indicates there are lots of microorganisms and organic matter in the
water sample, which can indicate high levels of nutrients like nitrates and phosphates. A water
sample is tested for its BOD by testing the DO of the sample, then storing it in a sealed, airless
container in the dark for 5 days. The DO is then tested again and the two results compared.

DO and BOD need to be monitored because a low DO reading combined with a high BOD reading can
often indicate eutrophication is developing, or the water body is polluted in some other way (for
example after rain a large amount of sewage is washed into the waterway). Eutrophication can cause
negative health affects for humans and cattle, as well as the aquatic ecosystem, so these tests are
very useful for early detection and helping prevent eutrophication.

Year No Question Mar


. k
201 28 A student investigating the water quality of stormwater in a drain near the 4
1 school collected samples for testing in the school laboratory. The student
conducted the following tests to measure the quality of the stormwater.
Hardness
Total dissolved solids
Phosphate level
Turbidity
Biochemical oxygen demand
Nitrate level
For TWO of these tests, outline the chemical or physical principle involved and
the procedure followed in a school laboratory.

Hardness (qualitative):
Hard water contains calcium and/or magnesium ions. These form insoluble precipitates with soap
molecules and stop them from lathering properly. To test for water hardness, put a 10 mL sample of
the water to be tested and a 10 mL sample of deionised water into two test tubes. Add three drops
of soap to each. Stopper both test tubes and shake vigorously for 20 seconds. Observe both test
tubes. If they have the same amount of lather then the water to be tested is not hard. If the
stormwater sample has less lather or has formed a scum, it is hard and contains calcium and
magnesium ions.

Total dissolved solids (quantitative):


The total dissolved solids can be found by evaporating the water and weighing the resulting solids.
Put a 200 mL (or greater, a greater sample will give more accurate results, but will take longer)
sample of the stormwater into a large beaker. Boil it slowly over a low Bunsen flame until the water is
evaporated. Be careful not to let the water boil too vigorously otherwise it will spit and mass will be

71
lost. When all the water is evaporated weigh the resulting solids to find the total dissolved solids (in
ppm).

Phosphate levels (qualitative and quantitative):


To test for phosphate, a gravimetric precipitation test is used. Add ammonia solution to the sample
to make it slightly alkaline. Add excess calcium nitrate to precipitate out all the phosphate. Filter and
dry the precipitate, then weigh it and calculate the mass of phosphate present (in ppm).

[Note an AAS test would not work for this question as it asks for laboratory tests only.]

Turbidity (quantitative):
Turbidity is the amount of sediment that is suspended in a body of water. This sediment blocks
sunlight and makes the water look cloudy. To test for turbidity, slowly fill up a plastic turbidity tube
until the black mark at the bottom can no longer be seen when looking in through the top. Take a
reading off the side of the tube where the water level is. Turbidity is measured in NTU
(nephelometric turbidity units).

Biochemical oxygen demand (quantitative):


Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a test measuring the change in dissolved oxygen (DO) over a
period of time (usually 5 days). A high BOD indicates there are lots of microorganisms and organic
matter in the water sample, which can indicate high levels of nutrients like nitrates and phosphates.
A water sample is tested for its BOD by testing the DO of the sample (using an oxygen probe or the
Winkler titration), then storing it in a sealed, airless container in the dark for 5 days. The DO is then
tested again and the two results compared.

Nitrate level (quantitative and qualitative):


Nitrate cannot be tested for using precipitation tests because al nitrates are soluble. Instead, a back
titration can be used, by converting the nitrogen into ammonium sulfate by boiling with
concentrated sulfuric acid. Excess alkali is then added and the ammonia formed is distilled off and
allowed to react with a known amount of a standard acid. By back titration the amount of ammonia
(and organic nitrogen) is determined. Alternatively, nitrate content can be determined
colorimetrically (but this is not feasible in a school laboratory setup).

[Note the question asks for only two of the above tests. Also, I believe the nitrate level test shouldnt
be included as it isnt really covered in the syllabus.]

72
Core

Year No. Question Page


200 19 Name one type of cell, other than the dry cell or lead-acid cell, you have 6
1 studied, Evaluate it in comparison with either the dry cell or lead-acid cell, in
terms of chemistry and the impact on society. Include relevant chemical
equations in your answer.
22 Justify the procedure you used to prepare an ester in a school laboratory. 19
Include relevant chemical equations in your answer.
25 Explain the need for monitoring the products of a chemical reaction such as 16
combustion.

200 18 Assess current developments in the use of biopolymers. 11


2 (b)
21 Evaluate the impact of industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides 42
on the environment, making use of appropriate chemical equations.
24 Assess the impact of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) on the scientific 2
understanding of the effects of trace elements.
27 Describe the physical and chemical processes need to purify and sanitise a town 66
water supply.

200 18 Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced, and how transuranic 55
3 elements are produced.
20 Asses the suitability of biomass as a future source of energy and chemicals for 9
industry.
24 Discuss factors that must be considered when using neutralisation reactions to 41
safely minimise damage in chemical spills.
26 Describe the process of eutrophication, and assess the suitability of water 27
quality tests used to monitor it.
29 Evaluate the importance of monitoring and managing the conditions used in 33
the Haber process.

200 18 Analyse the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic 5
4 Table, and the acid-base behaviour of their oxides.
25 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel. 21
26 Discuss the benefits and problems associated with the use of ONE radioactive 55
isotope in industry.
27 Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the suitability 14
of alternative chemicals as replacements.

200 18 Assess the impact of the recent development of a named biopolymer on society 11
5 and the environment.
20 Describe the chemistry and procedure involved in each of these steps (glucose 21
mixture containing ethanol pure ethanol ethyl butanoate), using
diagrams where appropriate.
21 Analyse how knowledge of the composition and properties of acids has led to 4
changes in the definition of acids.

200 20 Analyse why ethylene is such an important starting material for the chemical 23

73
6 industry. In your answer, include relevant chemical equations, and a description
of new materials and fuels that can be prepared from ethylene.
22 The atmosphere contains acidic oxides of sulfur which have been increasing in 43
concentration since the Industrial Revolution. Discuss the evidence for this
statement, and include relevant balanced chemical equations.
24 Evaluate the significance of Habers discovery at that time in world history. 34
(b)
28 Outline the changes that have occurred in atmospheric ozone concentrations 47
above Antarctica during the past twenty years.

200 16 Ozone is a gas found in the troposphere and the stratosphere. Explain the effect 47
7 (b) of ozone in each of these layers.
19 There are many benefits and problems associated with the use of radioisotopes 56
in industry and medicine. Evaluate the impact on society of the use of
radioisotopes in both industry and medicine. In your answer, give examples of
specific radioisotopes, making reference to their chemical properties.
25 Sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO3, is commonly used to neutralise chemical 41
spills that are a potential hazard to the environment. Assess the effectiveness of
NaHCO3 in this role, with reference to its chemical properties.
26 Explain how the structure and properties of polyethylene and polystyrene 50
relate to the way each is used.

200 17 Using TWO examples analyse how the features of catchment areas will 66
8 determine the water treatment necessary to make the water safe to drink.
22 The following extract was taken from the website of a leading car manufacturer. 24
The CO2 released from combustion of bio-ethanol is balanced by CO 2 captured
through photosynthesis. Therefore combustion of bio-ethanol does not increase
the total amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Thus bio-ethanol has attracted
attention as a carbon-neutral fuel an energy source effective as a
countermeasure to global warming
Critically evaluate the extract with reference to ethanol being a carbon-neutral
fuel. Support your answer with relevant chemical equations.
26 Explain how a buffer works with reference to a specific example in a natural 13
system.

200 18 There has been an increase in the concentration of the oxides of nitrogen in the 44
9 atmosphere as a result of combustion. Assess both the evidence to support this
statement and the need to monitor these oxides.
19 Outline the chemical and physical processes involved in the production of ONE 51
of the following from a natural raw material:
A polyethylene bottle
A polyvinyl chloride pipe
A polystyrene cup.
Include relevant chemical equations in your answer.
24 Describe the principle of atomic absorption spectroscopy and its application in 2
environmental monitoring. Include a diagram in your answer.

201 25 What is the relationship between dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen 67
0 demand and why is it important to monitor both in natural waterways?
30 Compare the process of polymerisation of ethylene and glucose. Include 53
(a) relevant chemical equations in your answer

74
30 Explain the relationship between the structures and properties of THREE 54
(b) different polymers from ethylene and glucose, and their uses.

201 21 What features of the molecular structure of ethanol account for its extensive 25
1 use as a solvent? Include a diagram in your answer
27 The following extract was taken from a blog about environmental issues. 12
...the use of long-lasting polymers for short-lived applications can cause
problems for the preservation of living systems... Plastic debris has a costly
impact on waste management for municipalities.
Assess the uses of polystyrene and a named biopolymer in terms of their
properties, with reference to the statements made in this blog.
28 A student investigating the water quality of storm water in a drain near the 67
school collected samples for testing in the school laboratory. The student
conducted the following tests to measure the quality of the storm water.
Hardness
Total dissolved solids
Phosphate level
Turbidity
Biochemical oxygen demand
Nitrate level
For TWO of these tests, outline the chemical or physical principle involved and
the procedure followed in a school laboratory.

75
Option: Industrial Chemistry
Year No. Question Page
200 28 Explain why sulfuric acid is an important industrial chemical. Include balanced 28
1 (c) chemical equations in your answer.
28 Evaluate how environmental issues are addressed in the Solvay process. 60
(e)

200 28 Evaluate changes in industrial production methods for sodium hydroxide. 35


2 (e)

200 30 Analyse how an understanding of the structure and cleaning action of soaps 57
3 (c) led to the development of synthetic detergents.
30 Assess how environmental issues have been addressed in an industrial 28,
(e) method of production of an acid, and an industrial method of production of a 61
base.

200 28 Assess the environmental impacts of the different classes of detergents. 57


4 (b)
(ii)
28 Explain how the industrial method of producing soap differs from that used in 58
(d) school laboratories.
(iii)

200 28 Advances in chemistry have impacted on the development of technologies. 36


5 (c) Discuss this statement by analysing changes that have occurred in industrial
methods for the production of sodium hydroxide.
28 Identify possible environmental issues that may arise from the Solvay 62
(d) process, and evaluate methods of dealing with those environmental issues.
(iii)

200 29 In this option you studied one natural product that was not a fossil fuel. 40
6 (c) Describe the issues associated with shrinking world supplies of this natural
product, and evaluate progress being made to solve the problems identified.
29 Justify the conditions you would use to maximise the rate and yield of the 29
(d) conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the Contact process. Include
(iii) a balanced chemical equation in your answer.

200 28 Over the past century the production of sodium hydroxide has evolved from 37
7 (b) the mercury process, to the diaphragm process, to the membrane process.
Analyse the factors that contributed to each of the changes in the production
process.
28 Describe the impact that saponification products have had on society and the 58
(d) environment.

200 29 Synthetic detergents have been developed over the past 60 years. Compare 58
8 (d) anionic, cationic and non-ionic synthetic detergents in terms of their use and
chemical composition and the impact that these detergents have had on the
environment.

76
200 27 The fundamental criteria that must be considered in order to find a suitable 63
9 (e) location for an industrial plant are raw materials, production, use and waste.
Explain the significance of each criterion to determine a suitable location for
an industrial plant to manufacture sodium carbonate.

201 32 Compare the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride and aqueous sodium 18
0 (b) chloride. Write the relevant half equations and overall reaction for each
process.
32 Assess both the importance and resulting environmental impacts of using 63
(e) limestone in the Solvay Process.

201 32 Evaluate the impact on society of the environmental issues associated with 30,
1 (e) three of the industrial processes that you have studied in this option. 38,
64

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