Literature Review

Version 1.0
March 3, 2003

Benchmarking a Wireless Network

Grant Greenwood

Advisor: Guillermo A. Francia, III

Submitted in partial fulfillment

Of the requirements of a
Masters Studio Project
Jacksonville State University
 Table of Contents
Table of Contents.................................................................................................................ii
Table of Figures..................................................................................................................iii
1.0 Introduction..............................................................................................................1
2.0 Potential Impact on the Manufacturing Environment.............................................3
2.1 Delivering computing power..............................................................................3
2.2 Reducing the installation costs of I/O systems....................................................6
2.3 Tracking Items in the Manufacturing Process.....................................................8
3.0 Performance Concerns...........................................................................................10
4.0 References..............................................................................................................13
5.0 Definitions.............................................................................................................14
Index..................................................................................................................................15

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 Table of Figures
Figure 1 - Ford Savings on Yard Operations.......................................................................4
Figure 2 - Ford Savings on Vehicle Inventory Management...............................................6
Figure 3 - WIO configuration..............................................................................................7
Figure 4 - Effects of noise on a digital signal....................................................................11

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1.0 Introduction
Wireless networking is a technology that is relatively new to the general public.

Two dominant standards currently exist. The Bluetooth Special Interest Group released

the Bluetooth standard in 1998. The major goal of the Bluetooth wireless technology is

to allow relatively cheap electronic devices to communicate directly in an ad hoc fashion,

which requires the price of a Bluetooth radio to be only a few dollars. Moreover,

Bluetooth-equipped devices can also form networks where information may flow

seamlessly between the applications hosted in the devices; such a network of personal

devices is often referred to as a person area network (PAN) [1]. The other dominant

standard is the IEEE 802.11 standard. The IEEE 802 local and metropolitan area network

standards committee is the group chartered by IEEE to create, maintain, and encourage

the use of IEEE and equivalent IEC/ISO standards. The IEEE formed the committee in

February 1980 [2]. Both standards have gained some acceptance as a quick and

inexpensive way to setup a home or small office network. The devices that make this

form of networking possible are regularly advertised in technical magazines and store

ads. However, the greatest potential for use could be in the manufacturing arena.

Successful manufactures have recognized their need for more efficient use of

information. Many old methods that use clipboards and check sheets have been replaced

with computers and bar code readers. The success stories are vast. Many of today's

manufacturers could not perform at the level of efficiency they do today without the use

of their information technology. A limitation is that for information technology to be

available, devices must be connected or "hard-wired" back to some computer. It is in this

respect that wireless technology can be of great benefit. It also brings to the table,

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devices such as Personal Data Assistants (PDAs). With a wireless network in place these

mobile devices can access the same systems as their fixed cousins. Some manufacturers

are recognizing the potential of these type devices used in conjunction with wireless

networks and are replacing existing "paper record keeping" with PDAs and related

software. Information recorded in this fashion is generally more accurate since it does

not need to be transcribed. Also, the data is often more timely in its availability.

Wireless networks and the devices that utilize them can positively impact

manufacturing in the following areas: Delivering computing power to previously

unavailable areas, Reduce the installation costs of I/O systems used in process monitoring

and control, and Tracking items with a level of detail and ease that makes it a valuable

tool.

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2.0 Potential Impact on the Manufacturing Environment

2.1 Delivering computing power

In the manufacturing arena, some areas do not lend themselves to traditional

networking and standard devices such as personal computers. One such environment

could be a highly dynamic area where things are changing so quickly, in terms of material

movement, that it is not feasible to install fixed terminals. The Ford Motor Company was

faced with such a problem in their shipping and receiving yard. Trucks are continuously

moving into and out of the yard transporting finished goods and delivering process

consumables. Approximately 600 trucks a week pass in and out of the yard[3]. The yard

is so vast (approximately 45 acres) and dynamic that filtering all movements past fixed

terminals would disrupt the process flow and add precious time to the manufacturing

process. However, the manufacturer still needed to know what trucks were on the yard

and what items were on those trucks. Ford needed this so they could optimize the usage

of their 38 bays. Ford identified the following problems with the existing system:

Managing a large volume of trailers with limited real estate, Identifying inefficient load

plans, Excessive detention expenses, and Inadequate reporting[3]. The solution was to

utilize the mobility that a wireless network offers.

The wireless solution had the following goals: Ability to schedule deliveries to

specific dock doors, Trailer inspection and reporting capabilities, Automatic and accurate

yard inventory, and The ability to interface with Ford's existing software. These goals

were accomplished by using permanent and temporary radio frequency (RF) tags on the

trailers. The system works in the following manner. A trailer arrives on the yard and an

operator enters the route information into the Yard system. When this operation is

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complete the system finds the related appointment. The operator then enters the

inspection data into the system and releases the trailer to the yard. With this wireless

software solution in place, Ford gets real time feedback on the location of a trailer and the

contents of that trailer. Also, the route through the yard is established. The change in

process realized savings in various areas. For example, it eliminated paper logging of

inbound and outbound trailers. It also reduced non-productive dock labor time,

eliminated faxing of inbound gate log to warehouse each hour, and eliminated phone calls

from stores to gate operators to check outbound deliveries. The chart below displays how

these process improvements translated into monetary savings [3].

Tags

$300,000.00 Infrastructure
$250,000.00
Inventory WhereSoft
$200,000.00
$150,000.00 Automated Yard
$100,000.00 Inventory
Trailer Inspection
$50,000.00
$0.00 Detention Reduction
yearly Return one time
Investment Inventory Reduction

Reporting
Efficiencies
Figure 1 - Ford Savings on Yard Operations

In a separate but related project, Ford also implemented wireless network

technology to solve their vehicle inventory problems. Ford produces as many as 1000

vehicles a day. These vehicles are kept in a holding area until they can be loaded on a

transport. Problems arise when trying to locate a specific vehicle in this vast sea of

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automobiles. Ford calculated that is was costing them 5 to 10 dollars per day per vehicle

to locate a given automobile for shipping or repair work[3]. Also, if vehicle was

erroneously shipped it cost thousands to get it returned. Once again Ford chose RF tags

and a wireless network to address their mounting problems. The system operates in the

following manner. At an appropriate time in the manufacturing process the vehicle is

married up with its RF identification tag. This tag contains the following information:

VIN number, Ship method, Location group, location, Actual produced date. The VIN

number uniquely identifies the vehicle. The ship method indicates the type of transport

that will be used. The location group and location indicate the general and specific

location on the manufacturing site. The actual produced date is updated when the vehicle

completes the manufacturing process and is ready to be placed in the holding area.

Operators can query on any given VIN number or double click an icon on the graphical

display to find the whereabouts of a given vehicle. The benefits of system have been:

Reduced vehicle search times, and a much improved distribution velocity. The chart

below displays the savings that have been realized from process improvements alone[3].

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 $500,000.00

$400,000.00
Dwell Time Reductions
$300,000.00 Quality Control
$200,000.00 Labor
Cost
$100,000.00

$0.00
Annual Savings Cost

Figure 2 - Ford Savings on Vehicle Inventory Management

2.2 Reducing the installation costs of I/O systems

Wireless networks and wireless devices are also gaining acceptance in the area of

process monitoring and controls. The reason for the interest is that a significant part of a

process control install is the wiring and conduit runs required at remote devices. For

example a PLC and valve actuator might be used to control the amount of steam used to

heat vats to a desired temperature. This would require two I/O runs from the PLC to the

actuator for the feedback and control signals. Given the distance the actuator is located

from the PLC and the number of actuators used, the cost could be substantial. A much

more attractive solution would be to have the PLC communicate with the actuators via

wireless communications. This solution becomes even more attractive when one also

considers the ease of which such a system can be expanded. Instead of pulling additional

wiring on the initial install to account for system growth, additional devices utilize the

existing wireless network. In recent article by ARC advisory group the author states, "In

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extreme cases where the cost of wiring installation dominates a project, Wireless I/O

(WIO) becomes an almost irresistible choice"[4]. The architectural design is shown

below.

Pump

Wireless LAN Bridge

IEEE 802.11
Actuator

Ethernet I/O Device PLC

Figure 3 - WIO configuration

One power generator uses this WIO configuration to automate the filling of

coalbunkers. The bunker provides reserve margin against potential problems caused by

failures in the plant fuel handling systems. The automated system they use takes a level

indication reading to determine when the next coal delivery needs to be made. Due to the

layout of these bunkers, installing traditional level detectors would not work. They chose

to use a radar level detector. This detector feeds its information via the wireless network

back to the controller. If the level is at or below a pre-determined level the PLC activates

the filler. Due to the "difficult to reach locations" of the detectors the WIO solution was

the obvious choice. Also, this technology makes any future expansions a less costly and

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more feasible option. ARC believes that WIO technologies will grow rapidly. The

installed cost advantage of these products in many expansion and retrofit applications is

driving ordinarily wary end users to try them [4].

2.3 Tracking Items in the Manufacturing Process

Some manufactures have long recognized their need for the ability to better track

items in the manufacturing process but the technology did not exist which allowed them

to do this in a efficient manner. The amount of effort and time required to input the data

into some sort of computer system was too great to realize the potential benefits. One

such manufacturer is the Dingley Press Company. The product they offer is mail-order

catalogs. They output 1 million ink-jet-addressed catalogs every day [5]. Assembling the

catalogs is a somewhat complex matter given the variability that is available. Catalogs

are customized according to customer needs. For example a pet supply company will

want to distribute a catalog for its dog lovers and another for its cat lovers. They way

they accomplish this is by grouping sections of the magazines into what they term as

signatures. These signatures are printed and loaded on pallets waiting for assembly.

Thus it is critical to know exactly where all signatures are located in this highly dynamic

work environment. Management states, "Keeping track of every pallet within the 350 X

450 foot building, as well as offsite warehouses, in an emergency can be a nightmare.

Losing a pallet or bringing the wrong one to the bindery would be expensive."[5]. In the

past, Dingley hired two people to manage their signature stock. Dingley was looking for

a better solution and found it in wireless technology. The system is comprised of their

own in-house application and Cisco Aironet wireless technology, which is based on the

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IEEE 802.11 standard. The system operates in the following manner. An operator

creates a RF tag that contains the number and type of signatures on the pallet. The pallet

is then moved to storage where the forklift operator scans the row and section number.

Management now knows what signatures its has available and where they are located in

real-time. They benefits have been two fold. First, they have seen a drastic reduction in

the number of lost pallets and the number of wrong pallets making their way to the

bindery. This directly translates into a reduction of man-hours required to produce a

given number of magazines. By helping Dingley to prevent mistakes, to locate stock in

substantially less time than by manual searching, the Cisco Aironet system has already

paid for itself several times over. Secondly, management now has a greater decision

making tool they have ever had before. Mike Martell, systems manager at Dingley states,

"Customers sometimes call and say they need 25,000 of a particular book to carry to a

trade show. Do we have sufficient stock? We can look up the combination of signatures

and determine the highest number on hand of least-available components, which allows

us to calculate how many full catalogs we can provide them. If we didn't have real-time

inventories, we couldn't provide this service."[5].

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3.0 Performance Concerns
Performance is the bottom line in the evaluation of a network. Users will not

readily sacrifice performance for convenience. The performance of a network is

displayed in its throughput, response time, and its ability to support applications that

utilize connectionless communication. Throughput refers the to rate at which traffic can

flow through the network. Thus networks with "high" throughput can deliver larger

amounts of data and in shorter time than a network with a "lesser" throughput. Response

time refers to the length of time it takes to send a specified amount of data and receive an

acknowledgment back from the receiving station.

The limiting factor in these desirable parameters is bandwidth. Bandwidth is the

difference in Hertz between the limiting (upper and lower) frequencies of a spectrum [8].

The Nyquist capacity formula states that the capacity increases as the bandwidth

increases [8]. The capacity the formula is referring to the data transmission capacity of

the medium. Thus a higher data transmission rate can be achieved with a greater

bandwidth [10]. However, as the data transfer rate increases there is a greater likelihood

of transmission error due to noise. If the data rate is increased, then bits become

"shorter" so that more bits are affected by a given pattern of noise. Thus, at a given noise

level, the higher the data rate, the higher the error rate [13]. Figure 4 below displays the

effect noise can have on a digital signal. If the noise level is sufficiently high it can

change the value of received bits. The resulting error means that the data must be

retransmitted or some data redundancy mechanism must be in place that can correct the

errors. Either way the network performance is negatively affected. Because of noise, the

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maximum theoretical capacity of a channel is given by Shannon's law [11]. The equation

of Shannon's law is as follows:

C = W Log2 (1 + (S/N))

Where,

C = the capcity of a channel is bits per second

W = bandwidth of a channel in Hz
S/N = signal to noise ratio

The high error rates in wireless LANs are considered a major challenge and research

groups have considered solutions ranging from the use of Forward Correcting codes that

in effect improve error rates [12].

Figure 4 - Effects of noise on a digital signal

Eckhardt and Steenkiste analyzed the effect of various sources of wireless

communications errors. The error sources they considered were: attenuation (the loss of

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signal due to collision with objects), front-end overload (conflict with a powerful

transmitter), narrow band interference (unfriendly transmitter occupying a narrow

bandwidth), and path loss (loss of signal due to distance). They stated in their concluding

remarks that the greatest loss of signal came from interfering transmitters. They state

specifically," the worst errors were induced by spread spectrum cordless phones operating

in the same frequency band"[15].

The afore mentioned study was not performed in a manufacturing environment.

However, the same type of communication problems they encountered can be expected in

manufacturing. Electric motors, transformers and various other electro-mechanical

devices can produce the same effect as the spread spectrum telephones. Noise plays an

significant role in limiting network performance in a manufacturing environment.

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4.0 References
[1] Manthos Kazantzidis, Rohit Kapoor, and Mario Gerla, "Bluetooth : An Enabler
for Personal Area Networking", IEEE Network, 2001, pp. 28.

[2] J. Geier, "The IEEE 802 LAN Standards Family", www.inFormIT.com, Dec.
2001,pp. 28.

[3] T. Harrington, "RTLS - Real Time Locating Systems", www.aiag.com, 2001, pp.
28, 34-39.

[4] H. Forbes, "Wireless I/O: The Electrician's Radio", ARC Insights, 2001, pp. 1.

[5] "Cisco Systems Case Study: Dingley Press", Cisco Systems, 2003, pp. 1,2.

[6] William Stallings, "Wireless Communications and Networks", Prentice Hall,

2002, pp. 28.

[7] James Martin, "TCP / IP Networking", PTR Prentice Hall, 1994, pp. 28.

[8] David Echkhardt and Peter Steenkiste, "Measurement and Analysis of the Error
Characteristics of a In-Building Wireless Network", SIGCOMM, 1996, pp. 1.

[9] Jeffrey T Hicks, "A quick check of network performance", International Journal of
Network Management, 2001, pp. 1.

[10] Uyless Black, "Mobile and Wireless networks", PTR Prentice Hall, 1996, pp. 28.

[11] Wah Chun Chan, "Performance Analysis of Telecommunications and Local Area
Networks", Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000, pp. 28.

[12] S. Kallel, "Efficient hybrid ARQ protocols with adaptive forward error
correction", IEEE Transactions on Communications, February/March/April 1994,
pp. 281-289.

[13] IEEE. 802.11b/d3.0 Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical
Layer (PHY) Specification, August 1999.

[14] Anand Balachandran , Geoffrey Voelker, Paramvir Bahl, P. Venkat Rangan,

"Characterizing User Behavior and Network Performance in Public Wireless
LAN", MicroSoft Research, 2002, pp. 1,15.

[15] Timmons C. Player, "WLAN Benchmarking Mixes Old with New", Wireless
Systems Design, 2003, pp. 30,32.

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5.0 Definitions

Term Definition
BlueTooth Communications protocol
IP Internet Protocol
PAN Personal area network used in BlueTooth
PLC Programmable logic controller
TCP Transmission control protocol
UDP User datagram protocol

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 Index

BlueTooth, 15 PLC, 6, 7, 15
Borland Database Engine, 15 TCP, 13, 15
IP, 13, 15 UDP, 15
PAN, 1, 15

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