WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality, quantity and
pressure. Distribution system is used to describe collectively the facilities used to supply water from its source to
the point of usage.

Requirements of Good Distribution System

1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.

2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure head.
3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during firefighting.
4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the repair of any
section of the system.
5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one metre away or above the sewer lines.
6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.

Layouts of Distribution Network

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts generally follow
the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks; any one of which either singly
or in combinations, can be used for a particular place. They are: Grid, Ring, Radial and Dead End System.

GRID IRON SYSTEM:

It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.

Advantages:

1. Water is kept in good circulation due to the

absence of dead ends.
2. In the cases of a breakdown in some section,
water is available from some other direction.

Disadvantages:

1. Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible

due to provision of valves on all branches.

RING SYSTEM:

The supply main is laid all along the

peripheral roads and sub mains branch out from the
mains. Thus, this system also follows the grid iron
system with the flow pattern similar in character to
that of dead end system. So, determination of the
size of pipes is easy.

Advantages:

1. Water can be supplied to any point from at least

two directions.
RADIAL SYSTEM:

The area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in the middle
of each zone and the supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the periphery.

Advantages:

1. It gives quick service.

2. Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.

DEAD END SYSTEM:

It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads.

Advantages:

1. Relatively cheap.
2. Determination of discharges and pressure easier
due to less number of valves.

Disadvantages

1. Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water

occurs in pipes.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Water supply system, infrastructure for the collection, transmission, treatment, storage, and distribution
of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry, and irrigation, as well as for such public needs as
firefighting and street flushing. Of all municipal services, provision of potable water is perhaps the most vital.
People depend on water for drinking, cooking, washing, carrying away wastes, and other domestic needs.
Water supply systems must also meet requirements for public, commercial, and industrial activities. In all
cases, the water must fulfill both quality and quantity requirements

1. A drainage basin (see water purification - sources of drinking water).

2. A raw water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such as a lake,
a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer. Raw water may be transferred using
uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes to water
purification facilities.
3. Water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes (usually underground).
 4. Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water systems may
store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels. Tall buildings may also need to store water locally in
pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors.
5. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be situated at the
outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity flow is impractical).
6. A pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private houses or industrial,
commercial or institution establishments) and other usage points (such as fire hydrants).
7. Connections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground ditches in some developing
countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the sewer system is
considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water supply system.

WATER ABSTRACTION AND RAW WATER TRANSFER

Raw water (untreated) is collected from a surface water source (such as an intake on a lake or a river)
or from a groundwater source (such as a water well drawing from an underground aquifer) within the
watershed that provides the water resource. The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities
using uncovered aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes.

WATER NETWORK MAINTENANCE

Water supply networks usually represent the majority of assets of a water utility. Systematic
documentation of maintenance works using a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) is a
key to a successful operation of a water utility.

SUSTAINABLE URBAN WATER SUPPLY

A sustainable urban water supply network covers all the activities related to provision of potable water.
Sustainable development is of increasing importance for the water supply to urban areas. Incorporating
innovative water technologies into water supply systems improves water supply from sustainable perspectives.
The development of innovative water technologies provides flexibility to the water supply system, generating
a fundamental and effective means of sustainability based on an integrated real options approach.[2]

Water is an essential natural resource for human existence. It is needed in every industrial and natural
process, for example, it is used for oil refining, for liquid-liquid extraction in hydro-metallurgical processes, for
cooling, for scrubbing in the iron and the steel industry and for several operations in food processing facilities
[1], etc. It is necessary to adopt a new approach to design urban water supply networks; water shortages are
expected in the forthcoming decades and environmental regulations for water utilization and waste-water
disposal are increasingly stringent.

To achieve a sustainable water supply network, new sources of water are needed to be developed,
and to reduce environmental pollution.

The price of water is increasing, so less water must be wasted and actions must be taken to prevent
pipeline leakage. Shutting down the supply service to fix leaks is less and less tolerated by consumers. A
sustainable water supply network must monitor the freshwater consumption rate and the waste-water
generation rate.

Many of the urban water supply networks in developing countries face problems related to population
increase, water scarcity, and environmental pollution.

REFERENCES:

https://www.wateronline.com/doc/water-distribution-system-challenges-and-solutions-0001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_network
 GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT
Groundwater is playing an ever important role for drinking water supplies, particularly in rural areas. In
many countries, there has been a switch from using unprotected surface water to protected groundwater.
Groundwater scarcity and pollution are becoming a major concern in some places. There are regions where
groundwater quality is not fit for human consumption due to a high level of arsenic, fluoride, iron or nitrates
and there is need for professionalism and vigilance to ensure that infrastructure is built to last, and that borehole
provision is cost-effective. Basically, without proper drilling supervision, and quality pumps, universal access to
a safe drinking water supply will never be met. Sustainable Groundwater Development theme sets out to
ensure that groundwater resources are properly considered and sustainably used for developing drinking
water supply sources.

TYPES OF GROUNDWATER SOURCES

Groundwater is most often accessed through springs, hand-dug wells, or drilled boreholes. (Drilled boreholes
are also sometimes called wells).

Springs are natural flows of groundwater from the underlying rock or unconsolidated sediment. Springs are
dependent on the characteristics of the rocks, and their nature and yields are hugely variable. They often
occur in specific hydrogeological environments. Because they are open at their source, springs are
vulnerable to contamination. No equipment is needed to make a spring, but springs can be improved
and made less vulnerable to contamination and drought by various developments, such as constructing
a collection tank to store spring water, and installing a protective cover over the spring head.

Hand-dug wells have been dug to access groundwater for thousands of years. They can only be dug in
soft material, such as unconsolidated sediment like sand and gravel, weathered basement, or limestone.
They are only appropriate where the groundwater level (water table) is shallow. They are usually less than
20 m deep and 12 m in diameter, but can be wider and much deeper. Little or no specialised equipment
is needed to construct a well just something to dig with, and a way of removing the spoil. Wells often
need to be lined to keep them open, using materials like brick, stones, concrete rings or even lorry tyres.
Open wells are vulnerable to contamination from the surface, and can be improved by installing a
concrete apron around the top. Wells have large storage, which helps make them less vulnerable to
drought, but because they typically tap only shallow groundwater, they can dry up in dry seasons or longer
droughts.

Boreholes are narrow diameter tubes drilled into the ground, usually vertically. Boreholes are also called
tube wells or simply wells. They can be drilled more quickly and go deeper than hand-dug wells, and so
can tap deeper, often more sustainable groundwater; they can be drilled though hard rocks and they
can be more easily protected from contamination. There are many different techniques for drilling
boreholes, some of which are more suited to certain hydrogeological environments. Usually, a motorised
drilling rig is used, operated by specialist drillers. There are also manual drilling techniques.
Other, less common ways of accessing groundwater are by:

Collector wells, which are vertical boreholes or wells modified by drilling horizontally out radially below the
water table to increase the collection area for groundwater into the central well, from where water is
abstracted. They are often constructed in alluvium, next to ephemerally dry ('sand') rivers, with the
horizontal radials drilled into the river bed deposits; or in weathered basement.
Infiltration gallery, which is a horizontal trench or drain dug below the water table to abstract shallow
groundwater, usually from unconsolidated alluvium, including sand rivers, or windblown deposits. The
trench drains into a sump from where water is abstracted. The gallery may have to be lined to keep it
open.
Qanats, which are an ancient method of tapping and transporting groundwater in many parts of North
African and the Middle East. A qanat comprises a mother well, often in alluvial deposits at the edge of a
mountain range, and a gently inclined covered, underground channel which allows groundwater to flow
downhill to a village.

REFERENCE: http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Groundwater_development_techniques
 SEWERAGE SYSTEM

It is the system and infrastructure of collecting, treating and disposal of sewage. There are three
sewerage systems types.

1. Separate System
2. Partially Separated System
3. Combined System

1. SEPARATE SEWERAGE SYSTEM

In this system the sanitary sewage and storm water are carried separately in two sets of sewers. The sewage
is conveyed to waste water treatment plant (WWTP) and the storm water is discharges into rivers without
treatment. The separated system is suitable when separate outlet for storm water is available and the
topography is such that storm water can be disposed of in natural drains.

Advantages of Separate System

The load on treatment plant is less as only sewage is carried to the plant.
The size of sewer is mall, thus economical
When pumping is required, the system proves to be economical.
Natural/storm water is not unnecessarily polluted by sewage.

Disadvantages of Separate System

Cleaning of sewer is difficult due to their small size.

The self cleansing velocity is not easily obtained.
The storm sewers come in operation in rainy season only. They may be chocked in dry season by
garbage.
Maintenance cost is high
Sewage sewers are provided below storm sewer which causes greater depth and pumping at waste
water treatment plant (WWTP).

2. PARTIALLY SEPARATE SEWERAGE SYSTEM

This system is the compromise between separate and combine system taking the advantages of both
systems. In this system the sewage and storm water of buildings are carried by one set of sewers while the
storm water from roads, streets, pavements etc. are carried by other system of sewers usually open drains.

Advantages of Partially Separate Sewerage System

It combines the good features of both systems.

The silting is avoided due to entry of storm water.
The storm water from houses is easily disposed off.
The sewers are of reasonable size.

Disadvantages of Partially Separate Sewerage System

A very small fraction of bad features of combined system are there in partially separated system.

3. COMBINED SEWERAGE SYSTEM

In this system the sewage and storm water are carried combine in only one set of sewers to the waste water
treatment. Plant (WWTP) before disposal.
Advantages of Combined Sewerage System

Easy cleaning because of larger diameter

Reasonable maintenance cost
Strength of sewage is reduced due to dilution of sewage by storm water
This system requires only one set of sewer making it economical

Disadvantages of Combined Sewerage System

In storm season sewer may overflow and the sewer may damage causing serious health risks
The combine sewer gets silted and becomes foul in dry days
Load on treatment plant is more because storm water is also carried there
The storm water gets polluted unnecessarily
The system becomes uneconomical when pumping is needed

REFERENCE: http://www.engineeringarticles.org/what-is-sewerage-system-disposal-of-sewage/
 DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
DRAINAGE OF STRUCTURES
A system of drains (pipes, boreholes, and subterranean tunnels) intended to collect and draw off gro
undwater fromstructures. As distinguished from drainage of farmland, drainage of structures is used to preven
t the seepage of water, toreinforce foundations, to reduce filtration pressure on the structure, and to protect
foundations from erosion by seepage.These tasks can frequently be dealt with through general drainage of
urban areas (industrial sites, airports, and so on), forwhich the same systems are used as when draining farmla
nd. When general reduction of the level of ground water atconstruction sites cannot provide the necessary e
ffect or is not economically justified (as a rule, the water level should be 3 to3.5 m below the earths surface),
local systems of drainage of structures (bed, layer, and circular) are used.

BED DRAINAGE of structures is achieved through the use of filtration bed, which is laid in the foundatio
n of thestructure, directly on the waterbearing soil. The filtration bed is hydraulically linked (by pipes or filterin
g material) to a tubulardrain located outside the foundation not less than 0.7 m from the plane of the structur
es wall. Bed drainage ofstructures completely protects the building not only from seepage of groundwater
but also from capillary moisture. It is widelyused in protecting underground structures built on loose soil of low
permeability, as well as in draining hightemperaturehops, heating systems, and flues into which no moisture s
hould penetrate.

LAYER DRAINAGE consists of drainpipes with filtration cushioning layers. The pipes are laid on water-
resistant soil outside thestructures to be protected. This type of drainage is used only when the foundation of t
he structure being protected is locatedon water-resistant soil.

CIRCULAR DRAINAGE of structures is constructed along the outlines of a building or area in which a nu
mber of structures arelocated. The operation of circular drainage of structures is based on lowering the level
of groundwater within the protectedcontours, ensuring protection against seepage into underground installa
tions and building units. The extent to which thegroundwater level is lowered depends on the depth at which
the drainpipes, the tunnels, or the filtering units of the wells lierelative to the subsoil water table, as well as on
the size of the outline to be protected. Circular drains are placed at a certaindistance from the building; as a
result, the drains may be laid after the structure has been erected. In this sense, circulardrainage of structure
s is advantageous in comparison with bed drainage, which is laid as the structure is being erected.

A distinction is made among horizontal, vertical, and combined types of drainage of structures, depe
nding on the designfeatures. Horizontal drainage uses pipe or tunnel drains, ditches, and gutters. Pipe drains
are a combination of drainpipeswith one or more sheets of filtration cushioning layers of sand and gravel,
arranged to avoid silting of the pipes byparticles of soil. Manholes, usually made of sectional reinforcedconcr
ete rings, are installed for inspectionof pipe drainage systems. Tunnel drains are pipes of large cross section, u
sually made of sectional reinforced concrete, withwater intake openings and a cushioning layer. Ditches are
mainly used in areas of small settlements, where the maintenanceof groundwater at depths of up to 1.5 m is
permissible. Under conditions of firm soil, ditches are made in the form of slopingtrenches; in soft soil, gutters
of sectional reinforced concrete are used.

Vertical drainage of structures is a system of wells joined by a sewage conduit, through which water is
pumped out by asingle unit or by a separate pump in each well. Sometimes the sewer is equipped with a tra
p, by means of which watersucked in from the wells enters the sewer. Combined drainage of structures is a
combination of a horizontal drainusually a tunnel drainand a number of self-draining wells.

Drainage systems for hydraulic-engineering installations (dams, locks, and so on) are usually
constructed in their lower units. The drainage system for earthen dams uses various devices (a drainage prism
in the lower bank, a drainage mattress in the body of the dam, or banded and pipe drainage systems in its
foundation). In concrete dams with rock bases, the drainage system for the dam body uses a system of vertical
drains emptying into longitudinal tunnels, from which the water passes into the tail water. In concrete dams
without a rock foundation, drainage of structures with reverse filters is used.

REFERENCE: http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Drainage+of+Structures
 RIVER STRUCTURES/COASTAL DEFENSE
The main and prime reason to construct coastal protection structures is to protect harbor and other
infrastructures from sea wave effects such as erosion. Not only are they useful for changing current and sand
movements but also to redirect rivers and streams.

Types of Coastal Protection Structures

There are various structures that considered or used as coastal protection structures for example groins,
seawalls, bulkheads, break waters, and jetties. Description and advantages of these structures will be discussed
in this article.

1. Seawalls

This large coastal protection structures can be built using different types of construction materials such
as rubble mound, granite masonry, or reinforced concrete. Seawalls are commonly built and run along
shoreline to prevent coastal structures and areas from the detrimental influence of ocean wave actions and
flooding which are driven by storms. There are various arrangements or configurations that might be employed
includes curved face seawall, stepped face seawall, rubble mound seawall. These forms will be explained in
the following sections:

Figure 1: Seawalls

a. Curved face seawall

Curved face seawall is designed to withstand high wave action effects. Foundation materials loss,
which might be caused by scouring waves and/or leaching from over topping water or storm drainage
underneath the wall, is avoided by employing sheet pile cut off wall.

b. Stepped face seawall

Stepped face seawall is used to oppose or resist moderate wave actions. Reinforced concrete sheet
piles with tongue- and- groove joints are employed to construction this type of seawall. The spaces which is
created between piles is either filled with grout in order make sand proof cut off wall or install geotextile fiber
at the back of the sheet pile to form sand tight barrier.

c. Rubble Mound Seawalls

Design and construction this type of seawall configuration might be easier and cheaper. It can resist
substantially strong wave actions. Despite scouring of the front beach, quarry stone comprising the seawall
could be readjusted and settled without causing structural failure.

2. Bulkheads

Bulkheads can be constructed by concrete, steel, or timber. There two major types which are gravity
structures and anchored sheet pile walls. The bulkheads might not have exposed to substantially strong wave
actions and its main purpose is to retain earth but scouring at the base of the structure should be considered
by the designer. Cellular sheet pile bulkheads are employed for situations where rock is close to the surface
and enough penetration cannot be achieved for the anchored bulkhead type. Moreover, sheet pile should
be sufficiently reinforced for bending moment, soil conditions, hydrostatic pressures, and support points.

3. Groins

Groins are shore protection structures that decrease erosion affects to the shoreline by changing
offshore current and wave patterns. Groins can be built by materials such as concrete, stone, steel, or timber
and are categorized depend on length, height, and permeability.Furthermore, groins are commonly
constructed vertically to the shoreline and it can either impermeable or permeable.

4. Jetties

Jetties are usually built of materials such as concrete, steel, stone, timber, and occasionally asphalt
used as binder. This structure is constructed at river estuary or harbor entrance and extended into deeper
water to oppose forming of sandbars and limit currents.

Figure 2: Jetty Construction for Coastal Protection

5. Breakwaters

There are three major types of breakwaters namely: offshore, shore-connected, and rubble mound.
Not only are they used to protect shore area, anchorage, harbor from wave actions but also to create secure
environment for mooring, operating, and handling ships.

Figure 3: Breakwater Application

REFERENCE: https://theconstructor.org/structures/coastal-protection-structures/14020/
 FLOOD CONTROL

Flood control refers to all methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters.
Flood relief refers to methods used to reduce the effects of flood waters or high water levels.

METHODS OF CONTROLLING FLOODS

Some methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times.[1] These methods include planting
vegetation to retain extra water, terracing hillsides to slow flow downhill, and the construction of floodways
(man-made channels to divert floodwater).[1] Other techniques include the construction of levees, lakes,
dams, reservoirs,[1] retention ponds to hold extra water during times of flooding.

Dams

Many dams and their associated reservoirs are designed completely or partially to aid in flood
protection and control. Many large dams have flood-control reservations in which the level of a reservoir
must be kept below a certain elevation before the onset of the rainy/summer melt season to allow a
certain amount of space in which floodwaters can fill. The term dry dam refers to a dam that serves
purely for flood control without any conservation storage (e.g. Mount Morris Dam, Seven Oaks Dam).

Diversion canals

Floods can be controlled by redirecting excess water to purpose-built canals or floodways, which in
turn divert the water to temporary holding ponds or other bodies of water where there is a lower risk or
impact to flooding. Examples of flood control channels include the Red River Floodway that protects the
City of Winnipeg (Canada) and the Manggahan Floodway that protects the City of Manila (Philippines).

Floodplains and groundwater replenishment

Excess water can be used for groundwater replenishment by diversion onto land that can absorb the
water. This technique can reduce the impact of later droughts by using the ground as a natural reservoir.
It is being used in California, where orchards and vineyards can be flooded without damaging crops, [3] or
in other places wilderness areas have been re-engineered to act as floodplains.

River defences

In many countries, rivers are prone to floods and are often carefully managed. Defenses such as
levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks. A weir, also known
as a lowhead dam, is most often used to create millponds, but on the Humber River in Toronto, a weir
was built near Raymore Drive to prevent a recurrence of the flood damage caused by Hurricane Hazel in
October 1954.

Coastal defenses

Coastal flooding has been addressed in Europe and the Americas with coastal defences, such as sea
walls, beach nourishment, and barrier islands. Tide gates are used in conjunction with dykes and culverts.
They can be placed at the mouth of streams or small rivers, where an estuary begins or where tributary
streams, or drainage ditches connect to sloughs. Tide gates close during incoming tides to prevent tidal
waters from moving upland, and open during outgoing tides to allow waters to drain out via the culvert
and into the estuary side of the dike. The opening and closing of the gates is driven by a difference in
water level on either side of the gate.

Self-closing flood barrier

The self-closing flood barrier (SCFB) is a flood defense system designed to protect people and
property from inland waterway floods caused by heavy rainfall, gales or rapid melting snow. The SCFB
 can be built to protect residential properties and whole communities, as well as industrial or other
strategic areas. The barrier system is constantly ready to deploy in a flood situation, it can be installed in
any length and uses the rising flood water to deploy. Barrier systems have already been built and
installed in Belgium, Italy, Ireland, the Netherlands, Thailand, United Kingdom, Vietnam, Australia, Russia
and the United States. Millions of documents at the National Archives building in Washington DC are
protected by two SCFBs

Temporary perimeter barriers

When permanent defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags, hydro sacks, Flood stop
flood barriers or portable inflatable tubes are used. In 1988, a method of using water to control was
discovered. This was accomplished by containing 2 parallel tubes within a third outer tube. When filled,
this structure formed a non-rolling wall of water that can control 80 percent of its height in external water
depth, with dry ground behind it. Eight foot tall water filled barriers were used to surround Fort Calhoun
Nuclear Generating Station during the 2011 Missouri River Flooding. Instead of trucking in sandbag
material for a flood, stacking it, then trucking it out to a hazmat disposal site, flood control can be
accomplished by using the on site water. However, these are not fool proof. A 8 feet (2.4 m) high 2,000
feet (610 m) long water filled rubber flood berm that surrounded portions of the plant was punctured by
a skid-steer loader and it collapsed flooding a portion of the facility.

REFERENCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_control
 UNIVERSITY OF PANGASINAN PHINMA
COLLEGE OG ENFINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

RESEARCH WORKS
IN
WATER RESOURCES

SUBMITTED BY: GENUEL C. MABANGLO 5BSCE

SUBMITTED TO: ENGR. RONZBELL LAWAN