SAND,SANDADDITIVES,SAND

PROPERTIES,and SAND
RECLAMATION
Prof.Dr.AltanTurkeli
MSE432
Foundry Technology
 SANDADDITIVES
Casting Sand
SAND(SiO2)
CLAYS(Bentonite..)
WATER

CELLULOSE(Wood flour,Cob flour..)

OILCHEMICALS(Sodaash,Polymers.)
REFRACTORIES(Alumina,Silica flour)
SOLUBLES(Corn flour,Corn sugar)
Flow Chart ofaMetalCasting System
SAND
SAND
 Casting Sands
Silica Sands
Zircon
Olivine
Chromite
Aluminum Silicates
 Silica Sands
Mostgreensandmoldsconsistofsilicasands
bondedwithabentonitewatermixture.(The
termgreenmeansthatthe mold,whichis
temperedwithwater,isnotdriedorbaked.)
Thecomposition,size,sizedistribution,purity,
andshapeof thesandareimportanttothe
successofthemold makingoperation.
 Sandsaresometimesreferredtoasnaturalor
synthetic.
Natural or Synthetic
Naturalsandscontainenoughnaturallyoccurringclays
thatthey canbemixedwithwaterandusedforsand
molding.
Syntheticsandshavebeenwashedtoremoveclayand
other impurities,carefullyscreenedandclassifiedto
giveadesiredsizedistribution,andthenreblended
withclaysandother materialstoproducean
optimizedsandforthecastingbeingproduced.
Becauseofthedemandsofmodernhighpressure
moldingmachinesandthenecessitytoexerciseclose
controlovereveryaspectofcastingproduction,most
foundriesuse only synthetic sands.
 Composition
Foundrysandsarecomposedalmostentirely
ofsilica(SiO2)intheformofquartz.Some
impuritiesmay bepresent,suchasilmenite
(FeOTiO2),magnetite(Fe3O4),orolivine,
whichiscomposedofmagnesiumandferrous
orthosilicate [(Mg,Fe)SiO4].Silicasandisused
primarilybecauseitisreadilyavailableand
inexpensive.
 Quartzundergoesaseriesofcrystallographic
transitionsasitisheated.Thefirst,at573C,
isaccompaniedby expansion,whichcan
causemoldspalling.Above870C,quartz
transformstotridymite,andthesandmay
actuallycontractuponheating.Atstillhigher
temperatures(>1470C),tridymite
transformstocristobalite.
 ShapeandDistributionofSandGrains

Thesize,sizedistribution,andshapeofthesand
grainsareimportantin controllingthequalityofthe
mold.Mostmoldaggregatesaremixturesofnew
sandandreclaimedsand,whichcontain notonly
reclaimedmoldingsandbutalsocoresands.In
determiningthesize,shape,anddistributionofthe
sandgrains,it isimportanttorealizethatthegrain
shapecontributestotheamountofsandsurface
areaandthatthegrainsize distributioncontrolsthe
permeabilityofthemold.
 Asthesandsurfaceareaincreases,theamountofbonding
material(normallyclayandwater)mustincreaseifthesandis
tobeproperlybonded.Thus,achangeinsurfacearea,
perhapsduetoachangeinsandshapeorthepercentageof
core sandbeingreclaimed,willresultinacorresponding
changeintheamountofbondrequired.

Roundedgrainshavealowsurfaceareatovolumeratioand
arethereforepreferredformakingcoresbecausethey require
theleastamountofbinder.However,whentheyarerecycled
intothemoldingsandsystem,theirshapecanbea
disadvantageifthemoldingsystemnormallyusesahigh
percentageofclayandwatertofacilitaterapid,automatic
molding.Thisisbecauseroundedgrainsrequirelessbinder
thantherestofthesystemsand.
 Angularsandshavethegreatestsurfacearea(exceptforsands
thatfractureeasilyandproducealargepercentageofsmall
grainsandfines)andthereforerequiremoremulling,bond,
andmoisture.Theangularityofasandincreaseswithuse
becausethesandisbrokendownbythermalandmechanical
shock.

Theporosityofthemoldcontrolsitspermeability,whichisthe
abilityofthemoldtoallowgasesgeneratedduring pouringto
escapethroughthemold.Thehighestporositywillresultfrom
grainsthatareallapproximatelythesamesize.

Asthesizedistributionbroadens,therearemoregrainsthat
aresmallenoughtofillthespacesbetweenlargegrains.As
grainsbreakdownthroughrepeatedrecycling,therearemore
andmoreofthesmallergrains,andtheporosityofthemold
decreases.
 However,iftheporosityofthemoldistoogreat,metalmay
penetratethesandgrainsandcauseaburnindefect.
Therefore,itisnecessarytobalancethebasesand
distributionandcontinuetoscreenthesandandusedust
collectors duringrecyclingtoremovefinesandtodetermine
theproperbondaddition.
Most foundries intheUnitedStatesusethe American
Foundrymens'Society(AFS)grainfinenessnumberasa
generalindicationofsandfineness.TheAFSgrain fineness
numberofsandisapproximatelythenumberofopeningsper
inchofagivensievethatwouldjustpassthe sampleifits
grainswereofuniformsize,thatis,theweightedaverageof
thesizesofgrainsinthesample.Itis approximately
proportionaltothesurfaceareaperunitweightofsand
exclusiveofclay.
 Zircon
Zirconiszirconiumsilicate(ZrSiO4).Itishighlyrefractoryand
possessesexcellentfoundrycharacteristics.Its primary
advantagesareaverylowthermalexpansion,highthermal
conductivityandbulkdensity(whichgivesita chillingrate
aboutfourtimesthatofquartz),andverylowreactivitywith
moltenmetal.Zirconrequireslessbinderthan othersands
becauseitsgrainsarerounded.Theveryhighdimensional
andthermalstabilitiesexhibitedbyzirconarethe reasonsitis
widelyusedinsteelfoundriesandinvestmentfoundries
makinghightemperaturealloycomponents.
 Olivine
Olivineminerals(socalledbecauseoftheircharacteristic
greencolor)areasolidsolutionofforsterite (Mg2SiO4)and
fayalite (Fe2SiO4).Theirphysicalpropertiesvarywiththeir
chemicalcompositions;therefore,thecompositionofthe
olivineusedmustbespecifiedtocontrolthereproducibilityof
thesandmixture.Caremustbetakentocalcine theolivine
sandbeforeusetodecomposetheserpentinecontent,which
containswater.
Thespecificheatofolivineissimilartothatofsilica,butits
thermalexpansionisfarless.Therefore,olivineis usedfor
steelcastingtocontrolmolddimensions.Olivineissomewhat
lessdurablethansilica,anditisanangular sand.
 Chromite
Chromite (FeCr2O4),ablack,angularsand,ishighlyrefractory
andchemicallyunreactive,andithasgoodthermal stability
andexcellentchillingproperties.However,ithastwicethe
thermalexpansionofzirconsand,anditoften contains
hydrousimpuritiesthatcausepinholing andgasdefectsin
castings.Itisnecessarytospecifythecalciumoxide (CaO)and
silicondioxide(SiO2)limitsinchromite sandtoavoidsintering
reactionsandreactionswithmoltenmetalthat cause burnin.
 Aluminum Silicates
Aluminumsilicate(Al2SiO5)occursinthreecommonforms:
kyanite,sillimanite,andandalusite.Allbreakdownathigh
temperaturestoformmullite andsilica.Therefore,aluminum
silicatesforfoundryuseareproducedbycalcining these
minerals.Dependingonthesinteringcycle,thesilicamaybe
presentascristobalite orasamorphoussilica.The grainsare
highlyangular.Thesematerialshavehighrefractoriness,low
thermalexpansion,andhighresistancetothermal shock.
Theyarewidelyusedinprecisioninvestmentfoundries,often
incombinationwithzircon.
Bulk density =The mass ofpowdered or granulated solid material per unit ofvolume
 SANDADDITIVES
Water
Water
H0
2
 SANDADDITIVES
Clays
Clays
Bentonite,Southern (CaBentonite)
Bentonite,Western(NaBentonite)
Fireclay
KaolinClay
 Themostcommonclaysusedinbondinggreensandmolds
arebentonites,whichareformsofmontmorillonite or
hydratedaluminumsilicate.Montmorillonite isbuiltupof
alternating tetrahedra ofsiliconatomssurroundedbyoxygen
atoms,andaluminumatomssurroundedbyoxygenatoms,as
showninFig.1.Thisisalayeredstructure,anditproduces
clayparticlesthatareflatplates.Waterisadsorbedonthe
surfacesoftheseplates,andthiscausesbentonite toexpand
in thepresenceofwaterandtocontractwhendried.
SANDADDITIVESClays
SANDADDITIVESClays
SANDADDITIVESClays
 Fireclay
Fireclayconsistsessentiallyofkaolinite,ahydrousaluminum
silicatethatisusuallycombinedwithbentonites inmolding
sand.Itishighlyrefractory,buthaslowplasticity.Itimproves
thehotstrengthofthemoldandallowsthewatercontent to
bevariedovergreaterranges.Becauseofitshighhot
strengthpotential,itisusedforlargecastings.Itisalsoused
to improvesieveanalysisbycreatingfineswheneverthe
systemdoesnothaveanoptimumwidesievedistributionof
the basesand.However,becauseofitslowdurability,itsuse
isgenerallylimited.Inaddition,theneedforfireclaycan
usuallybeeliminatedthroughclosecontrolofsandmixesand
materials.
SANDADDITIVESClays
SANDADDITIVESClays
 Sand Properties
Green Compression Strength
Dry Compression Strength
HotCompression Strength
Moisture (water)
Permeability
Flowability
Refractoriness
Thermal Stability
Collapsibility
Produces good casting finish
Mold Hardness
Deformation
Isreusable
Remove heat from the cooling casting
 GENERALPROPERTIESOFMOLDINGSANDS

Fromageneralviewpoint,themoldingsandmust
bereadilymoldableandproducedefectfree
castingsifitistoqualifyasagoodone.Certain
specificpropertieshavebeenidentified,and
testingproceduresadaptedfortheirquantitative
description.
TheAFS"FoundrySandHandbook"1 setsforth
thestandardconditionsoftestingthesand
properties.Thosepropertiesofmostobvious
importanceinclude:
 GENERALPROPERTIESOFMOLDINGSANDS

1. Greenstrength.Thegreensand,afterwater
hasbeenmixedintoit,must haveadequate
strengthandplasticityformakingandhandling
ofthemold.
2. Drystrength.Asacastingispoured,sand
adjacenttothehotmetal quicklylosesitswater
assteam.Thedrysandmusthavestrengthto
resisterosion,andalsothemetallostatic
pressureofthemoltenmetal,or elsethemold
mayenlarge.
 GENERALPROPERTIESOFMOLDINGSANDS
3. Hotstrength.Afterthemoisturehasevaporated,
thesandmayberequiredtopossessstrengthat
someelevatedtemperature,above100oC.
Metallostatic pressureoftheliquidmetalbearing
againstthemoldwalls maycausemold
enlargement,orifthemetalisstillflowing,erosion,
cracks, orbreakagemayoccurunlessthesand
possessesadequatehotstrength.
4. Permeability.Heatfromthecastingcausesa
greensandmoldtoevolve agreatdealofsteam
andothergases.Themoldmustbepermeable,i.e.
porous,topermitthegasestopassoff,orthe
castingwillcontaingasholes.
 GENERALPROPERTIESOFMOLDINGSANDS
5.Thermalstability.Heatfromthecastingcauses
rapidexpansionofthe sandsurfaceatthemold
metalinterface.Themoldsurfacemaythen
crack,buckle,orflakeoff(scab)unlessthemolding
sandisrelatively stabledimensionallyunderrapid
heating.
6.Refractoriness.Higherpouringtemperatures,
suchasthoseforferrous alloysat2400to3200F,
requiregreaterrefractorinessofthesand.Low
pouringtemperaturemetals,forexample,
aluminum,pouredat1300F, donotrequireahigh
degreeofrefractorinessfromthesand.
 GENERALPROPERTIESOFMOLDINGSANDS
7. Flowability.Thesandshouldrespondtomolding
processes.
8. Producesgoodcastingfinish.
9. Collapsibility.Heatedsandwhichbecomeshardand
rocklikeisdifficult toremovefromthecastingandmay
causethecontractingmetaltotear orcrack.
10. Isreusable.
11. Offerseaseofsandpreparationandcontrol.
12. Removesheatfromthecoolingcasting.

Thislistbynomeansincludesallthepropertieswhich
mightbedesirable.Obviously,themostimportant
characteristicofamoldingsandisthatitfacilitatethe
economicproductionofgoodcastings.
Sand Properties
Sand Properties
Sand Properties
Sand Properties
Sand Properties
Sand Properties
 SANDADDITIVES
Clays
Water
Carbons
Cellulose
OilChemicals
Refrakteries
StarchesSolubles (Niata)
 SANDADDITIVES
Clays
Clays
Bentonite,Southern (CaBentonite)
Bentonite,Western(NaBentonite)
Fireclay
KaolinClay
SANDADDITIVESClays
SANDADDITIVESClays
SANDADDITIVESClays
SANDADDITIVESClays
 SANDADDITIVES
Water
Water
H0
2
 SANDADDITIVES
Carbons
Carbons
Asphalt
Gilsonite (akind ofasphalt)
Graphite
Lamp Black (lambaisi)
Lignite (brown coal)
Pitch,Coal Tar(zift,kmrkatran)
Seacoal (pulverized coal)
 Carbonisaddedtothemoldtoprovideareducingatmosphere
andagasfilmduring pouringthatprotectsagainstoxidationof
themetalandreducesburnin.
Carboncanbeaddedintheformofseacoal (finelyground
bituminouscoal),asphalt,gilsonite (anaturallyoccurring
asphaltite),orproprietarypetroleumproducts.
Seacoal changestocokeathightemperaturesexpandingthree
timesasitdoesso;thisactionfillsvoidsatthemold/metal
interface.Toomuchcarboninthemoldgivessmoke,fumes,and
gasdefects,andtheuseofasphaltproductsmustbe controlled
closelybecausetheiroverusewaterproofsthesand.
Theadditionofcarbonaceousmaterialswillgiveimproved
surfacefinishtocastings.Bestresultsareachievedwithsuch
materialsasseacoal andpitch,whichvolatilizeanddeposita
pyrolytic (lustrous)carbonlayeronsandatthecasting surface.
SANDADDITIVESCarbons
SANDADDITIVESCarbons
SANDADDITIVESCarbons
SANDADDITIVESCarbons
SANDADDITIVESCarbons
SANDADDITIVESCarbons
SANDADDITIVESCarbons
 SANDADDITIVES
Cellulose
Cellulose
Cob Flour (msrunu)
Furfural Residue (liquid aldehyde)
Oat Hulls (yulafkabuu)
Walnut Shell Flour (eviz kabuuunu)
Wood Flour
 Celluloseisaddedtocontrolsandexpansionandtobroaden
theallowablewatercontentrange.Itisusuallyaddedinthe
formofwoodflour,ornut shells.
Cellulosereduceshotcompressivestrengthandprovidesgood
collapsibility,thusimprovingshakeout.
Athightemperatures,itformssoot(anamorphousformof
carbon),which depositsatthemold/metalinterfaceand
resistswettingbymetalorslags.

Italsoimprovestheflowability ofthesand duringmolding.

Excessiveamountsgeneratesmokeandfumesandcancause
gasdefects.Inaddition,ifpresentwhenthe claycontentdrops
toolow,defectssuchascuts,washes,andmoldinclusionswill
occurinthecastings.
SANDADDITIVESCellulose
SANDADDITIVESCellulose
SANDADDITIVESCellulose
SANDADDITIVESCellulose
SANDADDITIVESCellulose
 SANDADDITIVES
OilsChemicals
OilsChemicals
Asphalt Emulsion
Asphaltic Oils
Kerosene (gazya)
SodaAsh
Wetting Agent
SANDADDITIVESOilsChemicals
SANDADDITIVESOilsChemicals
SANDADDITIVESOilsChemicals
SANDADDITIVESOilsChemicals
SANDADDITIVESOilsChemicals
SANDADDITIVESOilsChemicals
 SANDADDITIVES
Refractories(otherthanclays)
Refractories(otherthanclays)
Alumina
ChromiteFlour
FlyAsh
IronOxide
OlivineFlour
SilicaFlour
StauroliteFlour
ZirconFlour
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
 SANDADDITIVES
StarchesSolubles(Cereals)
Solubles
BranFlour(kepekunu)
BritishGum
CornFlour
Dextrin
LigninSulfate
Molasses(pekmez melas)
SodiumSilicate
WheatFlour
 Theyincludecornflour,dextrine,andotherstarches,are
adhesivewhenwettedandthereforeactasabinder.

Theystiffenthesandandimproveitsabilitytodrawdeep
pockets.However,useofcerealsmakesshakeoutmore
difficult,andexcessivequantitiesmakethesandtoughand
cancausethesandtoformballsinthemuller.Because
cereals arevolatile,theycancausegasdefectsincastingsif
usedimproperly.
SANDADDITIVESStarchesSolubles
SANDADDITIVESStarchesSolubles
SANDADDITIVESStarchesSolubles
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESRefractories(otherthanclays)
SANDADDITIVESStarchesSolubles
SANDADDITIVESStarchesSolubles
SANDADDITIVESStarchesSolubles
 SandReclamation
Theeconomicsofafoundryoperationrequire
sandreclamationtoreducethecosts
associatedwithnewsandandthecosts of
landfilluse,andtoreducetheproblems
associatedwiththecontrolof
environmentallyundesirablecontaminantsin
the discardedsand.
 Inaddition,tangibleoperationaladvantagesresultfromsand
reclamation.Thesebeginwiththeabilitytoselectthebest
sandforthecastingprocess,knowingthatmostofitwillbe
reclaimedduringoperation.Inaddition,theuseofreclaimed
sandreducesthenumberofvariablesthatmustbecontrolled,
andprovidesoperationalconsistencyoveraperiodoftime.

Sandgrainshapeanddistributionandbindersystembonding
aremoreuniform,thusreducingsanddefects.Aproperly
designedsandreclamationsystembeginswithgreensandand
convertsittoaproductverysimilartonewsand.Figure5
showstheappearanceofsandbeforecasting,aftermolding,
andafterreclamation.
 Sandreclamationbeginswiththeremovaloftrampand
foreignmaterials,suchascorerods,metalspills,slag,and
paper, andthedisintegrationoflumpsofsand.Thenorganic
andinorganicbindersareremovedbyattrition(scrubbing)
and/or thermalmethods.Deadclayisremovedasfines.The
sandisthenbroughtuptospecificationbytheadditionof
newsand, clay,andothersandadditives.

Sandreclamationsystemsmustbeselectedwithregardto
theircost,thespecificationsforthesystemsand,system
capacity,compatibilitywiththesandsystem,metalbeing
poured,andcoremixesbeingused.Itisimportantforthe
foundrytohaveaclearunderstandingofitsneedsinsand
reclamationbeforecallinginvendors.Avarietyof
reclamation systemsaredescribedbelow.
 WetWashing/Scrubbing
Thecoresoflargecastingscanberemovedbyhighvelocity
jetsofwater.Intheprocess, thecoresarebrokendowninto
grains,andsomebinderisremoved.Excessmoldingsandcan
beaddedandwashed simultaneously.Iftheshakeoutsystem
isdry,thesandischargedintoanagitatorsystemwherethe
solidcontentisheld between25and35%.Excessmolding
sandmaybeblendedwiththecoreknockoutmaterial.A
similarsystemuses intensivescrubbingwithasolidscontent
of75to80%andunitsinseries.
 Thislattermethodissuperiorbecauseofcloser andmore
frequentgraintograincontact.Afterwashing,thesandis
classifiedandmaybeusedeitherwet(naturally drainedto4to
5%moisture)andaddedtoasystemsand,driedforcores,or
usedforfacingsand.
Facingsandmixes derivetheirnamefromthefactthatthey
areusedinlimitedquantitiesagainstthefaceofthepatternor
corebox. They havepropertiesusuallydifferentfromthoseof
thebackuporsystemsandandcontainadditivesnototherwise
present. Facingsandsaredesignedtoperformspecial
functions,suchasprovidinghighergreenstrengthforlifting
deeppockets, higherdeformationforlimiteddraftpatterns,
andspecialcarbonsthatenhanceskindrying.
Thewetsystemhaslimitationsinthatonlyaportionofthe
binder,clay,andcarbonisremoved.Theproduct,however,
isexcellentforuseasamakeupsandinsystems.
 DryScrubbing/Attrition

Thismethodiswidelyused,andthereisalargevarietyof
equipmentavailableinprice rangesandcapacitiesadaptable
tomostbindersystemsandfoundrycapacities.Dryscrubbing
maybedividedinto pneumatic,mechanical,andcombined
thermalcalcining/thermaldryscrubbingsystems
 Inpneumaticscrubbing

Inpneumaticscrubbing,grainsofsandareagitatedin
streamsofairnormallyconfinedinverticalsteeltubescalled
cells.Thegrainsofsandarepropelledupwardandruband
impacteachother,thusremovingthebinder.Insome
systems, grainsareimpactedagainstasteeltarget.Banksof
tubesmaybeuseddependingoncapacityanddegreeof
cleanliness desired.Retentiontimecanberegulated,and
finesareremovedthroughdustcollectors.
 Inmechanicalscrubbing

Inmechanicalscrubbing,theequipmentavailableoffers
foundrymenanumberoftechniquesforconsideration.An
impellermaybeusedtoacceleratethesandgrainsata
controlledvelocityinahorizontalorverticalplaneagainsta
metal plate.Thesandgrainsimpacteachotherandmetal
targets,therebyremovingthebinder.Thespeedofrotation
hassome controlonimpactenergy.Thebinderandfinesare
removedbyexhaustsystems,andscreenanalysisis
controlledbyair gatesand/orairwashseparators.
 ThermalCalcining/ThermalDry
ScrubbingCombinations
Thesesystemsofferthebestreclamationforthe organicand
claybondedsystems.Grainsurfacesarenotsmooth;they
havenumerouscrevicesandindentations.The applicationof
heatwithsufficientoxygenoxidizesthebindersorburns
themoff.Inattrition,onlybecausethereisno contactinthe
crevices,thebinderremains.Heatoffersthesimplestmethod
ofreducingtheencrustedgrainsofmolding sandtopure
grains.Bothhorizontalandverticalrotarykilnandfluidized
bedsystemsareavailable.
 Inthehorizontalrotarykiln,materialisfedintooneend
(usuallythecoldone)andmovedprogressivelythroughthe
heat zonebyrotationassistedbybaffles,flights,orother
mechanicalmeans.Somemechanicalscrubbingalsooccurs.
Some systemsincorporateheatexchangertechnologyto
considerablyreducetheenergyrequired.Thelatest
technologyalso includesprovisionforrecoveryofmetal
entrainedinthesandandcollectionanddetoxificationofthe
processwastesfor suitablenonhazardouswastedisposal.
 Severalfluidizedbedsystemdesignsareavailable.Someuse
preheatingchambersandhotairrecuperation.Adrying
compartmentmayalsobeadded.Sandisintroducedintothe
top(preheating)chamberofthereactorandisliftedbythe
hotairstreamfrombelowuntilitassumessomeofthe
characteristicsofafluid.Thehotaircomingincontactwith
the sandgrainsburnstheorganicsandcalcinestheclay.At
thesametime,someattritiontakesplace.Acorrectpressure
differentialmustbemaintainedbetweenthecompartmentsif
morethanoneisusedinordertoensuredownwardflowof
sand;otherwisegravityflowmustbeprovided.Fluidizingisa
verygoodmethodforcoolingsandwhenusingcoolair.
 MultipleHearthFurnace/Vertical
ShaftFurnace
Themultiplehearthfurnaceconsistsofcircularrefractory
hearthsplacedoneabovetheotherandenclosedina
refractorylinedsteelshell.Averticalrotatingshaftthrough
the centerofthefurnaceisequippedwithaircooledalloy
armscontainingrabbleblades(plows)thatstirthesandand
move itinaspiralpathacrosseachhearth.Alternatehearths
are"in"or"out."Thatis,sandisrepeatedlymovedoutward
from thecenterofagivenhearthtotheperiphery,whereit
dropsthroughholestothenexthearth.Thisactiongives
excellent contactbetweensandgrainsandtheheatedgases.
 Materialisfedintothetopofthefurnace.Itmakesitswayto
the bottominazigzagfashion,whilethehotgasesrise
counter currently,burningtheorganicmaterialandcalcining
clay,if oneorbotharepresent.Dischargecanbedirectly
fromthebottomhearthintoatubecooler,orothercooling
methods maybeusedTheunitsarebestsuitedtolarge
tonnages,thatis,fivetonsormore.Theyareextremely
ruggedand relativelymaintenancefree.
 Combinationsofsystems
Combinationsofsystemsmayalsobeused,
forexample,thermalmethodsfollowedbydry
attritionscrubtoremove calcinedclayfrom
moldingsandorundesirablechemicalsand
oxidesfromcoreprocesses.Also,commercial
centersfor sandreclamationareinoperation
andmaybeusedbysmallerfoundries.