Nuclear Engineering Handbook Etherington PDF

Nuclear engineering handbook.
Etherington, Harold
New York, McGraw-Hill, 1958.
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SECTIONS OF THE HANDBOOK
Section L Mathematical Data and General Tables

Section 2. Nuclear Data
Section 3. Mathematics
Section 4. Nuclear Physics
Section 6. Experimental Techniques
Section 6. Reactor Physics
Section 7. Radiation and Radiological Protection

Section 8. Control of Reactors
Section 9. Fluid and Heat Flow
Section 10. Reactor Materials
Section 11. Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
Section 12. Nuclear-power-plant Selection
Section 13. Mechanical Design and Operation of Reactors
Section 14. Isotopes
HOW TO USE THE HANDBOOK
The handbook is divided into fourteen major sections listed on the

opposite page.The first page of each section gives a table of contents of
the section.
Selection of Data and Formulas

Two methods are available for finding data and formulas the index
and the set of tables listed below. These guide tables indicate the con
tents of the most frequently used tables and, by showing contextual mate
rial, provide guidance that may be inherently difficult to give in an index.
Judicious use of both the index and the guide tables is recommended. .
The guide tables are followed, in Section 1-1, by articles summarizing
frequently used data and formulas, and giving references to pertinent
sections of the handbook.
Descriptive Matter
Specific information is best found from the index, but the tables of
contents at the beginning of each section provide a convenient guide to
information on a broad topic.
GUIDE TABLES FOR SELECTION OF FREQUENTLY

USED DATA
Table Page
Tables of Mathematical Functions 1 1-2
Mathematical Formulas 1-3
'2
Engineering Conversion Factors 3 1-3

General Atomic and Nuclear Data 4 1 -3
Nuclear Data used in Reactor Neutron Physics 5 1-4

Reactor Theory 6 1-5
Calculation of Radioactivity 7 1-5
Health Physics 8 1-6
Shielding 9 1-7
Physical Properties of Fluids 10 1-8 to I -U
Fluid Flow and Heat Flow 11 1-10
Thermal Stress 12 1-10
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials 13 1-10
Corrosion and Wear Resistance of Structural Materials. .14 1-10
Radiation Damage 15 1-11
Chemistry 16 l-U
NUCLEAR ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

McGRAW-HILL HANDBOOKS
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Labor Relations
NUCLEAR
ENGINEERING
HANDBOOK
HAROLD ETHERINGTON, Editor

Vice President
Nuclear Products-Erco, Division of ACF Industries
formerly Director, Naval and Reactor Engineering Divisions
Argonne National Laboratory
FIRST EDITION
New York Toronto London
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

1958
fclgin library
T/<

Copyright 1958 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in the United
States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be
reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 57-8000

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, TORE, *A.

CONTRIBUTORS
Paul C. Aebersold, M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Director for Isotopes, Office of Indus
trial Development, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. H-l. Isotopes and
Their Use.
Robert C. Allen, Director of Mechanical Engineering, Industries Group, Allis-
Chalmers Manufacturing Company. 12-3. Power Generating Equipment.
Alfred Amorosi, B.S.M.E., B.S.Ch., Technical Director, Atomic Power Develop
ment Associates, Inc. (on loan from Detroit Edison Company), formerly
Associate Director, Reactor Engineering Division, Argonne National
Laboratory. 12-1. Selection of Reactors.
George A. Anderson, B.M.E., Manager, Reactor Engineering, Nuclear Products
-Erco, Division of ACF Industries, Incorporated, formerly Project Engineer,

Argonne National Laboratory. 18-7. Reactor Construction.
Arthur H. Barnes, A.B., A.M., Ph.D. (deceased), formerly Director, Reactor
Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory. 13-3. Liquid-metal
Reactor Systems.
Franklin T. Binford, B.S., Senior Development Engineer, Reactor Operations
Department, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 14-3. Production of Radio
isotopes.
Everitt P. Blizard, B.A., M.A., Director, Applied Nuclear Physics Division, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory. 7-3. Nuclear Radiation Shielding.
Charles F. Bonilla, Ch.E., Ph.D., Professor of Chemical Engineering, Columbia
University. 9-2. Fluid Flow in Reactor Systems. 9-3. Heat Removal from
Nuclear Reactors.
Dwain B. Bowen, M.S., Group Leader, Solid State Physics, Atomics Interna
tional, North American Aviation, Inc. 10-1. The Metallic State.
R. B. Briggs, B.S.Ch.E., Director of Homogeneous Reactor Project, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. 13-2. Homogeneous Aqueous Reactor Systems.
Thomas J. Burnett, B.A., Health Physicist, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Safe Handling of Fuel (in Section 7-2).
Leslie Burns, Jr., B.S., M.S., Associate Chemical Engineer, Argonne National
Laboratory. 11. Chemistry and Chemical Engineering.
Vincent P. Calkins, B.S., M.S., Ph.D., Manager, Applied Materials Research,
Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Department, General Electric Company. 10-6.
Radiation Damage to Liquids and Organic Materials.
A. B. Carson, A.B., Manager, Process Design Operation, Irradiation Processing
Department, General Electric Compaay, Hanford Works. Pressurized-tube
Graphite-moderated Reactors (in Section 13-1).
vi CONTRIBUTORS
Glen Clewett, A.B., Group Leader, Sterling Forest Laboratory, Union Ca
Nuclear Co., formerly Director of Materials Chemistry Division, Oak R.
National Laboratory. 14-2. Isotope Separation by Chemical Exchange l.
Related Processes.
L. F. Coleman, B.S., Associate Chemical Engineer, Argonne National Laboratory.
Instrumentation (in Section 11).
Charles E. Crompton, Ph.D., Associate Technical Director, National Lead Com
pany of Ohio, formerly Deputy Director, Isotopes Division, U. S. Atomic
Energy Commission. 14-1. Isotopes and Their Use.
Robert Daane, B.S., M.S., Research Engineer, Beloit Iron Works, formerly
Senior Mechanical Engineer, Nuclear Development Corporation of America,
Associate Mechanical Engineer, Argonne National Laboratory. 9-4-
Thermal Stress and Distortion.
Frank B. Daniels, B.S., Assistant Manager, Research and Development, Nuclear
Products-Erco, Division of ACF Industries, Incorporated, formerly
Assistant to Director of Mechanical Engineering, Industries Group, Allis-
Chalmers Manufacturing Company. 12-3. Power Generating Equipment.
Russell W. Dayton, Ch.E., M.S., Ph.D., Assistant Technical Director, Battelle
Memorial Institute. 10-7. Recent Developments in Reactor Materials.
J. R. Dietrich, Ph.D., Vice President, General Nuclear Engineering Corporation,
formerly Associate Director, Reactor Engineering Division, Argonne National
Laboratory. 6-2. Reactor Calculations.

William B. Doe, B.S., Associate Chemical Engineer, Argonne National Laboratory.
7-4- Mechanical Handling of Radioactive Materials.
Elesa R. Etherington, B.Sc, Housewife. 1-2. Mathematical Tables.
Harold Etherington, Assoc. Roy. Sch. Mines, B.Sc,
Vice President, Nuclear
Products-Erco, Division of ACF Industries, Incorporated, formerly Direc
tor, Naval and Reactor Engineering Divisions, Argonne National Laboratory.
1-1. Selected Data and Formulas, 1-2. Mathematical Tables, IS. Units and
Conversion Tables.
Myron F. Fair, B.S., M.S., Health Physicist, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Beryllium Toxicity (in Section 7-2).
Kenneth R. Ferguson, A.B., M.S., Associate Physicist, Argonne National

Laboratory. 7-4. Mechanical Handling of Radioactive Materials.
George A. Garrett, Ph.D., Superintendent of Operations Analysis Division, Oak
Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant. 14-4- Gaseous Diffusion Separation Process.
Raymond C. Goertz, B.S., Director, Remote Control Engineering Division,
Argonne National Laboratory. 7-4- Mechanical Handling of Radioactive
Materials.
G. K. Green, Ph.D., Senior Physicist, Brookhaven National Laboratory. 6-4.
Accelerators.
Joseph M. Harrer, B.S.E.E., M.S.E.E., Associate Director, Reactor Engineering
Division, Argonne National Laboratory. 8-3. Control Instruments and
Drives.
John A. Harvey, B.Sc, Ph.D., Senior Physic ist, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
formerly Brookhaven National Laboratory. 6-2. Experimental Neutron
Physics.
CONTRIBUTORS Vll
Alston S. Householder, Ph.D., Head of Mathematics Panel, Oak Ridge National

Laboratory. 3-1. Algebra and Geometry, 3-3. Principles of High-speed
Computing Machinery.
John P. Howe, B.S., Ph.D., Chief, Research, Atomics International, North

American Aviation, Inc. 10-4- Radiation Damage to Solids.
Frank C. Hoyt, Ph.D., Manager, Nuclear and General Physics Division, Lock
heed Aircraft Corporation, Missile Systems Division, formerly Alternate
Division Leader, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. 4- Nuclear Physics.
John R. Huffman, Ph.D., Assistant Manager, Technical, Atomic Energy Division,
Phillips Petroleum Company. 5-5. Engineering Testing in Reactors.
Donald J. Hughes, Ph.D., Senior Physicist, Brookhaven National Laboratory.

5-2. Experimental Neutron Physics.
Herbert S. Isbin, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineer

ing, LTniversity of Minnesota. 13-5. Kinds of Reactors.
Wayne H. Jens, B.S., M.S., Ph.D., Assistant Technical Director, Atomic Power
Development Associates, formerly Senior Engineer, Nuclear Development
Corporation of America. 9-1. Physical Properties of Heat Transfer Mediums.
A A. Jonke, B.S., M.S., Associate Chemical Engineer, Argonne National Labora
tory. Precipitation (in Section 11).
C. P. Keim, A.B., M.Sc, Ph.D., Director, Technical Information Division,

formerly Director, Stable Isotopes Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
14-5. Electromagnetic Separation of Stable Isotopes.
Alf Kolfiat, Degree in Mechanical Engineering, Senior Partner, Sargent & Lundy,'
Engineers. 13-6. Reactor Building Design.
Herbert Kouts, Ph.D., Experimental Reactor Physics Group Leader, Brookhaven
National Laboratory. 5-3. Measurement of Reactor Constants.
Sidney Krasik, Ph.D., Westinghouse Electric Corporation. 8-1. Physics of
Control.
Stephen Lawroski, B.S., M.S., Ph.D., Director, Chemical Engineering Division,
Argonne National Laboratory. 11. Chemistry and Chemical Engineering.
M. Levenson, B.S., Associate Chemical Engineer, Argonne National Laboratory.

Auxiliary Operations (in Section 11).
Miles C. Leverett, B.S., M.S.E., Sc.D., Manager, Development Laboratories,
Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Department, General Electric Company.
13-4- Gas-cooled Reactor Systems.
L. K. Link, B.S., Associate Chemical Engineer, Argonne National Laboratory.
12-2. Economics of Nuclear Power.
C. Rogers McCullough, Ph.D., Chairman, Advisory Committee on Reactor Safe
guards, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Project Specialist, Monsanto
Chemical Company. 8-4- Reactor Safeguards.
Warren J. McGonnagle, A.B., M.S., Ph.D., Group Leader, Nondestructive
Testing, Argonne National Laboratory. 10-6. Nondestructive Testing.
F. L. McMillan, M.S., Assistant Superintendent, Operations Engineering Branch,
Atomic Energy Division, Phillips Petroleum Company. 5-5. Engineering
Testing in Reactors.
viii CONTRIBUTORS
John C. Moise, Ph.D., Assistant Principal Engineer, Liquid Rocket Plant,

Aerojet-General Corporation, formerly Assistant Project Engineer, Fox
Project, Pratt and Whitney Aircraft. 8-5. Reactor-system Dynamic
Simulation.
Karl Ziegler Morgan, A.B., M.A., Ph.D., Director of Health Physics Division,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 7-2. Health Physics.
Burton J. Mover, Ph.D., Professor of Physics, University of California Berkeley,

and Physicist, University of California Berkeley Radiation Laboratory.
5-1. Instruments for Measuring Radiation.
C. E. Normand, Ph.D., Stable Isotope Research and Production Division, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory. ljf.S. The Electromagnetic Separation of Stable
Isotopes.
David Okrent, M.E., A.M., Ph.D., Manager, Fast Reactor Safety Project,
Argonne National Laboratory. MuUigroup Calculations (in Section 6-2).
Walton A. Rodger, B.S.Ch.E., B.S.Met.E., M.S.Ch.E., Ph.D., Associate Director,
Chemical Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory. 11. Chem
istry and Chemical Engineering.
Arthur F. Rupp, B.S.Ch.E., Laboratory Services Superintendent, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. 14-3. Production of Radioisotopes.
H. A. Sailer, B.S., (deceased), formerly Assistant Technical Director, Battelle

Memorial Institute. 10-2. Properties of Reactor Materials.
Ward Conrad Sangren, A.B., M.A., Ph.D., Chief of Computing, General Atomic,
General Dynamics Corporation, formerly Chief of Computing and Mathe
matics, Curtis- Wright Research, Assistant Chief of Mathematics Panel, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory. 3-2 . Analysis, 3-3. Principles of High-speed
Computing Machinery.
M. A. Schultz, B.S.E.E., Project Manager, Westinghouse Testing Reactor,
Westinghouse Electric Company. 8-2. The Control System.
Otto Schulze, B.S., M.S., Manager, Nuclear Development, American Machine
and Foundry Company, formerly Associate Physicist, Argonne National
Laboratory. Matrix Solutions for Reflected Reactors and Evaluation of

Material Constants of t/ie Reactor (in Section 6-2).
W. B. Seefeldt, B.S., M.S., Associate Chemical Engineer, Argonne National
Laboratory. Corrosion (in Section 11).
Sidney Siegel, A.B., Ph.D., Technical Director, Atomics International, North
American Aviation, Inc. 10-4- Radiation Damage to Solids.
Harry Soodak, B.S., M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Physics, The City
College of New York. 2. Nuclear Data.
Roger Sutton, B.Ch.E., M.S., Metallurgist, International Nickel Company, Inc.,
formerly Senior Metallurgist, Argonne National Laboratory. 10-3. Struc
tural Materials in High-temperature Water Reactor Systems.
Samuel Untermyer II, B.S., Consulting Engineer on Reactor Technology,
Vallecitos Atomic Laboratory, Atomic Power Development Department
General Electric Company. 13-1. Water-cooled Reactor Systems. ,
R. C. Vogel, B.S., M.A., M.S., Ph.D., Associate Director, Chemical Engineering
Division, Argonne National Laboratory. Precipitation (in Section 11).
CONTRIBUTORS IX
John W. Weil, B.S., Ph.D., Manager, Power Reactor Physics, Atomic Power
Equipment Department, General Electric Company. 6-1. Reactor Theory.
John M. West, B.S., M.S., Vice President, General Nuclear Engineering Cor
poration, formerly Associate Director, Reactor Engineering Division,
Argonne National Laboratory. 7-1. Calculation of Radioactivity.
Walter H. Zinn, Ph.D., President, General Nuclear Engineering Corporation,

formerly Director, Argonne National Laboratory. 12-2. Economics of
Nuclear Power.
PREFACE
The "Nuclear Engineering Handbook" has been prepared to satisfy a

pressing need for an authoritative single-volume compilation of nuclear
information and data. More than 70 contributors, each a specialist in his
particular area of nuclear science or engineering, have contributed sections
to satisfy the needs of engineers, scientists, students, research workers,
and others interested in nuclear science and technology.
The handbook presents the basic data used in all phases of nuclear
engineering. Science and technology, and theory and practice are
thoroughly covered, with special emphasis on reactor engineering.
Reactor designers will be particularly interested in the sections on reactor
physics, radioactivity, shielding, fluid flow, and heat transfer. Formulas,
comprehensive tables, and methods of calculation make this material

especiallyuseful. Among the special features of the book are a series of
important contributions on the present state of reactor technology and
the economics of nuclear power.
The book has been planned for easy reference with an introductory
section which serves as a guide to the handbook. This section also con
tains a collection of the most frequently used data and formulas.
Dr. Charles E. Crompton, Dr. J.
R. Dietrich, Dr. Walter H. Zinn, and
other contributing authors have offered important advice concerning the
constitution of particular sections of the handbook. Dr. Norman
Hilberry and Mr. Neal F. Lansing have offered many valuable sug
gestions, and several officials of the United States Atomic Energy Com
mission have been most helpful in promptly reviewing handbook material
relative to classification. This assistance and the many long hours of
careful work of the contributing authors are gratefully acknowledged.
Harold Etherington
xi
CONTENTS
For the detailed contents of any section consult the first page of that section.
Contributors v
Preface xi
Section 1. Mathematical Data and General Tables 1-1

Section 1-1. Selected Data and Formulas and Guide to the
....
Handbook 1-2
Section 1-2. Mathematical Tables 1-75
Section 1-3. Units and Conversion Tables 1-134
Section 2. Nuclear Data 2-1
Section 3. Mathematics 3-1

Section 3-1. Algebra and Geometry 3-2
Section 3-2. Analysis 3-64
Section 3-3. Computers 3-142
Section 4. Nuclear Physics 4-1
Section 5. Experimental Techniques 5-1

Section 5-1. Instruments for Measuring Radiation
.... . . 5-2
Section 5-2. Experimental Neutron Physics 5-53
....
Section 5-3. Measurement of Reactor Constants . . . 5-101
Section 5-4. Accelerators 5-123
Section 5-5. Engineering Testing in Reactors 5-140
Section 6. Reactor Physics 6-1

Section 6-1. Reactor Theory 6-2
Section 6-2. Reactor Calculations 6-29
Section 7.
Section
Section
Radiation and Radiological
7-1.
7-2.
Protection
Calculation of Nuclear Radiation
Health Physics
.
.... .7-1
7-2
7-22
Section 7-3. Nuclear Radiation Shielding 7-60
Section 7-4. Mechanical Handling of Radioactive
Materials 7-117
xiii
xiv CONTENTS
Section 8. Control of Reactors 8-1
....
Section 8-1. Physics of Control 8-2
Section 8-2. The Control System 8-21
Section 8-3. Control Instruments and Drives 8-49
Section 8-4. Reactor Safeguards 8-76
Section 8-5. Reactor System Dynamic Simulation . . 8-89
Section 9. Fluid and Heat Flow 9-1
....
Section 9-1. Physical Properties of Heat Transfer
Mediums 9-2
....
Section 9-2. Fluid Flow in Reactor Systems 9-24
Section 9-3. Heat Removal from Nuclear Reactors . . 9-50
Section 9-4. Thermal Stress and Distortion 9-110
Section 10. Reactor Materials 10-1

Section 10-1. The Metallic State 10-2
Section 10-2. Properties of Reactor Materials . . . . 10-17
....
Section 10-3. Structural Materials in High-temperature
Water Reactor Systems 10-73
Section 10-4. Radiation Damage to Solids 10-83

Section 10-5. Radiation Damage to Liquids and Organic
Materials 10-126
Section 10-6. Nondestructive Testing 10-149
Section 10-7. Recent Developments in Reactor Materials 10-168
Section 11. Chemistry and Chemical Engineering . 11-1
Section 12. Nuclear -power -plant Selection 12-1

Section 12-1.
Section 12-2.
Selection of Reactors
Economics of Nuclear Power ....
....
12-2
12-78
Section 12-3. Power Generating Equipment 12-114
Section 13. Mechanical Design and Operation of Reactors

.... 13-1
....
Section 13-1. Water-cooled Reactor Systems 13-3
....
Section 13-2. Aqueous Homogeneous Reactor Systems . 13-49
Section 13-3. Liquid-metal Reactor Systems 13-80
Section 13-4. Gas-cooled Reactor Systems 13-105
Section 13-5. Kinds of Reactors . 13-123
Section 13-6. Reactor Building Design 13-160
Section 13-7. Reactor Construction 13-177
Section 14. Isotopes 14-1

Section 14-1. Isotopes and Their Use 14-2
Section 14-2. Isotope Separation by Chemical Exchange
and Related Processes 14-15
Index
follows
Isotopes
Section 14-4.
Section 14-3.
Section 14-5.
Section
14.
Gaseous-diffusion
The Electromagnetic
CONTENTS
Production of Radioisotopes
Separation Process
Separation of Stable
14-44
14-38
14-26
XV

SECTION 1
MATHEMATICAL DATA AND GENERAL TABLES

BY
HAROLD ETHERINGTON, ASSOC. ROY. SCH. MINES, B.Sc, Vice President,

Nuclear Products-Erco, Division of ACF Industries, Inc., formerly Director,'
Naval and Reactor Engineering Divisions, Argonne National laboratory.
ELESA R. ETHERINGTON, B.Sc, Housewife.
CONTENTS
1-1 SELECTED DATA AND PAOF.
FORMULAS AND GUIDE 17 Solution of Equations 1-63

TO THE HANDBOOK 18 Atomic Energy Commission Literature. 1-71
References 1-74
BY HAROLD ETHERINGTON
PAGE 1-2 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
1 Guide to Handbook Tabulated Data. . 1-2
2 Unite and Constanta 1-12 BY HAROLD ETHERINGTON AND
3 The Elementa and Nuclides 1-13 ELESA R. ETHERINGTON
4 Nuclear Data Used in Reactor
Calculations 1 Tables of Functions 1-75
1-19
5 Constants and Formulas Relating 2 Bibliography of English-language
Power, Flux, and Fuel Consumption.. 1-28 Tables 1-127
6 Numerical Integration by Simpson's
Rule 1-28 1-3 UNITS AND CONVERSION
7 Reactor Calculations 1-29 FACTORS
8 Calculation of Nuclear Radiation 1-30
9 Health Physics 1-42 BY HAROLD ETHERINGTON
10 Nuclear Radiation Shielding 1-43

11 Physics of Reactor Control 1-45 1 Dimension and Unit Systems 1-134
12 Fluid Properties 1-48 2 Fundamental Standards and Exact
13 Fluid Flow 1-50 Equivalents 1-139
14 Heat Transfer 1-53 3 Conversion Factors 1-142
15 Thermal Stress and Distortion 1-61 4 Atomic Units, Constants, and Conver
16 Radiation Damage to Liquids and sion Factors 1153
Organic Materials 1-62 References 1156
1-1
1-1 SELECTED DATA AND FORMULAS AND GUIDE TO THE
HANDBOOK
BY
Harold Etherington
The tables of Art. 1 provide a systematic guide to the more important tabulated
and graphic data of the handbook. Subsequent articles contain collections of fre
quently used data and formulas largely selected from other sections of the handbook,
together with references to pertinent sections.
1 GUIDE TO HANDBOOK TABULATED DATA

Tables 1 to
facilitate selection and location of important data. These tables
18
are arranged by subject, in approximately the same sequence as they occur in the
handbook, but with no correspondence between table numbers and handbook section
numbers. The sequence is as follows:
Table 1. Tables of Mathematical Functions
Table 2. Mathematical Formulas
Table 3. Engineering Conversion Factors
Table 4. General Atomic and Nuclear Data
Table 5. Nuclear Data Used in Reactor Neutron Physics

Table 6. Reactor Theory
Table 7. Calculation of Radioactivity
Table 8. Health Physics
Table 9. Shielding
Table 10. Physical Properties of Fluids
Table 11. Fluid Flow and Heat Flow
Table 12. Thermal Stress
Table 13. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials
Table 14. Corrosion and Wear Resistance of Structural Materials
Table 15. Radiation Damage
Table 16. Chemistry
Table 17. Particulars of Reactors
Table 18. The Greek Alphabet

Table 1. Tables of Mathematical Functions*
Handbook Handbook
Function section Table Function section Table
and page and page
Transcendental constants 1-75 1 Bessel functions:

Logarithms: 1-94 to 99 9
1-76 to 77 2 Yo(x) and YUz) 1-100 to 105 10
Natural logarithms 1-78 to 79 3 h(x) and /.(*) 1-106 to 109 II
Ko(x) and Ki(x) 1-110 to 113 12
Cosines and sines 1-80 to 83 4 Auxiliary functions 1-114 to 116 13
Tangents 1-84 to 85 5 Other functions:
Exponential and hyperbolic l'(x) and x! 1-117 to 118 14
functions: 1-119 to 122 15
1-86 to 89 6 polynomials
Legendre 1-123 16
Hyperbolic cosines and sine* 1-90 to 92 7 Error integral 1 124 to 126 17
Hyperbolic tangenta 1-93 8 Factorials and reciproculs. 1 126 19
Bibliography of tables 1-127 to 133 Art. 2
* For mathematical formulas see Table 2.
1-2
SEC. 1-1] SELECTED DATA AND FORMULAS AND GUIDE 1-3
Table 2. Mathematical Formulas
Handbook
Subject section Table
and page
Polynomial products 3-5 Art. 1.13

3-18 Art. 2.2
Derivatives (list) 3-69 3
Integrals (list) 3-69 to 74 4
3-65 I
3-68 2
3-99 to 100 i
3-128 6
3-130 7
1-75
Table 3. Engineering Conversion Factors
Handbook Handbook |
Property section Table Property section
and page and page
Fundamental and mechanical: Thermodynamic :

Length I-M3 4 Energy, work, heat 1-147
Area 1-143 S Energy units of atomic
Volume 1-144 6 physics -I5S
Mass 1-145 7 Power -146

Time 1-145 a Internal heat generation
Force 1-145 and power density -151
Angular 1-145 10 Temperature -150
Velocity. I- 146 II Specific heat -151
Flotr. . 1-146 12 Heat capacity -151
Density. 1-146 13 Thermal conductivity. . . . 1-151
Pressure. 1-147 14 Heat flux and conductance -151
Viscosity 1-149 17 Electrical 1-152
Miscellaneous:
Concentration -152
Corrosion -152
Summary table -12
Table 4. General Atomic and Nuclear Data*

Handbook |
Subjeot section
and page
Basic constants:
Physical constants 1-154
Mass-energy equivalents 1-155
Rest mass of particles 1-155
Wavelength and energy 1-156
Summary table 1-13
Atomic weights and atomic numbers of the elements:

Alphabetical list 1-14
Periodic table 11-4
Collected properties of the elements and nuclides:

Isotopic abundance and nuclear properties of elements and nuclides
(from BNL 325) 2-15 to 23
Nuclide chart 1-15 to I9|
Fission energy equivalents 1-26
* For specific nuclear data, see Table 5.

1-4 GENERAL DATA [SEC. 1
Table 6. Nuclear Data Used in Reactor Neutron Physics*
Handbook
Subject scotion Table
and page
Element! and nuclides in general :

Isotopic abundance, atomic and isotopic oross sections (from BNL 325) . . . 2-15to23 19
-
Thermal-neutron properties:
A, p, N, 1 ?-,. {, ya(2,200), -.(<) for the element* 2-13 to M 18
A, p, JV, t no, a ,, 7a, <r#,- ., Z, Xtr, Xtr, for important element** 1-24 to 25 27
Activation, cross sections, and decay data 7-8 I
Resonance absorption integrals 2-25 to 26 20
Fast-neutron properties:
A, p, N, I Po, a,, , 2#, 2,, Sir, \ir, for important elements 1-24 to 25 27
a,, epithermal 2- 13 to 14 18
*-o(n, 7) at 30 kev 2-28 24
Mn, y) at 1 Mev 2-29 25
a for threshold reactions by fission-spectrum neutrons 2-30 26
o-ir at 1 Mev and in Godiva 2-30, 31 27. 28
at inelastic, for fission neutrons 2-33 33
<rtransfer, inelastic, for fast neutrons 2-35 34
Fuels and fertile materials :
Energy data:
(2-2
Fission energy and energy distribution. Mev /fission
14-85 Art. 4.31
Fission energy equivalents 1-26 29
Neutron energy spectrum:
Prompt neutrons 7-91 15
Delayed neutrons 2-3 2
U" 8-3 I
Natural-uranium equilibrium spectrum 2-32 31
Fast reactors 2-31 30
Delayed-neutron data:
Fast fission of V"', U">, U'", Pu>, Pu, Th":
riit, ffi/ff, 0,., 0* 8-3 2

f. 8-5 4
Thermal fission of U", U">, Pu:
ryu, Pi/0, gi,, 0, 8-4 3
H 8-5 4
Thermal fission of U":
Tlfc, Ti, Xi, ffi/fi, Pi, 0,r, 1-46 39
Photoneutrons (DjO reactor) 2-3 3
Thermal-neutron properties:
o-o, /, <r,, r, , " for Th", U (natural). U"J, U"', U"!. Pu' 2-5 6
*., :, i) for U">, Um, Pu (Westcott values) 1-21 25
tj, y, a for U18B, U"1, Pu11*, natural uranium 1-26 28
L and X/r for Th, ThO, U, UK). 6-86 13
Resonance-neutron properties:
Absorption integrals and parameters for Ula8 and Th1*1 2-26 21
6-82 9
Resonance constants A and p for uranium, compounds, and mixtures.
2-27 23
Resonance constants A. pi A, and Xo for Th13s and uranium 2-27 22
xi for II and UbOs 6-83 10
Intermediate- and fast-neutron properties:

2-6 7
<TtEVl for U"
a(E) for U"> and Pu" 2-6 8
v(E) for U"!. V". Pu" 2-7 9
Fast a/ and o> for fuels 2-6 to 8 7-11
at of nonthermally fissionable nuclei 2-8 12(11)
Spontaneous fission of nuclides 2-5 5
Fast-fission effect 6-85 12. Art. 9.5
Moderators:
P, N, 2., {2., Dn, L,r 2-9 13
P. N, 2.n, 2..,*, Xi,,ik, D,k, Lih, {, 2../, 2,./, \i,,l, D/, t 1-20 24
L, Xlr 6-86 13
r for moderators and mixtures 6-88 14
Time and number of collisions to thermalize 2-10 14
Resonance constants {a and ttt/p 6-83 II
Photoneutrons (DtO reactor) 2-3 3
P for HjO as a function of temperature i 9-10 20
! 1-49 41
p for DiO as a function of temperature 9-16 28
Fission products :
ia(E) for Xe>" 2-11 15
Yield and aa of Xelu, Sin1*', and long-lived fission product*. i 2-11 16
I 1-23 26
aa{E) for fission product* 2-11 17
Distribution and decay see Table 7
* For data of a more general character, see Table 4. For radioactivity data, Bee Table 7.
Table 6. Reactor Theory
Handbook
and page
Kernels:
Diffusion in infinite media 6-39 1
Gaussian slowing down in infinite media 6-46 3
Transforms 6-56 4
Solutions of steady-state diffusion equations:
One-dimensional media with localized sources 6-40 2
Wave equation for homogeneous bare reactors 6-58 5
Equations for reflected reactors 6-60 Art. 7
Matrix solutions for reflected reactors 6-70 Art. 8
Lumped gray absorbers 6- 106 17
Lumped black absorbers 6-107 18
Disadvantage-factor constants E and F 6-78 8
Control-rod equivalent radii and absorption areas for noncircular rods 6-17 to 19 5-8
Power, flux, and fuel consumption:
Flux-power relation 1-27 30
Fuel consumption, g/Mwd 1-27 31
Table 7. Calculation of Radioactivity
Handbook
and page
Units of radiation dose 1-42 36

Radioactivity of the heavy nuclides:
4n, 4n + lf An + 2, An + 3 deoay chains. ... 4-35 to 38 Figs. 10-13
U isotopes 11-34 8
Pu isotopes 11-38 II
Tfe isotopes 11-41 14
Neutron activation and decay data:
Cross sections, half-lives, decay 7-ray energy 7-8 I
General nuclear data (see Table 5)
Reactor coolants 34
Irradiation and decay formulas:
Irradiation and decay 1-38 32
Activity of reactor coolants 1-41 35
Fission : prompt 7-ray distribution 7-72 8
Fission-product decay:*
Activity 11-25 Fig. 3
Energy groups 7-73 Fig. 4

1-39 33
Heat rate 11-26 Fig. A
* For decay data by specific nuclides, see Table 16.

Table 8. Health Physics
Handbook
and page
Ionization, stopping power, etc., in tissue:

Specific ionization and range as a function of energy 7-34 3
Stopping power as a function of energy 7-36 Fig. 4
Relative biological effectiveness, RBE:
General values for particles 7-32 2
Heavy-ionizing particles as a function of specific ionization 7-27
Effect of radiation 7-28 Fig. 1
Dose and dose rate:
Maximum permissible, various parts of body 7-30. 31 Figs. 2,3
Natural background 7-35 5
Clinical X-ray exposures 7-37 6
Flux for maximum permissible exposure:
Various particles 7-32 2
17-3S 4
Neutrons of various energy
I 7-84 13
Summary table 1-43 37
Photon flux for 1 rad/hr. 7-66 3
Absorbed and biological dose from neutron beams 7-31 to 44 Figs. 5-13
Maximum permissible concentrations in air and water:
General 7-44 7
Specific
radioisotopes 11-141 39
Maximum permissible concentrations in the body 11-141 39
Table 9. Shielding
Handbook
Subject section
and page
Gummashielding:
Absorption coefficients:
Total mass attenuation coefficients for elements, air, Nal, HtO, concrete
tissue 7-62 1
Total mass and linear attenuation coefficients for metallic shield materials . 7-112 21
Energy-absorption mass attenuation coefficients for elements, air, Nal.
HiO, concrete, tissue 7-63 2
Dose build-up factors:
Point source 7-67 4
Plane source 7-68 5
Constants for analytic functions 7-100 19
Energy absorption build-up factors:
Point source 7-69 7
Gamma sources and energy distribution:
Fission prompt y rays 7-72 8
Fission- product- decay 7-ray energy groups 7-73 Fig. 4
Capture 7 rays 7-74 9
Fission-product 7-ray yield, half-life, and energy 7-16 2
Attenuation (illustrative and specific cases);
Lead for Co*0 and Cs117sources 7-68 6
Relaxation lengths 2-35 36
Tenth-thicknesses for l-Mev 7 rays 11-136 37
Neutronshielding:
Dominant energy in hydrogenous shield 7-80 II
Removal cross sections for fission neutrons 7-82 12

Microscopic removal cross sections for hydrogenous materials 7-1 II 20
Neutron sources and energy distribution:
lTm fission 7-91 15
Delayed neutrons 7-92 16
Alpha neutron sources 7-92 17
Photoneutron sources 7-92 18
Attenuation (illustrative and specific data):
t Fist neutrons by water 7-85 14
Relaxation lengths for fast neutrons 2-35 36
Boron, lithium, and nitrogen reaction data 7-77 10
Shieldmaterials (including attenuation properties):
Compositions and properties of concretes
Aggregates 7-113 23
Grouts 7-113 24
Ordinary concrete 7-112 22
Barytes 7-112 22
High-density 7-114 25
Physical properties 7-115 26

Cost 7-115 27
Properties of transparent shield materials 7-122 1
1-8 GENERAL DATA [Sec. 1
Table 10. Physical Properties of Fluids
Handbook
Fluid Properties'^ Parameters section Table
and page
Coolants (general). 12-58 to 59 29

Gases:
Air Molliere chart Usual 12-129 Fig. 14
Cp, ii, k, Pr Temperature 9-2 I
f Temperature 9-25 Eq. (3)
Enthalpy Temperature 9-2 2
Cp Pressure 9-3 3
Argon . Cp, ii, k, Pr Temperature 9-3 4

c Temp., press. 9-3 5
f Temperature 9-25 Eq. (4)
k Pressure 9-4 6
Carbon dioxide. Cp, n, k, Pr Temperature 9-4 7

Temp., press. 9-4 8
Temperature 9-25 Eq. (5)
Helium. c M, *, Pr Temperature 9-5 9

Hydrogen. c ii, k, Pr Temperature 9-5 10

Temp., press. 9-6 II
Nitrogen. cp, ii, k, Pr Pressure 9-6 12

f Temp., press. 9-7 13

Pressure 9-3 6
Oxygen. Temperature 9-25 Eq. (6)
Steam and water:

Steam and water. Molliere chart Usual 12-124, 125 Fig. 4
Saturated-Bteam tables Usual 12-119 to I
120
Steam. Superheated-steam tables Usual 12-121 to

122
Temp., press. 9-7 14
Cp Temp., press. 9-9 17

Pr Temp., press. 9-9 18
Light water. Critical properties 9-9 19

r Temp., press. 9-10 20
Cp Temp., press. 9-11 21
k Temp., press. 9-12 22
f Temp., press. 9-13 25
p(0-IOOC) Temperature 1-49 41
Pr Temp., press. 9-14 24
Heavy-water vapor. Temperature 9-25 Eq. (9)
Heavy water Critical properties (temp.,

press., density) 9-15 25
Vapor pressure Temperature 9-15 26
Latent heat of vaporisa
tion Temperature 27
e(IO-250C) Temperature 28
x Temperature 29
e, Temperature 30
Temperature 31
Table 10. Physical Properties of Fluids. (Continued)
Handbook
Fluid Properties*t Parameters section Table
and page
Moltenmetals:}
General table 13-81 1
Vap. press., p. Cp, it, k Temperature 9-18 33
Vap. press., p, cp, it, k Temperature 9-18 34
Lead Vap. press., p, Cp, it, k Temperature 9-19 35
Lead-bismuth eutectic P. Cp, it, k Temperature 9-19 36
Vap. press., p, c n, k Temperature 9-19 37
Magnesium Vap. press., p, Cp Temperature 9-20 38
Mercury Vap. press., p. eP, it, k Temperature 9-20 39
Potassium Vap. press., p. Cp, it, k Temperature 9-20 40
Vap. press., p. cP, it, k Temperature 9-21 41
Sodium-potassium alloys Vap. press., p. cp, it, k Temperature 9-21 42, 43
Tin Vap. press., p, c, a, * Temperature 9-22 44
Miscellaneous:
Molten sodium hydroxide. . P. e,, a, * Temperature 9-17 32
Diphenyl. liquid} Vap. press., p. cp, a Temperature 9-22 45
P Temperature 9-22 45
9-26, 27 Eqs. (11-13)
See index
Comparison of reactor cool Physical snd nuclear prop
ants erties 12-58. 59 29
* s>= density, cp =specific heat at constant pressure, k thermal conductivity, n ** absolute

viscosity, Pr Prandtl number, v = specific volume.
t Volumetric coefficient of expansion. For any fluid, 0 ~ = . For gases 0 = \/T,

v M pM
where T is the absolute temperature.
t Tables for molten metals and diphenyl give other thermal data including melting and boiling
points and latent heats.
Table 11. Fluid Flow and Heat Flow
Handbook
and page
Dimensionless ratios 9-32 3

Fluid friction and pressure drop:
Streamline flow:
Long channels 9-30 1. Eq. (20)
Redistribution loss - 9-30 2

Orifices 9-37. 30 4 (with Table 1)
Equivalent diameter of noncirculur duct . 1-51 42
Turbulent flow:
Long channels 9-30. 33 1. Eq. (28)
Fanning factor 9-33 FiK. 2
Pipe lit rum- 9-37 4
Change of cross section 1-52 44
Orifices and nozilcs in pipes 1-52 45
Equivalent diameters of noncircular ducts 1-51 43
Liquid-gas mixtures 9-42 5
Heat flow:
Thermal conduction:
Plates, cylinders, and spheres 1-54 to 59 46-50
Packed beds with stagnant fluid 9-54 2
Forced convection in uniform channels:
Turbulent flow:
Nonmetallic fluids 9-59 3
Metallic fluids 9-59 4
Laminar flow 9-61. 62 5-7
Forced convection outside of channels 9-63 8
Natural convection 9-64 9, Fig. 3
Combined natural and forced convection. 9-65 10
Condensation 9-65 Art. 4
Boiling 9-66 Art. 5
Hot-channel factors 9-87 12
Table 12. Thermal Stress
Handbook
and page
1 1-61, 62 51
\ 9-1 10 Art. 1
Stress Constanta of materials 9-113
Table 13. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials* f
Handbook
Material and property section Table
and page
The elements:
Physical properties 11-5 to 7 2
Electron configuration. . . 10-3 1
Atomic radii 10-7 Fig. 3
Fuels and fertile materials:
Uranium
'
10-17 to 27 Art. 1.2
Physical properties. 10-22 n
11-35 9
Coefficient of expansion. . . 10-23 3
Mechanical properties. . . . 10-24 to 28 5-13
Uranium oxide 10-22, 24 2. 4t
Uranium alloys (Al and Zr) . 10-29 to 32 14-20*. Art. 1.28

Thorium 10-32 to 37 Art. 1.3
: 10-22 21
Physical properties . .
1 11-41 15
Mechanical properties. 10-33 to 35 21-26
Thorium alloys 10-36. 37 27. Art. 1.38
' 10-22. 37 2. 28t
Plutonium.
,11-38 12
Solid moderators:
General table 12-70 33
Beryllium 10-39, 51. 52 29. 4I-43J, Art. 2.4
Graphite 10-55 to 58 Art. 3.2
Chemical composition 10-55 46
Physical properties 10-56 47*
Mechanical properties 10-57 to 59 48-50
Structural materials:
Aluminum 10-47 to 51 Art. 2.3
Physical properties 10-39 29J

Alloys 10-47 to 51 34-40
Stainless steels and high-tem|>erature alloys. 10-60 to 66 52-59. Art. 4.2
Zirconium and alloys 10-39 to 43 29-33J, Art. 2.2
Control materials 10-70 to 71 64-66
* For resistance to chemical attack see Table 14. For radiation damage see Table 15.
t Sec also Sec. 10-7.
X See also Table I of Sec. 10-2 (p. 10-18).
Table 14. Corrosion and Wear Resistance of Structural Materials
Handbook
Medium section Table
and page
10-20. 21 Figs. 1. 2
10-75 to 82 1-8
f 10-59 51
Various media on graphite
I 12-74 34
See also specific material in Sec. 10-2
Table 15. Radiation Damage
Handbook
Material section Table
and page
Graphite 10-110 to 116 17. 18. Figs. 8-17

Graphite-uranium oxide 10-122 24. 25
Bervllium oxide 10-116 19
10-118 to 122 21. 22. 24. 25. Figs. 20. 21
10-106 to 108 14. 15
10-124 Art. 5.7
Water and aqueous solutions 10-133 1
10-136 2
Elastomers 10-140 3
Plastics 10-142 4
10-144 5
Table 16. Chemistry
Handbook
and page
Periodic chart of the elements 11-4 I

Physical properties of the elements 11-5 to 7 2
Fission-product nuclides:
Half-life and energy of fission nuclides 7-16 2
Yield and decay characteristics 11- 12 to 24 4
Composition of fission products as a function of cooling time
11-28 to 31 5
Fission-product activity 11-25 Fig. 3
Fission-product heat:
11-26 Fig. 4
Gross 1-39 33
By nuclides 11-32 6. 7
Table 17. Particulars of Reactors
Handbook
and page
13-124 to Ml 1-7
10-84 to 91 1-7
Table 18. The Greek Alphabet
Name Capital Lower case Name Capital Lower case
Alpha A a, a Nu N
Beta B ft s Xi {
Gamma r 7 Omicron 0
Delta A o, d Pi n
Epsilon E Rho P
Zta Z f 2
Eta H 1 Tau T T
Theta , e 0, <> Upsilon T
Iota i 1 Phi *
K Chi X
X JC,
Kappa X
Lambda A Psi *
*
Mu M Omega
2 UNITS AND CONSTANTS

2.1 Mathematical Constants
Table 19 gives some important mathematical constants. These and other con
stants are given to greater accuracy in Table 1 of Sec. 1-2.
Table 19. Mathematical Constants
3. 14159 9.8696 0.31331 1.1284 2.71828
/ .1/ log e I 111 Id 10 In 2 First zero of Jt(x)

0.36788 0.43429 2.3026 0.69314 2.4048
* Factor used in correcting for Maxwell distribution.
2.2 Engineering Units and Conversion Factors

Table 20 gives conversion factors for engineering units. The column "More
exact value" includes definitions (marked with asterisks) and equivalents calculated
from definitions.
Table 20. Conversion Factors for Engineering Units
Reference to Sec. 1-3
Usual Other units
Unit engineering More exact value and
approximation Definition
conversion
factors
Table 4
1 cm 0.3937 in. 0. 393 7*t Art. 2.11

1 in 2.54 cm 2 540005 Art. 2.11
Table 5
0. 001076 ft< 0.001076387
1 in." 6.45 'in' 6.451626
1 ft' 929 cm1 929.0275
Table 6
3.53 X l0-ft 3.531445 X 10>
1 ft' 2.83 X 10' cm' 28.317.02
11 1.000 fin 1.000.028 Table 6
231 in.' 231* Table 6
Table 7
1 kg 2.205 1b 2.204622 Art. 2.12
1 lb 453. 6 g 453.5924277*t Art. 2.12
Time Table 8
1 day 86,400 aec. 86.400* (mean solar day) Art. 2.13
1 year 3. 16 X 10' sec 3. 155695 X 10' Art. 2.13
Table 9
Standard gravity, go 32. 2 ft/seo> 32. 1740 Art. 2.14

Standard gravity, yo 981 cm/sec 980.665* Art. 2.14
Table 13
62. 4 lb /ft' 62.42833
1 lb/ft> 0.0160 g/cm' 0.01601837
Table 14
1 atmosphere 14.7 psi 1.013.250* dynes /om Table 14
Table 18
tr Hie +
- 32
tc
Absolute zero - 273C 32)
H(tr
-273.16*
Absolute zero - 460F -459.69
Art. 2.21
Art. 2.21
Table 15
1 joule = 1 watt-sec 10' ergs 10'* Art. 2.3
1 I.T. cal 4. 187 joules 4. 18684 Art. 2.23
1 I.T. oal 0.00397 Btu 0.00396832 Art. 2.23
1 Btu 252 cal 251.996 Art. 2.23
1.60 X 10" joule 1.60206 X 10-" Art. 4.32 Table 28
Table 16
1 kw 34l2Btu/hr 3412. 10 Art. 2.3
Heat flux and power density
13.270 Btu/(hr)(ft) 13.272. 1 Table 22
3.170 Btu/(hr) (ft") 3.170.20 Table 22
1 watt/cm' a lkw/1 96,600 Btu/(hr)(ft) 96.620.4 Table 23
* Exact value by definition.
f United States definition. Other measures involving this unit are based on this definition.
2,3 Physical Constants and Conversion Factors
For more exact values and additional data, see Art. 4 of Sec. 1-3.
2.31 Physical Constants. Table 21 gives the physical constants most used in
nuclear engineering (see Art. 4.2 of Sec. 1-3).
2.32 Mass and Energy and Wavelength

1 amu = 1.660 X 10_M g = 931 Mev
Mass of electron = 0.00055 g = 0.51 Mev
For masses of particles, energy equivalents, and wavelengths, see Art. 4.32 of Sec. 1-3.
Table 21. Physical Constants
Usual engineering Reference to

Constant approximation Best value
Sec. 1-3
Avogadro's number N, 0.602 X 10" (g-mole)-' 0.602322 X 10" Table 27

chemical scale
De Hroglie wavelength of 2.86 X 10-/M cm 2 86005 X 10 >/c7W Table 30

neutron ( in ev)
Bultf manna constant * 8.62 X 10 ev/C 8.6167 X 10- Table 27

4.79 X 10 *ev/F 4.7871 X 10' Table 27
Electronic charge e 1.60 X 10" coulomb 1.60206 X 10 -' Table 27

4.80 X I0'esu 4.80286 X 10-" Table 27
Energy of 2.200-m/sec 0.0253ev 0.0252973 Table 30

neutron
kT temperature for 2.200- 20C (69F) 20.426C(68.767F) Table 30

ni/sec neutrons
Molar volume of ideal gas at 22.4 X lO'cm'-atm. /g-mole 22.4146 X 10" Table 27
1 atm.. chemical scale 359 ft'-atm./lb-mol 358.746 Table 27
Physical scale /chemical 1.000 1.000272 Table 27 (footnote)

scale and Art. 4.31
Velocity of light c 3.00 X 10" cm /sec 2.997930 X 10" Table 27

3 THE ELEMENTS AND NUCLIDES

3.1 Atomic Weights and Atomic Numbers
Table 22 gives atomic weights and atomic numbers of the elements. Tables 1
and 2 of Sec. 11 give, respectively, the periodic chart and important physical properties
of the elements.
Table 22. Atomic Weights and Atomic Numbers of the Elements
Atomic Atomic Atomic

Element Symbol Element Symbol
number
number weight*
Actinium Ac 89 227 Mercury Hg 80

Aluminum. . . . Al 13 26. 89 Molybdenum. . Mo 42
Americium. . . Am 95 (243) Neodymium. . . Nd 60
Antimony SI, SI 121.76 Neon Ne 10
Argon A 18 39.944 Neptunium. . . . Np 93
Arsenic Aa 33 74.91 Nickel Ni 28
Astatine At B5 (210) Niobium Nb 41
Barium Ba 36 137.36 Nitrogen N 7
Berkelium Hit 97 (249) Nobelium No 102
Beryllium Be 4 9.013 Osmium Oe 76
Bismuth Bi 83 209 00 Oxygen o 8
Boron B 3 10. 82 Palladium Pd 46
Bromine Br 33 79.916 Phosphorus. ... P 15
Cadmium Cd 48 I 12 41 Platinum. ..... Pt 78
Calcium C 20 40.08 Plutonium .... Pu 94
Californium . . . Ci 98 (249) Polonium Po 84
Carbon C 6 12 01 1 Potassium K 19
Cerium Ce 58 140. 13 Praseodymium . Pr 59
Cesium Cs 55 132.91 Promethium. . . Pm 61
Chlorine CI 17 35.457 Protactinium. . Pa 91
Chromium Cr 24 52.01 Radium Ra 88
Cobalt Co 27 58.94 Radon Rn 86
Copper Cu 29 63.54 Rhenium Re 75
Curium Cm 98 (245) Rhodium Rh 45
Dysprosium . . Dy 66 162. 51 Rubidium Rb 37
Einsteinium . . Es 99 (254) Ruthenium. . . . Ru 44

Erbium F.r 68 167 27 Samarium Sin 62
Europium. . . Eu 63 152 0 Scandium Sc 21
Fermium Fin 100 (252) Selenium Be 34
Fluorine F 9 19.00 Silicon Si 14
Francium Fr 87 (223) Silver Ag 47
Gadolinium . . Gd 64 157.26 Sodium Sa 11
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Strontium Sr 38
Germanium . . Qe 32 72.60 Sulfur S 16
Gold Au 79 197.0 Tantalum Ta 73
Hafnium lit 72 178. 50 Technetium .. . Tc 43
Helium He 2 4.003 Tellurium Te 52
Holmium .... Ho 67 164.94 Terbium Tb 65
Hydrogen. . . . II I 1.0080 Thallium Tl BI
Indium In 49 114.82 Thorium Th 90
Iodine I 53 126. 91 Thulium Tm 69
Iridium lr 77 192.2 Tin Sn 50
Iron Fe 26 55.85 Titanium Ti 2
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Tungsten W 7

Lanthanum. . . La 57 138.92 Uranium u 9:
Lead Pb 82 207. 21 Vanadium. ... V 2:
Lithium l.i 3 6.940 Xenon Xc 5
Lutetium Lu 71 174 99 Ytterbium Yb 70
Magnesium. . . Ms 12 24 32 Yttrium y 39
Manganese. .. Mn 25 54. 94 Zinc Zu 30
Mendelevium, Mil 101 (256) Zirconium 40
A value given in parentheses denotes the mass number of the isotope of longest known half-life
3.2 The Nuclide Chart
Tables giving important properties of the nuclides are listed in Tables 4 and 5
of this section. Table 23 is a chart giving selected properties of the naturally occurring
nuclides and their neutron-activation products.
3.21 Use of Table 23. This chart gives the atomic number, atomic weight, and
neutron absorption cross sections of the elements; the isotopic abundance and neutron
absorption cross section of the naturally occurring isotopes; and the half-life and
modes of decay of naturally radioactive and neutron-activated product nuclides.
Table 23. A Chart of Nuclide Properties
mscngi &Kr rvFtwdmtew Co"tu"gtphoWiCtm
oftlemynH
(ToMe
22).
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IT
m
99965 0015 1226,
H
35 O0O57 r
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4003 OOO'S
He
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0
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*
* T 900 # .033
*Oi3 U4XC*hIrOO SHOT
.B. Be
*oo
c PLC
3 eh*
" *nr
I
!20n 5600
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.'-

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MOOf "99.53|037
,N
* 1.9 # us 000021
99T59 0037 204
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rO0O2 I*- .5 .00022.

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* 55
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Table 23. A Chart of Nuclide Properties. (Continued)

G
*s
3
S
33.4
rC!
35

35.94
..A
5
39,
)
K
r ?.
40Ot
*0Co
.4
4<W
Sc
2
47.K
TI
ex
SCLK
oV
#
4J
MO
Cr
r J
34.t4
Mn
r 13.3
3i
*
itCo
ST
5671
MNi
U.34
Cu
r 17
joZn
HO
n.72
Ga
72*0
uGt
V ?3
74*
A;
r 43
7SC
St
# 13
739*
Br
V 6C
ISO
HKr
&4fl
.rRb
# 7
7*3
Sr
IS
M2
v
1.3
>?2
Zr
* *
Nb
I
M5
Mo
r U
Tc
Table 23. A Chart of Nuclide Properties. (Continued)
96 97 M '94 103 ..Si. - 03
On 18 1.9 12.7 12.7 17.0 31.9 4CM <9h
Ru
r 15 01 104 r Ok K 1.2 " T
WO
Rh 1 4.4m
I.T.42. fi- |
* 00 > I 190 03 106 ior '04 >09 1.0 in
06.4 LO 174 110 22.2 27.3 7XK3*y 26,7 I3.CH 4 H IT, ,22m
1Pd1" 33*
r V 44 K *- II fi' .4 fi 1
I uO HQ*Ptl.TJ
91.4 2-3>n464 lf>0f *t
Afl r 1 .10
|
** to KM * 30 (,*. * MS at HZ 13 114 H5 116 H7
0241 L22 6.7K an 1.3
T 12.4 12.8 244 12.3 28.8 7 3h IT.
Cd r J4 *3d0"
*S300 m 1 K.L * J* .03+27.00C 93hfi~ SOWfl-
"44 98J 'U. L '

In
12 * 91
mM9 94fir
13. r 117 IIS HO 121 UI 123 124 129
0.39 14.3 M Ml m 4* 4i
1.02 B2< aw
r .006 r
r .001
J m r v AO" ao. r
X
..2 .- f.O04
[5**2794
iT]
UJ
122 123 '24

37 244 43 90.
Sb
u on r 7* fJfi r 3.5 fi~ 124 127 129 129 130 131
123
<2T aow 604 2.9 0.99 48 7J0
19.7 314 344 WW,23m T. Notmrt
W44
XX
TO'74 K v 2.7* 400 # 7
* M IK)dLt. r .019334IT.
W 14 4 94*fi' .13 72- fi' * .2 f batin*, it.
HAS 30 29.0m
u '"^ 64 :w
129 <30 13) 132 (33 i34 i33 139
1X4 129 124 127 129

29l9 92TeJ KX4 64
l-.sl
*10 00*2 36A4 tJt 29.4 4J 2L2
*4
r 16 K v < 9 # 49 w < B # no w < 3 r r<9 r 7
132* oo 2Jl
,Cl Ct
a . . ISO 131 192 r 2* 139 134 <37 136 139
3739 ami IL64 0.097 242 44 74 113 1 717 99w
Bo
L2
1642
, 1
J ..
- .QL-121 Wfl
r 9 X r 3 1 r <4 r 9 * < 1 r 4 1* 49 -
r
ta;3
.Ce
* .7
r
1
J r
Mr
J
-WW
-F'
145 144 149 144 I4T 144 144 130 51
4*rr
49
-2IO,[ Nd
r
147 149 149

c. I-9XC7*
t 8290
1123 922
En TP"
r 4VX 9000
137 199 199 WO
I99J 040 2344 2J9 W.T 204 19.7 24.9 m 2L9 9.7m
r 3400C
6d
r <129 K -wopoc fi' r M r
too 724
Tb
43 I9 '37 198 w 3 fi- 162 163 164 163
0092 64ft aow 1544 229 (84 299 2\0 262 2.32h
Or 2700 fi-
* 00 K t.L 166
100 2T.2h
,.H, Ho l>30|)
* 94 ' 169 170 171 m 64 fi'
l2 3 194 199 144 167 168
o> 534 224 271 944 M9
f
_ *727 0J3C 79m L94
MEr r 9
170 R K w 2 fi'
Table 23. A Chart of Nuclide Properties. {Continued)

162 163 164 165 '66 167
67.27 0.136 75m 156 KM 33.4 22.9 27J 9.4d MS 7.9*
HEr K >2 9 9 8-
170 K $-
168
M too 1294
Tm Tm
125 168 r 125 ITI 172 173 IT4 179 IT6 ITT
173.04 0'4 324 303 14.3 21.6 162 3(8 4.24 12.T 2.0*
*,* Yb
37 M.OOO K *~*0 $' v T 0-
174.99 97.40"280 684
Lu 3.7h*-| m
W O* 174 IT* ITT 178 179 190 I8i r 35 4000 0~
179
17850 018 70d 52 AS 17.1 13.9 382 464
Hf
r K>6 *~O00 K #<SO r 370* 90 89 w 10 #" 182
I0O95 O0i2 99.999 1124
To
r 21 m 22 $- 183 184 83 1*6 *7
.8338 0J4 406 26.2 14.3 30.7 744 267 24h
r 16 1
w .-,?. | W
r<w20 # to 9 II * 2.0 *" r 38 r 199
17J Wit "82.9 ,
18622
R9
r M OS *-,<*) 79
184 185 188 197 189 199 190 191 192 193
1902 0.018 9M L39 13-3 l*J 284 184 41.0 38)
r a -20 *L r 6 r I* r 194
i.a 39.3 744 8U 198
Ir
lr
r 480 190 V 990 r t r 199 (98 197 t*t
"O0I2 104 0.79 <WOy 328 S3.T 29.4 198 71 SOn
pt<*0~,
| PI
m K) 1 .~90 K r 8 K v L2 27 U *- * 4 0-
197.0 4
100 2.70
_Aj| - A*
rtAU w 98
* 98 196 197 199 199 too 20* tot 203 204 209
200.61 0.0 O0 J 23,1 a.2 294 494 88 5.2*
i*Hfl Ml
380 3M30 K 2500 r <50 #<90 S 0~ r .4 0- 208
204.39 293 703 4,20*
.T1
* 13
Tl
II r. *Jl r tor
92
209
207.21 L3 S 26 21
<r.17
Pb
* 3 L r .03 #.73 00043 r M
20400
nBI " 2jorun
033
mPo
At
Rn
Fr
228OS M
MRa
*. >-
22H
Ac Ac
!H_. 233
j09
232 "100
W It.."-444
N>Th
w 7.5
Th
73 r .>
"2T4fl
Pa | ; 99i
tPo 238
234
0Ti4
u
238.07
7.68
lulSJ IN |
nan j 694I
6.T54 9*26 213"
]j-391"0^
KJ3 -
*>n3T
[w,4J*> BMBaM 2.3M
Np !>,7 "I " 2 HI
H aoo, IVI,
III
The data presented and the method of using the chart are explained in the key at the
top of the chart. The following limitations of Table 23 should be noted.
Cross Sections. Cross sections are for 2,200-m/sec neutrons with the following
exceptions.
1. Where cross sections are given for the spectrum of pile neutrons, this is denoted
by the subscript PN.
2. Where the absorption (or fission) cross section is not l/t-dependcnt, the value
has been multiplied by the appropriate factor,1'* so that a correct average cross
section for the Maxwell distribution will be obtained when the Maxwell-distribution
factor V72 = 1/1.128 is applied. The factors are: Cd and Cd11', 1.3; Xe1", 1.16;
Sm, 1.5; Eu, 0.95; Gd, 0.85; Hg, 0.95; U, 0.99 for o- and 0.981 for 07; U"s, 0.981 for o-
and a/. For consistent treatment, the cross sections for Pu"9 should be multiplied
hy the factor 1.075, but this factor is highly energy-dependent, increasing to over
2.0 in the range of temperatures used in power reactors. The cross sections of this
nuclide (and other fuel nuclides also) are therefore read from curves or tables as a
function of energy or temperature.
Energy of Decay. The energy of emitted particles is not given.
Gamma Emission. Decay and neutron capture are usually accompanied by gamma
emission, which is not specifically indicated. Also, no notice is taken of exceptions,
such as decay unaccompanied by y rays, or emission, by internal conversion, of
orbital electrons instead of y rays.
Isomeric Transition.^ Isomeric states are indicated only where they arise from
neutron activation and have a long enough half-life to affect significantly the activity
of the irradiated material.
More Than One Mode of Decay. The principal mode is given first; modes accounting
for less than 10 per cent of the decay are given in parentheses.
3.22 Important Charts of Nuclides. Charts of the nuclides usually include all
known nuclides, stable and unstable, and may give as much nuclear data as con
sistent with readability.
The General Electric "Chart of the Nuclides" (1966). Copies of this important wall
chart plus an accompanying booklet may be obtained free by writing to Dept. 2-119,
General Electric Co., Schenectady, N.Y. This chart was used as the primary
reference in preparing Table 23.
Trilinear Chart of Nuclides (1957). This is a detailed large-scale accordion-folded
strip chart by W. H. Sullivan, for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
4 NUCLEAR DATA USED IN REACTOR CALCULATIONS

See Sec. 2,by H. Soodak, and Sec. 6-2, by J. R. Dietrich. For references to nuclear
data presented in this handbook, see Table 5 of this section. See also Ref . 3.
4.1 Cross Sections and Related Data

4.11 Moderators. Nuclear properties of moderators are given in Table 13 of
Sec. 2and Tables 13 and 14 of Sec. 6-2. Table 24 of Sec. 1-1 gives a collection of these
properties. For age of metal-water mixtures, see Table 14 of Sec. 6-2.
Heavy Water. The absorption coefficient and diffusion length of heavy water of
commercial isotopic purity are greatly decreased by light-water impurity. For
heavy water of ordinary purity
m 0.000033(1 + 6.56i)
* Superscript numbers refer to References at end of subsection.

t Isomeric states (excited states of appreciable half-life) are common in nuclides formed by neutron
capture: in the majority of cases, the higher isomer reaches the ground state by gamma emission (iso
meric transition) with a half-life measured in minutes or less, although sometimes extending to many
months.
Table 24. Nuclear Properties of Moderators at 20C (68F)
J.
By L. Templin*
Thermal properties Epithermal properties

Reference
Nuclei
Moderator density,
L
per cm3 2. 2. X,, D L'
g/cm3
T
{2. D Vr
(cm-') (cm"') (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
H,0 l.OOt 0.0334 0.0195 3.51 0.48 0. 159 2.85ft 8. 12ft 0.920 1.40{ 1.28} 2.57 131F 5.6 31
D.O 1.105 0.0332 0.0000335 0.480 2.86 0.953 170| 28900{ 0.509 0.351$ 0. 179J 3.70 1.291 1.12 125
Be 1.84 0. 1229 0.00109 0.86 1.43 0.481 21.0 441 0.2078 0.737 0. 153 1.47 0.562 9.85 97
Graphite 1.60 0.0802 0.000342" 0.385 2.75 0.917 51.8 2680 0. 1589 0.385 0.612 2.75 1.0161 19.08 364
*
it
a
2)
Collection of these data into single table has made necessary in some cases to resolve differences in selections by Soodak (Sec. and Dietrich (Sec. 6-2)*
J.
Mr. L. Templin has kindly undertaken the selection of values in this table.
a
Actually 0.998 at 20C. Calculated quantities are for reference density of g/cm*.
is
2
Values are from about 0.01 Mev to thermal. 2# averaged from Mev to thermal less,
tXf
Calculated from the formula
- du
/
/!!>t"[Z.(u))'(l ~ U.)
~
'
\_ 3
/"0-5 ro.5 ,
Jutk afS.(u)
a
}
The values tire considerably lower for commercial I)0 containing fraction of per cent of H2O (see Art. 4.1 ))
** Based on commercial graphite having aa ~ 0.0048 barn.
tt Values of 2.73 and 2.76, and a compromise value of 2.80 are often used for L, with corresponding values of 7.45. 7.62. and 7.84 for L*. Ed.
a
Table 26. Absorption and Fission Cross Sections of U"', U", and Pu"', as Function of Temperature*
Average
U pu
j
Temperature,
1
9
*/ # */ . */
C
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
0
0
0
0
r
r
r
r
0
0
- - 0
r
r
0
- - - - - - - -
r
- =
r
0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 - 0.07 8 = 0.07 - 0.07

4
20 589.4 629.4 531.4 565.3 680.4 681.9 568.6 566.7 2.076 1103.2 1270.3 776. 869. 2.049 1.9915
1
40 588.9 630.3 531.0 566.0 676.9 678.9 566.1 564.4 2.078 1122. 1291.9 786.6 880.8 2.040 1.984
60 588.6 631.3 530.7 566.8 673.4 675.7 563.6 562.1 2.079 1143.5 1315.1 797.8 893.2 2.030 1.976
80 588.3 632.3 530.5 567.6 670.1 672.8 561.2 559.9 2.0805 1167.7 1340.4 810.5 906.7 2.020 1.968
100 588.1 633.4 530.3 568.4 667.0 670.1 559.1 557.9 2.082 1194.7 1368.2 824.8 921.6 2.009 1.960
120 587.8 634.3 530.0 569.2 664.2 667.7 556.8 555.8 2.083 1225.0 1398.6 841.0 938.0 1.998 1.952
140 587.8 635.4 530.0 570.1 661.6 665.4 554.8 554.0 2.083 1258.4 1431.5 859.0 956.0 1.986 1.943
160 587.8 636.6 530.0 571.0 659.0 663.0 552.8 552.2 2.084 1295.0 1466.5 878.8 975.2 1.975 1.935
180 587.8 637.7 530.0 571.9 656.7 661.0 550.9 550.5 2.084 1334.8 1503.8 900.4 995.7 1.963 1.927
200 587.9 638.9 530.1 572.9 654.5 659.1 549.2 548.9 2.0845 1378.0 1543.4 924.0 1017.4 1.951 1.918
r
220 588.1 640.2 530.3 574.0 652.5 657.3 547.6 547.5 2.085 1424.1 1584.9 949.3 1040.3 1.940 1.910
240 588.4 641.5 530.6 575.1 650.6 655.6 546.0 546.0 2.085 1473.2 1628.2 976.4 1064.3 1.929 1.902
260 588.6 642.7 530.8 576.1 648.9 654.2 544.5 544.5 2.084 1525.1 1673.3 1005.0 1089.1 1.918 1.894
280 588.9 643.9 531.0 577.1 647.3 652.8 543.0 543.1 2.084 1579.4 1719.0 1035.2 1114.4 1.907 1.8865
1
1
1
300 589. 645. 531.2 578.1 645.8 651.4 541.6 541.8 2.0835 1636.1 1765.2 1066.8 1140. 1.897 1.879
7
320 589.4 646.3 531.5 579.1 644.5 650.2 540.4 540.7 2.083 1694.8 1811. 1099.5 1165.8 1.888 1.8725
1
4
.
1.
340 589.7 647.5 531.7 580.2 643.3 649.1 539.2 539.5 2.0825 1755.5 1858.0 1133.4 1191. 879 866
360 590.2 648.9 532.2 581.4 642.1 648,0 538.2 538.5 2.082 1817.7 1903.6 1168.3 1216.7 1.870 1.860
380 590.5 650.1 532.5 582.4 641.0 647.0 537.1 537.4 2.0815 1881.2 1948.4 1204.0 1241.6 1.862 1.854
400 590.9 651.3 532.8 583.4 640.0 646.1 536.1 536.4 2.081 1945.8 1992.4 1240.4 1266.2 1.855 1.849
r. - 697.8 a, = 581.6 <r = 1027.28 / - 738.02

2.200 m/8ec *a = 590.0 / - 532.0 -

,
v
2.070 = 2.910 - 2.0906
*
2.
From C. H. Westcott: "Effective Cross Section Values for Well- moderated Thermal Reactor Spectra." See Art. 4.12 and Ref.
where x is the weight per cent of light water. Other properties are affected in smaller
degree.
4.12 Fuel. In reactor calculations, the average absorption cross section of a 1/v
absorber is calculated from the 2,200-m/sec reference value by applying factors for the
Maxwell distribution and for temperature (See Sec. 6-2 and Art. 7.12 of Sec. 1-1).
The marked departure from 1 /u-dependence exhibited by fuel nuclides is most simply
allowed for by substituting adjusted cross sections that will give the correct reaction
rate when 1/w-dependence is assumed. Table 25 gives the Westcott* adjusted values
for IP" Um, and Pu2. The Maxwell distribution factor (0.886 or 1/1.128) and the
temperature factor [V293/(273 + lC)] must still be applied, since Table 25 gives
only the secondary corrections necessary to give 1/v-equivalent cross sections.
9
_ a V293/(273 + t)
1.128
where t = temperature, C
The parameter r in Table 25 takes into account the density of epithermal neutrons
in the \/E "tail" from slowing down of fission neutrons.
neutron density in "tail"

1.01 X (total neutron density)
The table assumes the tail to be superimposed on the Maxwell distribution, with a
cutoff at bkT [4.317'(K) X 10~4 ev) as the lower limit. The condition r = 0 corre
sponds to a pure Maxwell distribution, and the values for this condition may be used
for calculations of well-moderated reactors. For other reactors, the parameter r must
be estimated or calculated from reactor theory, and Table 25 may then be read by
interpolation. Westcott states that r for the NRX reactor is 0.03 in the moderator
and 0.07 in the fuel.
Since reactor calculations are usually based on the thermal-neutron density and the
Westcott cross sections are based on total neutron density, some further adjustment
is indicated for consistent treatment of diffusion-dependent terms in reactor theory.
The adjustment
is,
however, dependent on the particular model used in calculation,

and, since usually not very important, generally ignored.
is
it
is
it
4.13 Fission Products. Table 26 gives absorption cross sections of fission products
and yields of xenon and samarium. See Tables 15 to 17 of Sec. 2.
4.14 Other Materials. Table 27 gives data for other common constituents of
reactor cores. Table 19 of Sec. gives data for all naturally occurring elements.
2
Table 26. Fission-product Thermal Cross Sections
Cross section, barns
Yield per
Fission product fission, Handbook reference
Maxwell
per cent
2. 200 m /sec distribution
at 20C
Xenon1"*:
Direct from fission 0.3 Tables ! 5 and 16 of
Indirect b b Sec. 2. See also
Total 6.9 2.72 X 10' 2.80 X 10" Table 4 of Sec. 11.
Samarium1*** 6.6 5.0 X 10* Table 16 of Sec.
2 2.
1.3 10*
X
Table 19 of Sec.
Other fission products:

At lero burnup 100 80 7I
>t>
Art. 4.3 of Sec.
2
After 10 per cent burnup at =* I0H 100 65 58ft
The tabulated yields (or yields close to them) are commonly used in reactor calculations. Xenon
*
yields given by different observers cover a wide range. The cross section data are from BNL 325,
Supplement .
1
Two sets of data for Xe1" (S. Bernstein and E. C. Smith), combined with two assumptions of spin
factor, give four possible values, ranging from 2.19 to 2.76 megabarns for 2,200-m/sec neutrons. The
four values for the average cross section over a Maxwell distribution would, according to Westcott's
analysis.1 range from 2.17 to 2.83 megabarns. Weatcott prefers the highest values, which are in close
agreement with those of BNL 325. The values for Xe1" given by Westcott are:
$
Temperature, K 300 400 500 600 700
3.208 3.388 3.419 ... 3.251
Temperature and Maxwell distribution factors must be applied to for conventional reactor calcu
3
lations (see Art. 4.12).

Cross section per fission.
X t
Assuming /e dependence.
1
Table 27. Macroscopic Properties
Thermal
General properties
Microscopic crosssections
Element and
atomic number
Reference Atoms per cm"

Atomic 0.6023X I0
weight
density
N-
, 1 itn
era
P. A em' cm'
A.t g/cm" cm-1
X 10 " X IO-m X 10 M
gC 12 01 1.600 .0802 .9440 .0032 .00284 4.8

uNs 22 997 0.97 .0254 .9708 .505 .448 4.0
24 32 1.74 .0431 .9724 .063 .0558 3 6
uAl 26 98 2 699 .0603 .9751 .230 .204 1.4
uSi 28 09 2 33 .0500 .9761 .13 .115 1.7
nP 30.975 1.82 .0354 9783 .19 168 5

>& 32.066 2.07 .0389 .9790 .49 434 1.1
,.K 39.100 0.86 .0132 .9828 1.97 1.75 1.5
Ti 47 90 4.54 .0571 .9860 5.6 4.96 4
wCr 52 01 7.19 .0833 .9871 2 9 2.57 3
!sMn 54 93 7.43 .0815 .9878 13.2 11.7 2.3

Ke 55 85 7 87 .0849 .9880 2 53 2.24 II
nPo 58 94 8.9 .0909 .9886 37 32.8 7

a*.\i 58 69 8 9 .0913 .9885 4.6 4 08 17.5
Co 63.54 8 96 .0849 .9894 3.62 3.27 7.2
<oZr 91.22 6 5 .0429 .9926 .180 .160 8

.iNI. 92.91 8 55 .0554 .9928 I.I .97 5
uMo 95.95 10.2 .0640 .9930 2.5 2.22 7
wSn 118.7 7 298 .0370 .9943 .60 532 4
4W 183.92 19 3 .0632 .9963 19.2 17.0 5
,!Pb 207.21 11.34 .0330 .9968 .170 .151 II

.slii 209 00 9.8 .0282 .9968 .032 .0284 9
Th 232.12 11.5 0298 .9971 7.45 6.2 12 5
Table 27
Rives data for elementslikely to be presentas important constituentsof reactors. Table 24 BhoukJ be used for
of Elements for Thermal Reactors*
properties Epithermal properties
Microscopic
Macroscopic properties Macroscopic properties
properties
Ele
ment
- 2, - = X~
cm"1
Z.
1/Z.r
ft
cm* t
2
3.
cm "' Z.(l - SO
cm * cm"1 em cmr1 cm"1 cm
X 10"
000228 385 .364 2.75 4.8 .1589 .385 .061 .364 2.75 C
.0114 .102 .099 10. 1 3.1 0852 .079 0067 .076 13.1 Na
.00241 .155 .151 6.6 3 4 0807 .147 .0118 .142 7.0 Mg
0123 084 .082 12.2 1.4 .0730 .084 .0062 .082 12 2 Al
.0058 .085 .083 12.1 2 2 .0702 .110 .0077 .107 9.3 Si
0060 .18 .17 5.8 3.4 .0637 .120 .0077 .118 8.5 P
.0169 043 .042 24 1.1 .0616 .043 0026 .042 24 s
.0231 .0199 .0195 51 2.1 .0507 .028 .00141 .027 37 E
.283 .23 .23 4.4 4.2 .0415 .2+0 .0100 .240 4 23 Ti
.214 .25 25 4.1 3.9 .0383 .325 .0124 .321 3.12 a
.953 .187 .185 5.4 1.9 0363 .155 .0056 .153 6.5 Mo
.190 .93 .92 1 08 11.4 .0357 .968 .0345 .956 1.05 Fe

2 98 .64 .63 1.6 5 8 .0338 .528 .0178 .521 1.92 Co
.372 1.60 1.58 .633 17.4 .0340 1.59 .0540 1.57 .637 Ni
.273 .612 .605 1.65 7.7 0314 .654 .0205 .647 1.55 Cn
00685 34 .34 2 9 6.2 0220 .266 .00585 .264 3.79 Zr

.054 .28 .28 3.6 6.5 .0216 .360 .00778 .358 2.80 Nb
.142 .45 .45 2.2 6.0 .0209 .384 00803 .381 2.62 Mo
.0197 .15 .15 6.8 4.8 .0169 .178 00300 .177 5 66 tin
1 08 .32 .31 3.2 5 6 .0109 .354 .00386 .353 2.84 W
.00497 .36 .36 2.8 11.3 .0097 .372 O036I .371 2.69 Pb
00080 25 25 3.9 9.28 .0096 .262 00252 .261 3.83 Bi
.222 373 .372 2.69 12 5 .0087 .373 .00324 .372 2.69 Th
moderators. Table 18 of Sec. 2 gives the basic data for all the elements, and Table 20 of See. 2 gives resonance integrals.
4.2 Fission Data
4.21 Neutron Regeneration. Table 28 gives neutron-regeneration data for

fuels. Additional data are given in Table 6 of Sec. 2.
= - - 1 v - '/d + a)
V
4.22 Other Fission Data. References to other data (including fission-neutron

spectrum, energy dependence of nuclear properties, spontaneous fission rates, photo-
neutron yield, fission-product distribution, and dclayed-neutron data) are given in
Table 5 of this section.
Table 28. Neutron-regeneration Data*
Natural
U'" U' Pu"t uranium
2.52 2.47 2.91 2.47

Neutrons per thermal absorption ij 2.28 2.07 2.09 1.34
Captures per fission at/af = a *- \ 0. 105 0. 192 0.39 0.85

1
"World consistent" data for 2.200-m/aec neutrons, Ref. 1, 1957 Supplement. These data differ
slightly from those of Sec. 2. Table 6. For the neutron spectrum of a thermal reactor, a and ij can be
calculated from Table 25 and v of this table.
t All values in the table are for 2.200-m/seo neutrons. In thermal reactors, the strong resonance of
Pu!3v causes a to be considerably higher and y considerably lower than the tabulated values. See
Table 25 of this section and Art. 6.5 of See. 6-1.
6 CONSTANTS AND FORMULAS RELATING POWER, FLUX,

AND FUEL CONSUMPTION
See Sec. 6-2, by J. R. Dietrich, and Sec. 12-2, by L. E. Link and Walter H. Zinn.
5.1 Energy from Fission
The available energy per fission is usually taken as 200 Mev.* The energy dis
tribution for fission of U"' by thermal neutrons is given in Table 1 of Sec. 2. Table 29
gives some frequently used energy and fission equivalents. See also Table 28 of
Sec. 1-3.
Table 29. Fission Energy Equivalents*

1 fission = 3. 20 X 10-11 joules (or watt-sec)
I joule -
3. 12 X 10' fissions
I watt = 3. 12 X 10'" fissions /sec
I Mwd (megawatt-day) 2. 70 X 10" fissions
* Bused on 200 Mev per fission and 1 ev = 1.60203 X I0~" ergs.
6.2 Flux-Power Relations

6.21 Average Thermal Flux and Power
i
*!* = K X 10" X specific power
Mw - x i*. X kK
whore t\ average thermal flux,t n/(rm1)(sec)

Mw = power, Mw
* Formulas in this article are based on 200 Mev /fission for the total beat generation in the reactor
and shielding. A small adjustment must be made to apply the formulas to heat generation in the
core alone.
t *ia is the average thermal flux in fuel. For an effectively homogeneous reactor this ia the same as
the average over the core.
SEC. 1-1] -- SELECTED DATA AND FORMULAS AND GUIDE 1-27
kg = mass of fissionable material, kg
specific power = Mw/kg of fissionable nuclide
K " constant as given below
General Formula for the Constant K

A' = Eq. (96) of Sec. 6-2
1'036(^)
where A = atomic weight of isotope, g
9/ = microscopic fission cross section (averaged over the Maxwelldistribution
at operating temperature, with allowance for deviation from 1/v depend
ence), barns
E = energy per fission, Mev
E = (8.617 X 10-')r(K) = (4.787 X 10-')r(R)

For a Mixture of Fuels
i i
Value of K and I IK
for (/"*. Table 30 gives K and 1 /K for U"6 baaed on A = 235 g,
E = 200 Mev, a, (r=0) from Table 25.
Table 30. K and 1/K for Us
Temperature, C
20 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
K 2.41 2.55 2.77 2.98 3.18 3.36 3.54 3.72 3.88

MK 0.414 0.392 0.361 0.335 0.315 0.297 0.282 0.269 0.257
6.22 Fast Flux. Virgin Flux
3.12 X 10'" v X (watts /cm')

<Pv =
where = number of neutrons per fission (2.47 for Um)

2 = total macroscopic cross section of reactor material for virgin neutrons

Tico-group Fast Flux. See Art. 6.5 of Sec. 6-2 (also Art. 7.71 of this section).
6.3 Consumption of Fissionable Material

Art. 1.1 of Sec. 12-2.
See
One gram of fuel fissioned yields approximately 0.95 Mwd. Table 31 gives fuel
consumption (including nonfission capture) based on 200 Mev per fission.
Table 31. Consumption Rate of Fuel, Grams per Megawatt-day*
Thermal reactors
General formula
(j4 = atomic weight of nuclide,
rjm puin
a - 0.105 a - 0.192 a - 0.39
Consumption, grama /Mwd 0.00445AO + o)/ 1.15/. l.25/< 1. 48/
* For highly enriched reactors t t; for large natural-uranium graphite reactors * 1.04.
5.31 Exposure and Burnup Units. Based on the rough approximation that
1,000 kw of fission heat corresponds to fission of 1 g of fuel per day:
1 per cent of fuel fissioned 10,000 Mwd/tonne

More exactly:
1 per cent of fuel fissioned = 9,500 Mwd/tonne
= 8,600 Mwd/ton (2,000 lb)
For 1 per cent of atoms consumed, including radiative capture, divide the 9,500 or
8,600 by (1 + a). For nominal values of a (Table 31), the Mwd/tonne equivalents of
1 per cent burnup of Um, U", Pu2" arc 8,600, 8,000, and 6,800, respectively.
For average burnup based on heat developed in the core, multiply these numbers by
Heat retained in core /(heat in core + heat outside core)
5.4 Conversion and Breeding
5.41 Available Neutrons. The parameters n, /, P, R2, and t have their customary
meanings (sec Art. 7 of this section). Values of t) at 2,200 m/soc: U"1, 2.28; U"6,
2.07; Pu"9, 2.09.
Neutrons available for breeding or converting in core ^ ^

L) P
Neutrons absorbed in fissionable material
(1
/ /
where L = leakage
P = probability that a neutron will not leak from the core (see Art. 2.31 of
Sec. 12-2)
- - -I
5.42 Conversion Ratio
C q 1
, . _ .
= conversion ratio
atoms generated
.
s =
where C ;
atoms destroyed
I = neutrons lost (by leakage and capture in all but fissionable materials) per
neutron absorbed in fissionable material (see Art. 2.33 of Sec. 12-2)
Initial Conversion Ratio
TOa
where r = fraction of U"* in uranium mixture (see Art. 2.33 of Sec. 12-2)
5.43 Breeding or Conversion Gain (C >

- -I
1)
G = C - I = r, 2 (see Art. 2.34 of Sec. 12-2)

6.44 Doubling Time
inventory of fissionable material, grams
T. ,. ,
..
Doubling time in uuys =
. .
- :
G (daily fuel consumption, grams)
The daily fuel consumption is obtained from Table 31 and the megawatts of heat.
6.45 Fuel Utilization (C < 1)

R
Upper limit
1 -C
where 7? = fraction of fissionable material in mixture of fuel and fertile material
(see Art. 2.34 of Sec. 12-2)
6 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION BY SIMPSON'S RULE

Various methods of numerical integration, including Simpson's rule, are discussed
in Art. 1.4 of Sec. 3-2. Simpson's rule is widely used for integrating nonanalytic
Sec. 1-1] SELECTED DATA AND FORMULAS AND GUIDE 1-29
functions, including determination of reactor constants from empirical data. Prac
tical application is summarized below.
To evaluate y dx, where y is a function of x:

Jb
1. Divide the interval ab into an even number of equal intervals h. If n is the
number of intervals, h = (6 a)/n.
2. Evaluate y (analytically, from tables, by measurement, or from empirical data)
ati = a, i = a + h, x = a + 2h, . . . , x = b.
3. /
fb
y dx =
h
-
{y + 4ya+k + 2j/+2a + iya+3\ + 2j/+, + + 4//_* + j/i]
/ 3
Example: To evaluate xJo(x) dx by Simpson's rule, divide the interval 1 to 2

y
into four equal parts, h = 0.25
x 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

From tables, J,(x) 0.7652 0.6459 0.5118 0.3600 0.2239
xJa{x) 0.7652 0.8074 0.7677 0.6457 0.4478
xJo(x) dx = [0.7652 + 3.2294 + 1.5354 + 2.5828 + 0.4478]

- 0.7134
3
The correct solution, using the analytic relation JxJo(x) dx = xJi(x), is 0.7133.
7 REACTOR CALCULATIONS
See Sec. 6-2, by J. R. Dietrich.

This article, like others of Sec. 1-1, is a guide to a major section of the handbook and
should not be used alone. Formulas have been selected from Sec. 6-2 to highlight
the steps of criticality calculation and to serve as a framework for references to the
detailed instructions contained in Sec. 6-2. For additional tabulated data, see also
Table 5 of Sec. 1-1. Article 11 of Sec. 6-2 gives examples showing application of
formulas.
Nomenclature
A = atomic weight of element, g. Mass number of nucleus relative to mass

of neutron, dimensionless
B* = buckling, cm-!
D = diffusion coefficient, cm.
E = neutron energy, ev. Also a dimensionless constant

F = dimensionless constant
f = thermal utilization, dimensionless
k = multiplication constant in infinite medium, dimensionless
kCm kT) = Boltzmann constant, ev/deg
L = diffusion length, cm
L, = slowing-down length, cm
.v/= = migration area, cm*
N = number of nuclei per cubic centimeter, em"'
N = 0.6023 X 10" = Avogadro's number, atoms per gram atomic weight,
chemical scale, g-1
P = resonance escape probability, dimensionless
T = absolute temperature, K or R
t = temperature, C or F
V = volume, cm3
V = neutron velocity, cm/sec
( = fast fission factor, dimensionless
n = regeneration factor, dimensionless
X = reciprocal of diffusion length, cm"'
X = mean free path of neutron, cm

Ao = average cosine of scattering angle (numerically mo = 2/3/1), dimcnsionless
v = average number of neutrons emitted per fission, dimensionless

= average logarithmic change of energy per collision, dimensionless
p = density, g/cm*
S = macroscopic cross section, cm-1
a = microscopic cross section, cm*
t = Fermi age, cm2
= neutron flux, cm-1 sec-1
Subscripts
0 = initial or standard condition
1 = fuel region
2 = moderator region
3 = clad region
a absorption v
/ = fast (when used with a denotes fission)
t = t'th component of a mixture
s = scattering
th = thermal
tr = transport
7.1 Average Thermal Microscopic Absorption Cross Section aa
7.11 Energy of Thermal Neutrons. The reference energy used in selection of

cross-section data is the energy corresponding to the most probable velocity in the
Maxwell distribution at the operating temperature [see Eq. (63) of Sec. 6-2].
kT = 8.617 X lO-'T ev T = K
= 4.787 X 10-T ev T = R
Effective Neutron Temperature T. In thermal reactors, T may exceed the moderater
temperature by about 50C. See Art. 4.4 of Sec. 6-2 and formula in Art. 5.3 of Sec. 2.
7.12 1/v Absorbers with Maxwell Distribution. See Eqs. (65) and (66) of Sec. 6-2.
From 2,200-m/sec Data

0 293
t = C
1.128 ! + 273)
ffoO 529
1.128 ! + 460)
ffaO .0253
E = ev
1.128 E
where aaa =absorption cross section at standard (monocnergetic) neutron velocity of
2,200 m/sec (corresponding to an energy of approximately 0.0253 ev
and a kT temperature of approximately 20.4C or 68.8F)
9 = average cross section to be applied in conjunction with total thermal
flux
The number 2/\/r
= 1.128 is the correction for Maxwell distribution. The
square-root factor in the formulas is the temperature correction for reactors in which
the neutron temperature is not 20C (69F).
Table 19 of Sec. 2 gives o-0 for elements and nuclides, and Table 27 of this section
gives 9ao o-/1.128 for some important elements.
From Curves of a as a Function of the Energy kT: For curves of aQ for monoenergotic
neutrons of energy kT, see "Neutron Cross Sections."1
So = <Ta(kT)/ 1.128
7.13 Non-l/w Absorbers with Maxwell Distribution. See Art. 4.3 of Sec. 6-2.
The temperature-correction factor and the 1.128 distribution factor used for l/v
absorbers are not applicable to non-l/v absorbers. In general, from Eq. (66) of
Sec. 6-2,
. - fg'-'.E exp (-E/kT) dE/lkTKEi + kT) exp (-E,/kT)

- (Ei +kT)exp (~E2/kT)]}
where the integral can be evaluated (over a sufficient range Ei to Et) from Rcf. 1,
using, for example, Simpson's rule (see Art. 6). For practical application the follow
ing ampler processes are generally adequate.
Uu, u and Pu' {non-\/v absorbers)
Determine 9. or 9, for U", U", or Pu" from 6 in Table 25 of Sec. 1-1.
Other non-1 /v A bsorbers
1. For a temperature of 20C, the cross section is read from Table 18 or 19 of Sec. 2,
the 1/1.128 factor is applied, and the result is multiplied by the correction factor given
in the table (Cd, 1.3; Xe, 1.16; Sm, 1.5; Eu, 0.95; Gd, 0.85; Hg, 0.95).
2. For temperatures up to about 250F (120C), the cross section for the cor
responding kT energy may be read from curves' and the factors used in (a) may be
applied. At still higher temperatures the correction may be increasingly in error.
3. Westcott* gives 9a for Mn, Co, Rh, In115, Gd, and Au, in addition to the fuel and
fission product nuclides discussed in Arts. 4.12 and 4.13.
7.14 The 1/E "Tail." The departure from Maxwell distribution at the high-
energy end of the spectrum, due to slowing-down neutrons, is discussed in Art. 4.4
of Sec. 6-2; it can generally be ignored (Table 25 and other data from Westcott2 take
the l/E "tail" into account).
7.2 Macroscopic Cross Sections 2
7.21 Single Nuclide or Element (All Cross Sections)
A
If Z* u known for a material at standard density p0 (e.g., Table 27 of Sec. 1-1 and
Table 18 of Sec. 2) 2 at some other density p is given by 2 = 20(p/po).
7.22 Homogeneous Mixtures (All Cross Sections)
Eq. (3) of Sec. 6-2

here p, is the partial density or g/cm' of the ith material.

7.23 Mean Free Path X. Single Nuclides or Homogeneous Mixtures (All Cross
Sectioas): X = 1/2.
7.24 Average Macroscopic Absorption Cross Section. 2 must be averaged
over the Maxwell neutron energy distribution and corrected for temperature. The
corrections described for microscopic absorption cross sections may be applied either
to tr, or to 2a. Table 27 of Section 1-1 gives 2 already corrected for the Maxwell
distribution at room temperature; for other temperatures, the temperature correction
must be applied.
7.26 Special Cases. Other macroscopic cross sections are discussed in Art. 7.5.
7.3 Slowing-down and Scattering Constants

7.81 Average Logarithmic Change of Energy per Collision. Sec Art . 3. 1 of Sec. 6-2.
= In ^
E
- 1 + !
1 r
In r Eq. (36) of Sec. 6-2
~
'V
(AM
*here r = Eq. (35) of Sec. 6-2

\A + 1/
Values of { for the elements are given in Table 18 of Sec. 2. For a mixture of nuclides,
I = ~ Eq. (37) of Sec. 6-2
Z2-
7.32 Average Cosine of Scattering Angle. For isotropic scattering in the center-
of-gravity system,
fio = cos 0 - 2/ (3 A) Art. 2.13 of Sec. 6-2
where 0 is the scattering angle in the laboratory system. 1 Ao is given as 1 cos 8

in Table 18 of Sec. 2.
7.4 Infinite Multiplication Constant*
k = r,tpf Eq. (168) of Sec. 6-2
For calculation of p and /

in fuel-moderator lattices, the unit cell is idealized (usually
to cylindrical geometry), maintaining true fuel and moderator volumes (see Arts. 9.3
and 9.4 of Sec. 6-2).
7.41 Regeneration Factor r>. See Art. 9.2 of Sec. 6-2.
If applied to the fissionable isotope,
v = KoY/Va)
If applied to a homogeneous fuel mixture
1 - T viNiv/i
i
Jy i
N><r*i Eq. (169) of Sec. 6-2
Table 28 of Sec. 1-1 gives values of v and i\. For a heterogeneous fuel element,
see Eq. (170) of Sec. 6-2. See Art. 11.21 of Sec. 6-2 for a numerical example.
7.42 Thermal Utilization /

/ = absorption in fuel /total absorption
Homogeneous Mixture
Z.i Z.i 1
Eq. (171) of Sec. 6-2
2a(t,,tiil) Sal + 2 o(other) ^q(otiter)
^
2.,
The subscript "other" means materials other than fuel.
Fuel-Moderator Lattice
I[ . rVtS.i +
F + {E_l) Eq.
+ (190) of gee.
/ L V i2i J
E and F are calculated from Table 8 of Sec. 6-2, and xt and xj (equals 1/Li and 1 /Li)
from Table 13 of Sec. 6-2.
Disadvantage factor = I? =
(1
- l) Eq. (177) of Sec. 6-2
See Art. 11.22 of Sec. 6-2 for numerical example.

* The macroscopic cross sections entering into reactor theory are usually average valuea for mixtures
of materials over particular flux distributions. Where confusion is unlikely, these average cross sections
are represented by X instead of 2.
7.43 Resonance Escape Probability p. See Art. 9.4 of Sec. 6-2.
Homogeneous Mixture
p = exp (
- I /) Eqs. (57) and (192) of Sec. 6-2
where I =
^ A ^rom ^Q" $7) * êc- ^"2, is calculated from and ff#((W in
i
Table 22 of Sec. 2
Nt _ number of absorber atoms/cm*

2. total macroscopic scattering cross section of mixture
I = resonance integral from Fig. 14 (see also Arts. 3.51 and 3.53 of Sec. 6-2).
Article 6 of Sec. 2 also gives absorption integrals
Fuel-Moderator Lattice
" "
p = exp f -= 1
I Eqs. (206) and (200) of Sec. 6-2
. N.V,(A + nS/M)
If region 2 is a pure moderator,
-
" "
1
p = exp [
. NaVM + nS/M)
where N atoms of resonance absorber (U"s) per cubic centimeter of fuel; E and F
=
are calculated from Table 8 of Sec. 6-2 using xi and x2 from Tables 10 and 11 respec
tively; S/M = (surface /mass) of fuel lump; A and /j are found from Table 9 of Sec. 6-2
(for natural uranium A = 9.25, /i = 24.7).
Modified parameters for uranium and thorium, and their extension to diluted fuel
lumps, are given in Tables 21 and 22 of Sec. 2 and are discussed in Art. 6.2 of that
action.
j.srj for a pure moderator is found from Table 11 of Sec. 6-2 (H20, 38.5; D20, 5.28;
Be, 1.26; C, 0.76). See Art. 11.23 of Sec. 6-2 for a numerical example.
7.44 Fast-fission Effect
- Z./S,) ^ P
(, ~ 1
t - 1 + -. Eq. (207) of Sec. 6-2
-
sections refer to fuel and are defined on p. 6-84. For natural uranium
fhere cross
<= 1 +
0.09P/(l 0.52P') (see Table 12 of Sec. 6-2).
Pand P' are found from Fig. 15 of Sec. 6-2 and xi (fuel, thermal) = \/L\ from Table
13 of Sec. 6-2. P' corresponds to xi/2( = 0. For close-packed lattices of slightly
enriched uranium, see Table 12 of Sec. 6-2. See Art. 11.24 of Sec. 6-2 for numerical
examples.
7.6 Other Material Constants of Reactors

7.51 Transport Mean Free Path and Transport Cross Section
Arr = l/2(r
Experimental Values.
For experimental values of X,r for moderators, see Table 13
of Sec. 6-2 and Table 24 of Sec. 1-1 (H20, 0.48; D20, 2.80; Be, 1.43; graphite, 2.75).
Calculated Values. If experimental data are lacking use
2,r = 2.(1 - A.) = 2.[1 - (2/3A)]

Values for important elements are given in Table 27 of Sec. 1-1.
Homogeneous Mixture
2(r 2|r,;
^
i
Experimental values of 2,r.i should be used wherever available: if pa is the standard
density of the ith constituent and p,- is grams of material in 1 cm', 2,,,,- = 2,r,o, =
Pw
! where X,r can be taken from Table 13 of Sec. 6-2 or Table 24 of Sec. 1-1. For
Xfr.Oi POi
constituents of unknown transport cross section, use 2er.i = 2,v(l
7.62 Thermal Diffusion Coefficient A*. Homogeneous Medium, Weak Absorber,
Experimental Values. For a pure medium:
^T-^-S^T^ Eo. (10) of Sec. 6-2
For moderators X(r is given in Table 13 of Sec. 6-2; \,a, and /),* in Table 24 of Sec. 1-1 .
For a mixture:
x = 1/2,,
Homogeneous Medium, General Case, Calculated
l/ - -
+ f
)]
=
D,
[32(1
Ao)
(l -5 |
+
| E<1' (9) Bec" 6"2
where and 2 are total and absorption macroscopic cross sections, respectively.
2
Fuel- Moderator Lattice. If the ratio of moderator volume to fuel volume large,
is
use Dtk of the moderator. Otherwise,
d~
j_r i+
1
32M Ll +m(WSirt)-l
where m = [//(l -
/)](2.,/2.i) (see Art. 9.6 of Sec. 6.2)
7.63 Fast Diffusion Coefficient D/. Homogeneous Medium. If an average
value of a. can be chosen for the moderator constituents over the energy range from
fission to thermal
W -M - "
[)
2 = s
0
\
D, = l/32,r
To evaluate for variation of a, with E, see Art. 9.8 of Sec. 6-2.
Fuel-Moderator Lattice. Lumping can usually be neglected; treat as homogeneous
medium.
7.64 Thermal Diffusion Area

L - l/x - Z>tt/2,.tt Eq. (208) of Sec. 6-2
Experimental Values for Moderators. given in Table 13 of Sec. 6-2, Table 24

L
is
of Sec. 1-1, and Table 13 of Sec. (H20, 2.85; pure DjO, 170; Be, 21.0; graphite 52).
2
Homogeneous Mixture. Calculate from above formula. Use experimental values

of available; otherwise calculate from
if
L - }i\,rK - l/(32,r2)
Moderator-Fuel Lattice. By combination of Eqs. (177), (208), and (209) of Sec. 6-2
(l-Z + g/)/*-
If T.t
2i L* s'(l - -
/) [Eq. (211) of Sec. 6-2), where hi (moderator) is found
from Table 13 of Sec. 6-2 or an equivalent source.
7.65 Age t. Experimental Values for Moderators, t is given in Table 14 of
Sec. 6-2, Table 24 of Sec. 1-1, and Table 13 of Sec. 2 (H20, 31; D20, 125; Be, 97;
p&phite, 364).
Calculated Values for Moderators of Higher Atomic Weight than Beryllium
-
"*>
/.*s>
Effective age f
from fission source: See Art. 9.9 and Eq. (48) of Sec. 6-2.
Moderator-F uel Lattices. Use r for moderator if fuel is uranium metal and
(volume fuel)/(volume moderator) is small. (See Art. 9.9 of Sec. 6-2).
7.66 Two-group Slowing-down Area
L/1 = Eq. (84) of Sec. 6-2

*/'
For hydrogen-moderated reactors,
For other moderators: for example,

V = t ** Art. 5.6 of Sec. 6-2
-
L,* = ('*' 1)/B (see Arts. 5.6 and 9.9 of Sec. 6-2)
where B* is the buckling according to Fermi theory obtained either from the char
acteristic equation (1 + LtB1)e,B' = k (if the core material has been selected) or
from the equivalent bare-reactor equation (Table 5 of Sec. 6-2), if the geometry has
been chosen.
7.67 Fictitious Fast Absorption Cross Section S/
2./ = D,/L,'
7.68 Extrapolation Distance
For plane black boundary
= 0.71X,,
For other cases see Art. 2.22 of Sec. 6-2.

7.6 Characteristic Equations

Fermi Age Theory
(1 + L'B*)er'" -k Eq. (82) of Sec. 6-2
Modified One-group Theory
1 + MB = k B' = tj=J Eq. (93) of Sec. 6-2

M*
where M 1 = LJ + L/
Tito-group Theory
(1 + LB)(1 + L/'B) = k Eq. (89) of Sec. 6-2
Solutions of Eq. (89) for core and reflector are given in Eqs. (109) to (112) of Sec. 6-2.
B* = (4 l)/M*
is,
in all cases, first approximation of the fundamental buckling,

+ a
where M* L' r(Fermi) or L* L/1 (two-group).

+
is
7.7 Solution of Wave Equations for Critical Reactors
V* B' = - x'4> = Eqs. (76) and (13) of Sec. 6-2

+
V0
0
7.71 Bare Reactor. Formulas for flux and critical dimensions are given in
Table of Sec. 6-2.
5
Two-group Fast Flux
*/ _ Z..n + DikB1 _ k
2^ 1
+ L''Bt
V'\
1
vf"' n
X iissions/(cm,)(sec)
Eqs. (92), (208), and (89) of Sec. 6-2
*' _
v
2G/(1 + L,*B>)
Leakage formulas are given in Art. 6.6 of Sec. 6-2.
7.72 Reflected Reactors, Two-region, Two-group. Coupling Coefficients
S - *- Z '* + D'"B'
Eq. (92) of Sec. 6-2
tk V^'f
Other coupling coefficients are given in Eqs. (127) to (130) of Sec. 6-2.
Solutions. Solutions are given in Sec. 6-2 as follows:
Cylinder :
Radial reflector Art. 7-1
End reflector Art. 7-2
Rectangular parallelepiped reflected on one pair of faces Art. 7-3
Sphere Art. 7-4
Bare cylindrical reactor with central region Art. 7-5
Reflectors in more than one direction: reflector-savings method Art. 7-7
See also example of complete reactor solution in Art. 1 1 .
Solution by Matrix Method (for two or more regions). See Art. 8 and example in
Art. 11.7 of Sec. 6-2.
8 CALCULATION OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

See Sec. 7-1, by J. M. West.
Nomenclature
A = activity, disintegrations per second. For reactor coolant, A = disintegrations

per second per cubic centimeter of coolant
Mi = atomic mass of original nuclide, Mj = atomic mass of daughter or product
nuclide
N = number of atoms of nuclide at time t. For reactor coolant, N = number, at
time I, per cm' of coolant. Ni refers to original nuclide, Nt to daughter or
product nuclide, No (abbreviation of Ari) = number of original atoms at
time 1 = 0
T = total operating time of reactor, sec
I = time, sec. U = time for a single circulation of coolant through a closed reactor
circuit, t, - time for a single passage through the reactor core
Q = volume rate of flow of coolant from reactor, cm'/'sec
weight of
fluid
; in reactor core . , .. ... .
a = p- For a constant-density fluid, this is the same
weight of fluid in the system
as the volume ratio
X = disintegration constant, sec-1. Xi refers to original nuclide, Xs to daughter
or product nuclide
= neutron flux, neutrons/(cm,)(sec)
a = microscopic absorption cross section, cm!. a\ and aaci are the absorption
and activation cross sections, respect ively, of the original nuclide. <r is the
absorption cross section of the product nuclide.
8.1 Units
8.11 Half-life TW = (In 2)/X = 0.693/X X = 0.693/7^4 (see Art 1.22 of Sec.
7-1).
8.12 Mean lifetime = 1/X, sec.
8.13 1 curie = 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations per second more precisely, the quan
tity of a radioactive material that undergoes this rate of disintegration.
8.2 Burnup, Activation, and Decay
8.21 Activation and Decay Formulas. Table 32 summarizes formulas for simple
casesof activation and decay. These and other cases are given in Art. 2 of Sec. 7-1.
Cross sections and half-lives are given in Table 1 of Sec. 7-1 and Table 19 of Sec. 2.
8.22 Activity of Radioactive Parent
Activity
= /liVoXi disint./sec
= /iiVoXi/(3.7 X 1010) curies
Activity per gram of parent nuclide initially present = 0.602 X 10"/iXi/A/i disint./sec
= 1.63 X 1013/i\i/A/, curies
8.23 Activity of Radioactive Daughter or Product

Activity
= /2AToX2 disint./sec
= /jJVoX2/(3.7 X 10l) curies
Activity per gram of original nuclide initially present = 0.602 X 10,4/jX2/Afi disint./sec
= 1.63 X 10"/2X2/A/l curies
8.3 Fission-product Decay Heat

See Art. 3 of See. 7-1, also Art. 2.4 of Sec. 11 and Art. 1.7 of Sec. 2.
8.31 Way-Wigner Formula
= 6.22 X 10-[r0! - (To + O-0-']

Po
where = decay heat rate as a fraction of operating heat rate
P/Po
To = time fuel is in reactor, sec
I = time after shutdown or removal from reactor, sec
Approximately half the heat appears as (S-particle energy and half as 7-ray energy.
8.32 Untermyer-Weills Formula. Table 33 gives the decay heat rate according
to the Untermyer-Weills formula (see Art. 3.2 of Sec. 7-3).
8.33 Decay Heat of Specific Fission Nuclides. See Art. 2.4 of Sec. 11.
8.4 Coolant Activity
8.41 Activation and Activity Data. Table 34 summarizes data for dominant
activities of short half-life. For data on other short-half-life nuclides, see Art. 4
of Sec. 7-1.
Table 35 gives formulas for calculating coolant activity from the data of Table 34.
8.42 Activity of Coolant. Table 35 summarizes formulas for ATt, the number of
activated atoms per cubic centimeter
Activity per cubic centimeter = A'2X2 disint./sec

= iV2X2/(3.7 X 10lu) curies
Table 32. Simple Activation and Decay Formulas*
General formula Simplified formula for small decay or burnup

0
Ii
a
<
(all values of X< nd >/

<
Case
Original atoms Product Original atoms
or first daughter atoms, Product atoms,
remaining, remaining,
/,
/.
- Ni/No - Nt/N,
fx
/i
- Ni/No - Ni/N,
Decay of radioactive nuclide:

- - -
(I
[I
Daughter stable exp ( XiO exp (-Xif)] Xi Xil(l HXil) Xi(
Xi - - -
(
+
Daughter unstable exp Xi() (exp (-Xil) exp (-Xs<)] (I X,.) X,([l ><i(Xi X,)l) Xi
Xj
Xi -
Burnup of stable or long-lived nuclide by neu

tron al>sorption:
-
+
(1
Product stable exp ( ai4>t) texp ( aidtt) exp ( at4*t)] <ri*() <ri*[l yi(.o\ i)*<] "\M
-
(I
Product unstable exp (-en**) (exp (-i0 <ri0

+
(-
J)
-
+
exp (-(, X,)l)|
(
(1
Activation of stable or long-lived nuclide for exp (710(a)

{exp ( <T10ta) !**.)
time ta followed by additional decay time td
-
+
exp [-(<r, Xi)(a]) exp (-Xi/i)
JVi - /iATo AT. - /.ATo
*
Neutron-absorption formulas containing Xi are for the activation product, with av meaning <ra* in cases where absorption and activation are not synonymous.
*
Table 33. Decay Heat Rate of Fission Products
Exposure time
Cooling
1 min 1 hr 1 day 1 week 30 days 90 days 1 year 2 years Infinite
time
1M* 0. 0193 0 0425 0.0516 0.0549 0. 0566 0.0575 0.0582 0.0584 0.0589
(0 0192) (0 0404) (0.0488) (0.0513) (0.0528) (0.0537) (0.0544) (0.0546) (0.0551)
10tee 0. 0132 0 0355 0. 0446 0.0479 0.0496 0.0505 0.0512 0.0514 0.0519
(0 0132) (0 0334) (0.0418) (0.0443) (0. 0459) (0. 0468) (0.0475) (0.0476) (0.0481)
1 rain 0. 0050 0 0234 0.0325 0.0358 0.0375 0.0384 0.0390 0.0393 0.0397
( 0049) (0 0214) (0. 0297) (0.0322) (0.0337) (0. 0346) (0.0353) (0.0355) (0.0360)
10 min 0. 00052 0 0089 0.0174 0.0207 0.0224 0.0234 0. 0240 0.0242 0. 0247
(0 00046) (0 0073) (0.0152) (0.0177) (0.0193) (0.0202) (0. 0209) (0. 021 1) (0.0216)
1 hr 0. 00006 0 0025 0. 0092 0.0124 0.0141 0.0151 0.0157 0.0159 0.0164

(0 00005) (0 0021) (0.0085) (0.0109) (0.0124) (0.0133) (0.0140) (0.0142) (0.0147)
6hr 0 00001 0 00041 0. 0037 0.0066 0. 0083 0.0092 0.0099 0.0101 0.0106
(0 00001) (0 00040) (0. 0034) (0.0056) (0.0071) (0.0080) (0. 0087) (0. 0089) (0.0094)
1day 0 00008 0.0013 0.0035 0. 0050 0.0059 0. 0066 0.0068 0.0073

(0 00007) (0. 001 1) (0.0026) (0.0041) (0.0050) (0.0057) (0.0058) (0.0063)
1week 0 00001 0.00018 0. 00089 0. 0019 0.0027 0.0033 0.0035 0.0040

(0 00001) (0.00014) (0. 00074) (0.0017) (0.0025) (0.0032) (0.0033) (0.0038)
30 day. 0. 00003 0. 00020 0. 00061 0.0011 0.0016 0.0018 0.0023

(0.00003) (0. 00020) (0.00061) (0.0011) (0.0016) (0.0018) (0.0023)
90 days 0.00001 0.00005 0. 00018 0.00041 0. 00076 0.00090 0.0014

(0.00001) (0.00005) (0.00018) (0.00041) (0.00076) (0.00090) (0.0014)
1year 0. 00001 0. 00003 0. 00007 0. 00018 0.00026 0.00067

(0.00001) (0.00003) (0.00007) (0. 00018) (0.00026) (0. 00067)
5years 0. 00003 0.00035

(0.00003) (0.00035)
1 1
* The tabulated quantity ia P/P%, the decay heat rate or power aa a fraction of the operating power,
according to the Untcrmyer-Weills formula (see Art. 3.2 of Sec. 7-1). The first quantities give the total
beat ratio for irradiated natural uranium. The quantities in parentheses are for the fission products
alone, after allowing for heat of decay of U,,t and NpMt; for practical purposes this is the heat ratio for
irradiated U**,
Table 34. Reactor Coolant-activity Data
Decay of product
Iso topic Activation Factor for Reactor coolants in
Reference
is
Applicable which activity

Reaction abundance, cross section material determining flux
per cent ff<Ml Half-life Disint. const. Particle and important
At, sec-1 energy, Mev
'
X
X
D(n,T)T 100 0.57 mb DiO 3.4 10 Thermal 12.4 years 1.77 10" 0-0.019 Heavy water
4
7.
0"(n/,p)N" 99.76 0.04 mb HiO 1.33 X 10" Virgint see 0.0936 0-3.8, 4.3, 10.3 Water, heavy water,

X
DsO 1.21 10" 76.13, 7.10 other coolants contain
0 ing oxygen
Na"(n,7)Na" 100 0. 56 barn Na 1.47 X l0- Thermal 15.0 hr 1.28 X 10" 1.39, 4.2 Sodium and its alloys
72.755. 1.38. 3.7
'
1
0
X
X
K"(n,7)K" 6.91 . barn K 1.07 10 Thermal 12.4 hr 1.55 I0' 0-3.6. 1.9 Potassium and its alloys
71.51
X
X
A(n,7)A 100 19 mb Bi 5.48 10 Thermal days 1.60 10" 0-1.17
3
XX
Po"1" 138. days 5.80 10" a5.30. 4.5 Bismuth and its alloys
7O.8O
*
if
is
is
For luiuid coolants, N\o*ct the tabulated quantity multiplied by the number of grams of reference material per cubic centimeter of coolant; the coolant
is
the pure reference material, the multiplier the density of the coolant in grama per cubio oentimcter.
is
For air (0.94 per cent argon), the tabulated quantity Nivi per oubic centimeter of air at 0C and 76 cm Ug. This number must be adjusted for temperature,
pressure, and dilution with other gases.
t
Virgin flux: X
3.1 t0*P
* -
Na*a
where number of neutrons per fission
vP
power density, watts /cm1
= number of hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter
Xg
a scattering cross section of moderator for neutrons above Mev.
9
H
1
IX
For hydrogen. <rH^ I0~" cm1, i.e., barn.
,
(p
In water- moderated reactors with Um (or natural uranium) as fuel = 2.47)

X
7.6 10"P
"
B
At (N - 6.7 X 10"), $* - 1.14 X 10'P.
B
ordinary temperatures
In heavy-water moderated reactors, use the same constants but increase the calculated activity by 30 per cent.
Table 35. Activity of Reactor Coolants*
Activated atoms per cubic centimeter,

At
Closed (recirculating) systems:

ATi<r,* (1 - exp [-(X + Fi^)qf,]tl 1 - exp {-(X, + 7a)T]}
I 1 - exp I- (Xi 4- *a)/<)]
General case
Xj + 0t+
Very short-lived activitieat (N11,
etc.):
At exit from core. [1 - exp (-XM/e)]/Il - exp (-XjM]
At entrance to core
Xj
[1 -exp(-Xa/e)](expI-Xj(l -a)M|/[1 -exp(-Xrfe)J
Moderately short-lived activities}
N\aaettr*tfr - exp (-XD]
Special case 2. ujo X
N\Oact
[I - exp (-<M*a5T)]
Upper limit of activity}

Total number of
Activated atoms Ni per cubic accumulated undecayed
centimeter of effluent effluent atoms after
time T
Open (once- through) Systems:
General case
N\9*ei
f1 - exp (-(Xi + *)M) ^[1 - exp (-X.D]
Xi + <ri0 Xi
Very short-lived activities! (N11,
etc.) [1 - exp (-Xtf,)] ' JV,Q/Xi
Moderately short-lived activities}
(A, Na", etc.) Nlffatt&r ATiQ/X,
Long-lived
purities)
activities^! (most im
Nitr I XiQ
[1 - exp (-XiDl
Cpper limitf N*QT
* Burnup and decay of the initial nuclide are ignored in all cases. Ni and Nt are numbers per cubic
centimeter of coolant. Nivi and Xi are derived from Table 34 or sources given in Art. 8.21.
t Burnup of activated nuclide during a few half-lives is assumed negligible; i.e., <ri < O.IX2. Ap
proach to saturation is assumed, i.e., steady operation for more than five half-lives.
X Burnup of activated nuclide during a few half-lives is assumed negligible; i.e., vt4>< O.lXi. Ap
proach to saturation is assumed, i.e., steady operation for more than five half-lives. Circulation time
U of fluid through the system (or passage time U through the reactor for an open system) is assumed to be
short compared with the half-life, i.e., U or U <
0.2?^.
1 Burnup and decay of the activated nuclide during a few circulations are assumed negligible, i.e.,
(Xt + m)te < 0. 1. For open circuit, (Xi + 0)(r < 0. 1.
} This upper limit of activation for a finite time is approached if burnup and decay of the activated
nuclide are negligible in the time T, i.e., if (Xa + <ri < 0.1,<or0.1, or for
for open openif circuit,
circuit, \iT < 0.1.if < 0.1. \iT
9 HEALTH PHYSICS
See Sec. 7-2, by K. Z. Morgan.
9.1 Units
9.11 Units Used in Dosimetry. Table 36 describes units of radiation dose. For
details, see Art. 1.2 of Sec. 7-2.
Table 36. Units of Radiation Dose
Type of Medium to
Basis of
Unit radiation which Remarks
definition
measured applicable
Roentgen, r X-ray Air 1 esu/cins of air Exposure dose. Equiva

T-ray of less at 0C 760 mm lent to 83.9 ergs/g air
than 3 Mev. Hg ( 1 cma of air based on 32.5 ev per ion-
- 0.001 293 g) pair, or 87.7 ergs/g based
on 34 ev per ion-pair
Roentgen equivalent Any Usually soft Usually 93 ergs/g Absorbed dose (obso
physical, rep tissue (98 ergs /g based lescent)
on 34 ev per ion
pair)
Rad Any Any 100 ergs/g Absorbed dose. Stand
ard unit for all classes of
radiation work
Roentgen equivalent Any Any body tissue (Number of rads) Standard unit for biologi
man, rem (including bone) X RBE cal effects
Volume-integrated Dose. Gram-roentgen, gram-rep, and gram-rad are the doses

(in r, rep, and rad, respectively) integrated to give total energy absorption over the
entire body (see Art. 1.25 of Sec. 7-2).
9.12 Relative Biological Effectiveness, RBE. See Art. 1.4 of Sec. 7-2.
j^gg _ Co607 dose in rads to produce a biological change

actual dose in rads to produce the same change
For RBE of heavy ionizing particles, see Table 1 of Sec. 7-2; for other particles,
Table 2 of Sec. 7-2 (see also Table 37 of Sec. 1-1).
9.2 Radiation Dose from External Sources
See Art.1.6 of Sec. 7-2.

9.21 Factors Affecting Maximum Permissible Dose. Figure 1 of Sec. 7-2 shows
linear and threshold radiation-damage rates. Figures 2 and 3 show maximum per
missible dose at various parts of the body.
9.22 Maximum Permissible Dose Rate. Sec Art. 1.6 of Sec. 7-2. Basic rate
for adults 0.3 rem/week. If averaged over several years, 0.1 rem/week.
For minors under 18 and others living in the neighborhood of the controlled area,
one-tenth of the above rates.
These dose rates may be increased considerably as prescribed by Figs. 2 and 3
of Sec. 7-2.
9.23 Planned emergency dose for adult male (or woman over 45), 6.25 rem.
This dose may be increased considerably as prescribed by Fig. 3 of Sec. 7-2.
9.24 Calculation of Dose Rate. Table 37 of this section, based principally on
Table 2 of Sec. 7-2, summarizes the particle fluxes corresponding to maximum per
missible dose rate. Footnotes indicate other sources of data.
Table 37. Flux for 7.6 mrem/hr at Surface of Body (0.3 rem per 40-hr Week)
Approximate flux,
Type of radiation RBE parti cles/(cmJ) (sec)
1 4.200/E (Mev)
(2.5) 1.930 (2,000*)
Mev >3 3 2 1 0.5 0.1 0.01
Fist neutrons* (10)
Flux 30 30 40 60 80 200 1.000
1 4,340/S., S- from Table 3 of Sec. 7-2
10 400/S., S from Table 3 of See. 7-2
10 1.3 X I0'/(stopping power from Fig. 4 of Sec. 7-2)
Heavy ions 20 Oxygen ion: 6.5 X 10'/(atopping power from Fig. 4 of
Sec. 7-2)
* International values
(see Table 4 of Sec. 7-2). Actual biological dose and energy deposition in
due as a function of depth are given by Snyder, Figs. 5 to 13 of Sec. 7-2. Table 4 of Sec. 7-2 gives
maximum permissible neutron flux based on these curves.
t Flux is also given for electrons by 1.3 X I0*/(stopping power) and for a particles by 1.3 X 10V
stopping power). Obtain stopping power from Fig. 4 of Sec. 7-2. The results are only approximately
equal.
Equations (12) to (19) with Table 3 permit calculation of dose in soft tissue or bone at any depth, or
averaged over the range of a particle of given initial energy.
9.26 Natural Background and Common X-ray Exposures. See Tables 5 and 6
of Sec. 7-2.
Maximum Permissible Internal Dose
9.3
The maximum permissible concentration in air or water is determined by the

maximum permissible body burden for the particular nuclide to produce 0.3 rem /week
st the critical organ. Article 1.7 of Sec. 7-2 describes methods of calculation for
specific nuclides, for both continuous and single exposures. For periods not exceeding
a few months, it is usually safe to use the following "general maximum permissible
concentrations" (from Table 7 of Sec. 7-2).
/J or 7 emitters 10-9 f<c/ml air 10-7 /ic/ml water

or emitters 5 X 10~12 jic/ml air 10~7 ^c/ml water
Dose from Internally Absorbed Discrete Particles. See Eqs. (33) to (36) of Sec. 7-2.
10 NUCLEAR RADIATION SHIELDING

See Sec. 7-3, by E. P. Blizard.

Nomenclature
S. =energy absorption build-up factor, a function of geometry, material, energy,

and number of relaxation lengths (Table 7 of Sec. 7-3)
Br = dose build-up factor, a function of geometry, material, energy, and number of
relaxation lengths (Tables 4 and 5 of Sec. 7-3)
D = dose rate (including build-up), rad/hr
<>= photon energy of source, Mev.
B = rate of heat deposition, ergs/(sec)(g)
H' = rate of heat deposition, watts/g
R = distance from point source, cm
S = source strength for point source, photons/sec
t = thickness of attenuating material for point source, cm
j = thickness of attenuating material for collimatcd plane source, cm
m = linear attenuation coefficient of uncollided flux, cm"1

p = density of material, g/cm'
ti/p = total mass attenuation coefficient, a function of material and energy (Table 1
of Sec. 7-3), cm'/g
ita/p = energy-absorption mass attenuation coefficient, a function of material and
energy (Table 2 of Sec. 7-3), cm'/g
r =uncollided gamma flux at penetration t or x, photons/(cms)(sec)
To = incident gamma flux for plane source, photons/(cm,)(sec)
10.1 Relaxation Length, Half-thickness, and Tenth-thickness
The thickness of material to attenuate a y dose rate by a factor of 2, e, or 10 is

convenient for rule-of-thumb estimate of attenuation. The thicknesses are called
the relaxation length, half-thickness, and tenth-thickness, respectively, and are
interconvertible in accordance with Table 38. These characteristic thicknesses are a
function of y energy and also vary with actual thickness because of the build-up
factor.
Table 38. Relaxation Length, Half-thickness, and Tenth-thickness
Relaxation lengths Half-thicknesses Tenth-thicknesses
1 1.443 0.4343
0.6931 1 0.3010
2.303 3.322 1
10.2 -y-ray Attenuation from Point and Plane Sources
Step 1. Calculate uncollided flux r

Point source:
r =
-4-
4irR3
X e-f Eq. (2) of Sec. 7-3
Plane source:
r = Toe-"* Eq. (2a) of Sec. 7-3

Determination of p.. Table 1 of Sec. 7-3 gives (m/p). m = (p/p)p- Table 21 of

Sec. 7-3 gives both (jjl/p) and p. for selected heavy elements in a more limited range
than Table 1.
Number of relaxation lengths* = pi or px.
Step 2. Calculate y-radiation dose rate D or rate of heat deposition H at penetra
tion t for a point source
D - 5.767 X 10-'(p.a/p)E<,rBr rad/hr Eqs. (3) and (4) of Sec. 7-3
Simplified solution for tissue:
E0VBr
d = rad /hr
(Table 3, column 2) (Table 3, column 3)
H = 1.602 X l0-*(pJp)ErBa ergs/(sec)(g) Eq. (5) of Sec. 7-3
H' -
1.602 X 10-ls(M/p)tfcirB watts/g
Determination of E0. See Art. 2 of Sec. 7-3, also Tables 1 and 2 of Sec. 7-1.
* Relaxation length (thickness to produce attenuation by factor ) *
Dttermination of (na/p), BT, and Ba. (mo/p) from Table 2 of Sec. 7-3; B, from
Table 4 of Sec. 7-3 (for point source) and Table 5 (for plane source); B from Table 7
[for point source).
10.3 7-Ray Attenuation, Special Cases
10.31 Lead Shield for Co60 and Cs137 Sources. Thickness for 7.5 mrem/hr at
outer surface (see Table 6 of Sec. 7-3).
10.32 Approximate Unshielded y Dose from a Point Source. See Art. 9.2 of
Sec. 11.
D 7CJW(ff')s
where D = dose rate, r/hr ~ rad/hr

C = activity of point source, curies
JJo = photon energy, Mev
R' = distance from source, ft
10.33 Composite Shields. Shields containing a homogeneous mixture of elements
and laminated shields (see Art. 1.4 of Sec. 7-3).
10.4 Sources of y and X Rays
The energy spectrum of prompt y rays from fission of U*" is given in Table 8 of
Sec. 7-3; the decay energy of fission products as a function of time and energy groups
in Fig. 4 of Sec. 7-3; and y energy from neutron capture in Table 9 of Sec. 7-3.
10.5 Neutron Attenuation Principles
10.61 Biological Dose from Point Source of Fission Neutrons. Hydrogenous

Skidds. Equations (13) and (14) in Art. 3.4 of Sec. 7-3 give solutions in terms of
shield thickness, hydrogen density and thickness (Fig. 5), and removal cross sections
iTable 12 or Fig. 6). Separate solutions are given for nonaqueous and aqueous
shields.
Smhydrogenous shields (less than 50 atomic per cent hydrogen). The dose is
calculated by Eq. (15) or (16) as a function of biological effect of neutrons (Table
13), distance from source, shield thickness, and total removal cross section.
10.6 Sources of Neutrons
The U*" fission spectrum of prompt neutrons is given in Table 15 of Sec. 7-3,
delayed neutron data in Table 16 (see also Table 39 of Sec. 1-1), and a- and photo-
neutron sources in Tables 17 and 18.
10.7 Geometry
Article 5 of Sec. 7-3 gives methods of calculating y and neutron attenuation for
various geometries, with curves and tables of pertinent functions.
10.8 Shield Materials
Article 6 of Sec. 7-3 contains nuclear and engineering data of common shielding
materials. For list of tables, see Table 9 of Sec. 1-1.
11 PHYSICS OF REACTOR CONTROL

See Sec. 8-1, by S. Krasik. The section is based on one-group diffusion theory for
bare reactor.*
*
Two-group theory for a bare reactor and the effect of a reflector on neutron lifetime are discusnod
">Arte. 13 nd H of Sec. 6-2.
Nomenclature
B2 = buckling (geometric), cm"1
k = multiplication constant in infinite medium, dimensionless; k,n is "k effective";
k,x is "excess k"
L = diffusion length, cm
T = solutions of the reactor kinetics equation, sec; T, is the stable period (e-folding
time) after transients have disappeared
M = multiplication
S = source strength, neutrons /sec
V = volume of reactor core, cm1
v neutron velocity, cm/sec
18 = fraction of delayed neutrons per neutron emitted in fission; 0, refers to ith group
A = effective neutron lifetime, sec. /* is frequently used for A
X = decay constant of delayed neutrons, sec1; X, refers to t'th group,
p = reactivity, dimensionless
Z = macroscopic absorption coefficient, cm"1
t = mean life of delayed neutrons, sec; n refers to ith group; f is average mean life
0 = neutron flux, neutrons/(cm2)(sec); <Aois initial flux
Table 39. Delayed-neutron Data for U"s*
lOOpVp*
*W percentage
Group half-life, ri X. 0ITI
of delayed
sec neutrons
1 55.72 80. 39 0.0124 3. 3 0.00021 0.0170

2 22.72 32 78 0.0305 21.9 0 00140 0.0459
3 6. 22 8. 97 0. 111 19. 6 0.00125 0.0113
4 2.30 3.32 0. 301 39. 5 0.00253 0.0084
5 0. 610 0.88 1. 14 11.5 0.00074 0.00065
6 0. 230 0.33 3.01 4. 2 0.00027 0. 000089
Totals 100 0 0.0064 0.0833
* Data of Keepin, Wimett, and Zeigler, Tables 2 to 4 of Sec. 8-1.
11.1 Delayed-neutron Data
Table 1 of Sec. 8-1 gives the data of Hughes et al. for thermal fission of U236 and
Tables 2 to 4 give later data by Keepin, Wimett, and Zeigler for thermal and fast
fission of Th232, U233, U23S, U2, Pu230, and Pu2<0. Table 39 of this article summarizes
data for U236 from Tables 2 to 4 of Sec. 8-1; and numerical values in this article are
based on these data.
Table 40. Reactivity Conversion Factors for U23S*
Data of Keepin and Wimett Data of Hughes, Dobbs, Cahn, and Hall
Reactivity, p Inhoura Dollars Cents Reactivity, p Inhours Dollars Cents
1 ~4.35X 10< 156 I.56X 10' 1 ~3 .84 X 10' 132 1.32 X 10'
~2.3 X I0 1 ~3.6 X IO- ~0 36 ~2.6X 10* 1 ~3 45 X 10 ' ~0.345
0.0064 -280 1 100 0.00755 290 1 100
6 4X 10 > ~2.8 0.01 7 55 X 10-* 2.9 0.01 1
One dollar of reactivity correspondsto prompt critical, i.e., p equal to

0.
Reactivity in inhours = p/(p for stable period of I hr)
In both casesp may be calculatedby the inhour equation (Art. 11.41below), but the table is basedon the approximation that
p for a stable period of I hr is equal to 0f/3,6OO. For long periods, reactivity in inhours is approximately 3.600/ 7Y
11.2 Reactivity
, neutrons generation
born in (n + l)th 2 k . . . , _
t./f = = - , Art. 1.2 of Sec. 8-1
neutrons
; :
born in nth generation
T._.
1 + L'B1

~ ^
"
k.u = 1 + k - --
1 p
klx
-
k.si - 1 =
p
1 p
11.3 Effective Neutron Lifetime*

=
A 1/[2.(1 + L'B1)] sec
where = neutron velocity, cm /sec
See Art. 1.2 of Sec. 8-1, also Eq. (245) of Sec. 6-2.
11.4 Reactor Kinetics Equation
It is assumed that there is no loss of delayed neutrons.
11.41 Inhour Equation
k.,, - 1 A

k,/f Tk,,//
+ )
V , ?\ m
+ A,/
Eq. (4) of Sec. 8-1; also Eq. (241) of Sec. 6-2
1
t
= Eq. (5) of Sec. 8-1

!+7^+?rfc]
For UMS, the data of Keepin and Wimett give:
J A
[A
IT
,
1
0.00021
+ 0.01247'
_
1
0.00140
+ 0.03057'
0.00125
f + O.llir 1
0.005
100253
4-0.301 T
T
0.00074 0.00027 1
+
1 + 1.14T 1 + 3.0irJ
11.42 Guide to Solution of the Inhour Equation. See Art 1.2 of See. 8-2.
The Stable Iteaclor Period is the e-folding time after transients have disappeared.
For positive reactivity, T, can have any positive value.
For negative reactivity, T, can have any negative value numerically greater than
r, (80.39 sec for U").
The inhour equation is solved by trial, making use of simplified approximate
formulas (below) where applicable.
The Six Transient Hoots. These are all real and negative. They are usually
solved by trial, and are located by the sequence
-80.39 < T7, < -32.78 < T2 < -8.97 < T, < -3.32 < T, < -0.88 < T,
< -0.33 < 7', < -A
11.43 Approximate Formulas for Stable Period with Positive Reactivity. See
Art. 1.3 of Sec. 8-1.
Very hug periods (small reactivity): p < 0.0005, T, > 200 sec (useful also as first
approximation for shorter periods the approximate value of T, is too large).
The following is for hare-reactor one-group theory. The contribution of slowing down to neutron
lifetime (two-group theory) is diacused by Dietrich in Arts. 13.3 and 14.2 of Sec. r>.2.
T. = - (A + jSf) (see Art. 1.32 of Sec. 8-1)

p P
For UJ", T. = - (A + 0.0833) =

P p
Very short periods (reactivity exceeding prompt critical by an amount numerically

equal to at least several times A).
A
_ A(l
-
-
p)
T' =
k./f(p 0) (p - 0)
See Art. 1.33 of Sec. 8-1; also Eq. (242) of Art. 6-2.
11.44 Approximate Formulas for Stable Period with Negative Reactivity. See
Art. 1.5 of Sec. 8-2.
Very long periods (small negative reactivity), T. negative but numerically greater
than 200 sec. Same as for positive reactivity.
Shorter Periods. The period is always numerically larger than the mean life of the
longest-lived delayed neutrons. For U"> t his is 80.39 sec. The limit T, = 80.39 sec
is approached for very large negative reactivity.
11.45 Rough Approximation of Time Behavior for Step Change of Reactivity
1. Prompt jump (or drop)
M ~
">
o 0 p
occurring in a small fraction of a second. See Art. 1.6 of Sec. 8-2 and Eq. (244) of
Sec. 6-2.
2. The flux increases from the level of the prompt jump, with a stable period T,
calculated from Eq. (4) of Sec. 8-1 or from approximations.
11.5 Steady-state Subcritical Reactor (fc// < 1) with Source
See Art. 1.2

1.2 of Sec. 8-2, Art. 1.1 of Sec.
g 8-3, and Art. 13.1 of Sec. 6-2
1
Source multiplication: M
1 k,/t
Total neutron production: MS n/sec
Total neutron population:
-
MSA = -
1 - *.//
neutrons
MSAv SAv .. ...

- k,/f)
, .
Neutron a
xt
flux in core: - = n/(cm,)(sec)
I I'd
12 FLUID PROPERTIES
See Sec. 9-1, by Wayne H. Jens.
12.1 Units
Nonsystemntic units (see Art. 1.15 of Sec. 1-3) are used in fluid-flow and heat-
transfer calculations.
12.11 Fluid Flow. The units are foot, second, pound-mass, and pound-force.
12.12 Heat Flow. The units arc foot, hour, pound-mass, Btu, and degree
Fahrenheit.
12.13 Fluid Properties. Properties are expressed in Sec. 9-1 in the same units
as used for heat flow, i.e., foot, hour, pound-mass, Btu, and degree Fahrenheit.
12.2 Dimensionless Numbers or Moduli
Dimensionless numbers must be calculated from properties given in consistent

units. Thus in fluid-flow problems velocity, which is expressed in feet per second for
all other calculations, must be expressed in feet per hour in calculating dimensionless
numbers such as Reynolds number from data of Sec. 9-1.
Viscosity data from other sources are often expressed in other units. If it is con
venient to express the other quantities in consistent units (as in the metric system),
the data can be used directly; otherwise it is suggested that Table 17 of Sec. 1-2 be
used to effect conversion.
The most frequently used dimensionless numbers are:
Reynolds number, Re _ DVP

A"
Nusselt number, Nu = ftP

k
Prandtl number, I'r =

k
For meaning of symbols, see nomenclature tables in Arts. 13 and 14. Table 3 of
gives a list of dimensionless numbers.
Sec. 9-2
Density of Water
Table 41 gives the density of water in grams per cubic centimeter at atmospheric
pressure from 0 to IOOC. The density maximum of 0.99997 g/cm* at approximately
4*C corresponds to 1 g/ml exactly (see definition of milliliter in Table 6 of Sec. 1-3).
For temperatures above 100C, Table 19 of Sec. 9-1 gives the specific volume v
in cubic feet per pound over a range of temperature (F) and pressure (psi). The
density is given by:
1 0.01602 . ,
s
62.428i> v
The density of heavy water is given in Table 27 of Sec. 9-1.
Table 41. Density of Water, g/cm'
c 0 2 3 4 5 6
J_ _'_ 9
0 0.99 984 990 994 996 997 996 994 990 985 978
10 970 961 950 938 925 910 895 878 860 841
20 821 799 777 754 730 705 679 652 624 595
}0 565 534 503 471 438 404 369 333 297 260
40 222 183 144 104 063 021 979 937 893 *849
50 0. 98 804 759 712 666 618 570 522 472 422 372
60 321 269 217 164 110 056 002 947 891 835
70 0.97 778 720 662 604 545 486 426 365 304 242
80 180 118 055 991 927 862 797 731 665 598
90 0.96 531 464 396 327 258 189 119 049 978 *907
100 0.95 S35

13 FLUID FLOW
See Sec. 9-2, by Charles F. Bonilla.
Nomenclature
cp = specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/(lb.<f)(F)

D = pipe diameter, ft
D. = equivalent diameter of noncircular duct, ft
e = surface roughness, ft
fr = Fanning friction factor, dimcnsionless
G = mass velocity. In fluid flow, units are Ibjf /(ft*)(sec); in heat flow, units are
lb./(ft!)(hr)
gc = constant numerically equal to gravitational acceleration, 32.17 ft /sec*. Usu
ally regarded as a dimensional constant (ft)(lb.v)/(secJ)(lbf). Sometimes
regarded as dimensionless
V = average velocity, ft/sec
v = specific volume, ft'/lb
to = rate of mass flow, lb/sec
volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion,
0 (F)_1
K = number of velocity heads lost, dimensionless
L = length, ft
AP = pressure drop, Ibf/ft*
volume rate of fluid flow, ft'/scc
Q
= cross-sectional area of fluid stream, ft'
S
ft = viscosity = absolute viscosity = dynamic viscosity, lbv/(hr)(ft). is
viscosity of fluid at wall temperature, in is viscosity at bulk temperature
p = density, lbw/ft'
13.1 General Equations
13.11 Continuity Equation
G = Vp w - Qp = VpS = GS Eq. (44) of Sec. 9-2
13.12 Velocity Pressure
Velocity pressure = =
2gc 2pgc 2gc
Friction in a Straight Pipe

13.2
13.21 Pressure Drop by Friction
A/' =
4/F
A p~ =
4/K
~
^- [See Eq. (28) of Sec. 9-2]
fr is the Fanning factor, given in Fig. 2 of Sec. 9-2. Many authors eliminate the 4
by using & friction factor equal to 4fr.f
13.22 Streamline Flow, Re < 2,100. See Art. 3 of See. 9-2.
For isothermal flow in long channels,
fr = Hi/Re AP = 4/K - = -
Dr 2f/c D,'gc
For
short channels, sec Table 2 of Sec. 9-2.
D, for streamline flow is given in Table 42 below (see Table 1 and Art. 3.12 of
Sec. 9-2, in which other cross sections are also discussed).
For nonisothermal flow (fluid and walls at different temperatures), calculate AP
(or fr) as above, and multiply by (ji//i*)0M if the fluid is being cooled, and biv/iu)0**
if the fluid is being heated. (See Art. 3.2 of Sec. 9-2 which also gives alternate
treatments.)
Table 42. Streamline Flow
Circular Square Parallel slot Annulus Narrow

annulus
T
Shape a
f
a- b
02-
I.12az W V*tf-ttk ****

13.23 Turbulent Flow, Re> 3,500. See Art. 4.2 of Sec. 9-2.
Fanning Factor /f. Calculate Re, estimate e/D from Art. 4.2 of Sec. 9-2, read /*
from Fig. 2 of Sec. 9-2.
Examples:
t fordrawn tubing, 0.000,005 ft; for commercial steel pipe, 0.00015 ft. /* i reactor
applications is typically 0.006, but may range from 0.015 to 0.003 or less.
Isothermal Flow. Apply the equation of Art. 13.21.
Xonisolhermal Flow. If fluid and wall are at different temperatures, calculate/],- as
above, but
1. for gases, use m and p at the average of bulk gas temperature and wall tempera
ture (foralternate method see Art. 4.21 of Sec. 9-2).

2. forliquids, use bulk liquid temperature and multiply fr by 0.98 0/w)0,1J.
The bulk density is used in calculating pV*/2gr.
D.for Turbulent Flow. See Art. 4.2 of Sec. 9-2. For a general approximation,
4 X area of cross section

D.
wetted perimeter
Table (from Art. 4.2 of Sec. 9-2) gives Dt for special cases; the formulas conform
43
exactly to the above formula in all cases except for the annulus.
Compressible Fluids. If the pressure drop is small compared with the total pressure,
use average properties; otherwise see Art. 4.22 of Sec. 9-2.
Table 43. Special Cases

Circular Rectangular Square Parallel slot Annulus Narrow

annulus
Shop*
Mi

*-a
h-Di-H
D2 Dz-H
2ob
a+b
2b D2-0,
2D2tnD2/D|
13.3 Friction by Change of Direction or Pipe Cross Section in Turbulent Flow
2f7e
13.31 Pipe Fittings and Bends. See Table 4 of Sec. 9-2.

1-52 GENERAL DATA [SfiC. 1
Table 44. K for Sudden Change of Cross Section
s./s, 0 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Enlargement 0.81 0.64 0.49 0.36 0.2S 0. 16 0.09 0.04 0.01 0

(0.4) 0.36 0.34 0.31 0.27 0.22 0.16 0. II 0.03 0.02 0
* K for contraction varies appreciably with conditions. The tabulated values are the lowest reported
( Weisbach) for a sharp-cornered contraction to be conservative 0. 1 should be added throughout. For
rounded edges the values are much lower.
13.32 Sudden Change of Cross Section. Table 44 gives K for sudden enlargement
and sudden contraction of a pipe.
S\/Si = (smaller cross-sectional area) /(larger cross-sectional area)
K is to be used with the higher velocity, i.e., the velocity in the smaller of the two
cross sections. For more accurate treatment, see Art. 4.3 of Sec. 9-2.
For a well-rounded entrance to a contraction, K = 0.05.
13.33 Orifices and Nozzles in Pipes. The over-all pressure-loss factor, based on
the velocity at the orifice or nozzle, is given in Table 45.
Table 46. K for Orifices and Nozzles in Pipes

Orifice or nozzle diam.
0. 1 0.2 0. 3 0. 4 0.5 n
u . t.
0 It
U. 7
/ 0.8 0.9
Pipe inside diameter
K for sharp-edged orifice 2.68 2.62 2.38 2. 16 1.87 1.50 1. 10 0.66 0.40
K for nozzle 0.98 0.92 0.83 0.70 0.56 0.41 0.26 0.13 0.04
In general, K = I/Cd1, where Co is the discharge coefficient of the orifice system,

including a sufficient length of pipe to permit contraction and subsequent expansion
of the stream.
13.4 External Flow
13.41 Flow across Tube Banks. For more than five rows of tubes, K per row
(based on maximum velocity): 0.72 for triangular pitch, 0.32 for rectangular pitch.
Article 8.2 of Sec. 9-2 gives a more accurate treatment.
13.42 Flow through Beds of Particles. See Art. 8.3 of Sec. 9-2.
13.5 Pressure Changes Other Than Friction Losses
13.61 Acceleration. The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the upstream and down
stream side, respectively. A positive value of means a pressure drop in the \P
direction of flow, a negative value means a pressure gain. Acceleration causes a
loss (AP positive), deceleration causes a gain (AP negative).
Pressure Drop Due to Change of Velocity at Constant Density
--îr^-t' ['"-I '['-']

Since this drop for a closed system usually does not exceed one high-velocity head,
it is usually ignored in rough calculations.
Acceleration Pressure Drop Due to Change of Density in a Channel of Constant Cross
---
Section
AP = P2IV
P1V1 O
(Vt - Vt)
For a more exact formula see Sec. 9-2, Eq. (30). This drop can also generally be
disregarded except for a boiling liquid.
Change of Velocity Distribution. In rough calculations, it is usual to ignore the
small changes in pressure that accompany velocity redistribution across a channel.
13.62 Difference of Elevation. See Eqs. (15) and (16) of Sec. 9-2.
13.6 Total Pressure Drop
The total pressure drop between two points is the algebraic sum of losses by friction,
and pressure drop by acceleration and difference of elevation. If parameters vary,
sections are subdivided and formulas are evaluated over the subdivisions, using
average values for the parameters. In some cases analytic solutions are available
for cases of varying parameters (see Art. 4 of Sec. 9-2).
14 HEAT TRANSFER
See Sec. 9-3, by Charles F. Bonilla.
Nomenclature
A = area normal to heat flow in slab geometry, ft1

a = width, ft
H = heat generation per unit volume per unit time, Btu/(ft*)(hr). H is assumed
to be constant unless otherwise stated
*/ = Mm coefficient, Btu/(ft,)(hr)(F)
kt = radiation coefficient, Btu/(ft)(hr)(F)
hr.g = gas radiation coefficient, Btu/(ft')(hr)(F)

k = thermal conductivity, Btu/(ft)(hr)(F). k is assumed to be constant
L = length of cylinder, ft
q total heat flow per unit time, Btu/hr. It, is assumed that heat flow is normal
to the surface in slab geometry and radial in cylindrical and spherical geometries
r = radius, ft
T = absolute temperature, K
( = temperature, F I
i = distance from left face of a slab or plate, ft
Subscripts: 1, 2, 3, = first, second, third, layer. For quantities which are

constant for a layer (a, H, k) the subscript refers to the entire layer. For quantities
which vary across a layer (q/A, q/2-rL, <//4ir, r, and t) the subscript refers to the
values at the left side of a slab layer or the inner radius of a cylindrical or spherical
layer (Tables 46 to 49).

Surface film coefficients and fluid temperatures take the same subscript as the
adjacent wall temperature, the fluid temperature being primed to distinguish it from
the walltemperature.
Variables (x, r, and <) are indicated by absence of a subscript.
14.1 Steady-state Conduction
Conduction formulas for important simple cases are collected and tabulated in
thisarticle. For other formulas and for unsteady-state conduction, see Arts. 2 and 7
of Sec. 9-3.
Algebraic Signs. In all tables in this section, the positive direction of distance and
heat flow is to the right in slab geometry, and radially outward in cylindrical and
spherical geometries. If heat flow is in the negative direction, algebraic formulas
remain unchanged, but when numerical values are substituted, the negative direction
is recognized by change of sign. Negative values arising in the course of computation
must retained.
be
14.11 Conduction in Homogeneous Solids with Internal Heat Generation. Slab
or Plate. Table 46 gives formulas for heat flow normal to the surface.
Table 46. Conduction in Homogeneous Slabs or Plates
Nomenclature and General Procedure*
Calculate qi/A if not already known:

q/A- (a) If q* is known, q\/A = qt/A H\a\
(6) If l\ fa is known, qx/A is given in each particular
case by the first equation for that case.
hi thermal conductivity
H\ => heat generation per unit time per unit volume
For sign conventions see text.
General Solutiont
qi/A - t*)k\/a\ -
-U=
Sen above figure. -= (i] Hiat/2
[
Criterion for an internal temperature (qi/A + Hia,/2)ai/k\
ti
- = (qi/A + Hix/2)T/ki
maximum:
cooling from both sides, <m
ti
- tit - (qi/Ay/{2Hxki)
or ai//i > (-qi/A) > 0
Heat Through-flow with No Internal Heat Generation
q/A - - (i)*i/ai
See Eq. (8) of Sec. 9-3.
Hi = 0 - (ii
tt = {qi/A)aifk\
fi
ti- -t (qi/A)x/ki
Highest temperature: fi or fiat a: Oor r = ft], respectively.
Internal Heat Generation with No External Heat Input
Case t. Heat remolded at right-hand surface

See Eq. (9) of Sec. 9-3. qi/A -
- 0
ri
ti- -
ti = //iuiV2Jfci
t Ifix*/2ki
J*max 0 'max =
Case 2. Heat removed at left-hand surface

This case becomes redundant Qi/A H\ai
- -
if it is regarded as a mirror
reflection of Case I.
t,
( -
(i tfioi'/2*i
ti = Hi(oi -
x/l)x/ki
XmKx di tuutx = fi
Case 3. Heat removed at both surfaces, surface temperatures equal

Q\/A * Hiat/2
,.
-
ti = //i(a. -
(
r ^\
j
t
imAx = m/2
x)x/2ki
fmRX <t - -
//iaiV8*i
* Solutions in this table are for uniform heat generation. For exponential heat generation of the form
H - a exp ( paj) + 0 exp ( ftgx)

the general equation is
To obtain ti tt write ai for x.

t To take into account unequal surface cooling or heating conditions of a single-layer slab, use Table
49, but reject all terms applying to second and third layers.
Hollow Cylinder. Hollow-cylinder formulas contain terms of the type In r2/ri.
When Tz/ti is not large, it is convenient to write
p.. radial thickness of tube

wall t r2 n 2(r/n
1)
i
In /
T\fT\ r x . = t
average radius of tube (r2 + n)/2 r2/ri + 1
r2/n 1 1.5 2 3 4
F 1 1.01 1.04 1.10 1.15
Table 47 gives formulas for radial heat flow. When r2/n < 2, it is also satis
factory to use slab formulas, with oi equal to the wall thickness of the tube and the
flow area equal to the cylindrical surface at average radius, i.e., x(ri + r2)L.
Sphere. Table 48 gives formulas for radial heat flow in spheres.
14.12 Conduction in Multilayer Solids with Internal Heat Generation and Con
vection Cooling. Table 49 gives solutions for the temperature differences across
layers for multilayer slabs, cylinders, and spheres, with heat generation uniform in
each layer and with convection cooling on both sides of the assembly. Solutions are
given for three-region solids, but they can be extended to any number of regions by
including terms for additional regions.
Procedure. The specified parameters are evaluated in sequence for the geometry
in question. Usually the temperature difference Att* between the coolant streams
is known* and in this case q\ is determined from the second of the two formulas for g'i.
If the heat flow (at either surface) is known instead of the temperature difference, g'i
is determined from the first of the two formulas.! If the left-hand or inner surface
is cooled, the numerical value of q\ is negative.
Cylindrical or Spherical Assembly with Solid Central Region. For a solid central
region the solution is modified as follows:

1. Continue to designate the solid inner core as region 1, with radius r2.
2. For a cylinder /i = H,n*/2 and mt = Hirt'/4ki. For a sphere fi = Htri'/3
%nd mi = Hir^l&ki. The parameters Q\, l/o, h, and q\ have no meaning.
3. Calculate /, g, I, and m for the surrounding hollow regions as usual.
4. For both cylinder and sphere Ati = mi, A<2 = m2, At3 = ms, At/, m/,.
Heal Transfer across a Fluid-filled Gap. A gap can be treated as an additional
layer, say the ith layer. Usually there is no heat generation in the layer and fi, gi,
and m.i are all zero. The value of U is as follows:
Slab Cylinder Sphere
Convection !/' + \/h" l/(r,*') + l/(n+,A") l/O-i'V) + l/(ri+,")

-
Conduction Oi/* (In ruifn)/ki O/n l/n+i)/fa
where h' and h" are the convection coefficients on the two sides of the gap.
Temperature Distribution within a Region. The temperature distribution within
the first layer is given by the general case in Tables 46 to 48. With proper change of
subscripts the same formulas, including the criterion for a temperature maximum,
apply to any layer.
Meaning of Parameters. The parameter /
represents! the total heat generation
within a layer, / represents the temperature difference across a layer caused by unit
rate of constant heat through-flow, gl is the temperature difference across a layer
caused by the internal heat generation within the layer, and m is the temperature
difference caused by heat generation within the layer and all interior layers.
Simplified Formulas for Fuel Elements. Table 50 gives formulas for simple cases,
ignoring heat generation in the clad. For less simple cases, use the general multi
layer solution.
Aft* may be positive, zero, or negative. It is positive if the temperature at the left-hand side of a
?Ub is higher than that at the right-hand side, or if the temperature inside a cylinder or sphere is higher
than the temperature outside.
t See second footnote in Table 49.
X The characteristic geometric divusorto A, 2wL. and 4jr have been applied to simplify the arithmetic.
Table 47. Conduction in Homogeneous Cylinders
Calculate gi/2xL if not already known:

(a) If f/j is known q\/2vL = qt/lirL Hi(ti* n!)/2
(6) If t\ tt is known, qi/2rL is given in each particular <
by the first equation for that case,
fci = thermal conductivity
Hi = heat generation per unit time per unit volume
For sign conventions, see text.
General Solution for Hollow Cylinder!

See above figure.
- (- <)*i - HiHn' - r,') - 2/-11In ri/n]/4
Criterion for internal temperature ?./2t
In ri/ri
maximum: - li 2, ,' In ri/n)/4]/Jti - -
li
- -
= (W./2.-Z,)
-cooling from both Hides or

In ri/ri + tfi(r.
ri>
- -
ri" n> > -(q,/2rL)(2/Hi) > 0
tl
rmw'
I
n - -
(((7i/2xf,) In r/ri + Hi(r'
(oi/2rL)(2/ffi)
ri iVi" In r/n )/4]/fci
fl (mav /iiria(a 1 a In a) /4ki where a ** (rmax/n)1

Hollow Cylinder with Heat Through-flow and No Internal Heat Generation
qi/2rL = (li ti)k\/\ll rj/n
- <l =
(1
d I - -[(7,/2L) In r,/r,]/*,
K,/2tL) In r/nj/ti
Highest temperature: d or tt at ri or rj, respectively.
t;
r2
H,= 0
Hollow Cylinder with Internal Heat Generation and No External Heat Input
Caeel. Orttward heat flow
-
9I/2W, 0
- - -
d (i = ffi|(ri'
(i * ffil(r
ri)
ri) -
2/-,' In n/ri]/4*i
2n In r/n]/4Jbi -
Maximum temperature: li at ri
Cage f.
Inward heat floic
q,/2*L= -//,(ri' -
- n)/2
-
ll
-
= tf i|2vi In r-i/ri
-
tl <r,' n')]/4*i
I d = Wi(2n In r/n (r> -
Maximum temperature: (i at rj
Com 3. Outward and inward heat flow, surface temperature* equal

?i/2xL = -/Y.(r,a*> -
- -
n)/2
rro.x'
- (r.
- n")/(21n r./n)
-
fl
(max
where a
li ffiri(l
-
a + a In a)/4Ar,
(rm/r,)' = |(r,/n)' l]/(2 In - rj/ri)
For ti t use the general formula.
*
' i
Solid Cylinder with Internal Heat Generation
- II -
tl
(l - - Hir'/Aki
//ir2V4*l
'mux = 'l
* Solutions are for uniform heat generation. For exponential heat generation of the form
// = (a/r) exp
(-nar) + (/') exp
(-^r)
fi - -
t J (qt/2wL) In r/r, + (exp (-^n) In r/n + ffi(Ma') - Ei(narx)}
4- [exp (-ppn) In r/n + Bitjipr) - Bifofin)] I

where Ei is the exponential integral (Table 15 of Sec. 1-2).
t To take into account unequal surface cooling or heating conditions of a single-layer hollow cylinder,
ue Table 49 but reject all terms applying to second and third layers.
Table 48. Conduction in Homogeneous Spheres
Calculate q\ /4r if not already known

fa) If qi is known, qi/A* = gi/4r H\(ri* na)/3
(6) If d ft is known, is given in each particular case by
the first equation for that case.
For sign conventions see text.
General Solution for Hollow Spheret

- - - - -
-See above figure. qx/4r (li h>*i/(l/ri
-
l/r,) ffi(ri n)(n + 2r,)n/6
-
Criterion for internal temperature
- -
i f* [(fli/4r)(l/n
-
l/r,) + ffi(n
-
n)(n + 2n)/bn]/ki
maximum: tx I [(fli/4r)(l/n
- - l/r) + Wi(r n)(r + 2ri)/6r)/*i
or rt*-
eooling from both sides
n > -(7,/4)(3///0
rmJ n> (i/4r)(3/.Yi)
> 0 Fur fmx evaluate rmax and substitute for r in t\ I formula.
Hollow Sphere with Heat Through-flow and No Internal Heat Generation
- - -
Ai/4r
ii-/i=
(ti (t)*i/(1/n
-1/rt)
l/n)/*i
1 -

(fli/4r)(l/ri
(oi/4ir)(l/ri -
l/r)/ifci
Highest temperature: ti or ij at rt or rt, respectively.
Hollow Sphere with Internal Heat Generation and No External Heat Input
Caee 1. Outward heat flow
-
- tt - 0>7i(ri - n)Hn + 2n)/6r./fe.
qi/Ax
h - t - /7i(r - n)(r + 2ri)/6r*i

I (i
Maximum temperature: fi at rt
Cane 2. Inward heat flow

-
-//.(rj> -
i/4*
- -H,(n -
n")/3
tt
/ -
it
li -
//i(r
n)>(2r! + n)/6tin
-
n)[2(rs> ri')/ri - - (r
- n)(r + 2n)]/6*ir
Muxiinuin temperature: fi at ri
Safid Sphere with Internal Heat Generation
- (i - Hir,'/bki
(i
ti -t- Hn'/bki
imix m ti at center
* Solutions are for uniform heat generation.

t To take into account unequal surface cooling or heating conditions in a single-layer hollow sphere,
k Table 49 but reject all terms applying to second and third layers.
1-58
Sf.C. 1-1] SELECTED DATA AND FORMULAS AND GUIDE 1-59
Table 60. Simplified Conduction Formulas for Fuel Elements
Temperature differences
Cue
Fuel Internal gap Clad Surface film
Symmetrically clad plate:

Cooling symmetric No gap // fa/af/2ke ///o//2A
H,<i,'/lk, No gap 0, IIfa}at/kt H,af/h
Cylinder:
Solid core, gap. clad Hfrfag/2ko H ft ftlrflrtke
Hi = heat (feneration per unit time per unit volume of fuel

ay, at, a9 = thickness (radial in cylindrical geometry) of fuel, clad, and gap, respectively
h = film coefficient at surface
rj. Tt, and R = radius of fuel, mean radius of clad, and outside radius of clad respectively
14.2 Convection, Condensation, and Boiling
Articles 3, 4, and 5 of Sec. 9-3 give comprehensive compilations of formulas for

convection, condensation, and boiling, respectively. Table 11 of Sec. 1-1 may be
used as an index to these formulas. For turbulent flow of nonmetallic fluids in long
circular pipes
Nu = 0.023 Re" 8 Pr See Table 3 of Sec. 9-3
14.3 Radiation
In the high-heat-flux regions of reactors, radiation is usually negligible compared

with conduction or convection.
14.31 Surface Radiation. For black-body conditions:
^=0171[(iS)4-(lS,)1 Bt/(ft.)(hr)
hR 6.84 ( V
VlOOO/
Btu/(ftl)(hr)(F)
q/A ~ M*i - <) Btu/(ft)(hr)
where Ti and Tt = absolute temperatures of the two surfaces, R

jH.v = average absolute temperature of the two surfaces, R
ii and tj = temperatures of the two surfaces, F
In cases where surface radiation is important, emissivity and geometric factors
must be introduced.*
14.32 Gas Radiation. Carbon dioxide and steam arc the only gaseous reactor
coolants that have strong absorption (and radiation) wavelength bands. The coeffi
cient of heat transfer is usually at least an order of magnitude lower than for surface
radiation, and can be evaluated as a rough approximation from Fig. 1. If the value
from Fig. 1 shows gas radiation to be important, a more accurate evaluation should
be made.*
Example: For a layer 0.01 ft thick of a mixture of 50 per cent COj with nonabsorbing
gas, at a pressure of 100 atmospheres, and average gas-wall temperature of 1500F:
DP = 0.01 X 50 X 100 = 50
From Fig. 1, has " 5 Btu/(ft!)(hr)(F).

See, for example, W. H. McAdams, "Heat Transmission," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1954.
sc
40
||
t- SO
Fio. 1. Nomograph to evaluate heat transfer coefficient by gas radiation. (From

G. Etherington and H. Etherington, "Modern Furnace Technology," 3d. ed., Charles Griffin Jt
Co., Ltd., London, in press.)
14.4 Over-all Coefficient of Heat Transfer, Conductance
14.41 Plane Geometry with Heat Flow Normal to Surface. The over-all coeffi
cient of heat transfer U for constant heat through-flow q/A is defined by
q/A - U(l,
where ti and /> are the terminal temperatures of the system.
Series Resistances to Heal Flow. For a series of parallel slabs of uniform thickness
1
U =
2(1 /A) + 2(a A)
where the first term of the denominator is the sum of the reciprocals of all surface
coefficients in series and the second term is the sum of the thickness/conductivity
ratios of all solid layers in series.
Heat Flow Processes in Parallel. Heat transfer coefficients by independent processes
in parallel are additive. For example, the heat transfer coefficient h from an external
surface to surroundings at constant temperature is the sum of the convection and
radiation coefficients:
h = hc + hR
Ifhe is a conductance across a transparent layer involving coefficients hi and A2 at

two heat-exchanging surfaces, hc = 1/(1/Ai + 1/hi).
14.42 Cylindrical and Spherical Geometries
Cylindrical: U = 1-xL/CLl, + 2/) ?i = UAt
Spherical: U = 4x/(2t/ + XI) qi = UAt
where // and I are defined in Table 49.

15 THERMAL STRESS AND DISTORTION*

See Sec. 9-4, by R. A. Daane.
Nomenclature and Units!
a = thickness of plate, inside radius of cylinder, in.

6 = outside radius of cylinder, in.
d = diameter of cylinder or sphere, in.
E modulus of elasticity, lb/(in.2)
H = heat generation per volume, Btu/(hr)(in.*)
k thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr)(in.)(F);fc = k'/V2 whereA;'isinBtu/(hr)(ft)(0F)
t temperature at a point, F
a = coefficient of linear thermal expansion, (F)~l
v = Poisson's ratio
<r = unit normal stress, tension when positive, lb/(in.*)
Table 61a. Maximum Thermal Stress for Simple Shapes*
Formula for maximum stress
Case
Component for uniform Component for temperature
heat generation difference between surfaces
Location of maximum stress.. At surface At surface

Character of maximum stress Biaxial, equal stresses | Biaxial, equal stresses
Equality of surface stress Magnitude same at both surfaces except as modified by factors
for thick hollow cylinders
Sign of surface stress Tensile at both surfaces Tensile at colder surface, compressive
at hotter surface
EaHd'
Solid sphere *
60*(1 - )
Long solid cylinder a- EaHd'
32*(l -
)
EaHa'
I2i(l -
Flat plate, free to bend a
')
Flat plate, not free to bend a. Ea

-
Ha'
- - Il)t
bk
,)
,)
2(1 2(1
Hollow cylinder!
Inside stress a*
Ea
-
, Ha' Ea
- Mtt - u)
Atk
)
2(1 2(1
.)
Outride strews a\,

Ea
-
, Ha' Ea
- /(to
- (.)
y)
2(1 2(1
-)
Ea
- (to
- U)
f
I
* Stress components are algebraically additive; positive value indicates tension at the surface and
a
a negative value indicates compression. For calculation of temperature difference, see Tables 46 to 48.
ii and 11 are the surface temperatures. The tensile (positive) stress at the colder surface.
is
t
/i
/i. /. and are given in Table 516. la and are the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces,
lh
J
respectively.
15.1 Order of Magnitude of Thermal Stress Calculated by Elastic Theory
_ KEaAt

V
1
where At the greatest temperature difference in the body and a function of

K
is
is
For significance of calculated thermal stress see Art. 1.5 of Sec. 9-4.
*
The formulas are valid for any consistent set of units, e.g., CGSC.
t
1-G2 GENERAL DATA [SeC. 1
Table Bib. Factors / for Use with Hollow-cylinder Formulas
ID/OD 0.1 0.2 0 3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 7 0.8 0.9 1.0
1.07 I 04 1.02 I 01 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
h- 6' 2b'
- a'
1
(In ft/a)
1.59 I 46 I 37 I 29 1.22 1.17 1.12 1.07 I 04 1.00
2o
- a
I
-1,-1 -0 41 -0.54 - 0 63 - 0.71 -0.78 -0.83 -0.88 - 0.93 - 0 96 -1.00
6 (In b/a)
Ka
(I - )
at room temperature (see Table I of Sec. 9-4): Uranium (cast) 230, Beryllium (extruded) 300. Graphite 1.8.
Austcnitic stainlesssteel 370. Aluminum 210. Zirconium 60. Structural steel 260, Cadmium 210, Concrete 30.
shape and temperature distribution. For simple shapes, K for homogeneous materials
Fct&t'
is usually between and 1; also <rm = where At' is the difference between
1 v
extreme and average temperatures in the body.

Exception: Axial Temperature Gradient in Long Bar
Generally, owi < \$Ea(M)d
where (M)d is the maximum temperature difference in a length equal to the major
cross-sectional dimension of the bar.
15.2 Thermal Distortion of Bars and Rods
See Art. 2 of Sec. 9-4.
16 RADIATION DAMAGE TO LIQUIDS AND ORGANIC MATERIALS

See Sec. 10-5, by V. P. Calkins.
16.1 Calculation of Radiation Damage to Specific Materials

See Art. 3 of Sec. 10-5.
Damage to a specific material is estimated from Table 1 of Sec. 10-5 (water, aqueous
solutions, and fused salts), Table 2 (organic fluids), Table 3 (elastomers), or Table 4
(plastics). The procedure is as follows:
Step 1. Calculate the rate of energy deposition Ei for the given flux of each kind
of particle, using the right-hand part of the appropriate tabic:
(given particle flux) X 10"

Ei = rads/sec
Particle dosages each equivalent to 1 X 10" rads
For Tables 1 and 2, n = !); for Tables 3 and 4, n = 7.

Determine the total rate of energy deposition by adding the values of Ei for each
kind of particle.
Step 2. Find the acceptable dose in rads from the damage indicated in the table.
Iêt this be D.
Step 3. Useful life of material = D/E sec, = D/Z.W0E hr = 0/(3.10 X lO'-E)
years. A numerical example is given in Art. 3.2 of Sec. 10-5.
16.2 Estimate of Fraction of Molecules Affected

In absence of data, the fraction of molecules affected may be estimated by formulas
for energy absorption given in Art. 2 of Sec. 10-5.
Fraction of affected molecules ~ 10~1SG.1//J
where 0 = molecules affected

per 100 ev absorbed [commonly about four for covalent
materials (see Art. 2.4 of Sec. 10-5)]
M = molecular weight of compound
D = absorbed dose in rads
For example, if O = 4, M = 100, and D = 10" rad, the fraction of molecules affected
= 0.04 or 4 per cent.
16.3 Radiation Damage to Electrical, Electronic, and Mechanical Systems
See Table 5 of Sec. 10-5.
17 SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS
by Alston S. Householder, and Sec. 3-2, by Ward Conrad Sangren.
See Sec. 3-1,
The theory and solution of equations are discussed in Arts. 4.2 and 4.3 of Sec. 3-1.
Practical application of some of the methods of solution is illustrated here.
17.1 Polynomial Equations
17.11 Quadratic Equations

ax* + bx + r = 0
-6 -
y/b* 4ac
X
2a
17.12 Cubic and Quartic Equations. Cubic equations can be solved algebraically
or trigonometrically, and the method can be extended algebraically to solution of
quartic (biquadratic) equations that have at least one pair of real roots. However,
Horner's method and Graeffe's method, described below, can be conveniently applied
to these equations.
17.13 Graeffe's Method for Polynomial Equations. See Art. 4.3 of Sec. 3-1.
Graeffe's method is direct, requires no trial solutions, and solves for complex roots
as well as real roots. Complications which may develop are discussed at the end
of the example.
The Method. To solve the equation x* + bx' + cx* + dx' + ex' + fx + <7= 0,
tabulate and proceed as described at the top of page 1-64.

Criteria for Terminating the Process and Formulas for Roots of the Original Equation.
case 1. Each of the coefficients bm, cm, . . . is equal to the square of the correspond
ing coefficient for the preceding equation; i.e., the product terms become negligible.
This is the case when all roots of the equation are real and unequal.
In absolute magnitude, xx = \/bm/l, it = \Zcm/b, x* - y/dm/e, etc. The
sign for each root must be found by trial, or by applying rules from theory of
equations.
case 2. The coefficients in a given column, say the c coefficients, become and
remain always half the square of the corresponding coefficients of the preceding equa
tions, while the coefficients on either side of this column behave normally, i.e., become
the square of the preceding coefficients. This indicates two numerically equal roots,
although the signs may be different.
The absolute magnitude of each of the equal roots is \/dm/bm, i.e., the 2mth root
of the ratio of the normal coefficients.
case 3. The coefficients of one column, say the c coefficients, continue to behave
irregularly, while the coefficients on either side behave normally. This indicates
a pair of complex roots x = u iv. A negative coefficient at any stage (except in
the original equation) indicates the presence of such a pair of roots.
First stage of solution Description of process
fc = coefficients of original equation

^d^ ^f ^g
= squares of coefficients
lac ,2bd
2ce-p2df 2eg
_ products as indicated, signs
alternating
1 (algebraic sums of above terms) g' = Coefficients of transformation

equation
4 Process is repeated until crite

ria below are satisfied.
8 For successive values of m,
write m = 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
16
Qm
Modulus
/dm/b,

Ji(6 + algebraic sum of all roots)
\/r2 - u*
u iv
other cases. Cases of more than two roots equal in absolute magnitude, or more
than one pair of complex roots between two real roots can also be solved by Graeffe's
method, as shown on page 1-65.*

Limitations of Graeffe's Method. Columns representing multiple roots may con
verge slowly, and initial convergence may even give place to divergence as the method
seeks to find roots which, in the higher-order equations, have been rendered unequal
by accumulation of approximation errors. Roots of approximately equal absolute
value also lead to slow convergence. There are simple algebraic processes (see Art.
4.2 of Sec. 3-1) for detecting and eliminating multiple roots (see standard works on
theory of equations). Horner's method (Art. 17.14) is useful to find and remove
troublesome roots.
Numerical Example from Page 1-65.
first hoot: x, = y/bn/\ = v'l.6148 X 10". Logi, -
33.20812 -i- 64 = 0.51888
|x,| = 3.3028. The sign can be found by trial, or often by applying rules from theory
of equations; for example, it is shown in Art. 17.14 that there is a root between 3
and 4, and it can easily be shown that there is no root greater than 3. X\ = 3.3028.
pair of equal roots (shown by column r):
= - tydm/bm = !x^(8.75!)6
'V(8.7596 X 1077)/(1.01 48 X 10")
10'')/(1.0148 - 2.2361
It is found that both positive and negative values satisfy the equation.
* See, for example, Doherty, R. E.. and E. G. Keller, " Mathematics of Modem Engineering.' vol. 1,
pp. 109 128, John Wiley A Sons, Inc., New York. 1930.
^ JJ j 5
o o o o
e
Vft
s \
1ft
rft X X
irt ft* ft* o o o X X X X
** OO cr. * CM ft*
"N 4i m ft
ft*
1ft
CN fNl (ft O O1-
ft. ft rft ift ftj (ft fft
~~ " ft* ftl
o o* o*
tft u-i ft* ft*
o a
OO
~ oo o

a

o

oo Q
XX X
XX X
o*n ft m* r>. (ft.-* o> x . X x . X
0 in o>"r
^* ftj u-ir*. (N e'V ft* cO 1 ft (ftl rft
ft*ft* LA rf*> o>
ft)o ft* O o^
c -
o^ o* 0>
1 r-*.o *o ("NO
ft* * r-i
o
>e r-. r^ NT
ft*
OO o oo
(N ^ V
1 oo o
o
1
ft.

a OOO
* a
oo
m
O
t.
OO
m
O
..
o
T
O
o
+ u-vOO .ft. X
s
*rs ft*0
XXX XXX X XX X XX X XX X
e *ft) ft "T cc O S %Oe
fft-eft* ft. rft tft rft, aOO 1 CO (ft 1
ift ftlÔ 1
0(ft 1
oo^ 1
r*.
1 OO (NINO o* r>.cc a-
i Of*. -ft moo
: (ft ft.
7 | fft c (ft ft
IN o Or*. ft* rvi Nf<^
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
!
K
-v
*
w *
1 ooo
JJ1IJ"_ 2 ___
OOO 3
* 5
OO
s
O
5
o ^
o J

J

i ft
ft* X X X X
272 25
XxX
2126 X
ft X
X
*l
X
X
CO
-44.00
-35.00
-5.00
*l
5438
CO
7295
0012
o
016
022
Ift rft
.749
=C
1
1
cc CO
I
I
i
-I- rN a- =
-oft* ift ft
sOOO ft, ft ft i*\ fft
fftrftO o. ""* ft o r-* ft.
- (ft rft o* o>' OO cO
1
1
i
~
>
ooo <=OOO O oo
oo oo
I
O
*'
oo XXX X XXX X XX X
XX X XX X
O w>0
-
. . . ft* ft *o fftOO
coo
2 r-* -V
11
y ~otr\ o OÔ* cc ~2 ft*

' i
0
jS 3!2
'1
>-. ft* ft*ft* cc (*M"NO O 1^.0 Oft*

ftrft ft. rftift.O o rsir*
***.
<
1
r*. -3 ftl rft Iftft* ft*

1
* OO o TM.
OO OOO oo o o
d
d

1
1
1
1
i
OO O OO
OO e oo s o
u-lO ft -oo XX XX
*ft ft* oo O X X
z
cc XX x x X

1
o *\ ft*oo ooft* rvi ao

-N * -c Ift -r
5
4.0498
0.0313
ft* (ft rftrft C

2
ft* ft* o
1
<N)0
1
1
a ' " - - - - " ' - -

-2 r-i -J-
-4 -r cc ro *o
D
II
1
H II
II
H
1
E
s
1
C
1-65
REMAINING REAL ROOT:
x, = VW/ = ^(2.9392 X 10)/(4.7493 X 10") = 0.30277
By trial, x6 = +0.30277.
PAIR OF COMPLEX ROOTS:
r! = = \V(4.7493 X 10S8)/(8.7596 X 10") = 0.49994

VU/dm
u =
= 1,^(3.5 -
}>4(b + algebraic sum of all real roots)
3.3028 + 2.2361 2.2361 + 0.30277) - = -0.24999
t, = v/r u- - V0.49994 - 0.06249 = 0.66140
x,.s = u iv = -0.24999 + 0.66140; = 0.24999(-l 2.6457t)
The six roots of the equation are: -3.3028, +2.2361, 0.2500(-l 2.6457t),
+0.3028.
17.14 Horner's Method for Polynomial Equations. See Art. 4.3 of Sec. 3-1.
This method is usually used in conjunction with rules for exploring the character of
roots and assisting in approximate location of roots. The method is illustrated,
without such aids, using the same equation as in the illustration by Graeffe's method.
Step 1. Divide through by the coefficient of the highest power of x, write
f(x) = xs + 3.5x5 - 4x< - 16.5x3 - 5.5xs - ox + 2.5
and evaluate f(x) for a series of values of x:

x -4 -3 -2 -1 1 0 1 2 3
1
m 478.5 -32 10.5 12 j 2.5 -24 -49.5 | 748
f(x) can be evaluated by direct substitution, but (except for small integral values of x)
it can be evaluated more easily by the remainder theorem. This is illustrated for
x = 3:
Add (vertical arrow)

and multiply by 3
(diagonal arrow)
as indicated.
fix) - 748
From the change in sign of tabulated values, fix) becomes zero between x 4
and x = 3, between x = 3 and x = 2, between x = 0 and x = 1, and between
x = 2 and x = 3.
Step 2. Arbitrarily, the equation will be solved for the root between 2 and 3.
A new equation is formed with all its roots 2 less than those of the original equation.
The process starts like the method described in Step 1 for evaluating fix), but is
repeated in the manner shown.
1 3.5 -4 -16.5 -5.5 -5 2.5

2 11 14 -5 -21 -52
1 5.5 7 -2.5 -10.5 -26 -49.6
2 15 44 83 145
1 7.5 22 41.5 72.5 119
2 19 82 247
I 975 41 123.5 319.5
2 23 128
1 11 .5 64 251.6
2 27
1 13.5 91
2
1 15.6
/<x) - x* + 15.5xs + 91x* + 251.5xs + 319.5xJ + 119x 49.5 -

The "remainders" (boldface) are the coefficients of the transformed equation,
-
0, whose roots are
all 2 less than those of the original equation. This equation must therefore have a
root between 0 and 1 corresponding to the root of the original equation between 2
and 3. As a first approximation, this root is given by 49.5/119 = 0.416 (since x < 1,
terms in higher powers of x tend to become small).
Evaluate fix) for x = 0.4 as described in Step 1.
1 15.5 91 251.5 319.5 119 -49.5 [0^4
OA^ 6. 36 38.94 "

116.18 174.27 117.31
1 15.9 97.36 290.44 435.68 293.27 67.81
Higher values of x give larger positive values of f(x); so the root must be less than
i = 0.4. Trial shows that for x = 0.3, /(x) = 22.52, and for x = 0.2, /(x) = -10.76;
i.e., the root lies between x = 0.2 and x = 0.3. All roots of the equation are next
decreased by 0.2.
1 15.5 91 251.5 319.5 119 -49.5

0.2 3 14 18.83 54.07 74.71 38.74
1 15.7 94 14 270.33 373.57 193.71 -10.76
0.2 3 18 19.46 57.96 86.31
1 15.9 97 32 289.79 431.53 280.02
0.2 3 22 20.11 61.98
1 16.1 100 54 309.90 493.51

0.2 3 26 20.76
1 16.3 103 80 S30.66
0_2_ 3.30
1 16.5 107.10
(K2
1 16.7
The transformed equation with roots 2.2 less than those of the original equation is
x + 16.7xs + 107.10x< + 330.66xJ + 493.51xs + 280.02x - 10.76 = 0
To continue the process, locate the root lying between 0 and 0.1. As a first approxi
mation, x = 10.76/280.02 = 0.038, and evaluation confirms that the root lies between
0.03 and 0.04. The equation is therefore transformed by reducing all roots by 0.03,
giving
x + 16.88x5 + 109.61x + 343.66x3 + 523.85x2 + 310.54x - 1.91 = 0
The roots of this equation are now 2.23 less than those of the original equation, and
continuation of the process establishes the root of the new equation as being close to
0.006; hence the root of the original equation is
x = 2.236
Step 3. Reduce the original equation by dividing by (x 2.236). The syn

thetic division is identical with Step 1, with the root being used as the multiplier
1 3.5 -4 -16.5 -5.5 -5 2.5 |2.236

2.236 12.8257 19.7343 7.2319 3.8725 -2.5211
1 5.736 8.8257 3.2343 1.7319 -1.1275 -0.0211
The reduced equation is xs + 5.7360x + 8.8257x 4- 3.2343xs + 1.7319x - 1.1275

= 0.
The quantity 0.0211, interpreted in Step 1 as the value of f(x) when x = 2.236,
is alternatively the remainder after division by (x 2.236). Ideally the remainder
should be zero, and the division serves as a check on the accuracy of the solution.
The reduced equation is solved for another root, and the process can be continued
until all real roots have been found. If t here is only one pair of complex roots, these
can be obtained from the residual quadratic equation.
Solution for the root between 0 and 1 gives x = 0.304 and a reduced equation
x> + 6.0400x3 + 10.6619x2 + 6.4755x + 3.7005 = 0. Solution of this equation for
the root between 2 and 3 gives x = 2.236 and a reduced equation
xs + 3.8040x2 + 2.1562x + 1.6542 = 0
Solution for the root between 3 and 4 gives x = 3.303 and a reduced equation
x* 4- 0.5010x + 0.5014 = 0. Solution of this quadratic equation gives
x = 0.2505(-l 2.6439t)
The roots of the equation are thus -3.303, 2.236, 0.2505(-l 2.6439t),
+0.304.
Limitation of Horner's Method. If the equation contains more than one pair of
complex roots, the residual equation after eliminating real roots is of fourth or higher
degree. The residual equation can, however, be solved by Graeffe's method.
Solution of Transcendental Equations

17.2
The following methods are applicable for finding real roots of any equation in one
variable, including transcendental equations. The methods are illustrated by solution
of the equation x sin x = 1.
17.21 Approximate Solution by the Two-graph Method. Let ;/ = sin x, then
also y = x 1. Plot the two equations with y as ordinate and x as abscissa. Points
of intersection of the two curves give roots of the equation. In this case, the only
real root is at x 1.9 (Fig. 2). A large-scale plot in the region of x = 1.9 will give
a closer approximation.
2
y
-I
Fig. 2. Two-graph method to solve transcendental equations.
This method is useful as a starting point for the following two numerical methods.
17.22 Method of Successive Linear Interpolation. (See also Method of False
Position in Art. 4.3 of Sec. 3-1.) Write f(x) = x sin x 1 and find two values of x
close together, say a and b, such that f(a) = a sin a 1 and f(b) = b sin 6 1
differ in sign. Then linear interpolation will give as a first approximation
11
[/('')- m)/(b - a)
r *'
[/(6) -f(a)]/{b - a)
The process is repeated using values of a and 6 closer to Xi, but still yielding a
difference in sign between f(a) and/(6). Further repetition gives increasingly close
approximation.
For the illustrative equation,
/(a) = /(D - - 0.8415 -

1 1 = -0.8415
/HO = /(2) = 2 - 0.9093 - - 1 +0.0907
0, = 1 - -0.8415
_ d 1-w-'
1 90" >7
(0.090 7 + 0.8415)/(2
e, = 2 - 0.0907
- - 1.9027
(0.0907 + 0.8415)/(2 1)
For the next approximation try a = 1.90, /(a) = 0.0463, and (after inspecting
the values developed in the first approximation) b = 1.95, fib) = +0.0210.
6i = 1.9
(0.0210
--f3
+ 0.0463)/(1.95 - 1.90)
= 1.9344
For the next approximation, try a = 1.934, /(a) = 0.0008, and (maintaining a
difference of sign) b = 1.935, /(6) = 0.0006.
0 0008
e = 1.934 1.934 + 0.0006 = 1.9346
0.0014/0.001
The next approximation gives 0 = 1.9345.

17.23 Newton's Method. Newton's method is a refinement of the method of
successive linear interpolation. It is illustrated by solution of the equation used in
the linear-interpolation method above.
Write f(9) = 6 sin 6 1 and the first and second derivatives. f'{8) = 1
cos 9,
/"() = sin 0.
As before, locate the root approximately :/(l) 0.8415, /(2) = +0.0907. Find
f(l) = 0.8415, /"(2) = +0.9031.
For a first approximation, 9\, use the value of 9 in which /(9) and /"(9) have the
same sign, i.e., 6 = 2.
e2 = 9l_/W=2-0^07 = 1.9359
1.4161
/'(9i)
Successive approximations are made without reference to f"($).
93_,,_ZW _19M_O0020
1.3571
f'(82)
6t = 1.9346 -0-0001= 1.9345

1.3558
Newton's method is convenient only if the derivative is a simple expression; also,

convergence is contingent on specific conditions being satisfied. The less elegant
linear-interpolation method is not so restricted.
17.3 Solution of Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations
17.31 Solution by Elimination. Several variants of this method arc discussed

in Art. 4.1 of Sec. 3-1, including the Doolittle method. This method is illustrated
by the following numerical example, incorporating an arithmetic check at each step:
- 3.17y -
4.15x
3.213 +2.12y - 3.3U
+ 2.412
7.61
= 2.41
2.9U + 1.65y + 2.332 = 8.41
Check sum*
Right
Operation V
siilc
By By
operation addition
I. Coefficients of equations 4. 15 -3 17 2.41 7.61 (11.00) 11.00

3.21 2 12 -3.31 2.41 (4.43) 4.43
2.91 1 65 2.33 8.41 (15.30) 15.30
2. Divide each line of I by the I -0 764 0.581 1.834 2.651 2.651

coefficient (if x 0 660 1.031 0.751 1.380 1.380
0 567 0. 801 2.890 5.258 5.258
Referring to -1
2,
subtract second 1.612 1.083 1.271 1.271

3.
424
line from first, and third from -1 331 -0.220 1.056 -2.607 -2.607
first
Divide by -1.132 -0.761 -0.893 -0.893

4.
each line of the 1

3
coefficient of 1 0.165 0.793 1.959 1.958

y
Subtract second line of from 1.297 -1.554 -2.852 -2.851

5.
first line of
4
Divide by coefficient of .198 2.199 IMS

6.
.'
z
-
From operation 1.132* - 1.198
z
0.761 = (1.132 X 1.198) - 0.761 - 0.69
6
4
From operation -
0.764 0.581*
- 1.834
+
2
(0.764 0.595) X 1.198) 1.834

X
(0.581
+
1.698
The numbers in the first column (except numbers in parentheses) are obtained by applying the
*
indicated operation to the preceding check sums. The numbers in the second column (and the numbers
in parentheses in the first column) are obtained by direct addition of the coefficients in the same hori
zontal row. The numbers must check at each line.
Check by substituting in one of the original equations.

the first equation gives (4.15 X 1.593) (3.17 X 0.595)
For example, a check using
(2.41 X 1.198) = 7.012.
-
+
It possible to solve the problem with one less row of figures, but the procedure
is
is
somewhat less straightforward.

17.32 Solution by Determinants. Sec Art. 1.4 of Sec. 3-1. The solution to the
simultaneous equations
d, d,
Oil ftil/ + f|2 =

+
ail + bty + cz
asj + b,y + c,z d,
written directly in determinant form as follows:

is
a",
a,
d,
fci ft, ft, ft,

b, ft, bt ft, /,, ft,
d. c. C\ (1,
a,
d, d,
d,
e ,1, Cj Hi
b, ft. d,
a, C a, d.
c
"
y
"i Cl Ol C\ <Ji 0\
h. !>:
<Jz c* ... <: Of c

Ql C| a. //, C| a. C|
The denominator the same in each case, and the determinant formed by the
is
is
coefficients of the unknowns. The numerators are identical with the denominators
except for one column, in which the quantities on the right-hand side of the equation
replace the coefficients of the particular unknown expressed.
To evaluate the denominator
Oj 61 Ci
6j C2 6l Cl I
ai 6S c2 + 3
&3 ^1
at 63 c3
(In this expansion the elements of the first column become the coefficients of the
minors, with the signs alternating. Each minor is obtained from the determinant
by suppressing the column and row containing the particular a coefficient.)
- ai(biC, 6,c2) - as(6,Cj 6jCi) + os(6iCS bjCi)
iTo evaluate a second-order determinant, multiply the elements diagonally in pairs,

downward to the right positive, upward to the right negative.)
For n simultaneous equations, the nth-order determinant is expanded in terms of
its n minors (determinants of order n 1), and so on. The properties of deter
minants permit manipulation to simplify the work.
Numerical example:
-
3.17j/ + 2.41z = 7.61
4.15x
3.2Lr + 2.12s/ 3.31z = 2.41 -
2.91* + 1.65i/ + 2.33.J = 8.41
7.61 -3.17 2.41 4.15 7.61 2.41

2.41 2.12 -3.31 3.21 2.41 -3.31
8.41 1.65 2.33
!l
- 2.91 8.41
-3.17
2.33
4.15 -3.17 2.41 4.15 2.41
3.21 2.12 -3.31 3.21 2.12 -3.31

2.91 1.65 2.33 2.91 1.65 2.33
4.15 -3.17 7.61

3.12 2.12 2.41
2.91 1.65 8.41
z =
4.15 -3.17 2.41
3.21 2.12 -3.31
2.91 1.65 2.33
Denominator = 4.15
2.12 3.31
J"
3.21
I -3.17 2Al I ,on,
i jy i -3-17 2-41
- -3.31
1.65 1.65 2.33 ! 2.12 I
2.33| I I
-
4.15(4.940 + 5.462) 3.21 (-7.386 3.977)
-
4- 2.91(10.493
5.109) * 95.311
By similar evaluation of the numerators
114J94
151.823
" L593 =
!/ =
56.774
0.596 = 1.198
95.311 95T3H 95.3lT
Substituting in original equations
X - X + (2.41 X 1.198) = 7.609

(4.15
(3.21 X
1.593) (3.17
1.593) + (2.12 X
0.596)
0.596) - (3.31 X 1.198) = 2.413
(2.91 X 1.593) + (1.65 X 0.596) + (2.33 X 1.198) = 8.410
18 ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION LITERATURE

This article is intended as an aid in locating and identifying the AEC literature
referenced at the end of most sections of the handbook. References to commercial
publications and publications of scientific and technical societies ned no clarification.
18.1 Availability of AEC Literature
18.11 AEC Depository Libraries. Unclassified and declassified AEC reports

are available in approximately 70 depository libraries throughout the United States.
Approximately the same number of depository libraries have been established in

foreign countries. The locations of these libraries are given in most of the general
and informational AEC publications, e.g., Refs. 1, 2, and 5 of Art. 18.2.*
A few of the depository libraries are designated "industrial information depository
libraries." These have supplementary technical reports and abstracts and collections
of unclassified AEC drawings.
18.12 The Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce, Wash
ington 25, D.C. Many unclassified and declassified reports can be purchased from
this agency (abbreviated OTS in subsequent references) in printed, photostatic,
or microcopy form. List of reports free on request (Ref. 3 of Art. 18.21).
18.13 Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash
ington 25, D.C. Some of the more substantial AEC documents can be purchased
from this agency only (abbreviated GPO in subsequent references). List of reports,
"Atomic Energy and Civil Defense Price List," free on request.
18.14 AEC Technical Information Service Extension (TISE), P.O. Box 1001, Oak
Ridge, Tenn. Some documents are obtainable from this agency (abbreviated TISE
in subsequent references).
18.16 Microcopy. Microcopy is available from OTS, from Microcard Foundation,
P.O. Box 2145, Madison 5, Wis., and from Readex Microprint Corporation, 115
University Place, New York 3, N.Y., the two latter being commercial enterprises.
18.16 Atomic Energy Publications by Other Public Agencies. United States
Bureau of Standards handbooks relating to radiological protection may be obtained
from GPO at prices ranging from SO. 15 to $0.25.
Nuclear Science Series Reports are available from the National Academy of Sciences
National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
18.2 Guides to AEC Literature
The following AEC publications indicate content, source, price, and other pertinent
data relating to official publications.
18.21 Consolidated Listings
1. Nuclear Science Abstracts (NSA), issued twice monthly, GPO, $7.50 per year,
also by purchase of separate issues. Abstracts of pertinent scientific and technical
literature, official and unofficial. Also periodic cumulated and supplementary
indexes, the latter serving to supplement TID-4000 (see next item).
2. TID-4000, "Cumulated Numerical List of Available Unclassified U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission Reports," revised from time to time, OTS, $1.25. Gives report
numbers (not titles), readily available sources (official and other), reference to Nuclear
Science Abstracts, and prices if for sale.

3. "List of AEC Research Reports for Sale," revised twice a year, OTS, free.
Gives report numbers, titles, etc., and prices.
4. TID-4022, "Consolidated Availability Listing of Confidential Reports Announced
to the Civilian Application Program," revised quarterly, TISE, free to L-and Q-cIeared
access permit holders. TID-4022 is unclassified. Formerly the listings appeared
in the abstract journal, Confidential Reports for Civilian Applications (RCCA).
Gives report number (not title), category, abstract reference, prices of printed reports
and microcopy.
5. TID-4023, "Consolidated Availability Listing of Secret Reports Announced
to the Civilian Application Program," revised quarterly, TISE, free to Q-cleared access
permit holders. TID-4023 is unclassified. Formerly the listings appeared in
TID-3063, "Bibliography of Secret U.S. Atomic Energy Reports Available through
the Civilian Application Program." Gives report number (not title), category,
abstract reference, prices of printed reports and microcopy.
6. TID-4100, "Unclassified Engineering Materials List" (UEML), with supple
ments, issued from time to time, Technical Information Service Extension (TISE),
P.O. Box 1001, Oak Ridge, Tenn., free.
* An up-to-date list should be consulted, since the number of libraries is continually increasing.
This document is "A Catalog of Drawings, Photographs, and Specifications Released
by the United States Atomic Energy Commission." The listed items are for sale
and the price and source are stated. Additional information from TISE.
7. TID-4550, ''What's Available in the Unclassified Atomic Energy Literature,"
revised from time to time, GTS, free. Gives general information on AEC literature.
Lists some AEC-sponsored series, manuals, and handbooks. Less detailed than
TID-4575.
8. TID-4563, "Special Sources of Information on Isotopes," September, 1957,
Isotopes Extension Division of Civilian Application, U.S. AEC, Oak Ridge, Tenn.,
free. A guide to sources of information on radioisotopes.
9. TID-4575, "Guide to Atomic Energy for the Civilian Application Program,"
revised from time to time, OTS, free. Describes in considerable detail the various
categories of AEC publications, including availability and means of locating material.
10. "Selected Readings on Atomic Energy," revised from time to time, GPO, $0.25.
Describes important official and commercial books, periodicals, and bibliographies.
11. Classified Reports. Abstracts and consolidated availability listings of con
fidential and secret reports are available to qualifying organizations and personnel
through the Civilian Application Program. These include TID-3063 (bibliography,
see Item 5); TID-3080, Nuclear Technology (bibliography); TID-3081, Feed Materials
(bibliography); Report Announcement Bulletin (confidential); Confidential Reports
for Civilian Applications, CRCA (abstract journal, formerly Civilian Applications
of Atomic Energy).
Changes of classification from secret or confidential to unclassified are listed in
TID-4035, "AEC Reports Declassified," and supplements. TID-4035 gives report
number, title, author, date, and classification status.
12. Card Catalog. Catalog cards are available (including abstracts) from TISE
for reports abstracted in the various AEC journals.
18.22 Additions to the Literature
1. Nuclear Science Abstracts (see Ref. 1 of Art. 18.21). Each semimonthly issue
gives abstracts of additions to the technical literature, and announces new nuclear
data.
2. Monthly listings and abstracts of new literature (unclassified and classified)
are available on a subscription basis.
3. Press releases. Important announcements are made by AEC in the form of
press releases, which are also given wide distribution in mimeographed form. Many
of these announcements are of economic or technical importance.
18.3 References Available in Alternative Forms

Several publications are referred to frequently in the handbook, hut not always in
identical terms, since some are available in alternative forms. The following arc the
more important cases of dual publication.
18.31 Nuclear Data. The standard reference for nuclear data other than data on
neutron cross sections has been :
K. Way, et al, "Nuclear Data," Nat. Bur. Standards (U.S.) Circ. 499 (1950) and
supplements.
This important reference is being revised and expanded, under the sponsorship of
the U.S. AEC, by the Nuclear Data Group of the National Academy of Sciences
National Research Council. It is now issued as;
a. "Nuclear Level Schemes," published in sections, each section being released
when completed, available from GPO.
b. Nuclear Data Cards, available on an annual subscription basis from Publications
Office, National Academy of Sciences National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
c. New Nuclear Data, cumulated from Nuclear Data Cards quarterly, semiannually,
and annually, and published in Nuclear Science Abstracts; the same medium was used
formerly to supplement Nat. Bur. Standards (U.S.) Circ. 499.
18.32 Reference Books. Several important books have been sponsored by the
AEC and published both commercially in cloth covers and also officially in paper
covers. The Government Printing Office editions are often referred to by code
numbers instead of titles. The most important, books in this category are given
below with the name of the commercial publisher and the AEC document number.
1. D. J. Hughes and J. A. Harvey, "Neutron Cross Sections," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1955. BNL-325. The preceding edition appeared as
AECU-2040.
2. "The Reactor Handbook," published in three volumes. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1953. AECD-3645, AECD-3046, and AECD-3047.
18.4 The United States Atomic Energy Commission
1. Semiannual Reports of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission to the Congress

of the United States, Washington, D.C., republished for sale under a variety of
titles,* GPO, various prices, $0.35 to $1.25.
Appendixes give much general information and describe the organization, policies,
operations, etc., of AEC.
REFERENCES
1. Hughes, D. J.,
and J. A. Harvey: "Neutron Cross Sections," McGraw-Hill Book Com
pany, Inc., New York, 1955. Also Supplement 1 by D. J. Hughes and R. B. Schwartz
(1957).
2. Westcott, C. H.: "Effective Cross Section Values for Well-moderated Thermal Reactor
Spectra," CRRP-680, TNCC(Can)-7, (also AECL-407), January 25, 1957. Revised as
AECL No. 670(CRRP-787), August 1, 1958.
3. ANL 5800: "Reactor Physics Constants," August, 1958.
* In recent years, for the designated ft-month period the title " Major Activities in the Atomic Energy
"
Programs has been used.
1-2 MATHEMATICAL TABLES
BY
Harold Etherington and Elesa R. Etherington
Reactor calculations, as made by organized computer groups, are often carried out
on desk calculating machines or by digital computers to eight or more significant
figures. The nuclear data entering into the calculations are, however, seldom accu
rate to more than two or three significant figures, and if calculations are to be made
without the services of a computer group, slide-rule accuracy in conjunction with four-
figure tables is satisfactory for most purposes for which such calculations would be
made. For the most part, the tables of this section are confined to those commonly
used in nuclear engineering.
1 TABLES OF FUNCTIONS
Tables of the circular, exponential, hyperbolic, modified Bessel (/0, I\, Ko, K{),
r and factorial, exponential integral (argument 0 to 5), and error (argument 0 to 1)
functions have been prepared, with permission of the publishers, from E. Fliigge,
"Four Place Tables of Transcendental Functions," McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Tables of the other Bessel functions (J0, Jt, Ya, Y,), Iêgendre polynomials, and error
function (argument 1 to 3) have been prepared, with permission of the publishers,
from E. Jahnke and F. Emde, "Tables of Functions with Formulae and Curves,"
Dover Publications, New York.* The tables have been modified to a consistent
form, and explanatory notes have been added. In many cases, these two references
and other four-figure tables provide alternative sources over some part of the range
covered.
Tables of the functions En(x) and Ez(z) have been compiled from the six-figure
tables of the National Research Council of Canada, t Auxiliary functions for par
ticular ranges of the Bessel functions have been prepared from the eight-figure tables
of the British Association^ the tables for the modified functions have been further
extended by computation for values of the argument from 20 to 40.
Table 1. Transcendental Constants

r = 3.14159 26536 ' = 9.86960 44011 31.00627 66803
l/x =- 0.31830 98862 I/t' - 0.10132 11836
VI = 1.77245 38509 -2.50662 82746 V7h 1.25331 41373
l/V = 0.56418 95835 \/Vu = 0.39894 22804
log w = 0.49714 98727 In p > 1.14472 98858
- = 0.36787 94412
-
e 2.71828 18285
M log -
0.43429 4481 - In 10 -
2.30258 50930
-
Euler or Euler-Mascheroni conxtant y = 0.57721 56649
In y =0.54953 93130 - 1.78107 24180
* Jahnke and Emde use the nomenclature Jod) and Ji(t). respectively,
Nv(z) and JVi(x) for
t See bibliography.
1-75
Table 2. Common Logarithms
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 0.0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374
1. 1 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755
1.2 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106
1.3 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430
1.4 1461 1492 1523 1553 I5B4 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732
1.5 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014
1.6 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279
1.7 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
1.8 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
1.9 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989
2 0 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
2 1 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
2.2 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598
2.3 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784
2 4 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962
2.5 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133
2.6 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298
2.7 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456
2.8 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609
2.9 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757
3.0 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900
3.1 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038
3.2 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172
3.3 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302
3.4 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428
3.5 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551
3.6 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670
3.7 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786
3.8 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899
3.9 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010
4.0 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117
4.1 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222
4.2 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325
4.3 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425
4.4 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522
4 5 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618
4.6 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712
4 7 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803
4.8 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893
4.9 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981
5.0 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067
5.1 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152
5.2 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235
5.3 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316
5.4 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396
Examples:
1. log 5.576 -0.7463.
2. log 557.6 = log (5.576 X -
10') 2.7463.
3. log 0.005576 - log (5.576 X 10"') - -
3.7463 = 0.7463 -
3 = 7.7463 -
10, etc. -2.2537.
The mantissa (decimal part of the logarithm) is independent of the position of the decimal place in
the number.
The char act eristic (integer part of the logarithm) can bIbo be found by inspection. It is positive for
numbers having significant figures to the left of the decimal place and is one less than the number of
such figures (Examples I and 2). It is negative for numbers less than unity and is numerically equal
to the number of decimal places up to and including the first significant figure to the right of the decimal
place (Example 3).
Sec. 1-2] mathematical tables 1-77
Table 2. Common Logarithms. (Continued)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 5 0 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474
5.6 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551
5 7 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627
5.8 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701
5 9 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774
6 0 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846
6 1 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917
6 2 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987
6.3 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055
6.4 6062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122
6 5 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189
6 6 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254
6 7 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319
6 8 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382
6.9 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445
7.0 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506
7 1 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567
7.2 8573 ' 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627
7. J 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686
7 4 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745
7 5 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802
7 6 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859
7 7 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915
7 8 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971
7 9 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025
8 0 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079
8 1 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133
8.2 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186
8 3 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238
8 4 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289
5 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340
8 6 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390
* 7 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440
i?8 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489
1 9 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538
9 0 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586
9.1 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633
9 2 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680
9.3 9685 9689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727
9.4 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773
9 5 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818
9 6 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863
9 7 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908
9 8 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952
9 9 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996
log ab " log a + log b log - = log a log 6

0
log a" n log a log Va = log a'/" = - log a

I
log log a = colog a
(The cotogarithm of * number is the logarithm of its reciprocal.)
M - log -0.4343 - In 10 - 2.3026

log a - M In n 0.4343 In a In a - log a - 2.3026 log a
log* = 0.4971
Table 3. Natural or Naperian Logarithms
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 0.0000 0100 0198 0296 0392 0488 0583 0677 0770 0862
I.I 0953 1044 1133 1222 1310 1398 1484 1570 1655 1740
1.2 1823 1906 1989 2070 2151 2231 2311 2390 2469 2546
1.3 2624 2700 2776 2852 2927 3001 3075 3148 3221 3293
1.4 3365 3436 3507 3577 3646 3716 3784 3853 3920 3988
1.5 0.4055 4121 4187 4253 4318 4383 4447 4511 4574 4637
1.6 4700 4762 4824 4886 4947 5008 5068 5128 5188 5247
1.7 5306 5365 5423 5481 5539 5596 5653 5710 5766 5822
1.8 5878 5933 5988 6043 6098 6152 6206 6259 6313 6366
1.9 6419 6471 6523 6575 6627 6678 6729 6780 6831 6881
2.0 0.6931 6981 7031 7080 7129 7178 7227 7275 7324 7372
2.1 7419 7467 7514 7561 7608 7655 7701 7747 7793 7839
2.2 7885 7930 7975 8020 8065 8109 8154 8198 8242 8286
2.3 8329 8372 8416 8459 8502 8544 8587 8629 8671 8713
2.4 8755 8796 8838 8879 8920 8961 9002 9042 9083 9123
2.5 0 9163 9203 9243 9282 9322 9361 9400 9439 9478 9517
2.6 9555 9594 9632 9670 9708 9746 9783 9821 9858 9895
2.7 0.9933 9969 0006 *0043 *0080 0116 0152 0188
'
0225 *0260
2.8 1. 0296 0332 0367 0403 0438 0473 0508 0543 0578 0613
2.9 0647 0682 0716 0750 0784 0818 0852 0886 0919 0953
3.0 1. 0986 1019 1053 1086 1119 1151 1184 1217 1249 1282
3.1 1314 1346 1378 1410 1442 1474 1506 1537 1569 1600
3 2 1632 1663 1694 1725 1756 1787 1817 1848 1878 1909
3.3 1939 1969 2000 2030 2060 2090 2119 2149 2179 2208
3 4 2238 2267 2296 2326 2355 2384 2413 2442 2470 2499
3.5 1.2528 2556 2585 2613 2641 2669 2698 2726 2754 2782
3.6 2809 2837 2865 2892 2920 2947 2975 3002 3029 3056
3.7 3083 3110 3137 3164 3191 3218 3244 3271 3297 3324
3.8 3350 3376 3403 3429 3455 3481 3507 3533 3558 3584
3.9 3610 3635 3661 3686 3712 3737 3762 3788 3813 3838
4.0 1. 3863 3888 3913 3938 3962 3987 4012 4036 4061 4085
4. 1 4110 4134 4159 4183 4207 4231 4255 4279 4303 4327
4.2 4351 4375 4398 4422 4446 4469 4493 4516 4540 4563
4.3 4586 4609 4633 4656 4679 4702 4725 4748 4770 4793
4.4 4816 4839 4861 4884 4907 4929 4951 4974 4996 5019
4.5 1.5041 5063 5085 5107 5129 5151 5173 5195 5217 5239
4.6 5261 5282 5304 5326 5347 5369 5390 5412 5433 5454
4.7 5476 5497 5518 5539 5560 5581 5602 5623 5644 5665
4.8 5686 5707 5728 5748 5769 5790 5810 5831 5851 5872
4.9 5892 5913 5933 5953 5974 5994 6014 6034 6054 6074
5.0 1 6094 6114 6134 6154 6174 6194 6214 6233 6253 6273
5.1 6292 6312 6332 6351 6371 6390 6409 6429 6448 6467
5.2 6487 6506 6525 6544 6563 6582 6601 6620 6639 6658
5 3 6677 6696 6715 6734 6752 6771 6790 6808 6827 6845
5.4 6864 6882 6901 6919 6938 6956 6974 6993 7011 7029
5 5 1.7047 7066 7084 7102 7120 7138 7156 7174 7192 7210
5.6 7228 7246 7263 7281 7299 7317 7334 7352 7370 7387
5.7 7405 7422 7440 7457 7475 7492 7509 7527 7544 7561
5 8 7579 7596 7613 7630 7647 7664 7681 7699 7716 7733
5.9 7750 7766 7783 7800 7817 7834 7851 7867 7884 7901
In x - 2(a + aJ/3 + a'/5 + ) where a - (x

- l)/(i + I)
Table 3 Natural or Naperian Logarithms. (.Continued)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
6 0 1.7918 7934 7951 7967 7984 8001 8017 8034 8050 8066
6. 1 8083 8099 8116 8132 8148 8165 8181 8197 8213 8229
6 2 8245 8262 8278 8294 8310 8326 8342 8358 8374 8390
6 3 8405 8421 8437 8453 8469 8485 8500 8516 8532 8547
6.4 8563 8579 8594 8610 8625 8641 8656 8672 8687 8703
6 5 1 8718 8733 8749 8764 8779 8795 8810 8825 8840 8856
6 6 8871 8886 8901 8916 8931 8946 8961 8976 8991 9006
6 7 9021 9036 9051 9066 9081 9095 9110 9125 9140 9155
6 8 9169 9184 9199 9213 9228 9242 9257 9272 9286 9301
6 9 9315 9330 9344 9359 9373 9387 9402 9416 9430 9445
7 0 1.9459 9473 9488 9502 9516 9530 9544 9559 9573 9587
7. 1 9601 9615 9629 9643 9657 9671 9685 9699 9713 9727
7 2 9741 9755 9769 9782 9796 9810 9824 9838 9851 9865
7. J 1 9879 9892 9906 9920 9933 9947 9961 9974 9988 0001
7.4 2 0015 0028 0042 0055 0069 0082 0096 0109 0122 0136
7 5 2.0149 0162 0176 0189 0202 0215 0229 0242 0255 0268
7.6 0281 0295 0308 0321 0334 0347 0360 0373 0386 0399
7.7 0412 0425 0438 0451 0464 0477 0490 0503 0516 0528
7 8 0541 0554 0567 0580 0592 0605 0618 0631 0643 0656
7.9 0669 0681 0694 0707 0719 0732 0744 0757 0769 0782
8 0 2.0794 0807 0819 0832 0844 0857 0869 0882 0894 0906
8. 1 0919 0931 0943 0956 0968 0980 0992 1005 1017 1029
8.2 1041 1054 1066 1078 1090 1102 1114 1126 1138 1150
8 3 1163 1175 1187 1199 1211 1223 1235 1247 1258 1270
8.4 1282 1294 1306 1318 1330 1342 1353 1365 1377 1389
8 5 2. 1401 1412 1424 1436 1448 1459 1471 1483 1494 1506
8.6 1518 1529 1541 1552 1564 1576 1587 1599 1610 1622
8 7 1633 1645 1656 1668 1679 1691 1702 1713 1725 1736
8 8 1748 1759 1770 1782 1793 1804 1815 1827 1838 1849
8 9 1861 1872 1883 1894 1905 1917 1928 1939 1950 1961
9.0 2. 1972 1983 1994 2006 2017 2028 2039 2050 2061 2072
9.1 2083 2094 2105 2116 2127 2138 2148 2159 2170 2181
9 2 2192 2203 2214 2225 2235 2246 2257 2268 2279 2289
9.3 2300 2311 2322 2332 2343 2354 2364 2375 2386 2396
9 4 2407 2418 2428 2439 2450 2460 2471 2481 2492 2502
9 5 2 2513 2523 2534 2544 2555 2565 2576 2586 2597 2607
9.6 2618 2628 2638 2649 2659 2670 2680 2690 2701 2711
9 7 2721 2732 2742 2752 2762 2773 2783 2793 2803 2814
9.8 2824 2834 2844 2854 2865 2875 2885 2895 2905 2915
9 9 2925 2935 2946 2956 2966 2976 2986 2996 3006 3016
10 0 2 3026
In 10 - 2.3026 In 10 - 13.8155
In 10' - 4.6052 In 10' - 16.1181
In - 6.9078 In -
In
10'
10< - 9.2103 In
10s
10' =
18.4207
20.7233
In I0> - 11.5129 In 10" = 23.0259
In 10" - 2.302585 X n
For negative exponents of 10. the logarithms are negative; e.g., In 10 * = 6.9078,
In 10-" = -2.302585 X n
Examples:
1. In 5.576 = 0.7185.
2. In 557.6 = In (5.576 X I0) = 0.7185 + 4.6052 -
3. In 0.005576 = In (5.576 X I0>) 0.7185-
5.3237.
-
6.9078 = -6.1883 = 0.8117 7, etc. -
The general relations stated for common logarithms are applicable to natural logarithms. Also,
In c ,in .
Table 4. Circular Functions : cos x and sin x

COS X
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 1. 0000 1. 0000 9998 9996 9992 9988 9982 9976 9968 9960
1 0.9950 9940 9928 9916 9902 9888 9872 9856 9838 9820
1 9801 9780 9759 9737 9713 9689 9664 9638 9611 9582
3 9553 9523 9492 9460 9428 9394 9359 9323 9287 9249
4 9211 9171 9131 9090 9048 9004 8961 8916 8870 8823
5 8776 8727 8678 8628 8577 8525 8473 8419 8365 8309
6 8253 8196 8139 8080 8021 7961 7900 7838 7776 7712
7 7648 7584 7518 7452 7385 7317 7248 7179 7109 7038
B 6967 6895 6822 6749 6675 6600 6524 6448 6372 6294
9 6216 6137 6058 5978 5898 5817 5735 5653 5570 5487
1.0 5403 5319 5234 5148 5062 4976 4889 4801 4713 4625
1 4536 4447 4357 4267 4176 4085 3993 3902 3809 3717
2 3624 3530 3436 3342 3248 3153 3058 2963 2867 2771
3 2675 2579 2482 2385 2288 2190 2092 1994 1896 1798
4 1700 1601 1502 1403 1304 1205 1106 1006 0907 0807
5 + 0707 0608 0508 0408 0308 0208 0108 OOOB 0092 0192
6 -0292 0392 0492 0592 0691 0791 0891 0990 1090 1189
7 -1288 1388 1487 1585 1684 1782 1881 1979 2077 2175
8 -2272 2369 2466 2563 2660 2756 2852 2948 3043 3138
9 -3233 3327 3421 3515 3609 3702 3795 3887 3979 4070
2.0 -4161 4252 4342 4432 4522 4611 4699 4787 4875 4962
1 -5048 5135 5220 5305 5390 5474 5557 5640 5722 5804
2 -5885 5966 6046 6125 6204 6282 6359 6436 6512 6588
3 -6663 6737 6811 6883 6956 7027 7098 7168 7237 7306
4 -7374 7441 7508 7573 7638 7702 7766 7828 7890 7951
5 -8011 8071 8130 8187 8244 8301 8356 8410 8464 8517
6 -8569 8620 8670 8720 8768 8816 8863 8908 8953 8998
7 -9041 9083 9124 9165 9204 9243 9281 9318 9353 9388
8 -9422 9455 9487 9518 9549 9578 9606 9633 9660 9685
9 -9710 9733 9755 9777 9797 9817 9B36 9853 9870 9885
3.0 -9900 9914 9926 9938 9948 9958 9967 9974 9981 9987
1 -9991 9995 9998 9999 1. 0000 1.0000 9998 9996 9993 9988
2 -9983 9977 9969 9961 9952 9941 9930 9918 9904 9890
3 -9875 9859 9841 9823 9804 9784 9762 9740 9717 9693
4 -9668 9642 9615 9587 9558 9528 9497 9466 9433 9399
-9365
5 9329 9293 9255 9217 9178 9137 9096 9054 9011

6 -8968 8923 8877 8831 8783 8735 8686 8636 8585 8534
7 -8481 8428 8373 8318 8262 8206 8148 8090 8030 7970
8 -7910 7848 7786 7723 7659 7594 7529 7462 7395 7328
9 -7259 7190 7120 7050 6978 6907 6834 6761 6686 6612
4.0 -6536 6460 63B4 6306 6229 6150 6071 5991 5911 5830
1 -5748 5666 5583 5500 5416 5332 5247 5162 5076 4990
2 -4903 4815 4727 4639 4550 4461 4371 4281 4190 4099
3 -4008 3916 3824 3731 3638 3545 3451 3357 3263 3168
4 -3073 2978 2882 2787 2690 2594 2497 2400 2303 2206
-2108
5
6 - 1122 2010
1022
1912
0923
1814
0823
1715
0723
1617
0623
1518
0524
1419
0424
1320
0324
1221
0224
7 -0124 0024 0076 0176 0276 0376 0476 0576 0676 0775
8 + 0875 0975 1074 1173 1273 1372 1471 1570 1668 1767
9 1865 1963 2061 2159 2257 2354 2451 2548 2644 2741
5.0 2837 2932 3028 3123 3218 3312 3407 3500 3594 3687
I + cos ( x) * COS X
Iw - 6.2832; 4* - 12.5664; 6w - 18.8495; 8ir - 25.1327; I0x - 31.4159.

Table 4. Circular Functions : cos i and sin x. {Continued)
sin x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 0 0000 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0699 0799 0899
0998 1098 1197 1296 1395 1494 1593 1692 1790 1889
2 1987 2085 2182 2280 2377 2474 2571 2667 2764 2860
3 2955 3051 3146 3240 3335 3429 3523 3616 3709 3802
3894 3986 4078 4169 4259 4350 4439 4529 4618 4706
4794 4882 4969 5055 5141 5227 5312 5396 5480 5564
5646 5729 5810 5891 5972 6052 6131 6210 6288 6365
7 6442 6518 6594 6669 6743 6816 6889 6961 7033 7104
g 7174 7243 7311 7379 7446 7513 7578 7643 7707 7771
9 7833 7895 7956 8016 8076 8134 8192 8249 8305 8360
1.0 8415 8468 8521 8573 8624 8674 8724 8772 8820 8866
8912 8957 9001 9044 9086 9128 9168 9208 9246 9284
2 9320 9356 9391 9425 9458 9490 9521 9551 9580 9608
3 9636 9662 9687 9711 9735 9757 9779 9799 9819 9837
4 9854 9871 9887 9901 9915 9927 9939 9949 9959 9967
5 9975 9982 9987 9992 9995 9998 9999 1. 0000 1. 0000 9998
9996 9992 9988 9982 9976 9969 9960 9951 9940 9929
7 9917 9903 9889 9874 9857 9840 9822 9802 9782 9761
g 9738 9715 9691 9666 9640 9613 9585 9556 9526 9495
9 9463 9430 9396 9362 9326 9290 9252 9214 9174 9134
9093 9051 9008 8964 8919 8874 8827 8780 8731 8682
2 0
1 8632 8581 8529 8477 8423 8369 8314 8258 8201 8143
8085 8026 7966 7905 7843 7781 7718 7654 7589 7523
3 7457 7390 7322 7254 7185 7115 7044 6973 6901 6828
6755 6681 6606 6530 6454 6378 6300 6222 6144 6065
5 5985 5904 5823 5742 5660 5577 5494 5410 5325 5240
5155 5069 4983 4896 4808 4720 4632 4543 4454 4364
7 4274 4183 4092 4001 3909 3817 3724 3631 3538 3444
g 3350 3255 3161 3066 2970 2875 2779 2683 2586 2489
9 2392 2295 2198 2100 2002 1904 1806 1708 1609 1510
3.0 1411 1312 1213 1114 1014 0915 0815 0715 0616 0516
1 + 0416 0316 0216 01 16 0016 0084 *0 184 *0284 *0384 0484
-0584 0684 0783 0883 0982 1082 1181 1281 1380 1479
2
- 1577 1676 1775 1873 1971 2069 2167 2264 2362 2459
4
3
- 2555 2652 2748 2844 2940 3035 3131 3225 3320 3414
- 3508
5 3601 3694 3787 3880 3971 4063 4154 4245 4335

-4425
- 5298
5 4515 4604 4692 4780 4868 4955 5042 5128 5213
5383 5467 5550 5633 5716 5797 5879 5959 6039
g -6119 6197 6276 6353 6430 6506 6582 6657 6731 6805
9 -6878 6950 7021 7092 7162 7232 7301 7369 7436 7502
4.0 - 7568 7633 7697 7761 7823 7885 7946 8007 8066 8125
I -8183 8240 8296 8352 8406 8460 8513 8565 8616 8666
2 -8716 8764 8812 8859 8905 8950 8994 9037 9080 9121
3 -9162 9201 9240 9278 9315 9351 9386 9420 9453 9485
* -9516 9546 9576 9604 9631 9658 9683 9708 9731 9754
s -9775 9796 9816 9834 9852 9868 9884 9899 9912 9925
6 -9937 9948 9957 9966 9974 9981 9986 9991 9995 9997
7 - 9999 1.0000 1. 0000 9998 9996 9993 9989 9983 9977 9970
g -9962 9952 9942 9931 9919 9905 9891 9876 9860 9843
- 9825 9805 9785 9764 9742 9719 9695 9670 9644 9617
i.t -9589 9560 9531 9500 9468 9435 9402 9367 9332 9295
in i - x - x'J; + I*t- - x>

77 +
' * ' em = - sin i
Table 4. Circular Functions : cos x and sin x, (Continued)

COS X
z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.0 + 0.2837 2932 3028 3123 3218 3312 3407 3500 3594 3687
1 3780 3872 3964 4056 4147 4238 4328 4418 4508 4597
2 4685 4773 4861 4948 5035 5121 5206 5292 5376 5460
i 5544 5627 5709 5791 5872 5953 6033 6112 6191 6269
4 6347 6424 6500 6576 6651 6725 6799 6872 6944 7016
5 7087 7157 7226 7295 7363 7430 7497 7563 7628 7692
6 7756 7818 7880 7942 8002 8061 8120 8178 8235 8292
7 8347 8402 8456 8509 8561 8612 8662 8712 8761 8808
S 8855 8901 8946 8991 9034 9076 9118 9158 9198 9237
9 9275 9312 9348 9383 9417 9450 9482 9514 9544 9573
6.0 9602 9629 9656 9681 9706 9729 9752 9774 9794 9814
1 9833 9850 9867 9883 9898 9911 9924 9936 9947 9957
2 9965 9973 9980 9986 9991 9994 9997 9999 1.0000 1.0000
3 9999 9996 9993 9989 9984 9978 9971 9962 9953 9943
4 9932 9920 9907 9892 9877 9861 9844 9826 9807 9787
5 9766 9744 9721 9697 9672 9646 9619 9591 9563 9533
6 9502 9471 9438 9405 9370 9335 9298 9261 9223 9184
7 9144 9103 9061 9018 8975 8930 8885 8838 8791 8743
8 8694 8644 8593 8542 8489 8436 8382 8327 8271 8215
9 8157 8099 8040 7980 7919 7858 7796 7733 7669 7604
7.0 7539 7473 7406 7339 7270 7201 7132 7061 6990 6918
1 6845 6772 6698 6624 6548 6473 6396 6319 6241 6163
2 6084 6004 5924 5843 5761 5679 5597 5514 5430 5346
J 5261 5175 5090 5003 4916 4829 4741 4653 4564 4475
4 4385 4295 4205 4114 4023 3931 3839 3746 3653 3560
5 3466 3372 3278 3183 3088 2993 2898 2802 2706 2609
6 2513 2416 2319 2221 2124 2026 1928 1829 1731 1632
7 1534 1435 1336 1237 1137 1038 0938 0839 0739 0639
8 0540 0440 0340 0240 0140 0040 0060 *0160 *0260 0360
9 -0460 0560 0660 0759 0859 0959 1058 1158 1257 1356
- 1455
8.0
- 1554 1653 1751 1849 1948 2046 2143 2241 2338
1
2 - 3392
2435 2532
3485
2629
3579
2725
3672
2821
3765
2917
3857
3013
3950
3108
4041
3203
4132
3297
4223
3 -4314 4404 4493 4582 4671 4759 4847 4934 5021 5107
4 -5193 5278 5363 5447 5530 5614 5696 5778 5859 5940
-6020
5
6 - 6787 6100
6860
6179
6933
6257
7004
6335
7075
6412
7146
6488
7215
6564
7284
6639
7352
6713
7420
7 -7486 7552 7618 7682 7746 7808 7871 7932 7992 8052
8 -8111 8169 8226 8283 8338 8393 8447 8500 8552 8604
-8654 8704 8753 8801 8848 8894 8939 8984 9027 9070
9 0 -9111 9152 9192 9231 9269 9306 9342 9377 9412 9445
-9477
1
2 - 9748 9509
9770
9539
9791
9569
9811
9597
9830
9625
9848
9652
9865
9677
9880
9702
9895
9726
9909
i -9922 9934 9945 9955 9964 9972 9979 9985 9990 9994
4 -9997 9999 1.0000 1.0000 9999 9997 9994 9990 9985 9979
S -9972 9964 9955 9945 9934 9922 9909 9895 9880 9864
6 -9847 9829 9810 9790 9769 9747 9725 9701 9676 9650
7 -9624 9596 9567 9538 9507 9476 9443 9410 9376 9340
8 -9304 9267 9229 9190 9150 9109 9068 9025 8982 8937
9 -8892 8846 8799 8751 8702 8652 8602 8550 8498 8445
10 0 -8391 8336 8280 8224 8166 8108 8049 7990 7929 7868
For i> 10. subtract any multiple of 2 (6.28318) that will bring the argument within the range of
the table.
Example: cos 20 -
coa (20 -
far) = coa 1.15105 - 0.4080.
Table 4. Circular Functions : cos x and sin x. (Continued)
sin x
z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-
5 0
-
0 . 9589 9560 9531 9500 9468 9435 9402 9367 9332 9295
- 9258 9220 9181 9141 9100 9058 9015 8971 8926 8881
-- 8835
8323
8787
8267
8739
8210
8690
8153
8640
8094
8589
8035
8538
7975
8485
7915
8432
7853
8378
7791
7728 7664 7599 7534 7468 7401 7333 7265 7196 7126
7055 6984 6912 6840 6766 6692 6618 6542 6467 6390
6313 6235 6156 6077 5997 5917 5836 5755 5673 5590
-
5507
4646
3739
5423
4557
5339
4468
5254
4378
5169
4288
5083
4198
4996
4107
4910
4015
4822
3924
4734
3831
3646 3553 3459 3365 3271 3176 3081 2986 2890
6 0 2794 2698 2602 2505 2408 2311 2213 2116 2018 1920
1822 1723 1625 1526 1427 1328 1229 1129 1030 0931
0831 0731 0631 0532 0432 0332 0232 0132 0032 0068
+ 0168 0268 0368 0468 0568 0668 0767 0867 0967 1066
1165 1265 1364 1463 1562 1660 1759 1857 1955 2053
2151 2249 2346 2443 2540 2637 2733 2829 2925 3020
3115 3210 3305 3399 3493 3586 3680 3772 3865 3957
4048 4140 4231 4321 4411 4500 4590 4678 4766 4854
4941 5028 51 14 5200 5285 5369 5454 5537 5620 5703
5784 5866 5946 6026 6106 6185 6263 6341 6418 6494
7 0 6570 6645 6719 6793 6866 6938 7010 7081 7151

7221
7290 7358 7425 7492 7558 7623 7687 7751 7813 7875
7937 7997 8057 81 16 8174 8231 8287 8343 8397 8451
8504 8557 8608 8658 8708 8757 8805 8851 8898 8943
8987 9030 9073 9115 9155 9195 9234 9272 9309 9345
9380 9414 9447 9480 9511 9542 9571 9599 9627 9654
9679 9704 9728 9750 9772 9793 9812 9831 9849 9866
9882 9897 9910 9923 9935 9946 9956 9965 9973 9980
9985 9990 9994 9997 9999 1. 0000 1.0000 9999 9997 9994
9989 9984 9978 9971 9963 9954 9944 9933 9921 9908
8.0 9894 9879 9863 9845 9827 9808 9789 9768 9746 9723
9699 9674 9648 9621 9594 9565 9535 9505 9473 9441
9407 9373 9338 9301 9264 9226 9187 9147 9106 9064
9022 8978 8934 8888 8842 8795 8747 8698 8648 8597
8546 8494 8440 8386 8331 8276 8219 8162 8104 8045
7985 7924 7863 7801 7738 7674 7610 7544 7478 741 1
7344 7276 7207 7137 7067 6996 6924 6851 6778 6704
6630 6554 6479 6402 6325 6247 6169 6090 6010 5930
5849 5768 5686 5603 5520 5436 5352 5268 5182 5097
5010 4923 4836 4748 4660 4571 4482 4393 4303 4212
i> 0 4121 4030 3938 3846 3754 3661 3567 3474 3380 3286
3191 3096 3001 2905 2809 2713 2617 2520 2423 2326
2229 2131 2033 1935 1837 1739 1640 1542 1443 1344
1245 1145 1046 0946 0847 0747 0647 0548 0448 0348
+ 0248 0148 0048 0052 0152 0252 0352 0452 0552 0652
-0752 0851 0951 1050 1150 1249 1348 1447 1546 1645
-1743 1842 1940 2038 2136 2233 2331 2428 2525 2621
-2718 2814 2910 3005 3100 3195 3290 3384 3478 3572
-3665 3758 3850 3942 4034 4125 4216 4307 4397 4486
-4575 4664 4752 4840 4927 5014 5100 5186 5271 5356
10 0 - 5440 5524 5607 5689 5771 5853 5934 6014 6093 6172
For z > 10. subtract any multiple of 2r (6.283 18) that will bring the argument within the range of the
table.
Sec example for cosine.
Table 5. Circular Functions : tan x
X 0 ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
~
0.0 0.0000 0100 0200- 0300 0400 0500 0601 0701 0802 ~~0902
| 1003 1104 1206 1307 1409 1511 1614 1717 1820 1923
2 2027 2131 2236 2341 2447 2553 2660 2768 2876 2984
3 3093 3203 3314 3425 3537 3650 3764 3879 3994 4111
4 4228 4346 4466 4586 4708 4831 4954 5080 5206 5334
5 5463 5594 5726 5859 5994 6131 6269 6410 6552 6696
6 6841 6989 7139 7291 7445 7602 7761 7923 8087 8253
7 8423 8595 8771 8949 9131 9316 9505 9697 9893 1.092
8 1.030 1.050 1.072 1.093 1. 116 1.138 1.162 1. 185 1.210 1.235
9 1.260 1.286 1.313 1.341 1.369 1.398 1.428 1.459 1.491 1.524
1.0 1.557 1.592 1.628 1.665 1.704 1.743 1.784 1.827 1.871 1.917
1 1.965 2.014 2.066 2. 120 2. 176 2 234 2.296 2.360 2.427 2.498
2 2.572 2.650 2.733 2.820 2.912 3.010 3. 113 3.224 3.341 3.467
3 3.602 3.747 3.903 4.072 4.256 4.455 4.673 4.913 5.177 5.471
4 5.798 6.165 6.581 7.055 7.602 8.238 8.989 9.887 10.98 12.35
5 + 14.10 16.43 19.67 24.50 32.46 48.08 92.62 1256 108.6 52.07
6 -34.23 25.49 20.31 16.87 14.43 12.60 II. 18 10.05 9.121 8.349
7 -7.697 7.137 6.652 6.228 5.854 5.520 5.222 4.953 4.710 4.489
8 -4.286 4. 100 3.929 3.771 3.624 3.488 3.361 3.242 3.130 3.026
9 -2.927 2.834 2.746 2.663 2.584 2.509 2.438 2.370 2.306 2.244
2.0 -2.185 2.129 2.074 2.022 1.973 1.925 1.878 1.834 1.791 1.750
-1.710
1
- 1. 374 1.671
1.345
1.634
1.318
1.598
1.291
1.563
1.264
1.529
1.239
1.496 1.464
1.189
1.433 1.403
2
- 1. 119 1.214 1.165 1.142
3 1.097 1.075 1.054 1.033 1.013 9924 9728 9535 9346

4 -0.9160 8978 8799 8623 8450 8280 8113 7948 7787 7627
5 -7470 7316 7163 7013 6865 6719 6574 6432 6292 6153
6 -6016 5881 5747 5615 5484 5354 5226 5100 4974 4850
7 -4727 4606 4485 4365 4247 4129 4013 3897 3782 3668
8 -3555 3443 3332 3221 3111 3001 2893 2785 2677 2570
9 -2464 2358 2253 2148 2044 1940 1836 1733 1630 1528
3.0 - 1425 1324 1222 1121 1019 0918 0818 0717 0617 0516
1 -0416 0316 0216 0116 0016 0084 0184 0284 0384 0484
2 + 0585 0685 0786 0886 0987 1088 1190 1291 1393 1495
3 1597 1700 1803 1907 2011 2115 2219 2325 2430 2536
4 2643 2750 2858 2967 3076 3186 3296 3407 3519 3632
5 3746 3860 3976 4092 4209 4327 4447 4567 4688 4811
6 4935 5060 5186 5313 5442 5573 5704 5838 5973 6109
7 6247 6387 6529 6673 6818 6966 7115 7267 7421 7577
8 7736 7897 8060 8227 8396 8568 8743 8921 9102 9286
9 9474 9666 9861 1 006 1.026 1.047 1 068 1.090 1.112 1. 135
4.0 1.158 1. 182 1.206 1.231 1.256 1.282 1.309 1.336 1.365 1.394
1 1.424 1.454 1.486 1.518 1.552 1.587 1.622 1.659 1.697 1.737
2 1.778 1.820 1.864 1.910 1.957 2.006 2.058 2. Ill 2.167 2.225
3 2.286 2.350 2.416 2.486 2.560 2.638 2.719 2.806 2.897 2.994
4 3.096 3.206 3.322 3.447 3.580 3.723 3.878 4.044 4.225 4.422
5 4.637 4.873 5. 134 5.422 5.743 6. 104 6.511 6.975 7.509 8.130
6 8.860 9.733 10.79 12. II 13.79 16.01 19.07 23.58 30.86 44.66
7 + 80.71 418.6 131.4 56.78 36.21 26.58 20.99 17.34 14.77 12.86
8 -11.38 10.21 9.257 8.463 7.794 7.221 6.725 6.292 5.910 5.571
9 -5.267 4.994 4.747 4.523 4.317 4.129 3.956 3.796 3.647 3.509
5.0 -3.381 3.260 3. 148 3.042 2.942 2.849 2.760 2 676 2 597 2.521
2j-> \7x> r' 2x
TTT "JO 1 945
-r
-)
<z <w
cot x *
tan x
- tan (x 1.S708) tan ( x) tan x cot ( x) cot x
For x > 10, subtract a multiple of w to bring argument within range of table.
Table 6. Circular Functions : tan x. (Continued)
-- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 0 3.381 3.260 3.148 3.042 2.942 2.849 2.760 2.676 2.597 2.521
1
--2.449 2.381 2.316 2.254 2.194 2. 137 2.083 2.031 1.980 1.932
- 1.1.501
886 1.841
1.469
1.798
1.438
1.756
1.408
1.716
1.378
1.677
1.350
1.640
1.322
1.604
1.295
1.568
1.268
1.534
1.243
-1.218 1.193 1. 169 1. 146 1.123 1.100 1.079 1.057 1 036 1.016
-0.9956 9759 9565 9376 9189 9007 8827 8651 8477 8307
-8139 7975 7812 7652 7495 7340 7187 7037 6888 6742
-6597 6455 6314 6175 6038 5902 5768 5635 5504 5375
-5247 5120 4994 4870 4747 4625 4504 4384 4266 4148
-4031 3915 3800 3686 3573 3461 3349 3238 3128 3019
6.0 -2910 2802 2694 2587 2481 2375 2270 2165 2060 1956
-1853 1749 1646 1544 1442 1340 1238 1137 1036 093 5
-0834 0733 0633 0532 0432 0332 0232 0132 003 2 0068
+ 0168 0266 0368 0468 0569 0669 0770 0870 0971 1072
1173 1275 1377 1479 1581 1684 1787 1890 1994 2098
2203 2308 2413 2520 2626 2733 2841 2949 3058 3168
3279 3390 3502 3614 3728 3842 3957 4073 4190 4308
4428 4548 4669 4791 4915 5040 5166 5293 5422 5552
5683 5816 5951 6087 6225 6365 6506 6650 6795 6942
7091 7242 7396 7552 7710 7871 8034 8200 8369 8540
; o 8714 8892 9073 9257 9444 9635 9830 1.003 1.023 1.044
1.065 1.086 1.109 1.131 1.154 1.178 1.202 1.227 1.252 1.278
1.305 1.332 1.360 1.389 1.419 1.449 1.461 1.513 1.547 1.581
1.617 1.653 1.691 1.731 1.771 1.813 1.857 1.902 1.949 1.998
2.049 2. 102 2.158 2.216 2.276 2.339 2.405 2.475 2.548 2.625
2.706 2.792 2.882 2.978 3.080 3. 188 3.303 3.426 3.558 3.700
3.852 4.017 4. 196 4.390 4 602 4.834 5.090 5.374 5.690 6.043
6.443 6.897 7.419 8.024 8.735 9.582 10.61 11.86 13.49 15.61
+ 18.51 22.72 29.42 41.69 71.52 251.2 166.2 62.42 38.43 27.75
r' -21 72 17.83 15.13 13.13 11.60 10.38 9.397 8.581 7.893 7.307
ft 0 -6.800 6.357 5.968 5.622 5.314 5.036 4.785 4.557 4.349 4.158
i -3.982 3.820 3.670 3.530 3 400 3.279 3. 165 3.058 2.958 2.863
2 -2.774 2.689 2.609 2.533 2.461 2.392 2.326 2.263 2.204 2.146
3
4 -
-2.091
1. 646
2.039
1.609
1.988
1.574
1.940
1.540
1.893
1.506
1.848
1.474
1.805
1.443
1.763
1.413
1.722
1.383
1.683
1.354
5 - 1.326 1.299 1.273 1.247 1.222 1.197 1.173 1. 149 1. 126 1.104
0 -1.082 1.061 1.040 1.019 9988 9790 9596 9406 9219 9036
7 -0.8856 8679 8505 8334 8166 8001 7838 7678 7520 7365
8 -7211 7061 6912 6765 6620 6477 6336 6197 6059 5924
-5789 5656 5525 5395 5267 5140 5014 4890 4766 4644
9 0 -4523 4403 4284 4167 4050 3934 3819 3705 3591 3479
1 -3367 3 256 3146 3036 2927 2819 2711 2604 2498 2392
2
3 -
-2286
1254
2181
1153
2077
1052
1973
0951
1869
0850
1766
0749
1663
0649
1560
0548
1458
0448
1356
0348
4 -0248 0148 0048 *0052 0152 0252 0352 0453 0553 0653
5 + 0754 0854 0955 1056 1157 1259 1361 1463 1565 1667
6 1770 1874 1977 2082 2186 2291 2397 2503 2609 2716
7 2824 2932 3041 3151 3261 3372 3484 3596 3710 3824
8 3939 4055 4172 4290 4409 4529 4650 4772 4895 5020
9 5146 5273 5401 5531 5662 5795 5930 6066 6203 6342
0.0 6484 6627 6771 6918 7067 7218 7371 7527 7685 7845
For rapidly changing values of tan x (when x approaches an odd multiple of t/2),
I
tan x
tan (r 1.5708)
Example: Un 4.705 = - -_
I
- I
- 135.
ta^6T758
For rapidly changing values of cot x (when x approaches a multiple of t), use cot x l/tan x.
Table 6. Exponential Functions : e*
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 1 000 1.010 1.020 1.030 1.041 1.051 1.062 1.073 1.083 1.094
1 1.105 1. 116 I. 127 1.139 1.150 1. 162 1.174 1.185 1. 197 1.209
2 1.221 1.234 1.246 1.259 1.271 1.284 1.297 1.310 1.323 1.336
3 1.350 1.363 1.377 1.391 1.405 1.419 1.433 1.448 1.462 1.477
4 1.492 1.507 1.522 1.537 1.553 1.568 1.584 1.600 1.616 1.632
5 1.649 1.665 1.682 1.699 1.716 1.733 1.751 1.768 1.786 1.804
6 1.822 1.840 1.859 1.878 1.896 1.916 1.935 1.954 1.974 1.994
7 2.014 2.034 2.054 2.075 2.096 2.117 2.138 2. 160 2.181 2.203
8 2.226 2.248 2.270 2.293 2.316 2.340 2.363 2.387 2.411 2.435
9 2.460 2.484 2.509 2.535 2.560 2.586 2.612 2.638 2.664 2.691
1.0 2.718 2.746 2.773 2.801 2.829 2.858 2.886 2.915 2.945 2.974
1 3.004 3.034 3.065 3.096 3.127 3.158 3.190 3.222 3.254 3.287
2 3.320 3.353 3.387 3.421 3.456 3.490 3.525 3.561 3.597 3.633
3 3.669 3.706 3.743 3.781 3.819 3.857 3.896 3.935 3.975 4.015
4 4.055 4.096 4. 137 4.179 4.221 4.263 4.306 4.349 4.393 4.437
5 4 482 4.527 4.572 4.618 4.665 4.711 4.759 4.807 4.855 4.904
6 4.953 5.003 5.053 5. 104 5.155 5.207 5.259 5.312 5.366 5.419
7 5.474 5.529 5.585 5.641 5.697 5.755 5.812 5.871 5.930 5.989
8 6.050 6.110 6.172 6.234 6.297 6.360 6.424 6.488 6.554 6.619
9 6.686 6.753 6.821 6.890 6.959 7.029 7.099 7.171 7.243 7.316
2.0 7.389 7.463 7.538 7.614 7.691 7.768 7.846 7.925 8.004 8.085
1 8. 166 8.248 8.331 8.415 8.499 8.585 8.671 8.758 8.846 8.935
2 9.025 9.116 9.207 9.300 9.393 9.488 9.583 9.679 9.777 9.875
3 9.974 10.07 10.18 10.28 10.38 10.49 10.59 10.70 10.80 10.9!
4 11.02 11.13 11.25 11.36 11.47 11.59 11.70 11.82 11.94 12.06
5 12.18 12.30 12.43 12.55 12.68 12.81 12.94 13.07 13.20 13.33
6 13.46 13.60 13.74 13.87 14.01 14. 15 14.30 14.44 14.59 14.73
7 14.88 15.03 15.18 15.33 15.49 15.64 15.80 15.96 16.12 16.28
8 16.44 16.61 16.78 16.95 17.12 17.29 17.46 17.64 17.81 17.99
9 18.17 18.36 18.54 18.73 18.92 19.11 19.30 19.49 19.69 19.89
3.0 20.09 20.29 20.49 20.70 20.91 21. 12 21.33 21.54 21.76 21.98
1 22.20 22.42 22.65 22.87 23. 10 23.34 23.57 23.81 24 05 24.29
2 24.53 24.78 25.03 25.28 25.53 25.79 26.05 26.31 26.58 26.84
3 27.11 27.39 27.66 27.94 28.22 28.50 28.79 29.08 29.37 29.67
4 29.96 30.27 30.57 30.88 31. 19 31.50 31.82 32.14 32.46 32.79
5 33.12 33.45 33.78 34.12 34.47 34.81 35.16 35.52 35.87 36.23
6 36.60 36.97 37.34 37.71 38.09 38.47 38.86 39.25 39.65 40 04

7 40.45 40.85 41.26 41.68 42.10 42.52 42.95 43.38 43.82 44. 2>'.
8 44.70 45.15 45.60 46.06 46.53 46.99 47.47 47.94 48.42 48.91
9 49.40 49.90 50.40 50.91 51.42 51.94 52.46 52.98 53.52 54.05
4.0 54.60 55.15 55.70 56.26 56.83 57.40 57.97 58.56 59. 15 59.74
1 60.34 60.95 61.56 62.18 62.80 63.43 64.07 64.72 65.37 66.02
2 66.69 67.36 68.03 68.72 69.41 70. II 70.81 71.52 72.24 72 97
3 73.70 74.44 75. 19 75.94 76.71 77.48 78.26 79.04 79.84 80.64
4 81.45 82.27 83.10 83.93 84.77 85.63 86.49 87.36 88.23 89. 12
5 90.02 90.92 91.84 92.76 93.69 94.63 95.58 96 54 97.51 98 49

6 99.48 100.5 101.5 102.5 103.5 104.6 105.6 106.7 107.8 108.9
7 109.9 Mil 112.2 113.3 114.4 115.6 116.7 117.9 119. 1 120.3
8 121 5 122.7 124.0 125.2 126.5 127.7 129 0 130.3 131.6 133 0
9 134.3 135 6 137.0 138.4 139.8 141.2 142.6 144.0 145.5 146.9
5.0 148.4 149.9 151.4 152.9 154.5 156.0 157.6 159.2 160.8 162.4
I I I"
+
<*-|+7l +
2i+3i
For very small values of x, e* I + x.
Larce values of x:
Method I. e* - -
(*/), e.g., e" ()* 518.0* - 7.200 X I0">. {Continued on p. 88)
Table 6. Exponential Functions: e~*. (Continued)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 1. 0000 9900 9802 9704 9608 9512 9418 9324 9231 9139
1 0.9048 8958 8869 8781 8694 8607 8521 8437 83 53 8270
2 8187 8106 8025 7945 7866 7788 7711 7634 7558 7483
3 7408 7334 7261 7189 7118 7047 6977 6907 6839 6771
4 6703 6637 6570 6505 6440 6376 6313 6250 6188 6126
5 6065 6005 5945 5886 5827 5769 5712 5655 5599 5543
6 5488 5434 5379 5326 5273 5220 5169 5117 5066 5016
7 4966 4916 4868 4819 4771 4724 4677 4630 4584 4538
8 4493 4449 4404 4360 4317 4274 4232 4190 4148 4107
9 4066 4025 3985 3946 3906 3867 3829 3791 3753 3716
1.0 3679 3642 3606 3570 3535 3499 3465 3430 3396 3362
1 3329 3296 3263 3230 3198 3166 3135 3104 3073 3042
2 3012 2982 2952 2923 2894 2865 2837 2808 2780 2753
3 2725 2698 2671 2645 2618 2592 2567 2541 2516 2491
4 2466 2441 2417 2393 2369 2346 2322 2299 2276 2254
5 2231 2209 2187 2165 2144 2122 2101 2080 2060 2039
6 2019 1999 1979 1959 1940 1920 1901 1882 1864 1845
7 1827 1809 1791 1773 1755 1738 1720 1703 1686 1670
8 1653 1637 1620 1604 1588 1572 1557 1541 1526 1511
9 1496 1481 1466 1451 1437 1423 1409 1395 1381 1367
2 0 1353 1340 1327 1313 1300 1287 1275 1262 1249 1237
1 1225 1212 1200 1188 1177 1165 1153 1142 1130 1119
2 1108 1097 1086 1075 1065 1054 1044 1033 1023 1013
3 1003 9926 9827 9730 9633 9537 9442 9348 9255 9163
4 0.09072 8982 8892 8804 8716 8629 8543 8458 8374 8291
5 8208 8127 8046 7966 7887 7808 7730 7654 7577 7502
6 7427 7353 7280 7208 7136 7065 6995 6925 6856 6788
7 6721 6654 6587 6522 6457 6393 6329 6266 6204 6142
8 6081 6020 5961 5901 5843 5784 5727 5670 5613 5558
9 5502 5448 5393 5340 5287 5234 5182 5130 5079 5029
3.0 4979 4929 4880 483 2 4783 4736 4689 4642 4596 4550
1 4505 4460 4416 4372 4328 4285 4243 4200 4159 4117
2 4076 4036 3996 3956 3916 3877 3839 3801 3763 3725
3 3688 3652 3615 3579 3544 3508 3474 3439 3405 3371
4 3337 3304 3271 3239 3206 3175 3143 3112 3081 3050
5 3020 2990 2960 2930 2901 2872 2844 2816 2788 2760
6 2732 2705 2678 2652 2625 2599 2573 2548 2522 2497
7 2472 2448 2423 2399 2375 2352 2328 2305 2282 2260
8 2237 2215 2193 2171 2149 2128 2107 2086 2065 2045
2024 2004 1984 1964 1945 1925 1906 1887 1869 1850
4.0 1832 1813 1795 1777 1760 1742 1725 1708 1691 1674
1 1657 1641 1624 1608 1592 1576 1561 1545 1530 1515
2 1500 1485 1470 1455 1441 1426 1412 1398 1384 1370
3 1357 1343 1330 1317 1304 1291 1278 1265 1253 1240
4 1228 1216 1203 1191 1180 1168 1156 1145 1133 1122
5 llll 1100 1089 1078 1067 1057 1046 1036 1025 1015
6 1005 9952 9853 9755 9658 9562 9466 9372 9279 9187
7 0.009095 9005 89IS 8826 8739 8652 8566 8480 8396 8312
8 8230 8148 8067 7987 7907 7828 7750 7673 7597 7521
9 7447 7372 7299 7227 7155 7083 7013 6943 6874 6B06
5 0 6738 6671 6605 6539 6474 6409 6346 6282 6220 6158
- I + +
For very small values of i. e * * I i.- I! 2! 3!
Large values of x: The formulas for e* apply; alio e~* = l/e*.

Method I. - -
(-) = (0.001930)' -
1.39 X 10". (Continued on ,,. SB)
Table 6. Exponential Functions : e*. (Continued)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.0 148.4 149.9 151.4 152.9 154.5 156.0 157.6 159. 2 160.8 162. 4
1 164.0 165.7 167.3 169.0 170.7 172.4 174.2 175.9 177.7 179.5
2 181.3 183. 1 184.9 186.8 188.7 190.6 192.5 194.4 196.4 198.3
3 200.3 202.4 204.4 206.4 208 5 210.6 212.7 214.9 217.0 219. 2
4 221.4 223.6 225.9 , 228. 1 230.4 232.8 235. 1 237.5 239.8 242.3
5 244.7 247.2 249.6 252. 1 254.7 257.2 259.8 262.4 265. 1 267. 7
6 270.4 273. 1 275.9 278.7 281.5 284.3 287. 1 290.0 292.9 295 . 9
7 298.9 301.9 304.9 308.0 311. 1 314.2 317.3 320.5 323.8 327 0
8 330.3 333.6 337.0 340.4 343.8 347.2 350.7 354.2 357.8 361.4
9 365.0 368.7 372.4 376.2 379.9 383.8 387.6 391.5 395.4 399 4
6.0 403.4 407.5 411.6 415. 7 419.9 424. 1 428. 4 432.7 437.0 441.4
1 445.9 450.3 454.9 459.4 464. 1 468. 7 473.4 478.2 483.0 487.8
2 492.7 497.7 502.7 507.8 512.9 518.0 523.2 528.5 533.8 539. 2
3 544.6 550.0 555.6 561.2 566.8 572.5 578.2 584. 1 589.9 595.9
4 601.8 607.9 614.0 620.2 626.4 632.7 639. 1 645.5 652.0 658.5
5 665. 1 671.8 678.6 685.4 692.3 699.2 706.3 713.4 720.5 727.8
6 735. 1 742.5 749.9 757.5 765. 1 772.8 780.6 788.4 796.3 804.3
7 812.4 820.6 828.8 837. 1 845.6 854. 1 862.6 871.3 880. 1 888. 9
1 897.8 906.9 916.0 925.2 934.5 943.9 953.4 962.9 972.6 982.4
9 992.3 1002 1012 1022 1033 1043 1054 1064 1075 1086
7.0 1097 1108 1119 1130 1141 1153 1164 1176 1188 1200
1 1212 1224 1236 1249 1261 1274 1287 1300 1313 1326
2 1339 1353 1366 1380 1394 1408 1422 1437 1451 1466
J 1480 1495 1510 1525 1541 1556 1572 1588 1604 1620
4 1636 1652 1669 1686 1703 1720 1737 1755 1772 1790
5 1808 1826 1845 1863 1882 1901 1920 1939 1959 1978
6 1998 2018 2039 2059 2080 2101 2122 2143 2165 2186
7 220S 2231 2253 2276 229B 2322 2345 2368 2392 2416
S 2441 2465 2490 2515 2540 2566 2592 2618 2644 2670
9 2697 2724 2752 2779 2807 2836 2864 2893 2922 2951
8.0 2981 3011 3041 3072 3103 3134 3165 3197 3229 3262
1 3294 3328 3361 3395 3429 3463 3498 3533 3569 3605
3641 3678 3715 3752 3790 3828 3866 3905 3944 3984
3 4024 4064 4105 4146 4188 4230 4273 4316 4359 4403
4 4447 4492 4537 4583 4629 4675 4722 4770 4817 4866
, 4915 4964 5014 5064 5115 5167 5219 5271 5324 5378
5 5432 5486 5541 5597 5653 5710 5768 5B25 5884 5943
7 6003 6063 6124 6186 6248 631 1 6374 6438 6503 6568
g 6634 6701 6768 6836 6905 6974 7044 7115 7187 7259
9 7332 7406 7480 7555 7631 7708 7785 7864 7943 8022
9.0 8103 8185 8267 8350 8434 8519 8604 8691 8778 8866
8955 9045 9136 9228 9321 9414 9509 9605 9701 9799
2 9897 9997 * 1. 0 10 1.020 1.030 1.040 1.051 1.061 1.072 1.083
3 I0 X 1.094 1. 105 1. 116 1. 127 1. 138 1. 150 1. 161 1. 173 1. 185 1. 197
4 I0< X 1.209 1.221 1.233 1.246 1.258 1.271 1.284 1.296 1.310 1.323
j I0< X 1.336 1.349 1.363 1.377 1.390 1.404 1.419 1.433 1.447 1.462
(, I0< X 1.476 1.491 1.506 1.521 1.537 1.552 1.568 1.584 1.599 1.616
7 10* X 1.632 1.648 1.665 1.681 1.698 1.715 1.733 1.750 1.768 1.785
I0 X 1.803 1.821 1.840 1.858 1.877 1.896 1.915 1.934 1.954 1.973
I0 X 1.993 2.013 2.033 2.054 2.074 2.095 2. 116 2. 138 2. 159 2. 181
10.0 10' X 2. 203 2. 225 2. 247 2. 270 2.293 2.316 2.339 2.362 2.386 2.410
Method 2. ** - f
X t* X e.g., e
By natural logarithm., e.g.. In
f, - t"
f"
X e10 X e> = (2.203 X I0) X 148.4
= 25 =23.0259 + 1.9741
-
7.202 X 10".
e = 7.200 X 10".
Method 3.
Method 4. By common luiiarithma, e.g.,
log c" = 25 log a = 25 X 0.4343 = 10.8575 e" - 7.205 X 10"
Sec. 1-2] mathematical tables 1-S9
Table 6. Exponential Functions : e~*. (Continued)
s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.0 0.006738 6671 6605 6539 6474 6409 6346 6282 6220 6158
1 6097 6036 5976 5917 5858 5799 5742 5685 5628 5572
2 5517 5462 5407 5354 5300 5248 5195 5144 5092 5042
3 4992 4942 4893 4844 4796 4748 4701 4654 4608 4562
4 4517 4472 4427 4383 4339 4296 4254 4211 4169 4128
5 4087 4046 4006 3966 3927 3887 3849 3810 3773 3735
6 3698 3661 3625 3589 3553 3518 3483 3448 3414 3380
7 3346 3313 3280 3247 3215 3183 3151 3120 3089 3058
8 3028 2997 2968 2938 2909 2880 2851 2823 2795 2767
9 2739 2712 2685 2658 2632 2606 2580 2554 2529 2504
6.0 2479 2454 2430 2405 2382 2358 2334 2311 2288 2265
1 2243 2221 2198 2177 2155 2133 2112 2091 2070 2050
2 2029 2009 1989 1969 1950 1930 1911 1892 1873 1855
3 1836 1818 1800 1782 1764 1747 1729 1712 1695 1678
4 1662 1645 1629 1612 1596 1581 1565 1549 1534 1519
5 1503 1488 1474 1459 1444 1430 1416 1402 1388 1374
6 1360 1347 1333 1320 1307 1294 1281 1268 1256 1243
7 1231 1219 1207 1195 1183 1171 1159 1148 1136 1125
8 1114 1103 1092 1081 1070 1059 1049 1038 1028 1018
9 1008 9978 9878 *9780 9683 9586 9491 9397 9303 9210
7.0 0.0009119 9028 893 8 8849 8761 8674 8588 8502 8418 8334
1 8251 8169 8088 8007 7928 7849 7771 7693 7617 7541
2 7466 7392 7318 7245 7173 7102 7031 6961 6892 6823
3 6755 6688 6622 6556 6491 6426 6362 6299 6236 6174
4 6113 6052 5991 5932 5873 5814 5757 5699 5643 5586
5 5531 5476 5421 5367 5314 5261 5209 5157* 5106 5055
6 5005 4955 4905 4857 4808 4760 4713 4666 4620 4574
7 4528 4483 4439 4394 4351 4307 4265 4222 4180 4139
8 4097 4057 4016 3976 3937 3898 3859 3820 3782 3745
9 3707 3671 3634 3598 3562 3527 3492 3457 3422 3388
8.0 3355 3321 3288 3255 3223 3191 3159 3128 3097 3066
1 3035 3005 2975 2946 2916 2887 2859 2830 2802 2774
2 2747 2719 2692 2665 2639 2613 2587 2561 2535 2510
3 2485 2460 2436 2412 2388 2364 2340 2317 2294 2271
4 2249 2226 2204 2182 2161 2139 2118 2097 2076 2055
5 2035 2014 1994 1975 1955 1935 1916 1897 1878 I860
6 1841 1823 1805 1787 1769 1751 1734 1717 1700 1683
7 1666 1649 1633 1617 1601 1585 1569 1553 1538 1522
8 1507 1492 1477 1463 1448 1434 1420 1405 1391 1378
9 1364 1350 1337 1324 1310 1297 1284 1272 1259 1247
9.0 1234 1222 1210 1198 1186 1174 1162 1151 1139 1128
1 1117 1106 1095 1084 1073 1062 1052 1041 1031 1021
1010 1000 9904 9805 9708 9611 9516 9421 9327 9234
.00009142 9051 8961 8872 8784 8697 8610 8524 8440 8356
8272 8190 8109 8028 7948 7869 7791 7713 7636 7560
7485 7411 7337 7264 7192 7120 7049 6979 6910 6841
6773 6705 6639 6573 6507 6443 6378 6315 6252 6190
6128 6067 6007 5947 5888 5829 5771 5714 5657 5601
5545 5490 5435 5381 5328 5275 5222 5170 5119 5063
5017 4968 4918 4869 4821 4773 4725 4678 4632 4586
10.0 .00004540 4495 4450 4406 4362 4319 4276 4233 4191 4149
Method 2. " -
- X "> X (0.00004540)' -
X 0.006738 = 1.388 X 10-".
Methods 3 and 4 are not convenient.
Method 5. Any of the four methods can be used in conjunction with e~z = l/e*. e.g.,
- 1/(7.202 X 10") 1.388 X 10-"
Table 7. Hyperbolic Functions: cosh x and sinh x

cosh x
X 0 ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 1. 0000 1 0001 1.0002 1.0005 1 0008 1.0013 1.0018 1.0025 1.0032 1.0041
1 I.00S 1.006 1.007 1.008 1.010 1.011 1.013 1.014 1.016 1.018
2 1.020 1.022 1.024 1.027 1.030 1.031 1.034 1.037 1.039 1.042
3 1.045 1.048 1.052 1.055 1.058 1.062 1.066 1.069 1.073 1.077
4 1.081 1.085 1.090 1.094 1.098 1.103 1. 108 1.112 1.117 1.123
5 1. 128 1.133 1.138 1.144 1.149 1.155 1. 161 1.167 1.173 1.179
6 1.185 1.192 1.198 1.205 1.212 1.219 1.226 1.233 1.240 1.248
7 1.255 1.263 1.271 1.278 1.287 1.295 1.303 1.311 1.320 1.329
8 1.337 1.346 1.355 1.365 1.374 1.384 1.393 1.403 1.413 1.423
9 1.433 1.443 1.454 1.465 1.475 1.486 1.497 1.509 1 520 1.531
1.0 1.543 1.555 1.567 1.579 1.591 1.604 1.616 1.629 1.642 1.655
1 1.669 1.682 1.696 1.709 1.723 1.737 1.752 1.766 1.781 1.796
2 I.8M 1.826 1.841 1.857 1.872 1.888 1.905 1.921 1.937 1.954
3 1.971 1.988 2.005 2.023 2.040 2.058 2.076 2.095 2.113 2.132
4 2.151 2. 170 2.189 2.209 2.229 2.249 2.269 2.290 2.310 2.331
5 2.352 2.374 2.395 2.417 2.439 2.462 2.484 2.507 2.530 2.554
6 2.577 2.601 2.625 2.650 2.675 2.700 2.725 2.750 2.776 2.802
7 2.828 2.855 2.882 2.909 2.936 2.964 2.992 3.021 3.049 3.078
8 3.107 3.137 3.167 3.197 3.228 3.259 3.290 3.321 3.353 3.385
9 3.418 3.451 3.484 3.517 3.551 3.585 3.620 3.655 3.690 3.726
2.0 3.762 3.799 3.835 3.873 3.910 3.948 3.987 4.026 4.065 4.104
1 4.144 4.185 4.226 4.267 4.309 4.351 4.393 4.436 4.480 4.524
2 4.568 4.613 4.658 4.704 4.750 4.797 4.844 4.891 4.939 4.988
3 5.037 5.087 5.137 5. 188 5.239 5.290 5.343 5.395 5.449 5.503
4 5.557 5.612 5.667 5.723 5.780 5.837 5.895 5.954 6.013 6.072
5 6.132 6.193 6.255 6.317 6.379 6.443 6.507 6.571 6.636 6.702
6 6.769 6.836 6.904 6.973 7.042 7.112 7.183 7.255 7.327 7.400
7 7.473 7.548 7.623 7 699 7.776 7.853 7.932 8.011 8.091 8.171
8 8.253 8.335 8.418 8.502 8.587 8.673 8.759 8.847 8.935 9.024
9 9.115 9.206 9.298 9.391 9.484 9.579 9.675 9.772 9.869 9.968
3.0 10.07 10.17 10.27 10.37 10.48 10.58 10.69 10.79 10.90 11.01
1 11.12 11.23 11.35 11.46 11.57 11.69 11.81 11.92 12.04 12. 16
2 12.29 12.41 12.53 12.66 12.79 12.91 13.04 13.17 13.31 13.44
3 13.57 13.71 13.85 13.99 14.13 14.27 14.41 14.56 14.70 14.85
4 15.00 15.15 15.30 15.45 15.61 15.77 15.92 16.08 16.25 16.41
5 16.57 16.74 16.91 17.08 17.25 17.42 17.60 17.77 17.95 18.13
6 18.31 18.50 18.68 18.87 19.06 19.25 19.44 19.64 19.84 20.03
7 20.24 20.44 20.64 20.85 21.06 21.27 21.49 21.70 21.92 22.14
8 22.36 22.59 22.81 23.04 23.27 23.51 23.74 23.98 24.22 24.47
9 24.71 24.96 25.21 25.46 25.72 25.98 26.24 26.50 26.77 27.04
4.0 27.31 27.58 27.86 28.14 28.42 28.71 29.00 29.29 29.58 29.88
1 30. 18 30.48 30.79 31.10 31.41 31.72 32.04 32 37 32.69 33.02
2 33.35 33.69 34.02 34.37 34.71 35.06 35.41 35.77 36.13 36.49
3 36.86 37.23 37.60 37.98 38.36 38.75 39.13 39.53 39.93 40.33
4 40.73 41. 14 41.55 41.97 42.39 42.82 43.25 43.68 44. 12 44.57
5 45.01 45.47 45.92 46.38 46.85 47.32 47.80 48.28 48.76 49.25
6 49.75 50 25 50.75 51.26 51.78 52.30 52.82 53 35 53.89 54.43
7 54.98 55.53 56.09 56.65 57.22 57.80 58.38 58.96 59.56 60. 15
8 60.76 61.37 61.99 62.61 63.24 63.87 64.52 65 16 65.82 66.48
9 67.15 67.82 68.50 69.19 69.89 70.59 71.30 72.02 72.74 73.47
5.0 74.21 74.96 75.71 76.47 77.24 78.01 78.80 79.59 80.39 81.20
* + '
OOBh X 1 + + +
2! 41
Sec. 1-2] MATHEMATICAL TABLES 1-91
Table 7. Hyperbolic Functions : cosh x and sinh x. (Continued)
sinh x
I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.0000 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0701 0801 0901
1 1002 1102 1203 1304 1405 1506 1607 1708 1810 1911
2 2013 2115 2218 2320 2423 2526 2629 2733 2837 2941
3 3045 3150 3255 3360 3466 3572 3678 3785 3892 4000
4 4108 4216 4325 4434 4543 4653 4764 4875 4986 5098
5 5211 5324 5438 5552 5666 5782 5897 6014 6131 6248
6 6367 6485 6605 6725 6846 6967 7090 7213 7336 7461
7 7586 7712 7838 7966 8094 8223 8353 8484 8615 8748
8 6881 9015 9150 9286 9423 9561 9700 9840 9981 0122
9 1.027 1.041 1.055 1.070 1.085 1.099 1.114 1.129 1.145 1.160
1.0 1.175 1.191 1.206 1.222 1.238 1.254 1.270 1.286 1.303 1.319
1 1.336 1.352 1.369 1.386 1.403 1.421 1.438 1.456 1.474 1.491
2 1.509 1.528 1.546 1.564 1.583 1.602 1.621 1.640 1.659 1.679
3 1.698 1.718 1.738 1.758 1.779 1.799 1.820 1.841 1.862 1.883
1.904 1.926 1.948 1.970 1.992 2.014 2.037 2.060 2.083 2.106
5 2.129 2.153 2. 177 2.201 2.225 2.250 2.274 2.299 2.324 2.350
6 2.376 2 401 2.428 2.454 2.481 2.507 2.535 2.562 2.590 2.617
7 2.646 2.674 2.703 2.732 2.761 2.790 2.820 2.850 2.881 2.911
8 2.942 2.973 3.005 3.037 3.069 3.101 3. 134 3.167 3.200 3.234
9 3.268 3.303 3.337 3.372 3.408 3.443 3.479 3.516 3.552 3.589
2.0 3.627 3.665 3.703 3.741 3.780 3.820 3.859 3.899 3.940 3.981
1 4.022 4.064 4. 106 4. 148 4. 191 4.234 4.278 4.322 4.367 4.412
2 4.457 4 503 4.549 4.596 4.643 4.691 4.739 4.788 4.837 4.887
3 4.937 4.988 5.039 5.090 5.142 5.195 5.248 5.302 5.356 5.411
4 5.466 5.522 5.578 5.635 5.693 5.751 5.810 5.869 5.929 5.989
5 6.050 6. 112 6.174 6.237 6.300 6.365 6.429 6.495 6.561 6.627
6 6.695 6.763 6.831 6.901 6.971 7.042 7.113 7.185 7.258 7.332
7 7.406 7.481 7.557 7.634 7.711 7.789 7.868 7.948 8.028 8.110
8 8.192 8.275 8 359 8.443 8.529 8.615 8.702 8.790 8.879 8.969
9 9.060 9.151 9.244 9.337 9.431 9.527 9.623 9.720 9.819 9.918
3.0 10.02 10. 12 10.22 10.32 10.43 10.53 10.64 10.75 10.86 10.97
1 11.08 II. 19 11.30 11.42 11.53 11.65 11.76 11.88 12.00 12. 12
12.25 12 37 12.49 12.62 12.75 12.88 13.01 13.14 13.27 13.40
13.54 13.67 13.81 13.95 14.09 14.23 14.38 14.52 14.67 14.82
14.97 15.12 15.27 15.42 15.58 15.73 15.89 16.05 16.21 16.38
16.54 16.71 16.88 17.05 17.22 17.39 17.57 17.74 17.92 18. 10
18.29 18.47 18.66 18.84 19.03 19.22 19.42 19.61 19.81 20.01
20 21 20.41 20.62 20.83 21.04 21.25 21.46 21.68 21.90 22. 12
22.34 22.56 22.79 23.02 23.25 23.49 23.72 23.96 24.20 24.45
24.69 24.94 25. 19 25.44 25.70 25.96 26.22 26.48 26.75 27.02
4.0 27.29 27.56 27.84 28.12 28.40 28.69 28.98 29.27 29.56 29.86
30.16 30.47 30.77 31.08 31.39 31.71 32.03 32 35 32.68 33.00
33.34 33.67 34.01 34.35 34.70 35.05 35.40 35.75 36. II 36.48
36.84 37.21 37.59 37.97 38 35 38.73 39. 12 39.52 39.91 40.31
40.72 41.13 41.54 41.96 42.38 42.81 43.24 43.67 44. II 44.56
45 00 45.46 45.91 46.37 46.84 47.31 47.79 48.27 48.75 49.24

49 74 50.24 50.74 51.25 51.77 52.29 52.81 53.34 53.88 54.42
54.97 55.52 56.08 56.64 57.21 57.79 58.37 58.96 59.55 60. 15
60 75 61.36 61.98 62.60 63.23 63.87 64.51 65. 16 65.81 66.47
67. 14 67 82 68.50 69. 19 69.88 70.58 71.29 72.01 72.73 73.46
5.0 74.20 74.95 75.70 76.46 77.23 78.01 78.79 79.58 80.38 81.19
sinh :
Table 7. Hyperbolic Functions : cosh x and sinh z. (Continued)

(Table gives cosh x. Sinh x is the same except that the last digit is to be diminished by one
where ' appears.)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.0 74.21' 74.96' 75.71' 76.47' 77.24' 78.01 78.80' 79.59' 80.39' 81.20'
1 82.01 82.84' 83.67' 84.51 85.36' 86.22' 87.09' 87.96' 88.84 89.74'
2 90.64' 91.55' 92.47' 93.40' 94.34' 95.29' 96.24 97.21 98. 19' 99. 17
3 100.2 101.2 102.2 103.2 104.3 105.3 106.4 107.4 108.5 109.6
4 110.7 III. 8 112.9 114. 1 115.2 116.4 117.6' 118.7 119.9 121.1
5 122.3 123.6 124.8 126.1 127.3 128.6 129.9 131.2 132.5 133.9
6 135.2 136.6 137.9 139.3 140.7 142.1 143.6 145.0 146.5 147.9
7 149.4 150.9 152.5 154.0 155.5 157.1 158.7 160.3 161.9 163.5
8 165.2' 166.8 168.5 170.2 171.9 173.6 175.4 177. 1 178.9 180.7
9 182.5 184.4 186.2 188. 1 190.0 191.9 193.8 195.8 197.7 199.7
6.0 201.7 203.7 205.8 207.9 209.9 212.1 214.2 216.3 218.5 220.7
1 222.9 225.2 227.4 229.7 232.0 234.4 236.7 239.1 241.5 243.9
2 246.4 248.9' 251.4 253.9 256.4 259.0 261.6 264.2 266.9 269.6
3 272.3 275.0 277.8 280.6 283.4 286.2 289.1 292.0 295.0 297.9
4 300.9 303.9 307.0 310.1 313.2 316.4 319.5 322.7 326.0 329.3
5 332.6 335.9 339.3 342.7 346.1 349.6 353.1 356.7 360.3 363.9
6 367.5 371.2 375.0 378.7 382.5 386.4 390.3 394.2 398.2 402.2
7 406.2 410.3 414.4 418.6 422.8 427.0 431.3 435.7 440.0 444.5
8 448.9 453.4 458.0 462.6 467.2 471.9 476.7 481.5 486.3 491.2
9 496.1 501.1 506.2 511.2 516.4 521.6 526.8 532.1 537.5 542.9
7.0 548.3 553.8 559.4 565.0 570.7 576.4 582.2 588.1 594.0 600.0
1 606.0 612.1 618.2 624.4 630.7 637.1 643.5 649.9 656.5 663.1
2 669.7 676.4 683.2 690.1 697.0 704.1 711.1 718.3 725.5 732.8
3 740.2' 747.6 755.1 762.7 770.4 778.1 785.9 793.8 801.8 809.9
4 818.0 826.2 834.5 842.9 851.4 859.9 868.6 877.3 886.1 895.0
5 904.0 913. 1 922.3 931.6 940.9 950.4 959.9 969.6 979.3 989.2
6 999. 1 1009 1019 1030 1040 1050 1061 1072 1082 1093
7 1104 1115 1126 1138 1149 1161 1172 1184 1196 1208
8 1220 1233 1245 1257 1270 1283 1296 1309 1322 1335
9 1349 1362 1376 1390 1404 1418 1432 1446 1461 1476
8.0 1490 1505 1521 1536 1551 1567 1583 1599 1615 1631
1 1647 1664 1681 1697 1714 1732 1749 1767 1784 1802
2 1820 1839 1857 1876 1895 1914 1933 1952 1972 1992
3 2012 2032 2053 2073 2094 2115 2136 2158 2180 2201
4 2224 2246 2268 2291 2314 2338 2361 2385 2409 2433
5 2457 2482 2507 2532 2558 2583 2609 2636 2662 2689
6 2716 2743 2771 2799 2827 2855 2884 2913 2942 2972
7 3001 3032 3062 3093 3124 3155 3187 3219 3251 3284
8 3317 3350 3384 3418 3452 3487 3522 3558 3593 3630
9 3666 3703 3740 3778 3616 3854 3893 3932 3971 4011
9.0 4052 4092 4133 4175 4217 4259 4302 4345 4389 4433
1 4478 4523 4568 4614 4660 4707 4755 4802 4851 4899
2 4949 4998 5049 5099 5151 5202 5255 5307 5361 5415
I 5469 5524 5579 5636 5692 5749 5807 5866 5925 5984
4 6044 6105 6166 6228 6291 6354 6418 6482 6548 6613
5 6680 6747 6815 6883 6952 7022 7093 7164 7236 7309
h 7382 7457 7532 7607 7684 7761 7839 7918 7997 8078
7 8159 8241 8324 8407 8492 8577 8663 8750 8838 8927
9017 9107 9199 9291 9385 9479 9574 9671 9768 9866
9 9965 "1.005 1.017 1.027 1 037 1.048 1.058 1.069 1.080 1.090
10 0 I0< X 1. 101 1. 112 1.124 1. 135 1.146 1.158 1. 169 1. 181 1. 193 1.205
Where x is large, sinh x = cosh x H*>

SI-:C. 1-2] MATHEMATICAL TABLES 1-93
Table 8. Hyperbolic Functions: tanh
:I:
Z
9
0
8
1
`
, 0
0000 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0599 0699 0798 0898
,
0997 1096 1194 1293 1391 1489 1586 1684 1781 1877
1
W-IQ
1974 2070 2165 2260 2355 2449 2543 2636 2729 2821
2913 3004 3095 3185 3275 3364 3452 3540 3627 3714
3799 3885 3969 4053 4136 4219 4301 4382 4462 4542

4621 4699 4777 4854 4930 5005 5080 5154 5227 5299
mlnm
5370 5441 5511 5581 5649 5717 5784 5850 5915 5980
6044 6107 6169 6231 6291 6351 6411 6469 6527 6584
6640 6696 6751 6805 6858 6911 6963 7014 7064 7114
7163 7211 7259 7306 7352 7398 7443 7487 7531 7574
7616 7658 7699 7739 7779 7818 7857 7895 7932 7969
8275
Ahvlhl-O
8005 8041 8076 8110 6144 8178 8210 8243 8306

8337 8367 8397 8426 8455 8483 8511 8538 8565 8591
8617 8643 8668 8692 8717 8741 8764 8787 8810 8832
8854 8875 8896 8917 8937 8957 8977 8996 9015 9033
9051 9069 9087 9104 9121 9138 9154 9170 9186 9201
`00\IO~VI
9217 9232 9246 9261 9275 9289 9302 9316 9329 9341
9354 9366 9379 9391 9402 9414 9425 9436 9447 9458
9468 9478 9488 9498 9508 9517 9527 9536 9545 9554
9562 9571 9579 9587 9595 9603 9611 9618 9626 9633
9640 9647 9654 9661 9667 9674 9680 9687 9693 9699
N
9705 9710 9716 9721 9727 9732 9737 9743 9748 9753
9789 9793
IMIJN-
9757 9762 9767 9771 9776 9780 9785 9797

9801 9805 9809 9812 9816 9820 9823 9827 9830 9833
9837 9840 9843 9846 9849 9852 9855 9858 9861 9863
9866 9869 9871 9874 9876 9879 9881 9884 9886 9888
9890 9892 9895 9897 9899 9901 9903 9905 9906 9908
klvh
9910 9912 9914 9915 9917 9919 9920 9922 9923 9925
9926 9928 9929 9931 9932 9933 9935 9936 9937 9938
9940 9941 9942 9943 9944 9945 9946 9947 9949 9950
9951 9952 9952 9953 9954 9955 9956 9957 9958 9959
U
9959 9960 9961 9962 9963 9963 9964 9965 9965 9966
Iulhl-(D
9967 9967 9968 9969 9969 9970 9971 9971 9972 9972
9973 9973 9974 9974 9975 9975 9976 9976 9977 9977
9978 9978 9979 9979 9979 9980 9980 9981 9981 9981
9982 9982 9982 9983 9983 9984 9984 9984 9984 9985
9986 9987 9987 9987 9988
Nlhlll
9985 9985 9986 9986 9986

9988 9988 9988 9988 9989 9989 9989 9989 9990 9990
9990 9990 9990 9991 9991 9991 9991 9991 9991 9992
9992 9992 9992 9992 9992 9993 9993 9993 9993 9993
9993 9993 9994 9994 9994 9994 9994 9994 9994 9994
A
9995 9995 9995 9995 9995 9995 9995 9995 9995 9995
9996 9996 9996
JUIN-Q
9996 9996 9996 9996 9996 9996 9996

9996 9996 9996 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997
9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997 9997
9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998
'0G`\4^V!
.
9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9998
9998 9998 9998 9998 9998 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999
9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999
9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999
9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999 9999
vl
Q
tanl 1; = - ,,,.__
sinh
_.___
I' - I
I ___
Et Ze
2
=
I
cosh Z et 27-' 671'

+
1
+
I u
cthz=_L=-L_'1-|+
tanh: slnhz - rt -
8
et .
2,
3'
e
1
-
~1
when zllm-e_ tnh r.-J Zz-12. coth 2 =: 24!-I-'. When :is verylarlze, tanh =cot1l 1 :S
1
I
1
2
I
Table 9. Bessel Functions: Jt>(x) and Ji(x)

Jt(x)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 + 1.0000 1 . 0000 0 9999 9998 9996 9994 9991 9988 9984 9980
1 + 0.9975 9970 9964 9958 9951 9944 9936 9928 9919 9910
2 9900 9890 9879 9868 9857 9844 9832 9819 9805 9791
3 9776 9761 9746 9730 9713 9696 9679 9661 9642 9623
4 9604 9584 9564 9543 9522 9500 9478 9455 9432 9409
5 9385 9360 9335 9310 9284 9258 9231 9204 9177 9149
6 9120 9091 9062 9032 9002 8971 8940 8909 8877 8845
7 8812 8779 8745 8711 8677 8642 8607 8572 8536 8500
I 8463 8426 8388 8350 8312 8274 8235 8195 8156 8116
9 8075 8034 7993 7952 7910 7868 7825 7783 7739 7696
1.0 7652 7608 7563 7519 7473 7428 7382 7336 7290 7243
1 7196 7149 7101 7054 7006 6957 6909 6860 6810 6761
2 6711 6661 6611 6561 6510 6459 6408 6356 6305 6253
) 6201 6149 6096 6043 5990 5937 5884 5830 5777 5723
4 5669 5614 5560 5505 5450 5395 5340 5285 5230 5174
5 5118 5062 5006 4950 4894 4838 4781 4725 4668 4611
6 4554 4497 4440 4383 4325 4268 4210 4153 4095 4038
7 3980 3922 3864 3806 3748 3690 3632 3574 3516 3458
8 3400 3342 3284 3225 3167 3109 3051 2993 2934 2876
9 2818 2760 2702 2644 2586 2528 2470 2412 2354 2297
2.0 2239 2181 2124 2066 2009 1951 1894 1837 1780 1723
1 1666 1609 1553 1496 1440 1383 1327 1271 1215 1159
2 1104 1048 0993 0937 0882 0827 0773 0718 0664 0609
3 0555 0502 0448 0394 0341 0288 0235 0182 0130 0077
4 + 0025 0027 0079 0130 0181 0232 0283 0334 0384 0434
5 -0484 0533 0583 0632 0681 0729 0778 0826 0873 0921
6 -0968
7 - 1424 1015
1469
1062
1512
1108
1556
1154
1599
1200
1641
1245
1684
1291
1726
1336
1768
1380
I80'J
8 -1850 1891 1932 1972 2012 2051 2090 2129 2167 2205
9 -2243 2280 2317 2354 2390 2426 2462 2497 2532 2566
3 0 -2601 2634 2668 2701 2733 2765 2797 2829 2860 2890
1 -2921 2951 2980 3009 3038 3066 3094 3122 3149 3176
2 -3202 3228 3253 3278 3303 3328 3351 3375 3398 3421
i -3443 3465 3486 3507 3528 3548 3568 3587 3606 3625
4 -3643 3661 3678 3695 3711 3727 3743 3758 3773 3787
5 - 3801 3815
3828 3841 3853 3865 3876 3887 3898 3908

6 -3918 3927 3936 3944 3953 3960 3967 3974 3981 3987
7 -3992 3997 4002 4007 4011 4014 4017 4020 4022 4024
8 -4026 4027 4027 4028 4027 4027 4026 4025 4023 4021
9 -4018 4015 4012 4008 4004 4000 3995 3990 3984 3978
4 0 -3971 3965 3958 3950 3942 3934 3925 3916 3907 3897
1 -3887 3876 3865 3854 3842 3831 3818 3806 3793 3779
2 -3766 3752 3737 3722 3707 3692 3676 3660 3644 3627
1 -3610 3593 3575 3557 3539 3520 3501 3482 3463 3443
4 -3423 3402 3381 3360 3339 3318 3296 3274 3251 3228
s -3205 3182 3159 3135 3111 3087 3062 3037 3012 2987
(. -2961 2936 2910 2883 2857 2830 2803 2776 2749 2721
7 -2693 2665 2637 2609 2580 2551 2522 2493 2464 2434
8 -2404 2374 2344 2314 2283 2253 2222 2191 2160 2129
9 -2097 2066 2034 2002 1970 1938 1906 1874 1841 1809
5.0 - 1776 1743 1710 1677 1644 1611 1578 ,544 1511 1477
2i(ll)i 2<(21)' 2'(3!)>

J'rix) -Ji(x)
Table 9. Bessel Functions: J0(x) and J i(x). (Continued)
t 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9
I.I + 0 00000 00500 01000 01500 02000 02499 02999 03498 03997 04495
1 0.04994 05492 05989 06486 06983 07479 07974 08469 08964 09457
2 0 09950 10442 1093 1142 1191 1240 1289 1338 1386 1435
3 0. 1483 1531 1580 1628 1676 1723 1771 1819 1866 1913
4 I960 2007 2054 2101 2147 2194 2240 2286 2332 2377
5 2423 2468 2513 2558 2603 2647 2692 2736 2780 2823
6 2867 2910 2953 2996 3039 3081 3124 3166 3207 3249
7 3290 3331 3372 3412 3452 3492 3532 3572 361 1 3650
3688 3727 3765 3803 3840 3878 3915 3951 3988 4024
4059 4095 4130 4165 4200 4234 4268 4302 4335 4368
1.0 4401 4433 4465 4497 4528 4559 4590 4620 4650 4680
1 4709 4738 4767 4795 4823 4850 4878 4904 4931 4957
2 4983 5008 5033 5058 5082 5106 5130 5153 5176 5198
3 5220 5242 5263 5284 5305 5325 5344 5364 5383 5401
* J4I9 5437 5455 5472 5488 5504 5520 5536 5551 5565
} 5579 5593 5607 5620 5632 5644 5656 5667 5678 5689
6 5699 5709 5718 5727 5735 5743 5751 5758 5765 5772
7 5778 5783 5788 5793 5798 5802 5805 5808 5811 5813
g 5815 5817 5818 5818 5819 5818 5818 5817 5816 5814
9 5812 5809 5806 5803 5799 5794 5790 5785 5779 5773
I.t 5761 5754 5746 5738 5730 5721 5712

5767 5703 5693

1 5683 5672 5661 5650 5638 5626 5614 5601 5587 5574
2 5560 5545 5530 5515 5500 5484 5468 5451 5434 5416
3 5399 5381 5362 5343 5324 5305 5285 5265 5244 5223
4 5202 5180 5158 5136 5113 5091 5067 5044 5020 4996
J 4971 4946 4921 4895 4870 4843 4817 4790 4763 4736
6 4708 4680 4652 4624 4595 4566 4536 4507 4477 4446
7 4416 4385 4354 4323 4291 4260 4228 4195 4163 4130
8 4097 4064 4030 3997 3963 3928 3894 3859 3825 3790
3754 3719 3683 3647 3611 3575 3538 3502 3465 3428
I.I 3391 3353 3316 3278 3240 3202 3164 3125 3087 3048
3009 2970 2931 2892 2852 2813 2773 2733 2694 2654
2 2613 2573 2533 2492 2452 241 1 2370 2330 2289 2248
I 2207 2165 2124 2083 2042 2000 1959 1917 1876 1834
4 1792 1751 1709 1667 1625 1583 1541 1500 1458 1416
I
1374 1332 1290 1248 1206 1164 1122 1080 1038 0996
b 0955 0913 0871 0829 07876 0746 0704 0663 0621 0580
1 0538 0497 0456 04145 0373 0332 0291 0250 0210 0169
6 + 0128 0088 0047 00069 "0033 0074 *0 114 *0I53 0193 0233
' -0272 0312 0351 0390 0429 0468 0507 0546 0584 0622
4.1 -0660 0698 0736 0774 081 1 0923

- 0849 0886 0960 0996
2 - 1033
1386
1069
1421
1105
1455
1141
1489
1177
1522
1212
1556
1247
1589
1282
1622
1317
1654
1352
1687
) -1719 1751 1783 1814 1845 1876 1907 1938 1968 1998
4 -2028 2057 2086 2115 2144 2173 2201 2229 2256 2284
5 -2311 2337 2364 2390 2416 2442 2467 2492 2517 2541
6 -2566 2589 2613 2636 2704 2726 2748
7 - 2791 2812 2832 2852
2659
2872
2682
2892 291 1 2930 2949
2770
2967
i - 2985 3003 3020 3037 3054 3070 3086 3102 3117 3132
-3147 3161 3175 3189 3202 3216 3228 3241 3253 3264
50 -3276 3287 3298 3308 3318 3328 3337 3346 3355 3363
S.M - X * -
T 0! 1! 2'- It - 21
+
V 2! 31
/iW /'(*)
Table9. Bessel Functions: Jo(x) and Ji (i). (Continued)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-0.
5.0
- 1776 1743 1710 1677 1644 1611 1578 1544 151 1 1477
1
2 - 1103
1443 1410
1069
1376
1034
1342
1000
1308
0965
1274
0931
1240
0896
1206
0862
1171
0827
1137
0793
3 -0758 0723 0689 0654 0620 0585 0550 0516 0481 0447
4 -0412 0378 0343 0309 0274 0240 0205 0171 0137 0103
J -0068 0034 0000 0034 0068 0102 0135 0169 0203 0236
6 + 0270 0303 0336 0370 0403 0436 0469 0501 0534 0567
7 0599 0632 0664 0696 0728 0760 0792 0823 0855 0886
6 0917 0948 0979 1010 1040 1071 1101 1131 1161 1191
9 1220 1250 1279 1308 1337 1366 1394 1423 1451 1479
6.0 1506 1534 1561 1589 1616 1642 1669 1695 1721 1747
1 1773 1798 1824 1849 1873 1898 1922 1947 1970 1994
2 2017 2041 2064 2086 2109 2131 2153 2175 2196 2217
J 2238 2259 2279 2299 2319 2339 2358 2377 2396 2415
4 2433 2451 2469 2486 2504 2521 2537 2554 2570 2585
J 2601 2616 263 1 2646 2660 2674 2688 2702 2715 2728
6 2740 2753 2765 2777 2788 2799 2810 2821 2831 2841
7 2851 2860 2869 2878 2886 2895 2902 2910 2917 2924
8 2931 2937 2943 2949 2955 2960 2965 2969 2973 2977
2981 2984 2987 2990 2993 2995 2997 2998 2999 3000
7.0
3001 3001 3001 3001 3000 2999 2998 2997 2995 2993
1 2991 2988 2985 2982 2978 2974 2970 2966 2961 2956
2 2951 2945 2939 2933 2927 2920 2913 2906 2898 2890
J 2882 2874 2865 2856 2847 2837 2828 2818 2807 2797
4 2786 2775 2764 2752 2740 2728 2715 2703 2690 2677
5 2663 2650 2636 2622 2607 2593 2578 2563 2547 2532
6 2516 2500 2484 2467 2451 2434 2416 2399 2381 2364
7 2346 2327 2309 2290 2271 2252 2233 2214 2194 2174
8 2154 2134 2113 2093 2072 2051 2030 2009 1987 1965
9 1944 1922 1899 1877 1855 1832 1809 1786 1763 1740
8 0 1717 1693 1669 1645 1622 1597 1573 1549 1524 1500
1 1475 1450 1425 1400 1375 1350 1325 1299 1274 1248
2 1222 1196 1170 1144 1118 1092 1066 1039 1013 0987
3 0960 0934 0907 0880 0853 0826 0800 0773 0745 0719
4 0692 0665 0637 0610 0583 0556 0529 0501 0474 0447
5 0419 0392 0365 0337 0310 0283 0255 0228 0201 0174
6 + 0146 0119 0092 0065 0037 0010 *00I7 0044 0071 *0I00
7 -0125 0152 0179 0206 0233 0260 0286 0313 0339 0366
8 -0392 0419 0445 0471 0497 0524 0549 0575 0601 0627
9 -0653 0678 0704 0729 0754 0779 0804 0829 0854 0879
9.0 -0903 0928 0952 0976 1000 1024 1048 1072 1096 1119
-1142
1
- 1367 1166 1189 1211 1234 1257 1279 1302 1324 1346
2
- 1577 1389 1411 1432 1453 1474 1495 1516 1536 1556
3
4 - 1768 1597
1786
1616
1804
1636
1821
1655
1839
1674
1856
1694
1873
1712
1890
1731
1907
1749
1923
5 - 1939 1955 1971 1987 2002 2061

6 - 2090 2104 2117 2131 2144
2017
2157
2032
2169
2047
2182 2194
2076
2206
7
8 - 2323
-2218 2230 2241 2252 2263 2273 2284 2294 2304 2313
9 - 2403 2332
2410
2341
2417
2350
2423
2358
2429
2366
2434
2374
2440
2382
2445
2389
2450
2396
2455
- 2459
12
10.0 2464 2468 2471 2475 2478 2481 2484 2486 2488
Zeros of JaW 3 4 5 6 7 8
x= 2.4048 5.5201 8.6537 11.7915 14.9309 18.0711 21.2116 24.3525
Table 9. Bessel Functions: Jt>(x) and Ji{x). (Continued)
z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
It -0.3276 3287 3298 3308 3318 3328 3337 3346 3355 3363
1 -3371 3379 3386 3393 3400 3406 3412 3417 3423 3428
2 -3432 3436 3440 3444 3447 3450 3453 3455 3457 3458
J -3460 3460 3461 3461 3461 3461 3460 3459 3457 3456
4 -3453 3451 3448 3445 3442 3438 3434 3430 3425 3420
5 -3414 3409 3403 3396 3390 3383 3376 3368 3360 3352
6 -3343 3335 3325 3316 3306 3296 3286 3275 3264 3253
7 -3241 3230 3218 3205 3192 3179 3166 3153 3139 3125
8 -3110 3096 3081 3065 3050 3034 3018 3002 2985 2969
, -2951 2934 2917 2899 2881 2862 2844 2825 2806 2786
'. 0
--2767
2747 2727 2707 2686 2666 2645 2623 2602 2580
1 2559 2537 2514 2492 2469 2446 2423 2400 2377 2353
; -2329 2305 2281 2257 2232 2207 2182 2157 2132 2106
5 - 2029 2003 1977 1950 1924 1897 1870 1843
- 2081
1816
2055
1789 1762 1734 1707 1679 1651 1623 1595 1567
s -1538 1481 1453 1424 1395 1366 1337 1308 1279

6 - 1250 1510
1220 1191 1162 1132 1102 1073 1043 1013 0983
7 -0953 0923 0893 0863 0833 0803 0773 0743 0713 0682
1 -0652 0622 0592 0561 0531 0501 0470 0440 0410 0379
9 -0349 0319 0288 0258 0228 0198 0167 0137 0107 0077
M -0047 0017 0013 "0043 0073 0103 0133 *0I63 *0192 0222
I + 0251 0282 0310 0340 0369 0398 0428 0457 0486 0514
2 0543 0572 0601 0629 0658 0686 0714 0742 0770 0798
} 0826 0853 0881 0908 0935 0963 0990 1016 1043 1070
4 1096 1123 1149 1175 1201 1226 1252 1277 1302 1328
) 1352 1377 1402 1426 1450 1475 1498 1522 1546 1569
t 1592 1615 1638 1660 1683 1705 1727 1749 1771 1792
7 1813 1834 1855 1875 1896 1916 1936 1956 1975 1994
8 2014 2032 2051 2069 2088 2106 2123 2141 2158 2175
' 2192 2208 2225 2241 2257 2272 2287 2303 2317 2332
It 2346 2360 2374 2388 2401 2414 2427 2440 2452 2464
2476 2488 2499 2510 2521 2531 2542 2552 2561 2571
2 2580 2589 2598 2606 2614 2622 2630 2637 2644 2651
3 2657 2664 2670 2675 2681 2686 2691 2696 2700 2704
4 2708 2711 2715 2718 2720 2723 2725 2727 2729 2730
j 2729
2731 2732 2733 2733 2733 2733 2732 2731 2730

i 2728 2726 2724 2721 2719 2716 2713 2709 2705 2701
7 2697 2693 2688 2683 2678 2672 2666 2660 2654 2648
2641 2634 2626 2619 2611 2603 2595 2566 2577 2568
' 2559 2550 2540 2530 2519 2509 2498 2487 2476 2465
2453 2441 2429 2417 2404 2391 2378 2365 2352 2338
1 2324 2310 2296 2281 2267 2252 2237 2221 2206 2190
2 2174 2158 2142 2125 2108 2091 2074 2057 2040 2022
3 2004 1986 1968 1950 1931 1912 1893 1874 1855 1836
* 1816 1797 1777 1757 1737 1716 1696 1675 1655 1634
J 1613 1591 1570 1549 1527 1506 1484 1462 1440 1418
I 1395 1373 1350 1328 1305 1282 1259 1236 1213 1190
7 1166 1143 1119 1096 1072 1048 1025 10006 0977 0953
; 0928 0904 0880 0856 0831 0807 0782 0758 0733 0708
4 0684 0659 0634 0609 0585 0560 0535 0510 0485 0460
DO + 0435 0410 0385 0360 0334 0309 0284 0259 0234 0209
If rata! J Ax) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
i - 3.8317 7.0156 10.1735 13.3237 16.4706 19.6159 22.7601 25.9037
Table 9. Bessel Functions: Jv(x) and ./,( x). (Continued)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
:o.o -0.2459 2464 2468 2471 2475 2478 2481 2484 2486 2488
i -2490 2492 2493 2495 2496 2496 2497 2497 2497 2497
2 -2496 2495 2494 2493 2492 2490 2488 2485 2483 2480
3 -2477 2474 2470 2467 2463 2458 2454 2449 2444 2439
4 -2434 2428 2422 2416 2410 2403 2396 2389 2382 2374
5 -2366 2358 2350 2342 2333 2324 2315 2306 2296 2286
6 -2276 2266 2256 2245 2234 2223 2212 2200 2188 2177
7 -2164 2152 2140 2127 2114 2101 2087 2074 2060 2046
-2032
8
9 - 1881 2018
1865
2003
1848
1989
1832
1974
1815
1959
1798
1943
1781
1928
1764
1912
1747
1897
1730
II. 0 -1712 1694 1676 1658 1640 1622 1603 1584 1566 1547
1 -1528 1508 1489 1470 1450 1430 1411 1391 1370 1350
2 1330 1309 1289 1268 1247 1227 1206 1185 1163 1142
3 -1121 1099 1078 1056 1034 1012 0991 0969 0946 0924
4 -0902 0880 0858 0835 0813 0790 0767 0745 0722 0699
5 -0677 0654 0631 0608 0585 0562 0539 0516 0493 0469
6 -0446 0423 0400 0376 0353 0330 0307 0283 0260 0237
7 -0213 0190 0167 0143 0120 0097 0073 0050 0027 0004
8 + 0020 0043 0066 0089 0112 0135 0159 0182 0205 0228
9 0250 0273 0296 0319 0342 0364 0387 0410 0432 0455
12.0 0477 0499 0521 0544 0566 0588 0610 0632 0653 0675
1 0697 0718 0740 0761 0782 0803 0824 0845 0866 0887
2 0908 0928 0949 0969 0989 1009 1029 1049 1069 1088
3 1108 1127 1147 1166 1185 1203 1222 1241 1259 1277
4 1296 1314 1331 1349 1367 1384 1401 1418 1435 1452
5 1469 1485 1502 1518 1534 1550 1565 1581 1596 1611
6 1626 1641 1655 1670 1684 1698 1712 1726 1739 1753
7 1766 1779 1792 1804 1817 1829 1841 1853 1864 1876
8 1887 1898 1909 1920 1930 1940 1950 I960 1970 1979
9 1988 1997 2006 2015 2023 2031 2039 2047 2055 2062
13.0 2069 2076 2083 2089 2096 2102 2108 2113 2119 2124
1 2129 2134 2138 2143 2147 2151 2154 2158 2161 2164
2 2167 2169 2172 2174 2176 2178 2179 2180 2182 2182
3 2183 2183 2184 2184 2183 2183 2182 2181 2180 2179
4 2177 2175 2173 2171 2169 2166 2163 2160 2157 2154
5 2150 2146 2142 2138 2133 2128 2123 2118 2113 2107
6 2101 2095 2089 2083 2076 2069 2062 2055 2048 2040
7 2032 2024 2016 2008 1999 1990 1981 1972 1963 1953
8 1943 1933 1923 1913 1903 1892 1881 1870 1859 1847
9 1836 1824 1812 1800 1788 1775 1763 1750 1737 1724
14.0 1711 1697 1684 1670 1656 1642 1628 1613 1599 1584
1 1570 1555 1539 1524 1509 1493 1478 1462 1446 1430
2 1414 1397 1381 1364 1348 1331 1314 1297 1280 1262
3 1245 1227 1210 1192 1174 1156 1138 1120 1102 1083
4 1065 1046 1028 1009 0990 0971 0952 0933 0914 0895
5 0875 0856 0837 0817 0798 0778 0758 0738 0719 0699
6 0679 0659 0639 0618 0598 0578 0558 0538 0517 0497
7 0476 0456 0436 0415 0394 0374 0353 0333 0312 0291
8 0271 0250 0229 0209 0188 0167 0147 0126 0105 0085
9 + 0064 0043 0023 + 0002 -0019 -0039 -0060 -0081 -0101 -0122
For i> 15
fi(z) v/
[ cos (z
-
-) + sin (x - l) 1 . error < 0.000 1
-
VI 0.7979 0.7854
Table 9. Bessel Functions: J0(x) and ./i(x). (Continued)
/id)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.0 + 0.0435 0410 0385 0360 0334 0309 0284 0259 0234 0209
4 + 0184 0159 0134 0109 0084 0059 0034 0009 *00I6 0041
2 -0066 0091 0116 0141 0165 0190 0215 0240 0264 0289
3 -0313 0338 0362 0386 041 1 0435 0459 0483 0507 0531
4 -0555 0578 0602 0626 0649 0673 0696 0719 0742 0766
5
-
-0789 0811 0834 0857 0879 0902 0924 0946 0968 0990
6
I - 1012 1034 1056 1077 1099 1120 1141 1162 1183 1203
8 - 1224
1422
1603
1244
1441
1265
1459
1285
1478
1305
1496
1325
1515
1344
1533
1364
1551
1383
1568
1403
1586
9 1621 1638 1655 1671 1688 1704 1720 1736 1752
1 10 -- 1768 1783 1798 1814 1828 1843 1857 1872 1886 1900
I
2 -- 1913
2039
1927
2050
1940
2061
1953
2072
1966
2083
1979
2093
1991
2104
2003
2114
2015
2123
2027
2133
J - 2143 2152 2161 2169 2178 2186 2194 2202 2210 2217
4 2225 2231 2238 2245 2251 2257 2263 2268 2274 2279
---
S -2284 2288 2293 2297 2301 2305 2308 2312 2315 2317
2320 2322 2324 2326 2328 2329 2331 2332 2332 2333
7 2333 2333 2333 2332 2332 2331 2330 2328 2327 2325
9 - 2323
2290
2321
2285
2318
2281
2315
2276
2312
2270
2309
2265
2306
2259
2302
2253
2298
2247
2294
2241
--
12.0 2234 2228 2221 2214 2206 2199 2191 2183 2175 2166
2157 2149 2140 2130 2121 2111 2091 2081 2070
2 -2060 2049 2038 2027 2015 2004
2101
1992 1980 1968 1955
3 1943 1930 1917 1904 1891 1877 1863 1850 1836 1821
4 1807 1793 1778 1763 1748 1733 1718 1702 1687 1671
5 - 1655 1639 1623 1606 1590 1573 1556 1539 1522 1505
6 1487 1470 1452 1435 1417 1399 1380 1362 1344 1325
7
-
1307
1114
0912
1288
1095
1269
1075
1250
1055
1231
1035
1212
1014
1192
0994
1173
0974
1154
0954
1134
0933
9 0892 0871 0850 0830 0809 0788 0767 0746 0724
13.0 0703 0682 0661 0639 0618 0596 0575 0553 0532 0510
j 0489 0467 0445 0423 0402 0380 0358 0336 0314 0293
2 0271 0249 0227 0205 0183 0161 0139 0117 0096 0074
3 0052 0030 0008 0014 0036 0057 0079 0101 0123 0144
4 + 0166 0188 0209 0231 0252 0274 0295 0317 0338 0359
0380 0402 0423 0444 0465 0486 0507 0528 0548 0569
fo 0590 0610 0631 0651 0671 0692 0712 0732 0752 0772
7 0791 081 1 0831 0850 0870 0889 0908 0927 0946 0965
8 0984 1003 1021 1040 1058 1076 1094 1112 1130 1148
9 1165 1183 1200 1217 1234 1251 1268 1285 1301 1318
14.0 1334 1350 1366 1382 1397 1413 1428 1443 1458 1473
1 1488 1502 1517 1531 1545 1559 1573 1586 1600 1613
2 1626 1639 1652 1664 1677 1689 1701 1713 1724 1736
3 1747 1758 1769 1780 1791 1801 181 1 1821 1831 1841
1850 I860 1869 1878 1886 1895 1903 1911 1919 1927
5 1934 1942 1949 1956 1962 1969 1975 1981 1987 1993
6 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019 2023 2027 2031 2035 2039
7 2043 2046 2049 2052 2054 2057 2059 2061 2063 2065
g 2066 2067 2068 2069 2070 2070 2070 2070 2070 2069
9 + 2069 2068 2067 2066 2064 2062 2061 2058 2056 2054
For x > 15
JiW " 'J [in (i - ^)

-
^
cos
(r
-
^) ]. error < 0,0001
= 0.7979
^ - 2.3562
Table 10. Bessel Functions: Yt(x) and Y,(x)
M 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 00 3.005 2.564 2.305 2.122 1.979 1.863 1.764 1.678 1.602
-1.534 I.J
- 1.081
1 1.473 1.416 1.364 1.316 1.271 1. 228 1. 189 1. 151 15
2 1.049 1.0175 0.9877 0.9591 0.9316 0.9050 0.8794 0.8546 0.8306
) - 0.8073 7847 7627 7414 7206 7003 6806 6613 6424 6240
4 -6060 5884 5712 5542 5377 5214 5055 4898 4745 4594
5 -4445 4299 4156 4015 3876 3739 3604 3472 3341 3212
D -3085 2960 2837 2715 2595 2476 2359 2244 2130 2018
7 -1907 1797 1689 1582 1476 1372 1269 1167 1066 0966
B -0868 0771 0675 0580 0486 0393 0301 0210 0120 0032
+ 0056 0143 0229 0314 0398 0481 0563 0644 0725 0804
1.0 0883 0960 1037 1113 1188 1262 1336 1409 1480 1551
1 1622 1691 1760 1828 1895 1961 2026 2091 2155 2218
2 2281 2343 2404 2464 2523 2582 2640 2698 2754 2810
3 2865 2920 2974 3027 3079 3131 3162 3232 3282 3331
* 3379 3427 3473 3520 3565 3610 3654 3698 3741 3783
5 3824 3865 3906 3945 3984 4022 4060 4097 4133 4169
( 4204 4239 4273 4306 4338 4370 4401 4432 4462 4491
7 4520 4548 4576 4603 4629 4655 4680 4705 4728 4752
8 4774 4796 4818 4839 4859 4879 4898 4916 4934 4951
9 4968 4984 5000 5015 5029 5043 5056 5069 5081 5093
2.0 5104 5114 5124 5133 5142 5150 5158 5165 5172 5177
1 5183 5188 5192 5196 5199 5202 5204 5206 5207 5208
2 5208 5207 5207 5205 5203 5201 5198 5194 5190 5186
3 5181 5175 5169 5163 5156 5148 5141 5132 5123 5114
4 5104 5094 5083 5072 5060 5048 5036 5022 5009 4995
5 4981 4966 4951 4935 4919 4902 4885 4868 4650 4832
6 4813 4794 4775 4755 4735 4714 4693 4672 4650 4628
7 4605 4582 4559 4535 4511 4487 4462 4437 4411 4385
8 4359 4333 4306 4279 4251 4223 4195 4167 4138 4109
9 4079 4049 4019 3989 3958 3927 3896 3865 3833 3801
3.0 3769 3736 3703 3670 3637 3603 3569 3535 3500 3466
1 3431 3396 3361 3325 3289 3253 3217 3181 3144 3108
2 3071 3033 2996 2958 2921 2883 2845 2807 2768 2730
3 2691 2652 2613 2574 2535 2495 2456 2416 2376 2336
4 2296 2256 2216 2175 2135 2094 2054 2013 1972 1931
5 1890 1849 1808 1767 1726 1684 1643 1602 1560 1519
6 1477 1436 1394 1352 1311 1269 1227 1186 1144 1102
7 1061 1019 0977 0936 0894 0853 081 1 0769 0728 0686
B 0645 0604 0562 0521 0480 0439 0397 0356 0315 0275
9 + 0234 0193 0152 0112 0071 0031 0009 *0050 *0090 0130
4.0 -0169 0209 0249 0288 0328 0367 0406 0445 0484 0522
1 -0561 0599 0638 0676 0714 0751 0789 0826 0864 0901
1261
- 1296
2 -0938 0974 101 1 1047 1083 1119 1155 1191 1226
i 1331 1365 1400 1434 1467 1501 1535 1568 1601
4 -1633 1666 1698 1730 1762 1793 1825 1856 1886 1917
- 1947 2094 2123 2151 2179 2207

5
6 - 2235 1977
2262
2007
2289
2036
2315
2065
2342 2368 2394 2419 2444 2469
- 2612 2635 2658 2680 2702
7
8 - 2494
2723
2518
2744
2542
2765
2566
2786
2589
2806 2826 2845 2865 2884 2902
9 -2921 2939 2956 2973 2990 3007 3023 3039 3055 3070
5.0 - 3085 3100 3114 3128 3142 3155 3168 3180 3193 3204
Linear interpolation is inaccurate for low values of the argument. For greater accuracy in this range,
use the auxiliary functions. Table 13,
J"o(x) = -3/i(x)
SEC. 1-2J MATHEMATICAL TABLES 1-101
Table 10. Bessel Functions: Ko(x) and Y^x). (Continued)
Kid)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 so 63.68 31.86 21.26 15.96 12.79 10.68 9. 167 8.038 7.160

1 6.459 5 886 5.409 5.007 4.662 4.364 4. 103 3.873 3.670 3.487
2 i 3.324 3. 176 3.042 2.919 2.807 2.704 2.609 2.521 2.440 2.364
3
4 -
2.293
1 .781
2.227
1.743
2. 165
1.708
2. 107
1.673
2.052
1.641
2.000
1.610
1.952
1.580
1.906
1.551
1.862
1.523
1.820
1.497
5 -- 1.471 1.447 1.423 1.401 1.378 1.357 1.337 1.317 1.297 1.279
6
7 - 1 . 260
1 . 103
1.243
1.090
1.226
1.076
1.209
1.063
1. 193
1.050
1. 177
1.038
1. 161
1.025
1. 146
1.013
1. 132
1.0013
1.117
9896
-0.
S
9 - 9781
8731
9669
8634
9558
8539
9449
8444
9342
8351
9236
8258
9132
8167
9030
8077
8929
7988
8829
7900
1.0
1 -
-7812
6981
7726
6902
7640
6823
7555
6745
7471
6667
7388
6590
7305
6513
7223
6437
7142
6361
7061
6286
2 -6211 6137 6063 5990 5916 5844 5771 5699 5628 5556
3 -5485 5415 5344 5274 5204 5135 5066 4997 4928 4860
4 -4791 4724 4656 4589 4521 4454 4388 432! 4255 4189
--4123 4057 3992 3927 3862 3797 3732 3668 3604 3540
6
7 --3476
2847
3412
2785
3349
2724
3285
2662
3222
2601
3159
2540
3096
2479
3034
2418
2972
2357
2909
2297
8 2237 2177 2117 2057 1997 1938 1879 1820 1761 1702
9 1644 1586 1528 1470 1412 1355 1297 1240 1184 1127
-
-
2 0 1070 1014 0958 0902 0846 0791 0736 0681 0626 0571
0517 0463 0409 0355 0301 0248 0195 0142 0090 0037
2 + 0015 0067 0118 0170 0221 0272 0323 0373 0423 0473
3 0523 0572 0621 0670 0719 0767 0815 0863 091 1 0958
4 1005 1052 1098 1144 1190 1236 1281 1326 1371 1415
5 1459 1503 1547 1590 1633 1675 1718 1760 1801 1843
6 1884 1924 1965 2005 2045 2084 2123 2162 2200 2239
7 2276 2314 2351 2388 2424 2460 2496 2531 2566 2601
a 2635 2669 2703 2736 2769 2802 2834 2866 2897 2929
2959 2990 3020 3050 3079 3108 3136 3164 3192 3220
3.0 3247 3273 3300 3326 3351 3376 3401 3425 3449 3473
1 3496 3519 3542 3564 3585 3607 3627 3648 3668 3688
2 3707 3726 3745 3763 3780 3798 3815 3831 3847 3863
3 3879 3893 3908 3922 3936 3949 3962 3975 3987 3999
* 4010 4021 4032 4042 4052 4061 4070 4079 4087 4095
s 4102 4109 4115 4122 4127 4133 4138 4142 4147 4150
6 4154 4157 4160 4162 4164 4165 4166 4167 4167 4167
7 4167 4166 4165 4163 4161 4159 4156 4153 4149 4145
4141 4137 4132 4126 4120 4114 4108 4101 4094 4086
'' 4078 4070 4061 4052 4043 4033 4023 4013 4002 3991
4 0 3979 3967 3955 3943 3930 3917 3903 3889 3875 3861
[ 3846 3831 3815 3800 3783 3767 3750 3733 3716 3698
2 3680 3662 3643 3624 3605 3586 3566 3546 3525 3505
3 3484 3463 3441 3420 3397 3375 3353 3330 3307 3283
4 3260 3236 3212 3187 3163 3138 3113 3087 3062 3036
5 3010 2984 2957 2930 2904 2876 2849 2821 2794 2766
6 2737 2709 2680 2652 2623 2594 2564 2535 2505 2475
7 2445 2415 2384 2354 2323 2292 2261 2230 2199 2167
3 2136 2104 2072 2040 2008 1976 1943 191 1 1878 1845
9 1812 1780 1746 1713 1680 1647 1613 1580 1546 1512
1 +1479 1445 1411 1377 1343 1309 1275 1240 1206 1172
Linear interpolation is inaccurate for low values of the argument. For greater accuracy in this range,
- - J".(x)
w the auxiliary functions, Table 13.
Yi(x)
Table 10. Bessel Functions: Yo(x) and Yt(x). (Continued)

Y^x)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.0 -0.3085 3100 3114 3128 3142 3155 3168 3180 3193 3204
I -3216 3227 3238 3249 3259 3269 3278 3287 3296 3304
2 -3313 3320 3328 3335 3341 3348 3354 3359 3365 3370
3 -3374 3379 3383 3386 3389 3392 3395 3397 3399 3400
4 -3402 3403 3403 3403 3403 3402 3402 3400 3399 3397
5 -3395 3392 3389 3386 3383 3379 3375 3370 3365 3360
6 -3354 3349 3342 3336 3329 3322 3315 3307 3299 3290
7 -3282 3273 3263 3254 3244 3233 3223 3212 3201 3189
8 -3177 3165 3153 3140 3127 3114 3101 3087 3073 3058
9 -3044 3029 3013 2998 2982 2966 2950 2933 2916 2899
6.0 -2882 2864 2846 2828 2810 2791 2772 2753 2734 2714
1 -2694 2674 2654 2633 2613 2592 2570 2549 2527 2505
2 -2483 2461 2438 2415 2393 2369 2346 2322 2299 2275
3 -2251 2226 2202 2177 2152 2127 2102 2077 2051 2025
4 -1999 1973 1947 1921 1894 1868 1841 1814 1787 1760
5 -1732 1705 1677 1650 1622 1594 1566 1538 1509 1481
6 -1452 1424 1395 1366 1337 1308 1279 1250 1221 1191
7 -1162 1132 1103 1073 1044 1014 0984 0954 0924 0894
e -0864 0834 0804 0774 0744 0714 0684 0653 0623 0593
9 -0563 0532 0502 0472 0441 0411 0381 0350 0320 0290
-0259
7.0 0229 0199 0169 0139 0108 0078 0048 0018 0012
I + 0042 0072 0102 0131 0161 0191 0221 0250 0280 0309
2 0339 0368 0397 0426 0455 0484 0513 0542 0571 0599
3 0628 0656 0684 0713 0741 0769 0797 0824 0852 0879
4 0907 0934 0961 0988 1015 1042 1068 1095 1121 1147
5 1173 1199 1225 1250 1276 1301 1326 1351 1375 1400
6 1424 1448 1472 1496 1520 1543 1567 1590 1613 1635
7 1658 1680 1702 1724 1746 1768 1789 1810 1831 1852
8 1872 1893 1913 1932 1952 1972 1991 2010 2028 2047
9 2065 2083 2101 2119 2136 2153 2170 2187 2203 2219
8.0 2235 2251 2266 2282 2296 2311 2326 2340 2354 2367
I 2381 2394 2407 2420 2432 2444 2456 2468 2479 2490
2 2501 2512 2522 2532 2542 2551 2561 2570 2578 2587
3 2595 2603 2611 2618 2625 2632 2639 2645 2651 2657
4 2662 2667 2672 2677 2681 2686 2689 2693 2696 2699
5 2702 2705 2707 2709 2710 2712 2713 2714 2714 2715
6 2715 2714 2714 2713 2712 2711 2709 2707 2705 2703
7 2700 2697 2694 2690 2687 2683 2678 2674 2669 2664
8 2659 2653 2647 2641 2635 2628 2621 2614 2607 2599
9 2592 2583 2575 2566 2558 2549 2539 2530 2520 2510
9.0 2499 2489 2478 2467 2456 2444 2433 2421 2408 2396
| 2383 2371 2357 2344 2331 2317 2303 2289 2274 2260
2 2245 2230 2215 2199 2184 2168 2152 2136 2119 2103
3 2086 2069 2052 2034 2017 1999 1981 1963 1945 1926
4 1907 1889 1870 1851 1831 1812 1792 1772 1752 1732
5 1712 1692 1671 1650 1630 1609 1588 1566 1545 1523
6 1502 1480 1458 1436 1414 1392 1369 1347 1324 1302
7 1279 1256 1233 1210 1186 1163 1140 1116 1093 1069
8 1045 1021 0998 0974 0949 0925 0901 0877 0853 0828
9 0804 0779 0755 0730 0705 0681 0656 0631 0606 0582
10.0 0557 0532 0507 0482 0457 0432 0407 0382 0357 0332
Zeros of YM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
z = 0.8936 3.9577 7.0861 10.2223 13.3611 16.5009 19.6413 22.7820
Table 10. Bessel Functions: l'o(i) and Yi(x). (Continued)
r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 0 + 0. 1479 1445 1411 1377 1343 1309 1275 1240 1206 1172
| 1137 1103 1069 1034 1000 0965 0930 0896 0861 0827
2 0792 0757 0723 0688 0653 0619 0584 0549 0515 0480
) 0445 041 1 0376 0342 0307 0273 0238 0204 0170 0136
+ 0101 0067 0033 *000l 0035 0069 0103 0137 0170 0204
s
-
-0238
0568
0271
0601
0304
0633
0338
0665
0371
0697
0404
0729
0437
0761
0470
0793
0503
0824
0535
0856
7 0887 0918 0949 0980 101 1 1042 1072 1102 1133 1163
-
8 1192 1222 1251 1281 1310 1339 1368 1396 1425 1453
1481 1509 1536 1564 1591 1618 1645 1671 1698 1724
6.0 -1750
1998
1776 1801 1827 1852 1877 1902 1926 1950 1974
2022 2045 2068 2091 2114 2136 2158 2180 2201
2
3 --
2223
2422
2244
2441
2265
2459
2285
2477
2306
2495
2326
2512
2346
2530
2365
2547
2385
2563
2404
2580
2596 2611 2627 2642 2657 2672 2686 2700 2714 2728
5 --
2741 2754 2767 2779 2791 2803 2814 2826 2836 2847
--
6 2857 2868 2877 2887 2896 2905 2913 2922 2930 2937
7 2945 2952 2958 2965 2971 2977 2983 2988 2993 2997
8 3002 3006 3010 3013 3016 3019 3022 3024 3026 3028
9 3029 3030 3031 3032 3032 3032 3031 3031 3030 3028
-
7 0 -3027 3025 3023 3020 3017 3014 3011 3007 3003 2999
2995 2990 2985 2980 2974 2968 2962 2955 2949 2942
2 2934 2927 2919 291 1 2902 2893 2885 2875 2866 2856
3
-
2846
2731
2836
2718
2825
2705
2814
2692
2803
2678
2792
2664
2780
2650
2768
2636
2756
2621
2744
2606
---
5 2591 2576 2560 2545 2529 2512 2496 2479 2462 2445
2428 2410 2393 2375 2357 2338 2320 2301 2282 2263
7 2243 2224 2204 2184 2164 2143 2123 2102 2081 2060
g
9 - 2039
1817
2017
1794
1996
1771
1974
1748
1952
1724
1930
1701
1908
1677
1885
1653
1863
1629
1840
1605
8 0
--1581
1331
1072
1556
1306
1532
1280
1507
1255
1482
1229
1457
1203
1432
1177
1407
1151
0887
1382
1125
0860
1357
1099
0833
2 1046 1020 0993 0967 0940 0913
3 0806 0779 0752 0725 0698 0671 0644 0617 0589 0562
0535 0508 0460 0453 0426 0398 0371 0344 0316 0289
5 0262 0234 0207 0180 0152 0125 0098 0071 0043 0016
+ 001 1 0038 0065 0092 01 19 0146 0173 0200 0227 0253
7 0280 0307 0333 0360 0386 0413 0439 0465 0491 0518
g 0544 0569 0595 0621 0647 0672 0698 0723 0748 0774
9 0799 0824 0849 0873 0898 0922 0947 0971 0995 1019
9 0 1043 1067 1091 1114 1137 1161 1184 1207 1229 1252
1275 1297 1319 1341 1363 1385 1406 1428 1449 1470
2 1491 1512 1532 1553 1573 1593 1613 1633 1652 1671
3 1691 1710 1728 1747 1765 1783 1801 1819 1837 1854
4 1871 1888 1905 1922 1938 1954 1970 1986 2001 2017
5 2032 2047 2061 2076 2090 2104 2118 2131 2145 2158
(, 2171 2183 2196 2208 2220 2232 2243 2254 2265 2276
7 2287 2297 2307 2317 2326 2336 2345 2354 2362 2371
2379 2387 2394 2402 2409 2416 2423 2429 2435 2441
9 2447 2452 2458 2463 2467 2472 2476 2480 2484 2487
10.0 + 2490 2493 2496 2498 2500 2502 2504 2506 2507 2508
2.1971 5.4297 8.5960 11.7492 14.8974 18.0434 21.1881 24.3319

Table 10. Bessel Functions: Yo(x) and Yi(x). {Continued)

rod)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.0 + 0.0557 0532 0507 0482 0457 0432 0407 0382 0357 0332
1 0307 0281 0256 0231 0206 0181 0156 0131 0106 0081
2 + 0056 0031 0006 0019 0044 0069 0094 0119 0143 0168
3 -0193 0218 0242 0267 0291 0316 0340 0365 0389 0413
4 -0437 0462 0486 0510 0534 0557 0581 0605 0628 0652
5 -0675 0699 0722 0745 0768 0791 0814 0837 0859 0882
6 -0904 0926 0949 0971 0993 1015 1036 1058 1079 110 1
7 -1122 1143 1164 1185 1205 1226 1246 1267 1287 1307
8 -1326 1346 1366 1385 1404 1423 1442 1461 1479 1498
9 -1516 1534 1552 1569 1587 1604 1622 1639 1655 1672
11.0 -1608 1705 1721 1737 1752 1768 1783 1798 1813 1828
1 -1843 1857 1871 1885 1899 1913 1926 1939 1952 1965
2 -1977 1990 2002 2014 2025 2037 2048 2059 2070 2081
3 -2091 2101 2111 2121 2130 2140 2149 2158 2166 2175
4 -2183 2191 2199 2206 2213 2220 2227 2234 2240 2246
5 -2252 2258 2263 2269 2274 2278 2283 2287 2291 2295
6 -2299 2302 2305 2308 2311 2313 2315 2317 2319 2321
7 -2322 2323 2324 2324 2325 2325 2324 2324 2324 2323
8 -2322 2320 2319 2317 2315 2313 2310 2308 2305 2302
9 -2298 2295 2291 2287 2283 2278 2273 2269 2263 2258
12.0 -2252 2247 2241 2234 2228 2221 2214 2207 2200 2192
1 -2184 2176 2168 2160 2151 2142 2133 2124 2115 2105
2 -2095 2085 2075 2064 2054 2043 2032 2021 2009 1998
3 -1986 1974 1962 1949 1937 1924 1911 1898 1885 1871
4 -1858 1844 1830 1816 1802 1787 1772 1758 1743 1727
t -1712 1697 1681 1665 1649 1633 1617 1601 1584 IS67
6 -1551 1534 1517 1499 1482 1464 1447 1429 1411 1393
7 -1375 1357 1338 1320 1301 1282 1264 1245 1226 1206
8 -1187 1168 1148 1129 1109 1089 1069 1049 1029 1009
9 -0989 0968 0948 0927 0907 0886 0866 0845 0824 0803
13.0 -0782 0761 0740 0719 0698 0676 0655 0634 0612 0591
1 -0569 0548 0526 0505 0483 0461 0439 0418 0396 0374
2 -0352 0331 0309 0287 0265 0243 0221 0199 0177 0156
3 -0134 0112 0090 0068 0046 0024 0002 0019 0041 0063
4 + 0085 0107 0128 0150 0172 0193 0215 0236 0258 0279
5 0301 0322 0343 0365 0386 0407 0428 0449 0470 0491
6 0512 0533 0554 0574 0595 0615 0636 0656 0677 0697
7 0717 0737 0757 0777 0796 0816 0836 0855 0875 0894
8 0913 0932 0951 0970 0989 1007 1026 1044 1062 1081
9 1099 1117 1134 1152 1169 1187 1204 1221 1238 1255
14.0 1272 1289 1305 1321 1337 1353 1369 1385 1401 1416
1 1431 1446 1461 1476 1491 1505 1520 1534 1548 1562
2 1575 1589 1602 1615 1628 1641 1654 1666 1679 1691
3 1703 1715 1726 1738 1749 1760 1771 1781 1792 1802
4 1812 1822 1832 1842 1851 I860 1869 1878 1886 1895
5 1903 1911 1919 1926 1934 1941 1948 1955 1962 1968
6 1974 1980 1986 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 2021
7 2025 2029 2033 2036 2040 2043 2046 2049 2051 2054
8 2056 2058 2059 2061 2062 2063 2064 2065 2065 2065
' 4 2065 2065 2065 2064 2064 2063 2061 2060 2058 2057
For x > 15
Y,(r) - \j-2- [sin (x

- -J - cos
(i - M J. error < 0.0001
0.7979 0.7854
^.
Table 10. Bessel Functions: Y0(x) and Y,(x). (Continued)
r 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.0 + 0.2490 2493 2496 2498 2500 2502 2504 2506 2507 2508
2508 2509 2509 2509 2509 2508 2507 2506 2505 2504
2502 2500 2498 2495 2492 2489 2486 2483 2479 2475
2471 2466 2462 2457 2451 2446 2440 2435 2428 2422
2416 2409 2402 2394 2387 2379 2371 2363 2355 2346
2337 2328 2319 2309 2299 2289 2279 2269 2258 2247
2236 2225 2214 2202 2190 2178 2166 2153 2140 2128
2114 2101 2088 2074 2060 2046 2032 2017 2003 1988
1973 1958 1942 1927 1911 1895 1879 1863 1846 1830
1813 1796 1779 1762 1745 1727 1709 1692 1674 1655
II 0 1637 1619 1600 1581 1562 1543 1524 1505 I486 1466
1 1446 1427 1407 1387 1366 1346 1326 1305 1285 1264
1243 1222 1201 1180 1159 1137 1116 1095 1073 1051
1029 1008 0986 0964 0941 0919 0897 0875 0852 0830
0807 0785 0762 0740 0717 0694 0671 0648 0625 0602
0579 0556 0533 0510 0487 0464 0441 0417 0394 0371
0348 0324 0301 0278 0254 0231 0208 0184 0161 0138
0114 0091 0068 0045 0021 0002 *0025 0048 0072 0095
-0118 0141 0164 0187 0210 0233 0256 0279 0302 0324
-0347 0370 0392 0415 0437 0460 0482 0505 0527 0549
12 0 -0571 0593 0615 0637 0659 0681 0702 0723 0745 0766
1 -0787 0809 0830 0851 0871 0892 0913 0933 0954
0974
2 -0994 1014 1034 1054 1074 1093 1113 1132 1151 1171
-1189 1208 1227 1246 1264 1282 1300 1318 1336 1354
-1371 1389 1406 1423 1440 1457 1474 1490 1506 IS22
-1538 1554 1570 1585 1601 1616 1631 1645 1660 1675
-1689 1703 1717 1730 1744 1757 1771 1783 1796 1809
-1821 1834 1846 1857 1869 1880 1892 1903 1914 1924
-1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1984 1993 2002 2011 2020
-2028 2036 2044 2052 2060 2067 2074 2081 2088 2095
13.0 -2101 2107 2113 2118 2124 2129 2134 2139 2144 2148
1 -2152 2156 2160 2163 2167 2170 2172 2175 2178 2180
-2182 2183 2185 2186 2187 2188 2189 2189 2190 2190
-2190 2189 2188 2188 2187 2185 2184 2182 2180 2178
-2176 2173 2170 2167 2164 2161 2157 2153 2149 2145
-2140 2136 2131 2126 2120 2115 2109 2103 2097 2090
-2084 2077 2070 2063 2056 2048 2040 2032 2024 2016
- 2007 1999 1990 1981 1971 1962 1952 1942 1932 1922
-1912 1901 1890 1879 1868 1857 1845 1834 1822 1810
-1798 1785 1773 1760 1747 1734 1721 1707 1694 1680
U 0 -1666 1652 1638 1624 1610 1595 1580 1565 1550 1535
-1520 1504 1489 1473 1457 1441 1425 1409 1392 1376
-1359 1342 1325 1308 1291 1274 1257 1239 1222 1204
-1186
< - 1003 1168
0984
1150
0965
1132
0946
1114
0927
1096
0907
1077
0888
1059
0869
1040
0849
1021
0830
5 -0810 0791 0771 0751 0732 0712 0692 0672 0652 0632
6 1 -0612 0591 0571 0551 0531 0510 0490 0469 0449 0428
7 -0408 0387 0367 0346 0326 0305 0284 0264 0243 0222
8 -0202 0181 0160 0140 0119 0098 0077 0057 0036 0015
+ 0005 0026 0047 0067 0088 0108 0129 0149 0170 0190
Fori > 15
- \S ['(- 7) +
e~(-t)]- error < 0.0001
0.7979 2.3562
Table 11. Bessel Functions: /o(z) and Ii(x)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 1.000 1 000 1.000 1 000 1.000 1 001 1. 001 1.001 1.002 1.002
1 1.003 1.003 1.004 1 004 1.005 1.006 1.006 1.007 1.008 1.009
2 1 OKI 1011 1.012 1.013 1.014 1.016 1.017 1.018 1.020 1.021
3 1.023 1.024 1.026 1.027 1.029 1.031 1.033 1.035 1.036 1.038
4 1.040 1.042 1.045 1.047 1.049 1.051 1.054 1.056 1.058 1.061
5 1.063 1.066 1.069 1.071 1.074 1.077 1.080 1.083 1.086 1.089
6 1.092 1.095 1.098 1.102 1.105 1 108 1.112 1.115 1.119 1.123
7 1.126 1.130 1.134 1. 138 1.142 1.146 1.150 1. 154 1.158 1. 162
8 1. 167 1.171 1.175 1. 180 1.184 1.189 1.194 1. 198 1.203 1.208
9 1.213 1.218 1.223 1.228 1.233 1 239 1.244 1.249 1.255 1.260
1.0 1.266 1.272 1.278 1.283 1.289 1.295 1.301 1.307 1.314 1.320
1 1.326 1.333 1.339 1.346 1.352 1.359 1.366 1.373 1.380 1.387
2 1.394 1.401 1.408 1.416 1.423 1 430 1.436 1.446 1.454 1.461
3 1.469 1.477 1.485 1.494 1.502 1.510 1.519 1.527 1.536 1.545
4 1.553 1.562 1.571 1 580 1.590 1.599 1.608 1.618 1.627 1.637
5 1.647 1.657 1.667 1.677 1.687 1.697 1.707 1.718 1.728 1.739
6 1.750 1.761 1.772 1.783 1.794 1.806 1.817 1.829 1.840 1.852
7 1.864 1.876 1.888 1.900 1.913 1.925 1.938 1.951 1.963 1.976
8 1.990 2.003 2.016 2.030 2.043 2.057 2.071 2.085 2.099 2.113
9 2.128 2.142 2.157 2. 172 2. 187 2.202 2.217 2.233 2.248 2.264
2.0 2.280 2.296 2 312 2.328 2.344 2.361 2.378 2.395 2.412 2.429
1 2.446 2.464 2.482 2.499 2.517 2.536 2.554 2.573 2.591 2.610
2 2.629 2.648 2.668 2.687 2.707 2.727 2.747 2.768 2.788 2.809
3 2.830 2.851 2.872 2.893 2.915 2.937 2.959 2.981 3.004 3.026
4 3.049 3.072 3.096 3. 119 3.143 3.167 3. 191 3.215 3.240 3.265
5 3.290 3.315 3.341 3.366 3.392 3.419 3.445 3.472 3.499 3.526
6 3.553 3.581 3.609 3.637 3.666 3.694 3.723 3.752 3.782 3.812
7 3.842 3.872 3.903 3.933 3.965 3.996 4.028 4.060 4.092 4.124
8 4.157 4. 190 4.224 4.256 4.292 4.326 4.361 4.396 4.431 4.467
9 4.503 4.539 4.576 4.613 4.650 4.688 4.725 4.764 4.802 4.841
3.0 4.881 4.921 4.961 5.001 5.042 5.083 5.125 5.166 5.209 5.251
1 5.294 5.338 5.382 5.426 5.471 5.516 5.561 5.607 5.653 5.700
2 5.747 5.795 5.843 5.891 5.940 5.989 6.039 6.089 6.140 6.191
3 6.243 6.295 6.347 6.400 6.454 6.508 6.562 6.617 6.672 6.728
4 6.785 6.842 6.899 6.957 7.016 7.075 7. 134 7.195 7.255 7.316
5 7.378 7.441 7.503 7.567 7.631 7.696 7.761 7.827 7.893 7.960
6 8.028 8.096 8. 165 8.234 8.304 8.375 8.447 8.519 8.591 8.665
7 8.739 8.813 8.889 8.965 9.041 9. 119 9. 197 9.276 9.356 9.436
8 9.517 9.599 9.681 9.764 9.848 9.933 10.02 10.11 10. 19 10.28
9 10.37 10.46 10.55 10.64 10.73 10.82 10.92 11.01 11.11 11.20
4.0 11.30 11.40 11.50 11.60 11.70 11.80 11.90 12.01 12.11 12.22
1 12.32 12.43 12.54 12.65 12.76 12.87 12.98 13. 10 13.21 13.33
2 13.44 13.56 13.68 13.80 13.92 14.04 14.16 14.29 14.41 14.54
3 14.67 14.80 14.93 15.06 15. 19 15.32 15.46 15.59 15.73 15.87
4 16.01 16.15 16.29 16.44 16.58 16.73 16.88 17.03 17.18 17.33
5 17.48 17.64 17.79 17.95 18.11 18.27 18.43 18.59 18.76 18.92
6 19.09 19.26 19.43 19.61 19.78 19.96 20.13 20.31 20.49 20.67
7 20.86 21.04 21.23 21.42 21.61 21.80 22.00 22.19 22.39 22.59
8 22.79 23.00 23.20 23.41 23.62 23.83 24.04 24.26 24.47 24.69
9 24.91 25. 14 25.36 25.59 25.82 26.05 26.28 26.52 26.76 27.00
5.0 27.24 27.48 27.73 27.98 28.23 28.49 28.74 29.00 29.26 29.52
7(r) = i +
2>(ll) 2<(2I) 2t31J
Table 11. Bessel Functions: h(x) and Ii(x). (Continued)
J- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.0000 0050 0100 0150 0200 0250 0300 0350 0400 0450
1 0501 0551 0601 0651 0702 0752 0803 0853 0904 0954
2 1005 1056 1107 1158 1209 1260 1311 1362 1414 1465
3 1517 1569 1621 1673 1725 1777 1829 1882 1935 1987
4 2040 2093 2147 2200 2254 2307 2361 2415 2470 2524
5 2579 2634 2689 2744 2800 2855 2911 2967 3024 3080
t> 3137 3194 3251 3309 3367 3425 3483 3542 3600 3659
7 3719 3778 3838 3899 3959 4020 4081 4142 4204 4266
8 4329 4391 4454 4518 4581 4646 4710 4775 4840 4905
9 4971 5038 5104 5171 5239 5306 5375 5443 5512 5582
10 5652 5722 5793 5864 5935 6008 6080 6153 6227 6300
t 6375 6450 6525 6601 6677 6754 6832 6910 6988 7067
2 7147 7227 7308 7389 7470 7553 7636 7719 7803 7888
3 7973 8059 8146 8233 8321 8409 8498 8588 8678 8769
4 8861 8953 9046 9140 9235 9330 9426 9522 9620 9718
5 9817 9916 1.002 1.012 1.022 1.032 1.043 1.053 1.064 1.074
6 1.085 1.096 1.106 1.117 1.128 1.139 1.151 1.162 1.173 1.185
7 1. 196 1.208 1.220 1.232 1.244 1.256 1.268 1.280 1.292 1.305
8 1.317 1.330 1.343 1.355 1.368 1.381 1.395 1.408 1.421 1.435
9 1.448 1.462 1.476 1.490 1.504 1.518 1.532 1.547 1.561 1.576
2 0 1.591 1.606 1.621 1.636 1.651 1.666 1.682 1.698 1.713 1.729
| 1.745 1 762 1.778 1.795 1.811 1.828 1.845 1.862 1.879 1.897
2 1.914 1.932 1.950 1.968 1.986 2.004 2.022 2.041 2.060 2.079
3 2.098 2.117 2.136 2.156 2. 176 2.196 2.216 2.236 2.257 2.277
4 2 298 2.319 2.340 2.362 2.383 2.405 2.427 2.449 2.471 2.494
5 2.517 2.540 2.563 2.586 2.610 2.633 2.657 2.682 2.706 2.731
* 2.755 2.780 2.806 2.831 2.857 2.883 2.909 2.935 2.962 2.989
7 3.016 3.043 3.071 3.099 3.127 3.155 3. 184 3.213 3.242 3.271
8 3.301 3.331 3.361 3.392 3.422 3.453 3.485 3.516 3.548 3.580
9 3.613 3.645 3.678 3.712 3.745 3.779 3.813 3.848 3.883 3.918
J 0 3.953 3.989 4.025 4.062 4.098 4.136 4.173 4.211 4.249 4.287
| 4.326 4.365 4.405 4.445 4.485 4.526 4.567 4.608 4.650 4.692
2 4.734 4.777 4.820 4.864 4.908 4.953 4.997 5.043 5.088 5.134
3 5.181 5.228 5.275 5.323 5.371 5.420 5.469 5.519 5.569 5.619
4 5.670 5.722 5.773 5.826 5.879 5.932 5.986 6.040 6.095 6. 150
J 6.206 6.262 6.319 6.376 6.434 6.493 6.552 6.611 6.671 6.732
to 6.793 6.854 6.917 6.979 7.043 7.107 7.171 7.237 7.302 7.369
7 7.436 7.503 7.572 7.640 7.710 7.780 7.851 7.922 7.994 8.067
8 8. 140 8.215 8.289 8.365 8.441 8.518 8.595 8.674 8.753 8.832
9 8.913 8.994 9.076 9. 159 9.242 9.326 9.411 9.497 9.584 9.671
4.0 9.759 9.848 9.938 10.03 10.12 10.21 10.31 10.40 10.50 10.59
1 10.69 10.79 10.88 10.98 11.08 II. 18 11.29 11.39 11.49 11.60
2 11.71 11.81 11.92 12.03 12.14 12.25 12.36 12.48 12.59 12.71
3 12.82 12.94 13.06 13.18 13.30 13.42 13.54 13.67 13.79 13.92
4 14.05 14.17 14.30 14.44 14.57 14.70 14.84 14.97 15.11 15.25
5 15.39 15.53 15.67 15.82 15.96 16.11 16.26 16.41 16.56 16.71
6 16.86 17.02 17.17 17.33 17.49 17.65 17.81 17.98 18.14 18.31
7 18.48 18.65 18.82 18.99 19.17 19.35 19.52 19.70 19.88 20.07
8 20.25 20.44 20.63 20.82 21.01 21.20 21.40 21.60 21.80 22.00
9 22 20 22.40 22.61 22.82 23.03 23.24 23.46 23.67 23.89 24.11
5.0 24.34 24.56 24.79 25.02 25.25 25.48 25.72 25.95 26.19 26.44
+
I'
2- 0!l! ll- 112! 2'- 2!3!
/i(x)
Table 11. Bessel Functions: h(x) and Ii(x). (Continued)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.0 27.24 27.48 27.73 27.98 28.23 28.49 28.74 29.00 29.26 29.52
1 29 79 30.06 30.33 30.60 30.88 31.15 31.43 31.72 32.00 32.29
2 32.58 32.88 33.17 33.47 33.78 34.08 34.39 34.70 35.01 35.33
3 35.65 35.97 36.30 36.62 36.96 37.29 37.63 37.97 38.31 38.66
4 39.01 39.36 39.72 40.08 40.44 40.81 41.18 41.55 41.93 42.31
5 42.69 43.08 43.47 43.87 44.27 44.67 45.08 45.49 45.90 46.32
6 46.74 47.16 47.59 48.03 48.46 48.90 49.35 49.80 50.25 50.71
7 51.17 51.64 52.11 52.59 53.06 53.55 54.04 54.53 55.03 55.53
8 56.04 56.55 57.07 57.59 58.11 58.65 59. 18 59.72 60.27 60.82
9 61.38 61.94 62.51 63.08 63.65 64.24 64.83 65.42 66.02 66.62
6.0 67.23 67.85 68.47 69.10 69.73 70.37 71.02 71.67 72.33 72.99
1 73.66 74.34 75.02 75.71 76.41 77.11 77.82 78.53 79.25 79.98
2 80.72 81.46 82.21 82.97 83.73 84.50 85.28 86.06 86.85 87.65
3 88.46 89.28 90.10 90.93 91.77 92.61 93.47 94.33 95.20 96.08
4 96.96 97.86 98.76 99.67 100.6 101.5 102.5 103.4 104.4 105.3
5 106.3 107.3 108.3 109.3 110.3 111.3 112.3 113.4 114.4 115.5
6 116.5 117.6 118. 7 119.8 120.9 122.0 123.2 124.3 125.5 126.6
7 127.8 129.0 130.2 131.4 132.6 133.8 135.1 136.3 137.6 138.8
8 140.1 141.4 142.7 144.1 145.4 146.8 148. 1 149.5 150.9 152.3
9 153.7 155.1 156.6 158.0 159.5 161.0 162.5 164.0 165.5 167.0
7.0 168.6 170.2 171.7 173.3 175.0 176.6 178.2 179.9 181 6 183.2
1 185.0 186.7 188.4 190.2 191.9 193.7 195.5 197.4 199.2 201.0
2 202.9 204.8 206.7 208.6 210.6 212.6 214.5 216.5 218.6 220.6
3 222.7 224.7 226.8 229.0 231.1 233.2 235.4 237.6 239.8 242.1
4 244.3 246.6 248.9 251.3 253.6 256.0 258.4 260.8 263.2 265.7
5 268.2 270.7 273.2 275.8 278.3 280.9 283.6 286.2 288.9 291.6
6 294.3 297.1 299.9 302.7 305.5 308.4 311.3 314.2 317.1 320. 1
7 323.1 326.1 329.2 332.3 335.4 338.5 341.7 344.9 348.1 351.4
8 354.7 358.0 361.4 364.8 368.2 371.6 375.1 378.6 382.2 385.8
9 389.4 393.1 396.8 400.5 404.2 408.0 411.9 415.7 419.6 423.6
8.0 427.6 431.6 435.6 439.7 443.9 448.0 452.2 456.5 460.8 465.1
1 469.5 473.9 478.4 482.9 487.4 492.0 496.6 501.3 506.0 510.8
2 515.6 520.4 525.3 530.3 535.3 540.3 545.4 550.6 555.7 561.0
3 566.3 571.6 577.0 582.4 587.9 593.4 599.0 604.7 610.4 616.1
4 621.9 627.8 633.7 639.7 645.7 651.8 658.0 664.2 670.5 676.8
5 683.2 689.6 696.1 702.7 709.3 716.0 722.8 729.6 736.5 743.4
6 750.5 757.5 764.7 771.9 779.2 786.6 794.0 801.5 809. 1 816.7
7 824.4 832.2 840.1 848.0 856.1 864.2 872.3 880.6 888.9 897.3
8 905.8 914.4 923.0 931.7 940.6 949.5 958.4 967.5 976.7 985.9
9 995.2 1005 1014 1024 1033 1043 1053 1063 1073 1083
9.0 1094 1104 1114 1125 1136 1146 1157 1168 1179 1190
I 1202 1213 1225 1236 1248 1260 1272 1284 1296 1308
2 1321 1333 1346 1359 1371 1384 1398 1411 1424 1438
3 1451 1465 1479 1493 1507 1522 1536 1551 1565 1580
t 1595 1610 1626 1641 1657 1673 1688 1704 1721 1737
5 1753 1770 1787 1804 1821 1838 1856 1874 1891 1909
6 1927 1946 1964 1983 2002 2021 2040 2060 2079 2099
7 2119 2139 2159 2180 2201 2222 2243 2264 2286 2307
8 2329 2352 2374 2397 2419 2442 2466 2489 2513 2537
9 2561 2585 2610 2635 2660 2685 2711 2737 2763 2789
10.0 2816 2843 2870 2897 2925 2952 2981 3009 3038 3067
For larger values uf the argument, use tin* auxiliary functions. Table 13.
Table 11. Bessel Functions: 7o(i) and I\{x). (Continued)
.' 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
S 0 24.34 24.56 24.79 25.02 25.25 25.48 25.72 25.95 26. 19 26.44
1 26.68 26.93 27.18 27.43 27.68 27.94 28.20 28.46 28.72 28.99
2 29.25 29.53 29.80 30.07 30.35 30.63 30.92 31.20 31.49 31.79
3 32.08 32.38 32.68 32.98 33.29 33.59 33.91 34.22 34.54 34.86
4 35.18 35.51 35.84 36.17 36.51 36.85 37.19 37.53 37.88 38.23
s 38.59 38.95 39.31 39.67 40.04 40.41 40.79 41. 17 41.55 41.94
6 42.33 42.72 43. 12 43.52 43.93 44.33 44.75 45.16 45.58 46.01
7 46.44 46.87 47.30 47.74 48.19 48.64 49.09 49.55 50.01 50.48
8 50.95 51.42 51.90 52.38 52.87 53.37 53.86 54.36 54.87 55.38
9 55.90 56.42 56.95 57.48 58.02 58.56 59. 10 59.66 60.21 60.77
i.O 61.34 61.91 62.49 63.08 63.67 64.26 64.86 65.47 66.08 66.70
1 67.32 67.95 68.58 69.22 69.87 70.53 71.18 71.85 72.52 73.20
2 73.89 74.58 75.27 75.98 76.69 77.41 78.13 78.86 79.60 80.35
3 81. 10 81.86 82.63 83.40 84.18 84.97 85.77 86.57 87.38 88.20
4 89.03 89.86 90.70 91.55 92.41 93.28 94.15 95.04 95.93 96.83
5 97.74 98.65 99.58 100.5 101.5 102.4 103.4 104.3 105.3 106.3
6 107.3 108.3 109.3 110.4 III. 4 112.4 113.5 114.6 115.6 116.7
7 117.8 118.9 120.0 121.2 122.3 123.5 124.6 125.8 127.0 128.2
8 129.4 130.6 131.8 133.1 134.3 135.6 136.9 138.1 139.4 140.8
9 142.1 143.4 144.8 146.1 147.5 148.9 150.3 151.7 153.1 154.6
7.0 156.0 157.5 159.0 160.5 162.0 163.5 165.1 166.6 168.2 169.8
1 171.4 173.0 174.6 176.3 177.9 179.6 181.3 183.0 184.7 186.5
2 188.3 190.0 191.8 193.6 195.5 197.3 199.2 201.0 202.9 204.9
3 296.8 208.7 210.7 212.7 214.7 216.7 218.8 220.9 222.9 225.0
4 227.2 229.3 231.5 233.7 235.9 238.1 240.4 242.6 244.9 247.2
5 249.6 251.9 254.3 256.7 259.2 261.6 264.1 266.6 269.1 271.7
6 274.2 276.8 279.4 282.1 284.8 287.4 290.2 292.9 295.7 298.5
7 301.3 304.2 307.0 310.0 312.9 315.9 318.8 321.9 324.9 328.0
3 331. 1 334.2 337.4 340.6 343.8 347.1 350.4 353.7 357.1 360.4
J 363 9 367.3 370.8 374.3 377.9 381.4 385.1 388.7 392.4 396.1
8.0 399.9 403.7 407.5 411.4 415.3 419.2 423.2 427.2 431.3 435.4
I 439.5 443.7 447.9 452.1 456.4 460.7 465.1 469.5 474.0 478.5
2 483.0 487.6 492.3 496.9 501.7 506.4 511.2 516.1 521.0 526.0
3 531.0 536.0 541.1 546.2 551.4 556.7 562.0 567.3 572.7 578.2
4 583.7 589.2 594.8 600.5 606.2 611.9 617.8 623.6 629.6 635.6
5 641.6 647.7 653.9 660.1 666.4 672.7 679.1 685.6 692. 1 698.7
8 705 4 712.1 718.9 725.7 732.6 739.6 746.7 753.8 760.9 768.2
7 775.5 782.9 790.4 797.9 805.5 813.2 820.9 828.7 836.6 844.6
8 852.7 860 .8 869.0 877.3 885.6 894.1 902.6 911.2 919.9 928.7
9 937.5 946.5 955.5 964.6 973.8 983.1 992.5 1002 1012 1021
.o 1031 1041 1051 1061 1071 1081 1091 1102 1112 1123
1 1134 1144 1155 1166 1178 1189 1200 1212 1223 1235
2 1247 1259 1271 1283 1295 1307 1320 1332 1345 1358
3 1371 1384 1397 1411 1424 1438 1452 1465 1479 1494
4 1508 1522 1537 1552 1566 1581 1596 1612 1627 1643
5 1658 1674 1690 1707 1723 1739 1756 1773 1790 1807
6 1824 1842 1859 1877 1895 1913 1931 1950 1969 1987
7 2006 2026 2045 2065 2084 2104 2125 2145 2165 2186
8 2207 2228 2250 2271 2293 2315 2337 2359 2382 2405
1 2428 2451 2475 2498 2522 2547 2571 2596 2621 2646
10 0 2671 2697 2722 2749 2775 2802 2828 2856 2883 2911
i
For larger values of the argument, use the auxiliary functions, Tabic 13
Table 12. Bessel Functions: Ku(x) and K,(x)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 DO 4.721 4.028 3.624 3.337 3. 114 2.933 2.780 2.647 2.531
1 2.427 2.333 2.248 2. 170 2.097 2.030 1.967 1.909 1.854 1.802
2 1.753 1.706 1.662 1.620 1.580 1.542 1.505 1.470 1.436 1.404
3 1.372 1.342 1.314 1.286 1.259 1.233 1.208 1. 183 1. 160 1.137
4 1. IIS 1.093 1.072 1.052 1.032 1.013 0.9943 9761 9584 9412
5 0.9244 9081 8921 8766 8614 8466 8321 8180 8042 7907
6 7775 7646 7520 7397 7277 7159 7043 6930 6820 6711
7 6605 6501 6399 6300 6202 6106 6012 5920 5829 5740
8 5653 5568 5484 5402 5321 5242 5165 5088 5013 4940
9 4867 4796 4727 4658 4591 4524 4459 4396 4333 4271
1.0 4210 4151 4092 4034 3977 3922 3867 3813 3760 3707
1 3656 3605 3556 3507 3459 3411 3365 3319 3273 3229
2 3185 3142 3100 3058 3017 2976 2936 2897 2858 2820
3 2782 2746 2709 2673 2638 2603 2569 2535 2502 2469
4 2437 2405 2373 2342 2312 2282 2252 2223 2194 2166
$ 2138 2111 2083 2057 2030 2004 1979 1953 1928 1904
6 1880 1856 1832 1809 1786 1763 1741 1719 1697 1676
7 1655 1634 1614 1593 1573 1554 1534 1515 1496 1478
8 1459 1441 1423 1406 1388 1371 1354 1337 1321 1305
9 1288 1273 1257 1242 1226 1211 1196 1182 1167 1153
2.0 1139 1125 llll 1098 1084 1071 1058 1033

1045 1020
1 1008 9956 9836 9717 *9600 9484 9370 9257 9145 9035
2 0.08927 8820 8714 8609 8506 8404 8304 8204 8106 8010
3 7914 7820 7726 7634 7544 7454 7365 7278 7191 7106
4 7022 6939 6856 6775 6695 6616 6538 6461 6384 6309
5 6235 6161 6089 6017 5946 5877 5808 5739 5672 5606
6 5540 5475 541 1 5348 5285 5223 5162 5102 5042 4984
7 4926 4868 481 1 4755 4700 4645 4592 4538 4485 4433
8 4382 4331 4281 4231 4182 4134 4086 4039 3992 3946
9 3901 3856 3811 3767 3724 3681 3638 3597 3555 3514
3.0 3474 3434 3395 3356 3317 3279 3241 3204 3168 3131
1 3095 3060 3025 2990 2956 2922 2889 2856 2824 2791
2 2759 2728 2697 2666 2636 2606 2576 2547 2518 2489
3 2461 2433 2405 2378 2351 2325 2298 2272 2246 2221
4 2196 2171 2146 2122 2098 2074 2051 2028 2005 1982
> I960 1938 1916 1894 1873 1852 1831 1810 1790 1770
6 1750 1730 1711 1692 1673 1654 1635 1617 1599 1581
7 1563 1546 1528 1511 1494 1477 1461 1445 1428 1412
8 1397 1381 1366 1350 1335 1320 1306 1291 1277 1262
9 1248 1234 1221 1207 1194 1180 1167 1154 1141 1129
4.0 1116 1104 1091 1079 1067 1055 1044 1032 1021 1009
I 0.009980 9869 9760 9652 9545 9439 9334 9231 9128 9027
2 8927 8829 8731 8634 8539 8444 8351 8259 8167 8077
3 7988 7900 7813 7726 7641 7557 7473 7391 7309 7229
4 7149 7070 6992 6915 6839 6764 6689 6616 6543 6471
S 6400 6329 6260 6191 6123 6056 5989 5923 5858 5794
6 5730 5668 5605 5544 5483 5423 5363 5305 5246 5189
7 5132 5076 5020 4965 4911 4857 4804 4751 4699 4648
1 4597 4547 4497 4448 4399 4351 4304 4257 4210 4164
9 4119 4074 4030 3986 3942 3899 3857 3814 3773 3732
5.0 3691 3631 3611 3572 3533 3494 3456 3419 3382 3345
A''oU) - -i(>)
Table 12. Bessel Functions: Kn(x) and A',(r). (Continued)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 0 m 99.97 49.95 33.27 24.92 19.91 16.56 14.17 12.37 10.97

1 9.854 8.935 8. 169 7.519 6.962 6.477 6.053 5.678 5.345 5.046
4.776 4.532 4.309 4. 106 3.919 3.747 3.588 3.440 3.303 3.175
3.056 2.944 2.839 2.740 2.647 2.559 2.476 2.397 2.323 2.252
2. 184 2. 120 2.059 2.001 1.945 1.892 1.840 1.792 1.745 1.700
1.656 1.615 1.575 1.536 1.499 1.464 1.429 1.396 1.364 1.333
1 303 1.274 1.246 1.219 1.192 1.167 1.142 1. 118 1.095 1.072
1.050 1.029 1.008 9882 9686 9496 9311 9130 8955 8784
0.8618 8456 8298 8144 7993 7847 7704 7564 7428 7295
7165 7039 6915 6794 6675 6560 6447 6336 6228 6122
0 6019 5918 5819 5722 5627 5534 5443 5354 5267 5181
5098 5016 4935 4856 4779 4703 4629 4556 4485 4415
4346 4279 4212 4147 4084 4021 3960 3900 3841 3782
3725 3670 3615 3561 3508 3455 3404 3354 3305 3256
3208 3161 3115 3070 3026 2982 2939 2897 2855 2814
2774 2734 2695 2657 2620 2583 2546 2510 2475 2440
2406 2373 2340 2307 2275 2244 2213 2182 2152 2123
2094 2065 2037 2009 1982 1955 1928 1902 1876 1851
8 !>-26 1802 1777 1754 1730 1707 1684 1662 1640 1618
1597 1575 1555 1534 1514 1494 1474 1455 1436 1417
: o 1345 1327 1310 1293 1276 1260 1244

1399 1380 1362

1227 1212 1196 1181 1166 1151 1136 1121 1107 1093
1079 1065 1052 1038 1025 1012 9993 9867 9742 9620
0.09498 9379 9261 9144 9029 8916 8804 8694 8586 8478
8372 8268 8165 8063 7963 7864 7767 7670 7575 7482
7389 7298 7208 7119 7031 6945 6859 6775 6692 6609
6528 6448 6369 6292 6215 6139 6064 5990 5917 5845
5774 5704 5634 5566 5498 5432 5366 5301 5237 5174
5111 5050 4989 4929 4869 4811 4753 4696 4639 4584
4529 4474 4421 4368 4316 4264 4213 4163 4113 4064
3.0 4016 3968 3921 3874 3828 3782 3738 3693 3649 3606
3563 3521 3480 3438 3398 3358 3318 3279 3240 3202
3164 3127 3090 3054 3018 2983 2948 2913 2879 2845
2812 2779 2746 2714 2682 2651 2620 2589 2559 2529
2500 2471 2442 2414 2385 2358 2330 2303 2276 2250
2224 2198 2173 2147 2123 2098 2074 2050 2026 2003
1979 1957 1934 1912 1890 1868 1846 1825 1804 1783
1763 1743 1722 1703 1683 1664 1645 1626 1607 1589
1571 1553 1535 1517 1500 1483 1466 1449 1432 1416
1400 1384 1368 1353 1337 1322 1307 1292 1277 1263
4.0 1248 1234 1220 1206 1193 1179 1166 1152 1139 1126
1 1114 1101 1089 1076 1064 1052 1040 1028 1017 10052
0.009938 9826 9715 9605 9497 9390 9284 9179 9076 8973
8872 8772 8674 8576 8479 8384 8290 8196 8104 8013
7923 7834 7746 7659 7573 7488 7404 7321 7239 7158
7078 6999 6920 6843 6766 6691 6616 6542 6469 6397
6325 6254 6185 6116 6047 5980 5913 5847 5782 5717
5654 5591 5529 5467 5406 5346 5286 5228 5169 5112
5055 4999 4943 4889 4834 4781 4727 4675 4623 4572
4521 4471 4421 4372 4324 4276 4229 4182 4136 4090
t.l 4045 4000 3956 3912 3869 3826 3784 3742 3700 3660
Jti(x) - -K'.(x)
Table 12. Bessel Functions: K0(x) and Ki(x). (.Continued)

JCo(x)
* 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.0 0.003691 3651 3611 3572 3533 3494 3456 3419 3382 3345
1 3308 3272 3237 3202 3167 3132 3098 3065 3031 2998
2 2966 2934 2902 2870 2839 2808 2778 2748 2718 2688
3 2659 2630 2602 2574 2546 2518 2491 2464 2437 2411
4 2385 2359 2333 2308 2283 2258 2234 2210 2186 2162
5 2139 2116 2093 2070 2048 2026 2004 1982 1961 1939
6 1918 1898 1877 1857 1837 1817 1798 1778 1759 1740
7 1721 1703 1684 1666 1648 1630 1613 1595 1578 1561
8 1544 1528 1511 1495 1479 1463 1447 1432 1416 1401
9 1386 1371 1356 1342 1327 1313 1299 1285 1271 1258
6.0 1244 1231 1217 1204 1191 1179 1166 1153 1141 1129
1 1117 1105 1093 1081 1070 1058 1047 1035 1024 1013
2 1002 9918 98ll 9706 9602 9499 9398 9297 9197 9099
3 0.0009001 8905 8810 8715 8622 8530 8438 8348 8259 8171
4 8083 7997 7911 7827 7743 7660 7578 7497 7417 7338
5 7259 7182 7105 7029 6954 6880 6806 6734 6662 6591
6 6520 6451 6382 6314 6246 6180 6114 6048 5984 5920
7 5857 5795 5733 5672 5611 5551 5492 5434 5376 5318
8 5262 5206 5150 5095 5041 4987 4934 4882 4830 4778
9 4728 4677 4627 4578 4529 4481 4434 4386 4340 4294
7.0 4248 4203 4158 4114 4070 4027 3984 3942 3900 3858
1 3817 3777 3737 3697 3658 3619 3580 3542 3505 3468
2 3431 3394 3358 3323 3287 3253 3218 3184 3150 3117
3 3084 3051 3019 2987 2955 2924 2893 2862 2832 2802
4 2772 2742 2713 2685 2656 2628 2600 2573 2545 2518
5 2492 2465 2439 2413 2388 2363 2338 2313 2288 2264
6 2240 2216 2193 2170 2147 2124 2102 2079 2057 2036
7 2014 1993 1972 1951 1930 1910 1890 1870 1850 1830
8 1811 1792 1773 1754 1736 1717 1699 1681 1664 1646
9 1629 1611 1594 1578 1561 1545 1528 1512 1496 1480
8.0 1465 1449 1434 1419 1404 1389 1374 1360 1346 1331
1 1317 1303 1290 1276 1263 1249 1236 1223 1210 1198
2 1185 1172 1160 1148 1136 1124 1112 1100 1089 1077
3 1066 1055 1043 1032 1022 1011 10002 9897 9793 9690
4 .00009588 9487 9387 9288 9191 9094 8998 8904 8810 8717
5 8626 8535 8445 8356 8269 8182 8096 8011 7926 7843
6 7761 7679 7598 7519 7439 7361 7284 7208 7132 7057
7 6983 6909 6837 6765 6694 6624 6554 6485 6417 6350
8 6283 6217 6152 6088 6024 5961 5898 5836 5775 5714
9 5654 5595 5536 5478 5420 5364 5307 5252 5197 5142
9.0 5088 5035 4982 4930 4878 4827 4776 4726 4677 4628
1 4579 4531 4484 4437 4390 4344 4299 4254 4209 4165
2 4121 4078 4036 3993 3951 3910 3869 3829 3789 3749
5 3710 3671 3632 3594 3557 3519 3483 3446 3410 3374
4 3339 3304 3270 3235 3202 3168 3135 3102 3070 3038
5 3006 2974 2943 2912 2882 2852 2822 2793 2763 2734
6 2706 2678 2650 2622 2595 2567 2541 2514 2488 2462
7 2436 2411 2385 2360 2336 2311 2287 2263 2240 2216
8 2193 2170 2148 2125 2103 2081 2059 2038 2017 1995
9 1975 1954 1934 1913 1894 1874 1854 1835 1816 1797
10.0 1778 1759 1741 1723 1705 1687 1670 1652 1635 1618
For larger values of the argument, use the auxiliary functions, Table 13.
Table 12. Bessel Functions: A". >(x) and A", (x). (Continued)
KiUO
I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.0 0.004045 4000 3956 3912 3869 3826 3784 3742 3700 3660
1 3619 3579 3540 3501 3462 3424 3386 3349 3312 3275
2 3239 3204 3168 3133 3099 3065 3031 2998 2965 2932
3 2900 2868 2836 2805 2774 2744 2714 2684 2655 2625
4 2597 2568 2540 2512 2485 2457 2430 2404 2377 2351
5 2326 2300 2275 2250 2225 2201 2177 2153 2130 2106
t> 2083 2060 2038 2016 1994 1972 1950 1929 1908 1887
7 1866 1846 1826 1806 1786 1767 1748 1729 1710 1691
3 1673 1654 1636 1619 1601 1584 1566 1549 1532 1516
9 1499 1483 1467 1451 1435 1419 1404 1389 1374 1359
6 0 1344 1329 1315 1301 1286 1273 1259 1245 1232 1218
1 1205 1192 1179 1166 1154 1141 1129 1116 1104 1092
2 1081 1069 1057 1046 1034 1023 1012 1001 9904 9797
3 0.0009691 9586 9483 9380 9279 9178 9079 8981 8884 8788
4 8693 8599 8506 8414 8324 8234 8145 8057 7970 7884
5 7799 7715 7632 7549 7468 7387 7308 7229 7151 7074
6 6998 6922 6848 6774 6701 6629 6558 6487 6417 6348
7 6280 6212 6145 6079 6014 5949 5885 5822 5759 5697
6 5636 5576 5516 5456 5398 5340 5282 5226 5170 5114
9 5059 5005 4951 4898 4845 4793 4742 4691 4641 4591
7 0 4542 4493 4445 4397 4350 4304 4257 4212 4167 4122
1 4078 4034 3991 3948 3906 3864 3823 3782 3741 3701
2 3662 3623 3584 3545 3508 3470 3433 3396 3360 3324
3 3288 3253 3219 3184 3150 3116 3083 3050 3018 2985
4 2953 2922 2891 2860 2829 2799 2769 2740 2710 2682
5 2653 2625 2597 2569 2542 2514 2488 2461 2435 2409
6 2383 2358 2333 2308 2283 2259 2235 2211 2188 2164
7 2141 2118 2096 2074 2051 2030 2008 1987 1966 1945
8 1924 1903 1883 1863 1843 1824 1804 1785 1766 1747
9 1729 1710 1692 1674 1656 1639 1621 1604 1587 1570
.0 1554 1537 1521 1505 1489 1473 1457 1442 1427 1411
1 1396 1382 1367 1352 1338 1324 1310 1296 1282 1269
2 1255 1242 1229 1216 1203 1190 1177 1165 1153 1140
3 1128 1116 1105 1093 1081 1070 1058 1047 1036 1025
4 1014 10036 *9930 *9825 9721 9618 95I6 9415 9316 9217
5 .00009120 9023 8928 8833 8740 8648 8556 8466 8376 8288
6 8200 8113 8028 7943 7859 7776 7694 7612 7532 7452
7 7374 7296 7219 7142 7067 6992 6918 6845 6773 6702
8 6631 6561 6492 6423 6355 6288 6222 6156 6091 6027
9 5964 5901 5838 5777 5716 5656 5596 5537 5479 5421
< 5364 5307 5251 5196 5141 5087 5033 4980 4928 4876
1 4825 4774 4723 4674 4624 4576 4528 4480 4433 4386
2 4340 4294 4249 4204 4160 4116 4073 4030 3988 3946
3 3904 3863 3822 3782 3742 3703 3664 3626 3587 3550
4 3512 3476 3439 3403 3367 3332 3297 3262 3228 3194
5 3160 3127 3094 3062 3029 2998 2966 2935 2904 2874
6 2843 2814 2784 2755 2726 2697 2669 2641 2613 2586
7 2559 2532 2505 2479 2453 2427 2402 2377 2352 2327
8 2302 2278 2254 2231 2207 2184 2161 2139 2116 2094
9 2072 2050 2029 2008 1987 1966 1945 1925 1905 1885
10.0 1865 1845 1826 1807 1788 1769 1751 1732 1714 1696
For larger values of the argument, use the auxiliary functions. Tabic 13.
Table 13. Bessel Functions : Auxiliary Functions

Auxiliary Functions Yo(x) and Yi(x) for Small Values of Argument
For small values of the argument, Fo(-z) and Yi(x) are rapidly changing functions and linear inter
polation is inaccurate. These tables of auxiliary functions can be used to give accurate interpolated
values. For values of the argument above 0. 1 the main tables arc satisfactory if interpolation formulas
are used.
KoU) = Co + Do log x
Yi(x) -
(Ci/x) +Z>ilogx
Co
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 -0.0738 0738 0737 0736 0735 0734 0732 0729 0727 0724
1 -0720 0717 0713 0708 0703 0698 0693 0687 0681 0674
2 -0667 0660 0652 0645 0636 0628 0619 0609 0600 0590
3 -0579 0569 0558 0547 0535 0523 051 1 0498 0485 0472
4 -0458 0444 0430 0415 0400 0385 0369 0353 0337 0321
Do
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 1.4659 4658 4657 4655 4653 4650 4646 4641 4635 4629
I 1.4622 4614 4606 4597 4587 4576 4565 4553 4540 4527
2 1.4512 4498 4482 4465 4448 4431 4412 4393 4373 4352
3 1.4331 4309 4286 4262 4238 4213 4188 4161 4134 4107
4 1. 4078 4049 4019 3989 3958 3926 3893 3860 3826 3792
C,
0 ' 2 3 4 5 t 7 8 9
0.0 -0.6366
- 6386 6366 6367 6368 6369 6371 6373 6376 6379 6382
1
2 - 6444 6390
6452
6394
6460
6399
6468
6404
6477
6410
6487
6416
6496
6422
6506
6429
6517
6436
6527
3 -6538 6550 6561 6573 6586 6598 6611 6624 6638 6652
4 -6666 6681 6695 6710 6726 6741 6757 6773 6789 6806
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.0000 0073 0146 0220 0293 0366 0440 0513 0586 0659
1 0732 0805 0878 0951 1024 1096 1169 1241 1314 1386
2 1459 1531 1603 1675 1746 1818 1890 1961 2032 2103
3 2174 2245 2316 2386 2456 2526 2596 2666 2735 2804
4 2873 2942 301 1 3079 3148 3215 3283 3351 3418 3485
Auxiliary Functions Ko(x) and Ki(x) for Small Values of Argument

For small values of the argument, Ko(x) and Ki(x) are rapidly changing functions and linear inter
polation is inaccurate. These tables of auxiliary functions can be used to give accurate interpolated
values. For values of the argument above 0. 1 the main tables are satisfactory if interpolation formulas
are used.
Ko(x) = Eo + Fo log x
Ki(x) - (Ei/x) + Fi log*
Eo(x)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0. 1159 1160 1160 1162 1164 1166 1169 1173 1177 1182
1 1187 1193 1200 1207 1214 1222 1231 1240 1250 1260
2 1271 1283 1295 1308 1321 1335 1349 1364 1380 1396
3 1412 1430 1448 1466 1485 1505 1525 1546 1567 1590
4 1612 1635 1659 1684 1709 1735 1761 1788 1816 1844
Table 13. Bessel Functions : Auxiliary Functions. (Continued)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 1 0000 1 . 0000 9999 9997 9995 9992 9989 9985 9980 9975
1 0.9969 9963 9955 9948 9939 9930 9921 9910 9899 9888
2 9875 9863 9849 9835 9820 9804 9788 9771 9753 9735
3 9716 9696 9676 9654 9633 9610 9586 9562 9537 9512
4 9485 9458 9430 9401 9371 9341 9310 9278 9245 9211
F,W
0 ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 -2.3026 3026 3028 3031 3035 3040 3047 3054 3063 3073
1 -2.3083 3096 3109 3123 3139 3156 3173 3193 3213 3234
2 -2 3257 3280 3305 3331 3359 3387 3417 3447 3479 3513
3 -2 3547 3582 3619 3657 3696 3736 3778 3821 3865 3910
4 -2.3956 4004 4053 4103 4154 4206 4260 4315 4371 4429
F,(x)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 0.0000 0115 0230 0345 0461 0576 0691 0806 0922 1037
1 1153 1268 1384 1500 1616 1732 1848 1964 2081 2197
2 2314 2431 2548 2666 2783 2901 3019 3137 3255 3374
3 3493 3612 3731 3851 3971 4092 4212 4333 4454 4576
4 4698 4820 4943 5066 5189 5313 5437 5562 5687 5812
Examples of use of auxiliary functions for small values of argument:

Example I. K(0.II5) 0.0715 + 1.4610 X 7.0607 0.0715 1.4610 + 0.0887 = - 1.4438.
Linear interpolation from the direct-reading table of Ya would give the less accurate value
K(0.I15) - -1.4444
Example 2.
yi<o. i is)
0.115
-0.6392
+ 0.08415 X 1.0607 - -5.558 - 0.084 + 0.005 - -5.637
compared with the less accurate value of 5.648 obtained by linear interpolation of the tablefor Yi(z).
Auxiliary functions /o(x), /i(x). K(s). Kttx) for large values of argument
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.0 0.1278 1272 1265 1259 1253 1247 1241 1235 1229 1223
no 1217 1212 1206 1201 1195 1190 1185 1180 1174 1170
12.0 1164 1159 1154 1150 1145 1140 1136 1131 1126 1122
13 0 1118 1113 1109 1105 1100 1096 1092 1088 1084 1080
14 0 1076 1072 1068 1065 1061 1057 1053 1050 1046 1043
15 0 1039 1035 1032 1029 1025 1022 1018 1015 1012 1009
16.0 1005 1002 0999 0996 0993 0990 0987 0984 0981 0978
17.0 0975 0972 0969 0966 0963 0961 0958 0955 0952 0950
18.0 0950 0944 0942 0940 0937 0934 0931 0929 0926 0924
19.0 0921 0919 0917 0914 0912 0909 0907 0905 0902 0900
20 0898 0676 0856 0836 0819 0802 0786 0771 0757 0744
30 0731 0719 0708 0697 0687 0677 0667 0658 0649 0641
It(x) s= tabulatt'd number X *.

For greater values of x, e~*Io(x)
(i +
e)/ve.
Table 13. Bessel Functions : Auxiliary Functions. (Continued)

"'/i(x)
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.0 0. 1213 1207 1202 1196 1191 1186 1181 1175 1170 1165
11.0 1161 1156 1151 1146 1142 1137 1132 1128 1123 1119
12.0 HIS 1110 1106 1102 1098 1094 1090 1086 1082 1078
13.0 1074 1070 1066 1062 1059 1055 1051 1048 1044 1040
M.O 1037 1034 1030 1027 1023 1020 1017 1013 1010 1007
15.0 1004 1001 0997 0994 0991 0988 0985 0982 0979 0976
16.0 0973 0971 0968 0965 0962 0959 0957 0954 0951 0948
17 0 0946 0943 0941 0938 0935 0933 0930 0928 0925 0923
18.0 0920 0918 0915 0913 0911 0908 0906 0904 0901 0899
19.0 0897 0895 0892 0890 0888 0886 0884 0881 0879 0877
20 0875 0855 0836 0818 0801 0786 0771 0757 0744 0731
30 0719 0708 0697 0687 0677 0667 0658 0649 0641 0633
Ii(x) tabulated number X e*.

For greater values of x, e~*I\(x)
N Ojt/ '
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.0 0.3916 3897 3879 3860 3842 3824 3806 3789 3772 3755
It.O 3738 3721 3705 3689 3673 3657 3642 3627 3612 3597
12.0 3582 3567 3553 3539 3525 3511 3497 3484 3470 3457
13.0 3444 3431 3418 3406 3393 3381 3368 3356 3344 3333
14.0 3321 3309 3298 3286 3275 3264 3253 3242 3231 3221
15.0 3210 3200 3189 3179 3169 3159 3149 3139 3129 3119
16.0 3110 3100 3091 3081 3072 3063 3054 3045 3036 3027
17.0 3018 3009 3001 2992 2984 2975 2967 2959 2950 2942
18.0 2934 2926 2918 2910 2903 2895 2887 2879 2872 2864
19.0 2857 2850 2842 2835 2828 2821 2813 2806 2799 2792
20 2785 2719 2658 2599 2545 2494 2446 2401 2358 2318
30 2279 2242 2207 2174 2142 2111 2082 2054 2027 2001
A'o(j-) tabulated number X
For greater values of x, e*Kn(x) =
e'Kx(x)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10.0 0.4108 4086 4064 4043 4023 4002 3982 3962 3943 3923
II.0 3904 3886 3867 3849 3831 3813 3796 3779 3762 3745
12.0 3728 3712 3696 3680 3664 3649 3633 3618 3603 3589
13.0 3574 3560 3545 3531 3518 3504 3490 3477 3464 3450
14.0 3437 3425 3412 3399 3387 3375 3363 3351 3339 3327
15.0 3315 3304 3292 3281 3270 3259 3248 3237 3226 3216
16.0 3205 3195 3185 3174 3164 3154 3144 3135 3125 3115
17.0 3106 3096 3087 3077 3068 3059 3050 3041 3032 3023
18.0 3015 3006 2997 2989 2980 2972 2964 2955 2947 2939
19.0 2931 2923 2915 2907 2900 2892 2884 2877 2869 2862
20 2854 2783 2717 2655 2598 2544 2493 2445 2400 2357
30 2317 2278 2241 2206 2173 2141 2110 2081 2053 2026
Ki(x) = tabulated number X e'*.
For greater values of t. fA'iW m
Example of use of auxiliary functions for large values of argument:

/0(25) - 7.202 X I0,B X 0.0802 - 5.776 X I0
Table 14. Gamma and Factorial Functions: r(x) = y\
X !/ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.00 o.oo 1 . 0000 0.9994 9988 9983 9977 9971 9966 9960 9954 9949
1 i 0.9943 9938 9932 9927 9921 9916 9910 9905 9S79 9894
2 2 9888 9883 9878 9872 9867 9862 9856 9851 9846 9841
3 3 9835 9830 9825 9820 9815 9810 9805 9800 9794 9789
4 4 9784 9779 9774 9769 9764 9759 9755 9750 9745 9740
5 5 9735 9730 9725 9721 9716 9711 9706 9702 9697 9692
6 6 9687 9683 9678 9673 9669 9664 9660 9655 9651 9646
7 7 9642 9637 9633 9628 9624 9619 9615 9610 9606 9602
8 8 9597 9593 9589 9584 9580 9576 9571 9567 9563 9559
9 9 9555 9550 9546 9542 9538 9534 9530 9526 9522 9518
1.10 0. 10 9514 9509 9505 9501 9498 9494 9490 9486 9482 9478
1 1 9474 9470 9466 9462 9459 9455 9451 9447 9443 9440
2 2 9436 9432 9428 9425 9421 9417 9414 9410 9407 9403
3 3 9399 9396 9392 9389 9385 9382 9378 9375 9371 9368
4 4 9364 9361 9357 9354 9350 9347 9344 9340 9337 9334
5 5 9330 9327 9324 9321 9317 9314 9311 9308 9304 9301
b 6 9298 9295 9292 9289 9285 9232 9279 9276 9273 9270
7 7 9267 9264 9261 9258 9255 9252 9249 9246 9243 9240
8 8 9237 9234 9231 9229 9226 9223 9220 9217 9214 9212
9 9 9209 9206 9203 9201 9198 9195 9192 9190 9187 9184
1 20 0.20 9182 9179 9176 9174 9171 9169 9166 9163 9161 9158
1 I 9156 9153 9151 9148 9146 9143 9141 9138 9136 9133
2 2 9131 9129 9126 9124 9122 9119 9117 9114 9112 9110
3 3 9108 9105 9103 9101 9098 9096 9094 9092 9090 9087
4 4 9085 9083 9081 9079 9077 9074 9072 9070 9068 9066
5 5 9064 9062 9060 9058 9056 9054 9052 9050 9048 9046
6 6 9044 9042 9040 9038 9036 9034 9032 9031 9029 9027
7 7 9025 9023 9021 9020 9018 9016 9014 9012 9011 9009
8 8 9007 9005 9004 9002 9000 8999 8997 8995 8994 8992
V 9 8990 8989 8987 8986 8984 8982 8981 8979 8978 8976
1.30 0.30 8975 8973 8972 8970 8969 8967 8966 8964 8963 8961
1 I 8960 8959 8957 8956 8954 8953 8952 8950 8949 8948
2 2 8946 8945 8944 8943 8941 8940 8939 8937 8936 8935
3 3 8934 8933 8931 8930 8929 8928 8927 8926 8924 8923
4 4 8922 8921 8920 8919 8918 8917 8916 8915 8914 8913
5 5 8912 8911 8910 8909 8908 8907 8906 8905 8904 8903
b 6 8902 8901 8900 8899 8898 8897 8897 8896 8895 8894
7 7 8893 8892 8892 8891 8890 8889 8888 8888 8887 8886
8 8 8885 8885 8884 8883 8883 8882 8881 8880 8880 8879
9 9 8879 8878 8877 8877 8876 8875 8875 8874 8874 8873
1.40 0 40 8873 8872 8872 8871 8871 8870 8870 8869 8869 8868
1 1 8868 8867 8867 8866 8866 8865 8865 8865 8864 8864
2 2 8864 8863 8863 8863 8862 8862 8862 8661 8861 8861
3 8860 8860 8860 8860 8859 8859 8859 8859 8858 8858
4 8858 8858 8858 8858 8857 8857 8857 8857 8857 8857
5 8857 8857 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856
6 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856 8856
7 8856 8856 8856 8857 8857 8857 8857 8657 8857 8857
b 8857 8858 8858 8858 8858 8858 8859 8859 8859 8859
9 9 8859 8860 8860 8860 8860 8861 8861 8861 8862 8862
1.50 o.so 8862 8863 8863 8863 8864 8864 8864 8865 8865 8866
I'd) -Jo ---< (x - 1)!

/o
- rd + )
<- - rd + )
For higher values of argument

(i - -!)-(*- - - -
rd) i)(i 2)r(z
- x(.x - - -
=. \>r(x 2)
x\ I)! i(x l)(i 2)!
Example: r(4.7) - (3.7)1 - 3.7 X 2.7 X 1.7 X 0.9086 = 15.43.

Table 14. Gamma and Factorial Functions: T(x) = y\ (Continued)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
V
1.50 0.50 0.8862 8863 8863 8863 8864 8864 8864 8865 8865 8866
1 1 8866 8866 8867 8867 8868 8868 8869 8869 8869 8870
2 2 8870 8871 8871 8872 8872 8873 8873 8874 8875 8875
3 3 8876 8876 8877 8877 8878 8879 8879 8880 8880 8881
4 4 8882 8882 8883 8884 8884 8885 8886 8887 8887 8888
s 5 8889 8889 8890 8891 8892 8892 8893 8894 8895 8896
6 6 8896 8897 8898 8899 8900 8901 8901 8902 8903 8904
7 7 8905 8906 8907 8908 8909 8909 8910 8911 8912 8913
8 8 8914 8915 8916 8917 8918 8919 8920 8921 8922 8923
9 9 8924 8925 8926 8927 8929 8930 8931 8932 8933 8934
1.60 60 8935 8936 8937 8939 8940 8941 8942 8943 8944 8946
1 1 8947 8948 8949 8950 8952 8953 8954 8955 8957 8958
2 2 8959 8961 8962 8963 8964 8966 8967 8968 8970 8971
3 3 8972 8974 8975 8977 8978 8979 8981 8982 8984 8985
4 4 8986 8988 8989 8991 8992 8994 8995 8997 8998 9000
5 5 9001 9003 9004 9006 9007 9009 9010 9012 9014 9015
6 6 9017 9018 9020 9021 9023 9025 9026 9028 9030 9031
7 7 9033 9035 9036 9038 9040 9041 9043 9045 9047 9048
8 8 9050 9052 9054 9055 9057 9059 9061 9062 9064 9066
9 9 9068 9070 9071 9073 9075 9077 9079 9081 9083 9084
1.70 70 9086 9088 9090 9092 9094 9096 9098 9100 9102 9104
1 1 9106 9108 9110 9112 9114 9116 9118 9120 9122 9124
2 2 9126 9128 9130 9132 9134 9136 9138 9140 9142 9145
3 3 9147 9149 9151 9153 9155 9157 9160 9162 9164 9166
4 4 9168 9170 9173 9175 9177 9179 9182 9184 9186 9188
5 5 9191 9193 9195 9197 9200 9202 9204 9207 9209 9211
6 6 9214 9216 9218 9221 9223 9226 9228 9230 9233 9235
7 7 9238 9240 9242 9245 9247 9250 9252 9255 9257 9260
8 8 9262 9265 9267 9270 9272 9275 9277 9280 9283 9285
1 9 9288 9290 9293 9295 9298 9301 9303 9306 9309 9311
1.80 80 9314 9316 9319 9322 9325 9327 9330 9333 9335 9338
1 1 9341 9343 9346 9349 9352 9355 9357 9360 9363 9366
2 9368 9371 9374 9377 9380 9383 9385 9388 9291 9394
3 9397 9400 9403 9406 9408 9411 9414 9417 9420 9423
4 9426 9429 9432 9435 9438 9441 9444 9447 9450 9453
5 9456 9459 9462 9465 9468 9471 9474 9478 9481 9484
6 9487 9490 9493 9496 9499 9503 9506 9509 9512 9515
7 9518 9522 9525 9528 9531 9534 9538 9541 9544 9547
8 9551 9554 9557 9561 9564 9567 9570 9574 9577 9580
9 9584 9587 9591 9594 9597 9601 9604 9607 9611 9614
1.90 90 9618 9621 9625 9628 9631 9635 9638 9642 9645 9649
1 9652 9656 9659 9663 9666 9670 9673 9677 9681 9684
2 9688 9691 9695 9699 9702 9706 9709 9713 9717 9720
3 9724 9728 9731 9735 9739 9742 9746 9750 9754 9757
4 9761 9765 9768 9772 9776 9780 9784 9787 9791 9795
5 9799 9803 9806 9810 9814 9818 9822 9826 9830 9834
6 9837 9841 9845 9849 9853 9857 9861 9865 9869 9873
7 9877 9881 9885 9889 9893 9897 9901 9905 9909 9913
8 9917 9921 9925 9929 9933 9938 9942 9946 9950 9954
9 9958 9962 9966 9971 9975 9979 9983 9987 9992 9996
2.00 1.00 1. 0000 0004 0008 0013 0017 0021 0026 0030 0034 0038
Minimum value of the function: I'( 1.461632) - (0.461632)! = 0.885603.

Table 15. Exponential and Related Integrals
The Exponential Integral*. Functions usually used in combination are ( 1) the exponential integrals
Ei(x) and Ei z or (2) Eo(z), E\(z), and Bt(x),* Ei(x) -Ei(-z). In all cases x ja positive- -
Small Valuea of the Argument. Where interpolation is unsatisfactory, use the formulas or series
solutions given in the tables.
Large Values of the Argument for Ei(x) = Bi( x), -
a. For 5 < z < 16 sec special tables following main tables.
b. For 5 < x < 40. Ei(z) - -
-Jf*(-) F\e'*/z and Ei z Ft*?*/*, where Fx and Ft Are given -
below and e~* and e* are read from Table 6.
J 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0.8516 0.9156 0.9408 0.9549 0.9627 0.9687 0.9729 0.9753
F, 1.354 1. 1316 1.0781 1.0360 1.0440 1.0358 1.0305 1.0264
I i 1
c. For large values of x, Fi and Ft can be computed from the scmioonvergent series
Ft
I!
X
+
2!
X*
-
3!
x'
+ F, - I1
X
+ - -
X*
2'
+
3'
X*
+
Values of the Argument for Eotx)

- -
Large and 1(2). Use the formulas given In the tables,
i.e.. /?a(x) -
-/ and Ei(x)
EoM - -/
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 m 99.00 49.01 32.35 24.02 19.02 15.70 13.32 11.54 10. 15

1 9.048 8. 144 7.391 6 755 6.210 5.738 5.326 4.963 4.640 4.352
2 4.094 3.860 3.648 3.454 3.278 3. 115 2.966 2.827 2.699 2.580
3 2.469 2.366 2.269 2. 179 2.093 2.013 1.938 1.867 1.800 1.736
1.676 1.619 1.564 1.513 1.464 1.417 1.372 1.330 1.289 1.250
j 1.213 1. 177 1. 143 1.111 1.079 1.049 1.020 9921 9653 9395
0.9147 8907 8677 8454 8239 8031 7831 7637 7450 7269
7 7094 6925 6760 6601 6447 6298 6154 6013 5877 5745
8 5617 5492 5371 5254 5139 5028 4920 4816 4713 4614
4517 4423 4332 4243 4156 4071 3988 3908 3830 3753
1.0 3679 3606 3535 3466 3399 3333 3268 3206 3144 3085
3026 2969 2913 2859 2805 2753 2702 2653 2604 2556
2 2510 2464 2420 2376 2334 2292 2251 2211 2172 2134
J 2096 2060 2024 1989 1954 1920 1887 1855 1823 1792
4 1761 1732 1722 1673 1645 1618 1591 1564 1338 1513
j 1488 1463 1439 1415 1392 1369 1347 1325 1304 1283
| 1262 1242 1222 1202 1183 1164 1145 1127 1109 1092
7 1075 1058 1041 1025 1009 9930 9775 9623 9474 9327
ft 0.09183 9042 8903 8766 8631 8500 8370 8242 8116 7993
7872 7753 7636 7521 7407 7296 7187 7079 6973 6869
0.0 n 9.048 4.094 2.469 1.676 1.213 9147 7094 5617 4517
1.0 0.3679 3026 2510 2096 1761 1488 1262 1075 9183 7872
2.0 10-' X 0.6767 5831 5037 4359 3780 3283 2857 2489 2172 1897
3.0 10"' X 1.660 1.453 1.274 1. 118 0.9816 8628 7590 6682 5887 5190
* 0 IO- X 0. 4579 4042 3570 3155 2790 2469 2185 1935 1714 1520
5 0 10-< X 1.348 1. 195 1.061 0.9418 8364 7431 6603 5870 5220 4643
f. 0 10-' X 0.4131 3677 3273 2915 2596 2313 2061 1837 1638 1461
7 0 10-' X 1.303 1. 1621 1.037 0.9254 8260 7375 6585 5881 5253 4693
ft 0 IO- X 0 4193 3747 3349 2994 2677 2394 2141 1915 1713 1533
1 0 10 ' X 1.371 1.227 1.098 0.9831 8800 7879 7055 6318 5658 5068
The functions are represented by the general formula E*(x) = jj ~*"a~" du. These functions
%nd the exponential integrals can be expressed in various alternative forms.
Table 16. Exponential and Related Integrals. {Continued)

jBiCx) Si(-z)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 go 4.038 3.355 2.959 2.681 2.468 2.295 2.151 2.027 1.919
1 1.823 1.737 1.660 1.589 1.524 1.464 1.409 1.358 1.310 1.265
2 1.223 1.183 1. 145 1 110 1.076 1.044 1.014 0.9849 9573 9309
3 0.9057 8815 8583 8361 8147 7942 7745 7554 7371 7194
4 7024 6859 6700 6546 6397 6253 6114 5979 5848 5721
5 5598 5478 5362 5250 5140 5034 4930 4830 4732 4636
6 4544 4454 4366 4280 4197 4115 4036 3959 3883 3810
7 3738 3668 3599 3532 3467 3403 3341 3280 3221 3163
8 3106 3050 2996 2943 2891 2840 2790 2742 2694 2647
9 2602 2557 2513 2470 2429 2387 2347 2308 2269 2231
1.0 2194 2157 2122 2087 2052 2019 1986 1953 1922 1890
1 I860 1830 1801 1772 1743 1716 1688 1662 1635 1609
2 1584 1559 1535 1511 1487 1464 1441 1419 1397 1376
3 1355 1334 1313 1293 1274 1254 1235 1216 1198 1160
4 1162 1145 1128 1111 1094 1078 1062 1046 1030 1015
5 1000 9854 9709 9567 9426 9288 9152 9019 8887 8758
6 0.08631 8506 8383 8261 8142 8025 7909 7796 7684 7574
7 7465 7359 7254 7151 7049 6949 6850 6753 6658 6564
8 6471 6380 6290 6202 6115 6029 5945 5862 5780 5700
9 5620 5542 5465 5390 5315 5241 5169 5098 5027 4958
2.0 4890 4823 4757 4692 4627 4564 4502 4440 4380 4320
1 4261 4204 4147 4090 4035 3980 3927 3874 3821 3770
2 3719 3669 3620 3571 3523 3476 3430 3384 3339 3294
3 3250 3207 3164 3122 3081 3040 3000 2960 2921 2882
4 2844 2806 2769 2733 2697 2662 2627 2592 2558 2525
5 2491 2459 2427 2395 2364 2333 2303 2273 2243 2214
6 2185 2157 2129 2101 2074 2047 2021 1994 1969 1943
7 1918 1893 1869 1845 1821 1798 1775 1752 1730 1707
8 1686 1664 1643 1622 1601 1581 1560 1540 1521 1502
9 1482 1464 1445 1427 1409 1391 1373 1356 1338 1322
3.0 1305 1288 1272 1256 1240 1225 1209 1194 1179 1164
1 1149 1135 1121 1107 1093 1079 1066 1052 1039 1026
2 1013 1001 9882 9758 9637 9517 9398 9281 9166 9052
3 0.008939 8828 8718 8610 8503 8398 8294 8191 8090 7990
4 7891 7793 7697 7602 7508 7416 7324 7234 7145 7057
5 6970 6884 6800 6716 6634 6552 6472 6393 6314 6237
6 6160 6085 6011 5937 5864 5793 5722 5652 5583 5515
7 5448 5381 5316 5251 5187 5124 5062 5000 4939 487)
8 4820 4762 4704 4647 4591 4535 4480 4426 4372 4319
9 4267 4216 4165 4114 4065 4016 3967 3919 3872 3825
4.0 3779 3734 3689 3645 3601 3557 3515 3472 3431 3390
1 3349 3309 3269 3230 3191 3153 3115 3078 3041 3005
2 2969 2933 2898 2664 2829 2796 2762 2729 2697 2665
3 2633 2602 2571 2540 2510 2480 2450 2421 2393 2364
4 2336 2308 2281 2254 2227 2201 2175 2149 2123 2098
5 2073 2049 2025 2001 1977 1954 1931 1908 1885 1863
6 1841 1819 1798 1777 1756 1735 1715 1694 1674 1655
7 1635 1616 1597 1578 1560 1541 1523 1505 1488 1470
8 1453 1436 1419 1402 1386 1370 1354 1338 1322 1307
9 1291 1276 1261 1247 1232 1218 1204 1189 1176 1162
5.0 1148 1135 1122 1109 1096 1083 1070 1058 1045 1033
i'i(j-)
/; -'u-' du - Ei(-z)
-/: t-"u<du
In yz
1-112-2! 3- 3!
where In fz = 0.5772 + In z
Table 16. Exponential and Related Integrals. (Continued)
Wix = Ei(x)
I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 4.018 3.315 2.899 2.368

1 -
1.623 1.517 1.419 1.329
2.601
1.244 1. 164
2.175
1.089
2.011
1.017
1.867
.9491
1.739
.8841
2 -0.8218
3 -
.3027
7619
2582
7042
2147
6485
1721
5947
1304
5425
0894
4919
0493
4427
0098
3949
*0290
3482
0672
4 + .1048 1418 1783 2143 2498 2849 3195 3537 3876 4211
5 .4542 4870 5195 5517 5836 6153 6467 6778 7087 7394
6 .7699 8002 8302 8601 8898 9194 9488 9780 1.007 1.036
7 1.065 1.094 1.122 1.151 1.179 1.207 1.236 1.264 1.292 1.320
8 1.347 1.375 1.403 1.431 1.458 I486 1.513 1.541 1.568 1.595
9 1.623 1.650 1.677 1.705 1.732 1.759 1.786 1.814 1.841 1.868
1.0 1. 895 1.922 1.949 1.977 2.004 2.031 2.058 2.086 2.113 2.140
1 2. 167 2. 195 2.222 2.249 2.277 2.304 2.332 2.359 2.387 2.414
2 2.442 2.470 2.498 2.525 2.553 2.581 2.609 2.637 2.665 2.693
3 2.721 2.750 2.778 2.806 2.835 2.863 2.892 2.921 2.949 2.978
4 3.007 3.036 3.065 3.094 3.124 3.153 3.183 3.212 3.242 3.271
5 3.301 3.331 3.361 3.391 3.422 3.452 3.482 3.513 3.544 3.574
6 3.605 3.636 3.667 3.699 3.730 3.762 3.793 3.825 3.857 3.889
7 3.921 3.953 3.986 4.018 4.051 4.084 4.117 4.150 4.183 4.216
8 4.250 4.284 4.317 4.351 4.386 4.420 4.454 4.489 4.524 4.559
9 4.59' 4.629 4.664 4.700 4.736 4.772 4.808 4.844 4.881 4.917
2.0 4.954 4.991 5.028 5.066 5.104 5.141 5.179 5.217 5.256 5.294
1 5.333 5.372 5.411 5.451 5.490 5.530 5.570 5.611 5.651 5.692
2 5.733 5.774 5.815 5.857 5.899 5.941 5.9B3 6.025 6.068 6. Ill
3 6. 154 6. 198 6.242 6.286 6.330 6.374 6.419 6.464 6.509 6.555
4 6 601 6.647 6.693 6.740 6.787 6.834 6.881 6.929 6.977 7.025
5 7.074 7.123 7.172 7.221 7.271 7.321 7.372 7.422 7.473 7.524
t 7.576 7.628 7.680 7.733 7.786 7.839 7.893 7.947 8.001 8.055
7 8. 110 8. 166 8.221 8.277 8.334 8.390 8.447 8.505 8.563 8.621
8 8.679 8.738 7.798 8.857 8.917 8.978 9.039 9. 100 9.162 9.224
9 9 286 9.349 9.412 9.476 9.540 9.605 9.670 9.735 9.801 9.867
3 0 9.934 10.00 10.07 10.14 10.21 10.27 10.34 10.41 10.48 10.55
1 10.63 10.70 10.77 10.84 10.92 10.99 11.06 11.14 11.22 11.29
2 11.37 11.44 11.52 11.60 11.68 11.76 11.84 11.92 12.00 12.08
3 12. 16 12.24 12.33 12.41 12.49 12.58 12.66 12.75 12.84 12.92
4 13.01 13.10 13.19 13.28 13.37 13.46 13.55 13.64 13.74 13.83
5 13.93 14.02 14.12 14.21 14.31 14.41 14.51 14.60 14.70 14.80
6 14.91 15.01 15.11 15.21 15.32 15.42 15.53 15.64 15.74 15.85
7 15.96 16.07 16.18 16.29 16.40 16.52 16.63 16.75 16.86 16.98
8 17. 09 17.21 17.33 17.45 17.57 17.69 17.82 17.94 18.06 18.19
9 18.32 18.44 18.57 18.70 18.83 18.96 19.09 19.23 19.36 19.49
4.0 19.63 19.77 19.91 20.05 20.19 20.33 20.47 20.61 20.76 20.90
1 21.05 21.20 21.35 21.50 21.65 21.80 21.95 22.11 22.26 22.42
2 22.58 22.74 22.90 23.06 23.22 23.39 23.55 23.72 23.89 24.06
3 24.23 24.40 24.57 24.75 24.92 25.10 25.28 25.46 25.64 25.82
4 26.01 26.19 26.38 26.57 26.76 26.95 27.15 27.34 27.54 27.73
5 27 93 28.13 28.34 28.54 28.75 28.95 29.16 29.37 29.58 29.80

6 30.01 30.23 30.45 30.67 30.89 31.12 31.34 31.57 31.80 32.03
7 32 26 32.50 32.74 32.97 33.21 33.46 33.70 33.95 34.20 34.45
H 34.70 34 95 35.21 35.47 35.73 35.99 36.25 36.52 36.79 37.06
9 37.33 37.61 37.88 38. 16 38.45 38.73 39.02 39.31 39.60 39.89
5.0 40. 19 40.48 40.78 41.09 41.39 41.70 42.01 42.32 42.64 42.96
Ei x " In yx + +
x*
-= z>
+ -=
II 2- 2! 3-3!
where In yx - 0.5772 + In i
Table 16. Exponential and Related Integrals. (Continued)

Bix = -Ei(-x). 5 < x < 16
X 0 1 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5 10"' X 1148 1.021 9086 8086 7198 6409 5708 5085 4532 4039
6 10-' X 0.3601 3211 2864 2555 2279 2034 1816 1621 1448 1293
7 I0"< X 1.155 1.032 9219 8239 7364 6583 5886 5263 4707 4210
8 IO-< X 0.3767 3370 3015 2699 2415 2162 1936 1733 1552 1390
9 10-' X 1.245 1. 115 9988 8948 8018 7185 6439 5771 5173 4637
10 10-' X 0 4157 3727 3342 2997 2687 2410 2162 1939 1740 1561
II 10"' X 1.400 1.256 1. 127 1.012 0.9080 8149 7315 6566 5894 5291
12 10-' X 0. 4751 4266 3830 3440 3089 2774 2491 2238 2010 1805
13 10-' X 1.622 1. 457 1.309 1. 176 1.057 0.9495 8532 7667 6890 6193
14 10-' X 0 5566 5002 4500 4042 3633 3266 2936 2640 2373 2134
Six = EHx). 5 < x < 16
S 10' X 0.4019 4328 4662 5026 5419 5847 6310 6813 7360 7954
6 I0 X 0.8599 9300 1.006 1.089 1. 179 1.277 1.384 1. 501 1.627 1.765
7 10' X 0. 1915 2079 2257 2451 2663 2894 3146 3420 3720 4047
8 10' X 0.4404 4793 5218 5682 6189 6743 7347 8007 8729 9517
9 I0 X 0. 1038 1132 1235 1347 1471 1605 1752 1913 2089 2282
10 10* X 0. 2492 2723 2975 3251 3553 3884 4246 4642 5076 5551
11 I0< X 0.6071 6641 7265 7949 8698 9518 1.042 1. 140 1.248 1.366
12 I0 X 0. 1496 1638 1794 1964 2151 2357 2581 2828 3098 3395
13 I01 X 0.3720 4076 4467 4896 5367 5883 6449 7070 7751 8499
14 10' X 0.9319 1.022 1. 121 1.229 1.348 1.479 1.622 1.779 1.952 2. 142
- -
*.C> -
/ xEdx) = x[E(x) ,(*)]
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 i.ooo 0.9497 9131 8817 8535 8278 8040 7818 7610 7412
1 0.7225 7048 6878 6715 6560 6410 6267 6128 5995 5866
2 5742 5622 5505 5393 5283 5177 5074 4974 4877 4783
3 4691 4602 4515 4430 4348 4267 4189 4112 4038 3963
4 3894 3824 3756 3690 3626 3562 3500 3440 3381 3325
i 3266 3211 3157 3104 3052 3001 2951 2902 2855 2808
6 2762 2717 2673 2630 2587 2546 2505 2465 2426 2387
7 2349 2312 2276 2240 2205 2171 2137 2104 2072 2040
S 2009 1978 1948 1918 1889 I860 1832 1804 1777 1750
9 1724 1698 1673 1648 1623 1599 1576 1552 1530 1507
1.0 1485 1463 1442 1421 1400 1380 1360 1340 1321 1302
1 1283 1264 1246 1228 1211 1193 1176 1160 1143 1127
2 llll 1095 1080 1065 1050 1035 1020 1006 9920 9781
3 0.09645 9510 9378 9247 91 19 8993 8868 8746 8625 8506
4 8389 8274 8160 8048 7938 7829 7722 7617 7513 741 1
3 7310 7211 71 13 7017 6922 6828 6736 6645 6555 6467

6 6380 6295 6210 6127 6045 5964 5884 5806 5729 5652
7 5577 5503 5430 5358 5287 5217 5148 5080 5013 4947
8 4882 4817 4754 4691 4630 4569 4509 4450 4392 4335
9 4278 4222 4167 41 13 4059 4007 3955 3903 3852 3803
0 1.000 0.7225 5742 4691 3894 3266 2762 2349 2009 1724
1 10-' X 1.485 1.283 1.Ill 0.9645 8389 7310 6380 5577 4882 4278
2 10' X 0.3753 3297 2898 2550 2246 1980 1746 1541 1362 1203
3 10"' X 1.064 0.9417 8337 7384 6544 5802 5146 4567 4054 3600
4 10' X 0.3198 2842 2527 2247 1999 1779 1583 1410 1255 1118
S 10"' X 0. 9965 8881 7917 7060 6296 5617 5012 4473 3992 3564
6 10 ' X 0.3183 2842 2539 2268 2027 1812 1619 1448 1294 1157
7 IO-< X 1.035 0.9259 8283 7411 6632 5935 5313 4756 4258 3812
8 10 < X 0.3414 3057 2738 2453 2198 1969 1764 1581 1417 1270
9 10-' X 1.138 1.021 0.9149 8203 7356 6597 5916 5306 4760 4270
Table 16. Legendre Polynomials

Pid) P*(.z) P'M X P.(x) P>M
-0. - 0.4375 - 0. 2891

-
0 001-0. sooo 0 0000 0. 3750 0.0000 -0.3125
0 -
4998 -0150 3746 -3118
0 50 1250
- 4334 -3044 + 0.0898 + 0.3232
0673 3166
0 -4994 - 0187 51 1098
-3191
-0944
--4285
0300 -3099 0441 3080
0 -4986 -0449
3735 0374 52
- 3332
M
|
-
4976 0598 - 3716
3690
0560
0744
-3066
-3021
53
54
-0786
-0626
4228
-4163 -3465
+ 0204
-0037
2975
2851
05 -4962
Oft - 4946 -0747
-0895
3657 0927
--2962 55 , -0462
- 0296
-4091 -3590
- 3707
-0282 2708
07 -4926 - 1041
3616 1106
- 2891 56 -4010
- 3920 --0529 2546
OS -4904 -1187
3567 1283 2808 57 -0126
- 3822
-3815
- 1028
0779 2366
0'! - 4878 - 1332 3512

3449
1455
1624
-2713
-2606
58
59
+ 0046
0222 -3716
-3914
-4002 - 1278 2168
1953
- 1475 -
- - 1526
10 -4850 3379 1788 -2488 60 0400 -3600 -4080 1721
II -4818 1617 3303 -2360 -3475 -4146 1772 1473
1947
- 2220
61 0582
- 3342
-
12 -4784 -1757
3219 '2101
- 2071 62 0766
- 4242 -2014
-4200 1211
-
13 -4746 -2251
- -3199
1895 0935
14 -4706 2031
31.29
3032
2248
2389 1913
63
64
0954
1144 - 3046 - 4270 - 2482 0646
IS -4662
--2I6 - -4284 -2705
- 1746 -2884 0347
-4616
2928 2523 65 1338
- 4284
- 4566 - %298
16 -2713 -2919 + 0038
17
2819 2650
- 1572 66 1534
- 2531 - 4268 -3122 -0278
-4514 - 2554 - 1389 - 2339
2427 2703 2769 67 1734
-0601
- 3490
18 -4236 -3313
19
-445(6 - 2679
2581
2453
2880
2982 - 1201
1006
68
69
1936
2142 -2137 -4187 -0926
20 - 2800 - 1925 -4121 -3652 - 1253

21
-jMOO
- 2918
2320 3075 -0806 70 2350
- 1702 -4036 -3796
- 1899
-1578
-0601
22 /4338
.- - 3034
2181 3159 71 2562
- 1469 - 3933 -3922
4274 2037 3234 -0394 72 2776
- 1225 -3810
//--4136 - 3254
2! -0183 -4026 -2214
4206 -3146 1889 3299 73 2994
24 3353 0029 74 3214 -0969 -3666 -4107 -2518
1735
-4062 - -0703 -3501 -4164 -2808

11/
3359 1577 3397 0243 75 3438

-3986 - 3461
- 1415 3431 0456 76 3664 -0426 -3314 -4193
- 3333
-3081
i
-3906 3558 1249 3453 0669 77 3894 -0137 -3104 -4193

-3824 -3651 0879 78 4126 + 0164 -2871 -4162 -3559
28
29 - 3738 - 3740 1079
0906
3465
3465 1087 79 4362 0476 -2613 -4097 -3756
- 3650 - 3825 - -3995 -3918

30
- 3558 - 3905
0729 3454 1292 80 4600 0800
- 2330 -3855 -4041
-3464 - 3981 - 1685
31 0550 3431 1492 81 4842 1136 2021
32
33 - 3366 - 4052
0369
0185
3397
3351
1686
1873
82
83
5086
5334
1484
1845 - 1321
-3674
- 3449
-4119
-4147
34 - 3266 -4117 -0000 3294 2053 84 5584 2218 -0928 -3177 -4120
-3162 - 4178 -0187 -0506 2857 -

-4030
35
- 4234
3225 2225 85 5838 2603
- 0053 - 2484 -3872
36 -3056
- 2946 -4284 - 0564 -0375 3144 2388 86 6094 3001
- 2056 - 3638
37
- 2834 - 4328 - 0753
3051 2540 87 6354 3413 + 0431
-
38
39 -2718 - 4367 -0942
2948
2833
2681
2810
88
89
6616
6882
3837
4274
0947
1496 - 1570
1023
-3322
-2916
- 2600 -4400 - 130 -041

- 1802
-2412
-2478 - 4427 - 1317
40 2706 2926 90 7150 4725 2079
1
1
41
- 2354 - 4448 - 1504
2569 3029 91 7422 5189 2698 026B
- 1077
+
42
- 2226 -4462 - 1688 2421 31 18 92
93
7696
7974
5667
6159
3352
4044
1017
1842 - 0229
- 2096 - 4470 - 1870
43 2263 3191
94 8254 6665 4773 2744 0751
+
44 2095 3249
- - 4472 - 2050 3727 1875

- 1962
1826 - 4467 - 2226
45 1917 3290 95 8538 7184 5541
8824 7718 6349 4796 3151
- 1686 - 4454 - 2399
46 1730 3314 96
3321 9114 8267 7198 5954 4590
-1544 -4435 - 2568
47 1534 97
-
48 1330 3310 98 9406 8830 8089 7204 6204
49 1398 -4409 - 2732 1118 3280 99 9702 9407 9022 8552 8003
1.00 . 0000 . 0000 . 0000 0000 . 0000

1
1
1
1
1
Pi(x) x for all values of z

Table 17. Probability Function or Error Integral : erf x
I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
|
0 00 0 0000 0011 0023 0034 0045 0056 0068 0079 0090 0102
1 0113 0124 0135 0147 0158 0169 0181 0192 0203 0214
2 0226 0237 0248 0260 0271 0282 0293 0305 0316 0327
J 0338 0350 0361 0372 0384 0395 0406 0417 0429 0440
4 0451 0462 0474 0485 0496 0507 0519 0530 0541 0553
i 0564 0575 0586 0598 0609 0620 0631 0643 0654 0665
t 0676 0688 0699 0710 0721 0732 0744 0755 0766 0777
7 0789 0800 0811 0822 0834 0845 0856 0867 0878 0890
t 0901 0912 0923 0934 0946 0957 0968 0979 0990 1002
9 1013 1024 1035 1046 1058 1069 1080 1091 1102 1113
10 1125 1136 1147 1158 1169 1180 1192 1203 1214 1225
1 1236 1247 1259 1270 1281 1292 1303 1314 1325 1336
2 1348 1359 1370 1381 1392 1403 14(4 1425 1436 1448
3 1459 1470 1481 1492 1503 1514 1525 1536 1547 1558
4 1569 1581 1592 1603 1614 1625 1636 1647 1658 1669
j 1680 1691 1702 1713 1724 1735 1746 175? 1768 1779
6
7
1790
1900
1801 1812
1922
1823 1834 1845 1856 1867 \ 1878 1889
1911 1933 1944 1955 1966 1977 1988 1998
8 2009 2020 2031 2042 2053 2064 2075 2086 2097 2108
9 2118 2129 2140 2151 2162 2173 2184 2194 2V05 2216
20 2227 2238 2249 2260 2270 2281 2292 2303 2314 2324
\
1 2335 2346 2357 2368 2378 2389 2400 2411 2421 2432
2 2443 2454 2464 2475 2486 2497 2507 2518 2529 2540
} 2550 2561 2572 2582 2593 2604 2614 2625 2636 i 2646
4 2657 2668 2678 2689 2700 2710 2721 2731 2742 \2753
s 2763 2774 2784 2795 2806 2816 2827 2837 2848 M58
6 2869 2880 2890 2901 2911 2922 2932 2943 2953 29164
7 2974 2985 2995 3006 3016 3027 3037 3047 3058 30(68
3079 3089 3100 3110 3120 3131 3141 3152 3162 3172
9 3183 3193 3204 3214 3224 3235 3245 3255 3266 3276
10 3286 3297 3307 3317 3327 3338 3348 3358 3369 3379
1 3389 3399 3410 3420 3430 3440 3450 3461 3471 3481
2 3491 3501 3512 3522 3532 3542 3552 3562 3573 3583
3 3593 3603 3613 3623 3633 3643 3653 3663 3674 3684
4 3694 3704 3714 3724 3734 3744 3754 3764 3774 3784
5 3794 3804 3814 3824 3834 3844 3854 3864 3873 3883
6 3893 3903 3913 3923 3933 3943 3953 3963 3972 3982
7 3992 4002 4012 4022 4031 4041 4051 4061 4071 4080
8 4090 4100 4110 4119 4129 4139 4149 4158 4168 4178
9 4187 4197 4207 4216 4226 4236 4245 4255 4265 4274
40 4284 4294 4303 4313 4322 4332 4341 4351 4361 4370
4380 4389 4399 4408 4418 4427 4437 4446 4456 4465
2 4475 4484 4494 4503 4512 4522 4531 4541 4550 4359
3 4569 4578 4588 4597 4606 4616 4625 4634 4644 4653
4 4662 4672 4681 4690 4699 4709 4718 4727 4736 4746
s 4755 4764 4773 4782 4792 4801 4810 4819 4828 4837
6 4847 4856 4865 4874 4883 4892 4901 4910 4919 4928
7 4937 4946 4956 4965 4974 4983 4992 5001 5010 5019
8 5027 5036 5045 5054 5063 5072 5081 5090 5099 5106
9 5117 5126 5134 5143 5152 5161 5170 5179 5187 5196
50 5205 5214 5223 5231 5240 5249 5258 5266 5275 5284
erf i- 11(7) - [x,-"dl

Table 17. Probability Function or Error Integral : erf x. (Continued)
I 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 50 0.5205 5214 5223 5231 5240 5249 5258 5266 5275 5284
1 5292 5301 5310 5318 5327 5336 5344 5353 5362 5370
5379 5388 5396 5405 5413 5422 5430 5439 5448 5456
5465 5473 5482 5490 5499 5507 5516 5524 5533 5541
5549 5558 5566 5575 5583 5591 5600 5608 5617 5625
5633 5642 5650 5658 5667 5675 5683 5691 5700 5708
5716 5724 5733 5741 5749 5757 5765 5774 5782 5790
5798 5806 5814 5823 5831 5839 5847 5855 5863 5871
5879 5887 5895 5903 5911 5919 5927 5935 5943 5951
5959 5967 5975 5983 5991 5999 6007 6015 6023 6031
60 6039 6046 6054 6062 6070 6078 6086 6093 6101 6109
6117 6125 6132 6140 6148 6156 6163 6171 6179 6186
6194 6202 6209 6217 6225 6232 6240 6248 6255 6263
6270 6278 6286 6293 6301 6308 6316 6323 6331 6338
6346 6353 6361 6368 6376 6383 6391 6398 6405 6413
6420 6428 6435 6442 6450 6457 6464 6472 6479 6486
6494 6501 6508 6516 r 6523 6530 6537 6545 6552 6559
6566 6573 6581 6588 6595 6602 6609 6616 6624 6631
6638 6645 6652 6659 6666 6673 6680 6687 6694 6701
6708 6715 6722 6729 6736 6743 6750 6757 6764 6771
70 6778 6785 6792 6799 6806 6812 6819 6826 6833 6840
6847 6853 6860 6867 6874 6881 6887 6894 6901 6908
6914 6921 6928 6934 6941 6948 6954 6961 6968 6974
6981 6988 6994 7001 7007 7014 7021 7027 7034 7040
'
7047 7053 7060 7066 7073 7079 7086 7092 7099 7105
7112 7118 7124 7131 7137 7144 7150 7156 7163 7169
7175 7182 7188 7194 7201 7207 7213 7219 7226 7232
7238 7244 7251 7257 7263 7269 7275 7282 7288 7294
7300 7306 7312 7318 7325 7331 7337 7343 7349 7355
7361 7367 7373 7379 7385 7391 7397 7403 7409 7415
80 7421 7427 7433 7439 7445 7451 7457 7462 7468 7474
7480 7486 7492 7498 7503 7509 7515 7521 7527 7532
7538 7544 7550 7555 7561 7567 7572 7578 7584 7590
7595 7601 7607 7612 7618 7623 7629 7635 7640 7646
7651 7657 7663 7668 7674 7679 7685 7690 7696 7701
7707 7712 7718 7723 7729 7734 7739 7745 7750 7756
7761 7766 7772 7777 7782 7788 7793 7798 7804 7809
7814 7820 7825 7830 7835 7841 7846 7851 7856 7862
7867 7872 7877 7882 7888 7893 7898 7903 7908 7913
79)8 7924 7929 7934 7939 7944 7949 7954 7959 7964
90 7969 7974 7979 7984 7989 7994 7999 8004 8009 8014
8019 8024 8029 8034 8038 8043 8048 8053 8058 8063
8068 8073 8077 8082 8087 8092 8097 8101 8106 8111
8116 8120 8125 8130 8135 8139 8144 8149 8153 8158
8163 8167 8172 8177 8181 8186 8191 8195 8200 8204
8209 8213 8218 8223 8227 8232 8236 8241 8245 8250
8254 8259 8263 8268 8272 8277 8281 8285 8290 8294
8299 8303 8307 8312 8316 8321 8325 8329 8334 8338
8342 8347 8351 8355 8360 8364 8368 8372 8377 8381
8385 8389 8394 8398 8402 8406 8410 8415 8419 8423
1.00 8427 8431 8435 8439 8444 8448 8452 8456 8460 8464
fi For larger values

-*(-
of x see next page.
Table 17. Probability Function or Error Integral : erf x. (Continued)
% 0 1 2 3 4 J i 7 8 9
1.0 0.8427 8468 8508 8548 8586 8624 8661 8698 8733 8768
1 8802 8835 8868 8900 8931 8961 8991 9020 9048 9076
2 9103 9130 9155 9181 9205 9229 9252 9275 9297 9319
} 9340 9361 9381 9400 9419 9438 9456 9473 9490 9507
4 9523 9539 9554 9569 9583 9597 9611 9624 9637 9649
s 9661 9673 9684 9695 9706 9716 9726 9736 9745 9755
6 9763 9772 9780 9788 9796 9804 981 1 9818 9825 9832
7 9838 9844 9850 9856 9861 9867 9872 9877 9882 9886
8 9891 9895 9899 9903 9907 991 1 9915 9918 9922 9925
9 9928 9931 9934 9937 9939 9942 9944 9947 9949 9951
2.0 0.99 532 552 572 591 609 626 642 658 673 688
1 0.99 702 715 728 741 753 764 775 785 795 805
2 0.99 814 822 831 839 8.46 854 861 867 874 880
3 886 891 897 902 906 91 1 916 920 924 928
4 0.999 Jl 35 38 41 44 47 50 52 55 57
} 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 72 74 75
6 76 78 79 80 8T 82 83 84 85 86
7 87 87 88 89 89 90 91 91 92 92
8 0.9999 25 29 33 37 41 44 48 51 54 56
9 59 61 64 66 68 70 72 73 75 77
For larger values of x,

,
erf i Ii
' /,
I I
I . 1-3 1-3-5 , n
+ 1
x\^\ (2*")* C2) )
Table 18. Coefficients of the Binomial Expansion

Coefficient of rth term of (I + *): "CV =
(n - r)!r!
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
, , , Exampl e; (1 + *)' - 1 + 6r + 15*' + 20j:' + 15j- + 6i + *

2 1 2 1 Exampi C. - 84
3 I 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
8 1 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
|36
9 1 9 84 126 126 84 36
9
10 10 45 20 210 252 210 120 45 10

1
1
1
Each number in the table the sum of the number above and the number to the left of that number
is
it
(see box: 36 84 = 120). The table can be extended indefinitely in this way.
+
Table 19. Factorials and Their Reciprocals
10
4
2
9
1
t
xl 24 120 720 5.040 40.320 362.880 3.628.800

2
1
6
1
666667 4. 166667 8.333333 1.388889 1.984127 2.480159 2.755732 2.755732

1
0.
5
1
x< X 10-' X io-> X 10-' 10-' X 10-' X 10' I0 X 10-'

X
X
2 bibliography of english-language tables

Tables of most functions are available in considerable multiformity of range,
interval, and number of figures. The following references are restricted to tables of
not more than ten-figure accuracy, except where a table of higher accuracy offers some
compensating advantage for the cumbcrsomeness associated with extra figures
unwanted for most engineering work. Many isolated standard tables are contained
in the literature of scientific societies, especially prior to 1930, but these are cited only
where no equivalent table can be found in newer collections of tables. There are
many good collections of four- to six-figure tables of elementary functions, including
those in standard handbooks.
For functions other than those listed and for tables of higher accuracy, see references
under Bibliographies.
2.1 Bibliographies
Fletcher, A., J. C. P. Miller, and L. Rosenhead: "An Index of Mathematical Tables,"

Scientific Computing Service Limited, London, and McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1946. A complete guide to the contents of all important tables.
Over 2,000 references.
M athematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, National Academy of Science, National
Research Council, Washington, D.C. (British Agents: Scientific Computing Service,
London). A journal issued quarterly since 1943 (Report 1 published 1941), including
information on new tallies, errors in tables, and specialized bibliographies (e.g., No. 7,
II. Bateman and R. C. Archibald, A Guide to Tables of Bessel Functions, July, 1944).
Bibliographies of Particular Functions. Most major tables of particular functions give
pertinent bibliographies.
2.2 Four- and Five-figure Tables
Dale. J. B.: "Five-figure Tables of Mathematical Functions," 2d ed., Edward Arnold &
Co., London, 1949. In x, circular, exponential, hyperbolic, Bessel, Legendre poly
nomials, r, error, and other higher functions and elementary functions.
Dwight, H. B.: "Mathematical Tables of Elementary and Some Higher Mathematical
Functions," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941. In x, circular,
exponential, hyperbolic, Legendre polynomials; I\ error, other higher functions; and
elementary functions.
Flfigge, W. : "Four-place Tables of Transcendental Functions," McGraw-Hill Book Com
pany, Inc., New York, and Pergamon Press, Ltd., London, 1954. Circular, expo
nential, hyperbolic, Bessel, I\ error, and other higher functions.
Jahnke, E., and F. Emde: "Tables of Functions with Formulae and Curves," Dover
Publications, New York, 1945. In x, exponential, Bessel, Legendre polynomials, T,

error, sin x/x, tan x/x, and many other higher functions.
2.3 Tables of Six or More Figures
Allen, Edward S. : "Six Place Tables," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1947. In x, circular functions, and exponential, hyperbolic, and other elementary
functions.
Barlow, P.: "Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots and Reciprocals of all
Integer Numbers up to 12,500," E. and F. N. Spon, Ltd., London, and Chemical
Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1941. Fourth edition edited by L. J. Comrie.
(First edition 1814.) Contains also reciprocals of square roots, etc.
Becker, G. F., and C. E. Van Orstrand: "Smithsonian Mathematical Tables: Hyperbolic
Functions," Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C, 1909, and reprints. *, e~',
gd x.
"British Association for the Advancement of Science Mathematical Tables." The vol
umes of this series are published by the Cambridge University Press for the Royal
Society. (The first editions of the first five volumes were published 1931 to 1935 in
London by the British Association.) Many other tables have been published in
British Association Reports since 1873.
The Association has also issued interim Part Volumes and Auxiliary Tables, the
latter formerly called Cards. The Committee is now reconstituted as the Royal
Society Mathematical Tables Committee, and vol. 10 is the last of the original scries.
Part Vol. A, "Legendre Polynomials," prepared by L. J. Comrie, 1946.
Vol. 1, "Circular and Hyperbolic Functions, Exponential and Sine and Cosine
Integrals, Factorial Function and Allied Functions, Hermitian Probability
Functions," 3d ed., 1951.
Vol. 6, "Bessel Functions, Pt. 1. Functions of Orders of Zero and Unity," 1937.
Particularly convenient for reactor calculations.
Vol. 10, "Bessel Functions, Pt. 2. Functions of Positive Integral Order," 1952.
Cambi, E.: "Eleven- and Fifteen-place Tables of Bessel Functions of the First Kind, to All
Significant Orders," Dover Publications, New York, 1948.
"Chambers's Mathematical Tables." First edition by Andrew Bell published as seven-
figure tables in 1844. Subsequent editions by James Pryde. Current edition, six-
figure tables by L. J. Comrie, which see.
Comrie, L. J.: "Chambers's Six Figure Mathematical Tables," W. and R. Chambers, Ltd.,
Edinburgh, and D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1949.
Vol. 1, "Logarithmic Values." log x, antilogarithms, logarithms of functions.
Vol. 2, " Natural Values." In x, circular, exponential, hyperbolic, T, error, ele
mentary functions.
Comrie, L.J.:" Chambers's Shorter Six-figure Mathematical Tables," W. and R. Chambers^
Ltd., Edinburgh, and Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1954. In x.
circular, exponential, hyperbolic, and other elementary functions.
Davis, H. T.: "Tables of the Higher Mathematical Functions," vol. 1, Principia Press,
Bloomington, Ind., 1933.
Harvard University: "Annals of the Computational Laboratory," Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, Mass. A series of tables (some highly specialized) started in 1945
and successively under sponsorship of the Bureau of Ships, the Bureau of Ordnance,
and joint sponsorship of the United States Air Force and the United States Atomic
Energy Commission.
Vol. 3, "Tables of the Bessel Functions of the First Kind of Orders Zero and
One," 1947.
Vols. 4-14, "Tables of Bessel Functions of the First Kind for Orders 2 to 135,"
1947-1951.
Vol. 20, "Tables of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions," 1949.
Vol. 22, "Tables of the Function -
sin <b
and of Its First Eleven Derivatives," 1949.
"
Vol. 23, Tables of the Error Function and of Its First Twenty Derivatives," 1952.
Milne-Thomson, L. M.: "Standard Table of Square Roots," George Bell & Sons, Ltd.,
London, 1929.
National Bureau of Standards (U.S. Department of Commerce): A major series of tables
all under sponsorship of NBS, initiated in 1938. Volumes published from 1939 to
March, 1943, were prepared under the U.S. Works Progress Administration (WPA)
by the Work Projects Administration for the City of New York, and published by the
Bureau of Standards. Since March, 1943, the work has been continued by the
Mathematical Tables Project of NBS, which became the Computation Laboratory on
July 1, 1947. Volumes are published by Columbia University Press or by the Bureau
of Standards.
In consequence of this history, there is some inconsistency in early catalogues and
references to tables of this aeries. The early volumes were issued without numbers,
but all volumes are now listed* numerically by NBS in three series:
Mathematical Tables Series (MT)
Applied Mathematics Series (AMS)
Columbia University Series (CUP)
The plan is to issue future tables, including all reissues, in the AMS series. Volumes
of the MT and AMS series arc available from the Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Volumes of the CUP series arc
available from Columbia University Press, Morningsidc Heights, New York.
The following selected references are listed in the order of publication of first
editions.
* List of Publications LP 17 (Revised), "Publications of the Applied Mathematics Division," U.S.
Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. July. 1957.
AMS 14. "Tables of the Exponential Function *," 1951. Reissue of MT 2,
1939; 2d ed. 1947. For an extension of this table see AMS 46, 1955.
AMS 36. "Tables of Circular and Hyperbolic Sines and Cosines for Radian
Arguments," 1953. Reissue of MT 3, 1939; 2d ed. 1949. For an extension of
this table see AMS 45, 1955.
AMS 43. "Tables of Sines and Cosines for Radian Arguments," 1955. Reissue
of MT 4, 1940.
MT 5. "Tables of Sine, Cosine, and Exponential Integrals," vol. 1, 1940.
MT 6. "Tables of Sine, Cosine, and Exponential Integrals," vol. 2, 1940.
MT 7. "Tables of Natural Logarithms," vol. 1 [In x = 1(1)49,999], 1941.
MT 9. "Table of Natural Logarithms," vol. 2 [In x -
50,000(1)99,999), 1941.
AMS 31. "Table of Natural Logarithms for Arguments between Zero and Five
to Sixteen Decimal Places," 1953. Reissue of MT 10, 1941.
AMS 53. "Table of Natural Logarithms for Arguments between Five and Ten
to Sixteen Decimal Places," 1958. Reissue of MT 12, 1941.
AMS 41. "Tables of the Error Function and Its Derivative," 1954. Reissue of
MT 8, "Tables of Probability Functions," vol. 1, 1941.
AMS 26. "Tables of Arc tan x," 1953. Reissue of MT 16.
CUP 3. "Tables of Circular and Hyperbolic Tangents and Cotangents for
Radian Arguments," 1943, second printing, 1947.
CUP 5. "Table of Arc sin x," 1945.
AMS 25. "Tables of Bessel Functions Fo(x), Yi(x), A'o(x), Ki{x), 0 S 1," I
1952. Reissue of AMS 1.
AMS 45. " Table of Hyperbolic Sines and Cosines, x = 2 to x 10," 1955. An
extension of AMS 36.
AMS 46. "Tables of the Descending Exponential, x 2.6 to x 10," 1955.
An extension of AMS 14.
National Research Council of Canada, Division of Atomic Energy: "The Functions

"
e-'uu-"du," MT-1, No.
E(x) =
/ 1547, 1946.
Royal Society Mathematical Tables Committee (see British Association).

Thompson, A. J.: "Logarithmetica Britannica being a Standard Table of Logarithms to
Twenty Decimal Places," published as "Tracts for Computers," Nos. 11, 14, 16-22,
Cambridge University Press, London, 19241952. Also collected as Vols. 1 and 2,
1952. "Issued by the Department of Statistics, University College, London, to
commemorate the tercentenary of the 14 figure Arithmetica Logarithmica published
by Henry Briggs in 1624."
Thompson, A. J.: "Table of the Coefficients of Everett's Central-Difference Interpolation
Formula," 2d ed., Tracts for Computers No. 5., Cambridge University Press, London,
1943.
2.4 Cross Reference by Functions

In the first column, dec. means decimal places and fig. means significant figures.
In the second column, the notation 0(0.001)1(0.01)10 means that in the range 0 to 1
of the argument, the function is given at intervals of the argument of 0.001 and in the
range 1 to 10 at intervals of 0.01.
The intention is to describe the general character of a table rather than to define
it precisely. For example, the number of decimal places or significant figures may
be changed within a table to meet special conditions over a limited range of the argu
ment. Also, a table described as in the above illustration may actually consist of
two tables, 0(0.001)1 and 0(0.01)10, with an overlap in the range 0 to 1. No attempt
has been made to reflect such detail.
Particulars of the references given in the third column will be found in the preceding
alphabetical bibliography under Tables of Six or More Figures. The following
abbreviations are used:
BA = British Association
XBS = National Bureau of Standards
NRC = National Research Council of Canada
"Chambers" refers to the single-volume work and Chambers 1 and Chambers 2 to

the two-volume work, all by Comrie.
Accuracy Range and Interval Reference
Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Reciprocals
1 Exact 1(1)1.000 Allen

1(1)1.000 Chambers
S-uare..
C"H Exacl 1(1)3.400 Chambers 2
I Exact 1(1)12.500 Barlow
19 dec. 1(1)1.000 Allen
6 fig. 1(1)1.000 Chambers
Reciprocals <
6 fig. 1(1)1.000 Chambers 2
17 fig. 1(1)12.500 Barlow
6 fig. 1(1)1.000 Allen
6 dec. 1(1)1.000(10)10.000 Chambers
Square roots 6 dee. 1(1)1.000(10)10.000 Chambers 2
6 dec. 100(0.1)1.000(1)10.000 Milne- Thomson
,6 dec. 1(1)12.500(10)125.000 Barlow
Factorials
6 fig. 1(1)100
7 fig. 1(1) 1.000
7 fig. 1(1)1.000 Chambers 2
8 fig. 1(1) 100 Barlow
log x (reduced to range 1-10)

6 dec. 1(0.001) 10 Allen

6 dec. 1(0.001)10 Chambers
6 dec. 1(0.0001)10 Chambers I
8 dec 1(0.00001)1.1(0.01)10 Chambers I
20 dec. 1(0.0001)10 Thompson
In t
6 dec. 0.01(0.001)10 Allen

6 dec. 1(0.001)10 Chambers
6 dee. 1(0.001)10 Chambers2
16 dec. 1(1)100.000 NBS-MT 7 and 9
16 dec. 0.0001(0.0001) 10 NBS-AMS 31 and 53
sin x and cos x (rn<lian argument)
6 dee. 0(0.001)1.6(0.1)10(1)54 Chambers

6 dec. 0(0.001) l.6{0. 1)50(1) 100( 100) 5.000( 1.000) 10.000 Chambers 2
8 dec. 0(0.001)25(1)100 NBS-AMS 43
9 dec. 0(0.0001)2(0.1)10 NBS-AMS 36
10 dec. 0(0.1)10(1)100 Becker and Van
Orstrand
11 dec. 0(0.001)1.6 BA 1
15 dec. 0(0.1)50 BA 1
tan x and cot x (radian argument)
6 dec. or 6 rig. 0(0.001) 1.6 Chambers

6 dec. or 6 fig. 0(0.001)1.6 Chambers 2
also cot i
0(0.0001)0.1 Chambers 2
8 dec. or 8 fig. 0(0.0001)2 NBS-CUP 3
10 dec. 0(0.1)10 NBS-CUP 3
Range and Interval Reference
6 dec. 0(0.001)1(0.002)2(0.005)3(0.01)6 Allen

6 dec. or 7 fig. 0(0.001)3(0.01)10(0.1)50 Chambers
6 dec. or 7 fin. 0(0.001)6(0.01)16(0.1)50(1)100 Chambers 2
6 dec. or 8-9 fig. 0(0.001)3(0.01)15(1)50 Becker and Van
Orstrand
9 fig. 0(0.01)0.5(0.5)20 BA 6
18 dec. 0(0.000001)0.0001(0.0001)1 NBS-AM8 14
15 dec. 1(0.0001)2.5(0.001)5 NBS-AMS 14
12 dec. or 19 fig. 5(0.01)10(1)100 NBS-AMS 14
6 dec. 0(0.001)1(0.002)2(0.005)3(0.01)6 Allen

6 dec. 0(0.001)3(0.01)7.5(0.1) l2.5(various) Chambers
6 dec. 0(0.001)3(0.01)7.5(0.1) l2.5(various) Chambers 2
7 dec. 0(0.001)3(0.01)15 Becker and Van
Orstrand
9 fig. 0(1)50 Becker and Van
Orstrand
8-9 fin. 0(0.01)0.5(0.5)20 BA 6
18 dec. 0(0.00000 1)0.000 1(0.000 1) 2.5 NBS-AMS 14
19 dec. 1(1)100 NBS-AMS 14
20 dec. 2.5(0.001)10 NBS-AMS 46
sinh x and cosh x
6 dec. 0(0.001)1(0.002)2(0.005)3(0.01)6 Allen

6 dec. or 7 fig. 0(0.001)3(0.01)5 Chambers
6 dec. or 7 fig. 0(0.001)6 Chambers 2
9 dec. 0(0.0001)2(0.1)10 NBS-AMS 36
9 fig. 2(0.001)10 NBS-AMS 45
tanh x
6 dec. 0(0.001)1(0.002)2(0.005)3(0.01)6 Allen

6 dec. 0(0.00 1)3(0.0 l)6(various) oo Chambers
6 dec. 0(0.00 1)3(0.0 l)6(various)< Chambers 2
NBS-CUP
8 fig. 0(0.0001)2 3
10 dec. 0(0.1)10 NBS-CUP 3
coth z
6 dec. or 6 fig. 0(0.00 1) 3(0.0 1) 6(various) Chambers

6 dec. or 6 fig. 0(0.000 1)0. 1(0.00 1)3(0.0 1)6(variuus) Chambers 2
8 dec. or 8 fig. 0(0.0001)2 NBS-CU1> 3
10 dec. 0(0.1)10 NBS-CUP 3
I averse circular and hyperbolic functions
sin-1 x
6 dec. 0(0.01)0.9(0.001)1 Chambers
6 dee. 0(0.001)0.99(0.0001)0.999(0.00001)1 Chambers 2
12 dec. 0(0.0001)0.989(0.00001)1 NBS-CUP 5
6 dec. 0(0.01)0.9(0.001)1 Chambers

6 dec. 0(0.001)1 Chambers 2
6 dec. 0(0.01)3(0.1)13(1)100 Chambers

6 dec. 0(0.001)2(0.01)10(0.1)35(1)80 Chambers 2
12 dec. 0(0.001)7(0.01)50(0.1)300(1)2.000(10)10.000 NBS-AMS 26
cot ' X
6 dec. 0(0.01)3(0.1)13(1)100 Chambers
6 dec.
* 0(0.001)2(0.01)10(0.1)35(1)80 Chambers 2
6 dec. 0(0.01)3(0.1)13(1)100 Chambers

6 dec. 0(0.001)2(0.01)10(0.1)35(1)80 Chambers 2
cosh-1 x
6 dec. 1(0.001)1.1(0.01)3(0.1)13(1)100 Chambers
6 dec. 1(0.0000 1) 1.00 1(0.000 1) 1.0 1(0.00 1)2(0.01) Chambers 2
10(0.1)35(1)80
tanh-1 x
6 dec. 0(0.01)0.9(0.001)1 Chambers
6 dec. 0(0.001)0.99(0.0001)1 Chambers 2
coth-1 x
6 dec. 1(0.001)1.1(0.01)3(0.1)13(1)100 Chambers
6 dec. 1(0.0001)1.01(0.001)2(0.01)10(0.1)35(1)80 Chambers 2
Besael functions of ttie first kind Jo(x) and Ji(x)
10 dec. 0(0.001)16(0.01)25 HA 6
10 dec. 0(0.01)10 NBS-CUP 2
11 dec. 0(0.001)0.5(0.01)10.5 Cambi
18 dec. 0(0.001)25(0.01)100 Harvard
Bessel functions of the second kind* Vo(-r) and Yt(x)
8 fig. 0(0.01)25 BA 6
8 fig. 0(0.0001)0.05(0.001)1 NBS-AMS 25

10 dec. 0(0.01)10 NBS-CUP 12
Modified bessel functions of the first kind Ioix) and /i(x)
9 Kg. 0(0.001)5 BA 6
10 dec. 0(0.01)10 NBS-CUP 2
e-'Io(z) and e~'h(x)
8 dec. 5(0.01)10(0.020 BA 6
* Weber's functions Yuix) and Vi(x) are also called Nt>(x) and Ni(x) after Neumann.
Modified bessel (unctions of the second kind Ko(i) and Ki(jc)
7 fig. 0(0.0001)0.033(0.001)1 NBS-AMS 25

8-9 fig. 0(0.01)5 BA 6
e'Kt(z) and e'Ki(z)
8 dec. 5(0.01)10(0.1)20 BA 6
Gamma and factorial functions
T(j), 6 dec. 1(0.001)2 Chambers 2

I 10 dec. 1(0.0001)1.1(0.001)2 Davis 1
log T(l), 10 dec. 1(0.0001)1.1(0.001)2 Davis 1
log T(x). 12 dec. 1(0.001)2(0.001)11(0.1)101 Davis 1
*!, 12 dec. 0(0.01)1 BA 1
Exponential and related integrals

Alternative nomenclature: Ei(z) Ei( x) Hi i m Kid)
B<Ax) 7 dec., 5 fig. 0(0.01)2(0.1)10 NRC

-EH-x) - = Bid) 9 fig. 0(0.0001)2(0.1) 10 NBS-MT 5
-EH-x) E,d) 9-7 fig. 0(0.001)10(0.1)15 NBS-MT 6 (in part
from BA 1)
B,(x) = -EH-x) 7dee., 5 fig. 0(0.01)2(0.1)10 NRC

BHx) - 2?<x 9 fig. 0(0.0001)2(0.1)10 NBS-MT 5
BHx) - ft i 10-11 fig. 0(0.001)10(0.1)15 NBS-MT 6 (in part
from BA 1)
E,(x) 7 dec, 5 fig. 0(0.01)2(0.1)10 NRC
Lcgendro polynomials Pud)
7 dec. To n - 12 0(0.01)1 BA, Part Vol. A
erf x = //(x) = -L fX e~<'dt

V* JO
6 dec. 0(0.01)4 Chambers 2

colog (1 erf x), 3 dec. 3(0.1)8 Chambers 2
15 dec. 0(0.000 1) 1(0.00 1) 5. 6( various) 5.946 NBS-AMS 41
(1 erf x). 8 fig. 4(0.01)10 NBS-AMS 41
Chambers 2 and NBS-AMS 41 also give the derivative or ordinate ff'(x) = - e tldt.
Vt
Chambers 2, NBS-AMS 23, and Harvard 23 give other forms of the probability integral and its
ordinate.
1-3 UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS
BY
Harold Etherington
Unit systems and conversion factors are given for quantities that may plausibly
be used in nuclear engineering. For other quantities see references.
1 DIMENSION AND UNIT SYSTEMS

1.1 Dimensions, Units, and Systems
1.11 Dimensions and Units. A dimension is a general expression for a particular

kind of physical quantity, e.g., length, time, mass. A unit is a reference standard
used to measure a physical quantity; e.g., one centimeter, one inch, and one foot are
alternative units of the dimension length.
Some dimensions and units are chosen arbitrarily, as in the above examples. These
are called fundamental dimensions and fundamental units. Some dimensions and
units are defined and measured in terms of others; e.g., areas and volumes are defined
and measured in terms of length, and density is defined and measured in terms of mass
per unit volume. Some dimensions and units are related to others by physical laws;
for example, Newton's second law of motion provides a means of expressing force in
the dimensions and units of length, time, and mass. Dimensions and units that are
expressed (by definition or by physical law) in terms of fundamental quantities are
called derived dimensions and units.
1.12 Dimension Systems. A system in which all the dimensions can be expressed
in terms of the smallest possible number of fundamental dimensions (e.g., length,
time, mass) is called a dimension system.
1.13 Unit Systems. A unit system consists of fundamental units (e.g., foot,
second, pound-mass) corresponding to the fundamental dimensions of the system
(e.g., length, time, mass) together with the derived units necessary to satisfy all the
requirements of the system. The units are said to be consistent, self-consistent, or
systematic if all physical relations within the system can be expressed without intro
ducing numerical factors.* The principal metric and English systems of units are
given in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
1.14 Absolute Systems. Historically, units of length, time, and mass were most
easily established as standards. Systems employing these dimensions and units as
fundamental quantities are called absolute systems. In a literal sense they are no
more absolute than any other arbitrarily chosen system.
1.15 Nonsystematic Dimensions and Units. It is sometimes convenient to use
sets of dimensions and units that do not conform to the requirements of a true system;
i.e., the number of dimensions and units may be greater or less than required, or the
units may be made nonsystematic by mixing units from different systems.
A greater than necessary number of units is frequently used in thermodynamics.
Thermal conductivity may have the dimensions and units of length, time, temperature,
and heat, e.g., Btu/(hr)(ft)(F), and specific heat may have the units mass, temper
ature, and heat, e.g., Btu/(lbj/)(F); if these quantities both enter into a physical
* The factor 4* enters into some of the physical relations of electrical systems. This is a geometric
factorand is accepted as not destroying the consistency of the system.
1-134
1.
Table Metric Systems of Dimensions and Units*
Mechanical cgs Absolute electrostatic (aeau) Absolute electromagnetic (aemu) The mks (Giorgi)
system system system system
Quantity and symbol
Dimensions, Dimensions, Dimensions, Dimensions,

Unit Unit Unit Unit
MLT MLTg MLTV MLTI
L
Length, Centimeter Centimeter Centimeter Meter
LT
LT
LT
LT
T
Time, Second Second Second Second
IVlass, M M Gram M Gram M Gram M Kilogram
F
t
Force, MLT-' Dyne MLT"' Dyne MLT-> Dyne MLT> Newton

Work, energy, '. ML*T-> Erg ML>T- Erg MLT- Erg MLT-i Joule
u
Viscosity, ML-'T-i Poise ML-'T-i No name
.
Permittivity, S. aesuC Staff arad /centimeter L-T<i"' No name M-"L-'TI Farad/meter
L-iTie-i No name MLI-T-'
.
Permeability, m- acmuy Abhenry /centimeter Henry/meter
0
Charge, MK-LMT-,W Statcoulomb M*LV* Abcoulomb IT Coulomb?
I
/
Current, mWl^tV4 Statampere m^t-.,.-^ Abampere Amperet
E
a
.
.
.
Potential, . M^L^T-ig- Statvolt MLT-., Abvolt MLT-'I-' Volt
R
.
.
Resistance, .. L"'T-' Statohm L-'T^ Abohm MLT-"I- Ohm
*
The table gives selected units of the mechanical and electrical absolute systems. Additional derived units are given in the following conversion tables.
a
Fundamental dimensions and units are shown in boldface. Consistent thermodynamic systems of unite may be obtained by adding the degree centigrade as
fundamental unit to the cgs and mks systems.
1
newton = joule/meter = IX 10s dynes.
It X
The coulomb was generally used in the United States as the fundamental unit, but the Tenth General Conference on Weights and Measures, International
is
Bureau of Weights and Measures, 1955. adopted the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, and degree Kelvin as systematic units. The coulomb thus denned as one
ampere-second instead of the ampere being defined as one coulomb per second.
equation, five dimensions (mass, length, time, temperature, and heat) are represented,
whereas four fundamental dimensions are sufficient (see later). In such cases, it is
necessary to introduce a dimensional conversion factor in physical equations. The
dimensions of this factor must satisfy the physical relation among the quantities,
and the magnitude depends on the choice of units. It is desirable to choose the
magnitude of a redundant unit so that the conversion factor is numerically equal to
unity.
In a limited range of application, it is permissible to use a smaller number of funda
mental dimensions than required for a complete system. Such a set of quantities
is said to be incomplete.
Dimensionally consistent units from different unit systems (e.g., inches in place
of feet in a system otherwise based on the foot, second, and pound) can be used, but a
dimensionless factor mast be introduced in physical equations of such hybrid systems.
1.2 Mechanical Systems
Three fundamental dimensions are necessary and sufficient to express all the
physical quantities of a mechanical dimension system. Length and time are invariably
chosen for two of the dimensions; the third is usually either mass or force. These
alternative systems are called the absolute, or MLT, and the gravitational, or FLT
systems, respectively.* The principal metric systems are absolute systems, in the
sense that length, mass, and time are the fundamental dimensions. The usual engi
neering (English) unit system is a gravitational system, with length, force, and time
as the fundamental dimensions.
1.21 The CGS (Centimeter-Gram-Second) System. This system is generally
used by physicists. Derived consistent units are given in Table 1.
Table 2. English Systems of Dimensions and Units*
Mechanics and gas flow Heat flow Ther.nal stress

(gravitational system) (nonsystenutic) (nonsystcmatic)
Quantity
and
symbol
Dimensions, Dimensions, Dimensions,
Unit Unit Unit
FLT MLT OH LT0H
Length, L L Foot L Foot L Inch

Time. T T Second T Hour T Hour
Mass, M Flr'T' Slug M Pound
Force, F F Pound F Pound
Work, W FL Foot-|und
Wlf* Lbr/ft'
FL I Lbr/in.'
FL-<T Slug/ft' ML"> Lbu/ft'
Mass velority, C FL'T Slug/(ft'i<see) Ml, -1 i Lb*/(ft>)(hr)
6 F 0 JF
Heat, H H Btu H Btu
Specific heat, c HM-'IT' Btu, (lb)(F)
Thermal conductivity, k HT-'L"'-> Btu (!ir)(ft)(F) HT -'L-' ' lltu. (hr)(in.)(Fl
Absolute viscosity, ... ML'T" Lb*,(hr)(ft)
UT-'L--' Btu, (hr)(ft>)(F)
Fundamental dimensionsand units are s:town in boldface.
1.22 The MKS (Meter-Kilogram-Second) System. f This system is little used

in English-speaking countries by reactor engineers as a mechanical system. Its
advantages are discussed in the article on electrical units.
1.23 Engineering Units. The foot, second, and pound-force are the fundamental
units of the gravitational system (Table 2). The derived unit of mass is the slug,
* The absolute system is also called the dynamical or physical system, and the gravitational system
is sometimes called the technical system. MLT and FLT are also written LTM and LTF. respectively,
t Sometimes called, after the founder of the system, the mks-Giorgi system.
Sec. 1-3] UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 1-137
equal to 32.17 pounds-mass. The alternative absolute system (foot, second, pound-
mass, with the poundal as the derived unit of force) is little used.
Hydrodynamics. In the practical treatment of fluid flow, the pound-mass, pound-
force, foot, and second are commonly used as a nonsystematic set of four units. It is
therefore necessary to introduce a dimensional constant into Newton's second law of
motion, force = mass X acceleration /gc or g, = mass X acceleration /force. The
magnitude of gc depends on the units used, and, by definition of the pound-force,
I, - 32.1740 (lbjfXftVabfKsec2).
The ratio g/gc, which occurs frequently in hydrodynamic theory, is numerically
approximately* equal to unity and has the dimensions lbr/lbjr.
1.3 Thermodynamic Systems
Four fundamental dimensions are required. Mass, time, and length are usually
chosen, with temperature (the MLTfl system) or heat (the MLTH system) as the
fourth dimension.
1.31 The CGS System. The cgs system of units is extended by addition of the
degree centigrade as the fourth unit. Heat is a derived unit, expressed as ergs
(dyne-centimeters).
1.32 Metric Heat-flow Units. For problems not involving interconversion
between heat and work, a set of five fundamental units centimeter, gram, second,
degree centigrade, and calorie is commonly used. Where rate of heat generation
is expressed as watts per cubic centimeter and heat flow as watts per square centi
meter, it is then simplest to change watts to calories per second (1 cal/sec = 4.18684
watts).
This set of units becomes systematic if the gram is replaced by a derived unit of
mass equal to 4.184 X 10' g (used in the caloric unit syxtem 4.184 joules is the equiva
lent of the "thermodynamic calorie" proposed for this system).
1.33 The MKS system is also extended to provide a thermodynamic system by
addition of the degree centigrade.
1.34 English Units. The usual thermodynamic set of dimensions (Table 2) con
tains more than the four fundamental dimensions that would constitute a true dimen
sional system. The units are, however, consistent and are in general use for calcu
lating heat flow and heat balances when there is no significant conversion from work
to heat or vice versa.
1.35 Thermal Stress Units. Thermal stress units (Table 2) also constitute a
special-purpose but self-consistent set of English units.
1.36 Dimensionless Groups. Data for calculating dimcnsionless groups are given
in this handbook in English thermodynamic units. The quantities entering into the
dimcnsionless groups are such that all units cancel, even though all five fundamental
units are involved. For example, Prandtl number -r- has the units ... L X
All five units cancel. Reynolds number, even when used

in connection with fluid-flow problems, is calculated in terms of thermodynamic
units. This avoids the confusion and unnecessary duplication of viscosity data in
two different systems of units.
1.4 Electrical Systems
Four fundamental dimensions are required. Usually the three dimensions of a

mechanical system are complemented by a fourth dimension which may be chosen
from among electric charge, current, voltage, resistance, energy, power, permittivity,
and magnetic permeability (Table 1).
Electrical units are based on the absolute metric mechanical systems of units.
The gravitational acceleration g varies slightly with latitude and altitude (see Art. 2.14), whereat-
ffmis invariant.
1-138 GENEHAL DATA [Sec. 1
Classical development of electromagnetic and electrostatic theory led to two distinct

and incomplete sets of cgs units. Many systems have been devised to unify these
sets of units; the most successful is the mks system, which also yields units identical
with the practical units of electrical engineering.
1.41 Absolute Electrostatic System. The statcoulomb is defined as the charge
that exerts a force of one dyne on an equal charge one centimeter distant in free
space. The statcoulomb is thus a derived unit, the centimeter and dyne being funda
mental units. The permittivity of the dielectric appears as a divisor in Coulomb's
law, and this quantity is therefore usually selected as a third dimension, the permit
tivity of vacuum (or, for practical purposes, air) being taken as the unit of permit
tivity. This incomplete set of three units is limited to static conditions; to accom
modate change with time, the units are replaced by the three absolute mechanical
units (centimeter, gram, and second) and the unit of permittivity. The dyne (as
well as the statcoulomb) thus becomes a derived unit. The units are called the cgs
absolute electrostatic units (aesu).
In the aesu system, permittivity is numerically equal to the dielectric constant
(a pure numeric). The aesu system is frequently used as an incomplete system, with
the permittivity of space taken as the dimensionless constant unity.
1.42 Absolute Electromagnetic System. The abampere can be defined as that
current which exerts a force of one dyne per centimeter of conductor length on an
equal parallel current one centimeter distant in free space. There are other equiva
lent definitions. As in the absolute electrostatic system, these two units (dyne and
centimeter) are replaced by the centimeter, gram, and second. From Ampere's law,
permeability is added as the fourth dimension, with the permeability of vacuum
taken as the fundamental unit. The dyne, abampere, abcoulomb, etc., are con
sistent derived units. The units of this system are called cgs absolute electromagnetic
units (aemu). Like the aesu system, this system is frequently used as a simple
cgs incomplete system, with permeability of free space assumed to be the dimensionless
constant unity.
1.43 Symmetric Systems and Units. The statcoulomb is greater than the
abcoulomb by a factor numerically equal to the speed of light. The difference in the
units arises from the independent methods of defining charge; the magnitude of the
factor is inherent in the nature of electromagnetic radiation.
For problems involving both electrostatic and electromagnetic phenomena, a union
between the absolute electrostatic and electromagnetic systems is necessary. Either
system can be suppressed and the other extended to include all necessary units, but
many of the derived units are inconveniently large or small. Alternatively the
systems may be mixed, giving nonsystematic units with some power of c (the
velocity of light) entering into many of the relations and definitions.

Like the aes and aem systems, this system is also frequently used as an incomplete
system with the dimensions of permittivity and permeability taken as zero and the
magnitude as unity.
1.44 Practical Absolute Units. The practical electrical units are derived from
the aemu system by applying powers of 10 as multipliers to yield units of a con
venient magnitude: 1 ampere ("absolute practical ampere") = 1 X 10"' abampere,
1 volt = 1 X 10s abvolts, 1 ohm = 1 X 109 abohms, etc. Incomplete sets of practi
cal absolute units (coulomb, ampere, volt, ohm, henry, farad, joule, and watt) are
used in limited fields.
1.46 The MKS System of Units. The mks (or Giorgi) system provides a solution
to the unsat isfactory coexistence of t wo absolute cgs systems, together with numerous
compromise systems and an incomplete practical set of units. The units of the
extended mks system are the meter, kilogram, second, and ampere (practical) or
some other consistent electrical unit. Derived units include the coulomb, volt, ohm,
watt, farad, and henry, all identical with the practical units as conventionally defined.
Other derived units are so defined that proportionality constants are all eliminated
with the exception of powers of 4jt inherent in spherical geometry. The derived
unit of force is the newton, equal to 1 joule/meter or 106 dynes.
The system is directly applicable to electrostatic and electromagnetic phe
nomena, alone or in combination. In this system the permittivity of vacuum is

10ll/cs 1.11 X 10~10 inks unit, and the permeability of vacuum is 10~7 mks unit.*
1.6 Comprehensive or Universal Systems
Five fundamental dimensions arc required to express all possible relations of

mechanics, thermodynamics, and electricity. Length, mass, time, temperature, and
quantity of electricity are suitable fundamental dimensions for such a system. The
mks mechanical units, extended by addition of the degree centigrade and the ampere
(or an alternative electrical unit), provide the best all-purpose unit system.
2 FUNDAMENTAL STANDARDS AND EXACT EQUIVALENTS

Precise measurement has revealed very small errors in previously established
equivalents of units. The errors have no engineering significance, but the conversion
tables of this section are based on the following officially accepted equivalents.
2.1 Mechanical Standards
2.11 Length, t'1 The primary standard of length is the meter as measured at 0C
under prescribed conditions on the international prototype meter, a platinum-iridium
bar kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, France.
Similar secondary standards are held by countries contributing to the Bureau, and
in 1927 the standard was provisionally given permanence and reproducibility by
expressing it as 1,553,164.13 times the wavelength of the red line of the cadmium
spectrum (0,438.4696 X 10~7 mm). Other wavelengths are under consideration as

a basis for a new definition of the meter.
1 cm = 0.3937 in. (exactly) J

2.12 Mass.1 The primary st andard of mass is the international prototype kilogram,
a platinum-iridium standard kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Meas
ures, with secondary standards in other countries. The kilogram was intended to
equal the mass of 1,000 cm3 of water at the temperature of maximum density (3.98C)
and 760 mm of mercury, but the standard is actually equal to the mass of 1,000.028 cm*
(approximately) of water under these conditions.
1 lb avoirdupois = 453.5924277 g (legal exact equivalent)

1 British lb = 453.59243 g (exactly)
2.13 Time. The fundamental unit of time, one second, is 1/86,400 of a mean
solar day. The mean calendar year, based on the standard procedure for selecting
* Unrationalized system. The values for air are substantially the same as for vacuum,
t Superscript numbers refer to References at end of subsection.
X The legal equivalent is defined as 1 yd/1 meter = 3.600/3,937. The Imperial yard is defined as
0.9143992 meter, exactly. Therefore 1 U.S. in. = 2.5400051 cm (approximately) and
1 British in. = 2.5399978 cm (approximately)
In both countries the industrially accepted equivalent, adopted by the American Standards Association
and the British Standards Institution, is
1 in. = 2.54 cm (exactly)
This simplified equivalent is becoming increasingly accepted by other member nations of the Inter
national Organization for Standardisation.
Derived units are presumed to be based on the legal equivalents.
} The solar day as measured by transit of the sun across a meridian is out of phase with the mean
solar day as measured by the chronometer. The variation throughout the year iB about half an hour.
The mean solar or tropical year is 305.24220 mean solar days, or 305 days 5 hr 48 min 40 sec. The mean
calendar year is thus 26 sec longer than the mean solar year. See Ref. 2. It is expected that the
International Bureau of Weight* and Measures will, in the near future, define the unit of time more
precisely.
leap year (years in which the date is divisible by four, except exact centuries for
which the year date must be divisible by 400) is 365.24250 days or 3. 1 556952 X 10T sec.
2.14 Force. The kilogram-force and the pound-force are the forces exerted by
gravity on the standard kilogram-mass and the standard pound-mass, at a location
of standard gravity.* Standard gravity, or standard acceleration, of gratrity, is defined
as go = 980.665 cm/secs equivalent to 32.1740 ft/sec1.
2.2 Thermodynamic Standards
2.21 Temperature. The Kelvin or thermodynamic scale, selected as fundamental,

is defined by assigning the temperature 273.16K (exactly) to the triple point of
water, f
The thermodynamic centigrade, scale conforms to the Kelvin scale, but. with the
triple point of water taken as zero and the absolute zero as 273.16C. Since the
definition of thermodynamic scales does not provide a readily measurable standard,
the thermodynamic centigrade scale is represented by the international centigrade
scale, standardized by a platinum resistance thermometer and specified calibration
points.
The Rankine and Fahrenheit scales are defined in terms of the Kelvin and thermo
dynamic centigrade scales, respectively. The absolute zero is 459.69K on the
Fahrenheit scale.
2.22 Work, Energy, Heat. Nearly all engineering standards of energy are now
referred to the absolute joule.
107 ergs = 1 joule (abs) = 1 watt-sec

(abs)
The foot-pound is related to the erg through the length and force equivalents. Heat
units are defined arbitrarily but are expressed in joules.
2.23 Heat. The IT calorie (International Steam Table calorie) and the corre
sponding Btu have been adopted as standards in these conversion tables, p* The
following equivalents are approximate.
1 cal =1 IT cal = 0.00396832 IT Btu

= 4.18684 abs joules
1 Btu = 251.996 IT joules
cal = 1055.07 abs
1 chu (centigrade heat unit) or pcu (pound centigrade unit or pound calorie)
= 1.8 Btu = 453.592 IT cal = 1,899.13 abs joules
The absolute joule is the fundamental unit of heat (adopted by the Ninth General
Conference on Weights and Measures, Paris and Sevres, 1948). The advantages of the
joule as a unit of heat are its expression in absolute mechanical units, its easy representation
and measurement in electrical units, and its independence of the heat capacity of water
and of the variation of heat capacity with temperature.

There is no legal definition of the calorie or Btu. These units were originally defined in
terms of the heat capacity of unit mass of water per degree of temperature rise at some
specified temperature or temperature range. The International Steam Table Conference
* Force, defined in terms of standard gravity, is independent of geodesy. Weight, however, varies
with gravity, and if force is measured by comparison with the weight of a standard mass.
Force = weight X
where g is the local gravitational acceleration. The ratio g/go ranges from 0.9974 at the equator to
1.0026 at the poles and decreases by 0.000314 for each 1,000 meters of altitude (0.000090 for each1.000ft
of altitude).
f Tenth General Conference of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, 1954. Originally,
the Kelvin scale was chosen to retain, exactly, the historic 100C difference between the meltingpoint
of ice and the boiling point of water, both at standard atmospheric pressure. The melting point of ice
at atmospheric pressure is approximately 273. 15K on the newly defined Kelvin scale, and theboiling
point is also only approximately defined.
X The author is indebted to Donald D. Wagman, in charge of data on chemical thermodynamic
properties, Thermochemistry Section, Division of Chemistry, National Bureau of Standards, for
guidance in this description of heat units.
of 1929 defined the IT calorie as Jfjgo international watt-hour, which is equivalent to
4.18684 abs joules.*
The Btu as defined above is derived from the relation 1 Btu/(lb)(F) = 1 IT cal/(fr) (C).
Another calorie, the Ihermochemical calorie, defined as 4.18400 abs joules, is much used
in chemical thermodynamics and thermochemistry.
Table 3 gives approximate equivalents of heat units that have been widely used all
except the 20C equivalent are by Griffith.3"
Table 3. Various Calories and British Thermal Units
Calories Btu
Designation
Joule IT cal Joule IT Btu
Designation equivalent
equivalent equivalent equivalent
4C 4.2040 1.0041 39F 1059.52 1. 0042
1SC <I4.5-I5.5C) 4. 1855 0.9997 60F (60-6lF) 1054.54 0.9995
2CPC (I9.5-20.5C) 4. 1816 0.9987
Mean iO-IOOC) 4. 1897 1.0007 Mean (32-21 2F) 1055. 79 1 .0007
Thermochcinical 4 184* 0. 9993 Thermochemical 1054.35 0. 9993
* Exactly, by definition.
2.3 Electrical Standards4
The practical electrical units (ampere, volt, ohm, etc.) were defined, more than a
century ago, from the cgs electromagnetic units by applying the following powers of
10 as multipliers: 1 amp ("absolute practical ampere") 1 X 10_1 abamp (cgs);
1 volt = 1 X 108 abvolts; 1 ohm = 1 X 10* abohms. The International Congress
of 1 893 retained these definitions but also set up measurement standards as alternative
definitions a mercury column for the ohm, a silver voltameter for the ampere, and
a standard cell for the volt. These units, called international units, were legalized
by act of Congress in 1894.
Discrepancies became apparent between the theoretical definitions and the measure
ment standards and also among the three measurement standards, one of which was
redundant. In 1908 the standard of voltage was dropped, but instead of the other
two inaccurate measurement standards being corrected, the unfortunate decision

was made to retain these as fundamental units of the International System and to
abandon the basic relation to the cgs system. Later, standard wire resistors and
standard cells became the accepted international reference standards, these still
retaining the original deviation from the absolute system and also showing small dis
crepancies among the responsible laboratories of different countries.
This unsatisfactory condition was rectified, effective Jan. 1, 1948, by abandoning
the international units in favor of the absolute (practical) units. f Calibrated wire
resistors and standard cells continue to be the practical measurement standards.
Revised equivalents were established as a preliminary to abandonment of the
international units.
1 mean int ohm = 1.00049 abs ohm 1 int volt = 1.00034 abs volts
hence 1 mean int joule = 1.00019 abs joules (approx)
* A figure of 4.18674 has been widely used in the United States, but this is based on the former United
States "international" electrical joule, which deviated slightly from the international mean value.
See Electrical Standards below and Ref. 3.
t The International Commission on Weights and Measures denned the units in the inks system
(Oct. 29, 1946). Legalization by the United States Congress (Jan. 13, 1949) was in terms of the cgs
system. The resulting units are, of course, identical.
The international standards formerly used in the United States (and in other countries)
differed slightly from the international mean standards; the conversion factors based
on National Bureau of Standards measurements are:
int ohm = 1.000495 abs ohms int henry = 1.000495 abs henrys
-
1 1
1 int volt 1.00033 abs volts 1 int farad = 0.999505 abs farad
1 int amp = 0.999835 abs amp 1 int watt = 1.000165 abs watts
1 int coulomb = 0.999835 abs coulomb 1 int joule = 1.000165 abs joules
These conversion factors apply only to measurements referred to the United States
former international standards.
2.4 Special Units and Standards
Nonsystematic special units are denned in context with the conversion tables of
dimensionally equivalent units.
The units and conversion factors of nuclear physics are given in Art. 4 of this
section.
8 CONVERSION FACTORS
The conversion tables appear in the following sequence: mechanical, heat, electrical,
and miscellaneous.* In each category, the units generally regarded as fundamental
are given first. Within each table, metric units are given at the left in order of
ascending magnitude; units of conventional engineering follow in convenient groups
also in order of increasing magnitude.
All factors are accurate to four significant figures. Quantities given to less than
four significant figures are exact equivalents.
3.1 Use of Conversion Tables
To convert a quantity given in one unit to the equivalent expressed in another

unit, locate 1 under the given unit and in the same horizontal row find the multiplier
to convert to the desired unit.
Example: Suppose a volume of 25 ft3 is to be expressed in cubic centimeters. The
volume-conversion table (Table 6), fifth horizontal row, shows that 1 ft' is equal to
2.832 X 10" cm1. A volume of 25 ft' therefore equals 25 X 2.832 X 10' = 7.080 X 10' cm'.
3.2 Example ot Derivation of Conversion Factors

Suppose it is desired to derive the conversion factor / for converting kilowatts to

foot-pounds per minute.
1 kw ft-lbf/min /
1 kw X 1 min
* =
1 ft X 1 lbF
It is necessary to develop the units of this ratio to units for which conversion factors
are known. It is assumed for the purpose of this example that equivalents of the
kilowatt in foot-pound-minute units are not known.
1 kw = 1,000 watts = 1,000 joules/sec = 10' ergs /sec = 10'" dyne-cm /sec
10"> X dyne-cm ;/sec X 60 sec 60 1 dyne
- *
'f =
30.48 cm X 1 lb*
=
30.48
V 1010 AX
1 lb,-
Known conversion factors can be substituted at any time, and from the force con
version table, 1 lbr = 4.448 X 10' dynes.
/ =
^KTo X 10' X ; , i Q 1/ n
" 4425 x 10i
30.48 4.448 X 105 dynes
* Atomic conversion tables are given in Art. 4.
Ifit is desired to develop all ratios to fundamental units, 1 dync/1 Ihr is evaluated
as follows: In any consistent units, force = mass X acceleration; i.e.,
1 dyne = 1 g X 1 em/sec2 1 lb^ = 1 slug X 1 ft/sec2 = 32.17 lb* X 1 ft/sec2

1 dyne 1 g X 1 cm /sec2 1 g X 1 cm
1 \bF 32.17 lb.,, X 1 ft/sec2 32.17 X 453.6 g X 30.48 cm

1
4.448 X 10*
Table 4. Length
Centimeters Meters Inches Feet

U.S. Customary Measures
12 in. = I ft
3 ft = I yd
5.280 ft = 1.760 yards = I mile
1 0.01 0.3937 0.03281 I mil = 0.001 in.
100 1 39.37 3.281
2 540 0. 02540 I 0.08333 Nautical Measures
30. 48 0. 3048 12 1 6 ft -
I fathom
120 fathoms = I cable length
1 international nautical mile (adopted July I, 1954, by
Metric Measures Departments of Defense and Commerce)
10 ram =I cm = 1,852 meters = 6.076.10333 ft (appro*.)
10 cm = I dm I U.S. nautical mile = I geographical mile
10 dm = I meter = 1 min of longitude at equator 6,080.20 ft
I.OOO meters = I km I British nautical mile = 6,080 ft
I a = I X 10-' meter
- 1 X 10"' mm Astronomical Measures
-
1 iiim = 1 micromillimeter = 1 I light year 5.879 X 10" miles = 9.461

X m I x 10- mm X 10" cm
Iw-IX
10-' u
10- (i = 1 X
lO"1 mm
I A = I X 10-' cm = I X
10-< u = 0.1 imi
I X-ray unit (XII) = I X 10"' A = I X
10-" cm
Table 6. Area
Square
Square Square Square
centi
meters inches feet
meters U.S. Customary Measures
144 in.' -
1 ft'
9 ft' = 1 yd'
1 X 10~ 0. 1550 0.001076 4.840 yd' = 1 acre

1 X 10 1 1.550 10.76 640 acres = 1 mile'
6.452 6. 452 X 10 ' 1 0.006944
929.0 0.09290 144 1
Electrical Unit
I cir mil (area of circle 0.001 in. in diameter) = 0.7854 X 10-8 in.s
- 5.067 X 10 cm^
Metric Measures
I ha = 10.000 meters2 = 2.471 acrea
I acre = 0.4047 ha
Table 6. Volume
Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic U.S. gallons Imperial

centimeters Liters
meters inches feet yards (liquid) Kalians
i 0 001000 1 x io- 0 06102 3.531 X IO- 1 308 X 10 2 642 X 10-< 2 200 X 10 <
1000 1 0 001000 61.03* 0 03532* 0.001308 0 2642 0 2200
1 X I0 1.000 1 6.I02X I0< 35 31 1 308 264 2 220 0
16 39 0 01639 1.639 X 10 > 1 5.787 X 10 < 2. 143X I0"> 0.004329 0 003605
2.832 X 10' 28 32 0 02832 1.728 1 0.03704 7.481 6.229
7.646 X I0 764.5 0.7646 4 666 X 10' 27 1 202.0 168 2
3785 3.785 0.003785 231 0 1337 0.004951 1 0.8327
4546 4.546 0.004546 277.4 0.1605 j 0.005946 1.201 I

I 1
Fluid Measure*
Fundamental Standards of Fluid Capacity. The metric, United States, and British units are defined
independently.
One liter is the v -lume of one kilogram of water at 3.98C and 760 mm of mercury. This is equal to
1.000028 cubic decimeters, f the deviation from one cubic decimeter being the difference between the
intended and actual mass of the standard kilogram.
I U.S. gal 231 in.3 exactly

(definition)
One Imperial gallon is the volume occupied by 10 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water at 62F and
30 in. of mercury. This volume is 277.420 U.S. cubic inches.
Metric Fluid Measures
- -
I liter
1.000 ml
I ml - 100 cl
I cm1 (approx., see above)
U.S. and British Fluid Measures

4 gills (gi) =- 1 liq pt
2 liq pt 1 liq qt
4 liq qt = 1 gal
Note: The relationships among the gill, pint, quart, and gallon are the same in United States and
British systems; the magnitudes of corresponding units are in the same ratio as the United States and
the Imperial gallon given in the table.
One U.S. gallon of water at 62F weighs 8.336 pounds avoirdupois (approximately).
One Imperial (British and Canadian) gallon of water at 62F weighs, by definition, 10 pounds avoir
dupois (exactly).
-
16 U.S. fl oz I U.S. liq pt

(I fl oz of water weighs 1.042 oz avdp at 62F)
160 British fl oz = I Imperial gal
( I fl oz of water wciglis 1 oz avdp at 62F)
Dry Measures
1 U.S. bu - 2.150.42 in."
I British bu - 2.219.34 in.1 (U.S.) - 8 Imperial gait
Shipping Measures
Internal capacity: 100 ft1 =1 register ton
Cargo: 40 ft' 1 U.S. shipping ton
42 ft3 1 British shipping ton
Lumber
One board foot is the volume of one square foot of board one inch thick ( 144 cubic inches), measured
before dressing. The feet board measure (fbm), or board feet of flat lumber, is the area in square fet
multiplied by the thickness in inches. The board foot measurement of dressed stock is calculated from
the dimensions of the rough lumber required; thicknesses less than one inch are taken as one inch.
The difference between the liter and 1.000 cm' is insignificant but may lead to a fourth-figure
difference in rounding off if the fifth figure is very close to 5.
t Units of Weight and Measure (United States Customary and Metric), Definitions and Tables nf
Equivalents, Natl. Bur. Standards Misc. Publ. 214. July I. 1955.
{The Imperial gallon is both a dry and a liquid measure. The United States gallon is legally only
a liquid measure one-eighth of a United States bushel is sometimes called a "dry gallon" (equal to
1.16365 U.S. gal).
Sec. 1-3] units and conversion factors 1-145
Table 7. Mass
Grams Kilograms Pounds (avdp) Short tons Long tons
1 0.001 0.002205 1. 102 X 10- 9.842 X 10"'
1000 1 2.205 0.001102 9.842 X 10-'
453.6 0.4536 1 0.0005 4.464 X I0<
9.072 X 10' 907.2 2000 1 0.8929
1.016 X 10' 1016 2240 1. 12 1
Metric Wright*
1.000.000 wg (or t) 1.000 mg - 1g -
1.000 g = 1 kg
1.000 kg "* I metric ton or tonne
For precious atone*: I carat = I metric carat = 200 mg
Avoirdupois Weights
16 oz (os avdp) =>7.000 grains " I lb (lb avdp)
100 lb = I short cwt
= I short ton
2.000 lb
112 lb -- I long cwt
2.240 lb 1 long ton
Engineer's unit: I slug (or geepound) = 32.174 lb
Troy Wrights*
12 oz (oz troy) 5760 grains - I lb (lb troy)
* The grain is the same as the avoirdupois measure; I pound troy 5.760/7.000 pound avoirdupois,
1 ounce troy -
(5.760 X l6)/(7.000 X 12) -
1.097 avoirdupois ounce.
"Pound" and "ounce" always mean the avoirdupois measures unless otherwise stated or implied by
context. The apothecary's pound and ounce are the same as the corresponding troy masses.
Time
Table 8.
solar (or tropical) year = 365.24 days = 8,766 hr

-
5.259 X I0 min = 3.156 X 10' sec
1 day = 24 hr = 1.440 min = 8.640 X I0 sec
Table 9. Force
Torque
Newtona Fr equivalents of the
Dynes (joules/'meter) Grams Poundals Pounds
dyne-centimeter, kilogram
(force)-meter, newton-
metcr,
and foot-pound, use
1 X 10 > 0.001020 7.233 X I0 2.248 X 10 Table 15 (Energy, Work,
1 X 10' 1 102.0 7.233 0.2248 and Heat) conversion fae-
980.7 0.009807 1 0.07093 0.002205 tors. For quantities mens-
1.383 X 10' 0. 1383 14. 10 1 0.03108 ured in inch-pounds, first

4.448 X 10' 4.448 453.6 32. 17 1 divide by 12 to convert to
foot-pounds.
Table 10. Angular Measures

Plane Angle Angular Velocity
Revolutions Revolu Revolu JVidians
Right angles
Seconds Minutes Degrees or circum Radians tions per tions per per
or quadrants
ferences second minute second
1 0.01667 2.778 X 10 3.086 X IO- 7.716 X 10-' 4.848 X IO- 1 60 6.283
60 1 0 01667 1.852 X 10 1 4.630 X 10 1 2.909 X 10 ' 0 01667 1 0.1047
3600 60 1 0.01 111 0 002778 0.01745 0 1592 9 549 1
3 24 X 10* 5400 90 1 0.25 1.571
1 296 X 10* 2 16 X I0< 360 4 1 6 283 Solid Angle*
I sphere (or steregon) =
2 063 X I05 3438 57 30 0 6366 0 1592 1
4* (or 12.5664) steradiana
radians - 180 = 8 spherical right an
I". . S-
gles. A ste radian is the
= 0.0174533radians
180 solid angle subtended at
100centesimal minutes = 1grade the center of a sphere of ra
100grades 1right angle dius r by an area r1 of the
spherical surface.
Table 11. Velocity Table 12. Flow
Centi Cubic
Meters Feet Feet Miles Cubic U.S. Imperial
meters centi
per per per per feet gallons gallons
per meters
second second minute hour per per per
BCOOIIfi per
minute minute minute
second
1 0.01 0.03281 1.969 0.02237

100 1 3.281 196.9 2.237 1 0.0021 19 0 01585 0.01320
30. 48 0.3048 1 60 0. 6818 472.0 1 7. 481 6.229
0.5080 0.005080 0.01667 1 0.01 136 63.09 0. 1337 1 0.8327
44.70 0.4470 1.467 88 1 75.77 0. 1605 1.201
Nautical Velocity For other conversions involving no change of

I knot (U.S.) = I U.S. nautical mile/hr time unit use volume-conversion table
= 1.152 statute miles/ hr (Table 6). I U.S. gpm = 8.02lp lb/hr =
= 1.689 fps 500. 7p' lb/hr where p = density, lb/ft3, p' =
= 51.48 cm/sec density, g/cm*.
l or other nautical miles see Length convention factors
Mass Velocity
mass per unit of time
Mass velocity = velocity X density
cross-sectional area of stream
The units are usually pound-mass, foot, hour (occasionally, pound-mass, foot, second).
Table 13. Density

Grams Density and Specific Gravity.

per
Kilograms Pounds rounds Pounds Pounds Density is the mass per unit volume
per per per per per of a substance at a specified tem
cubic
cubic cubic cubic U.S. Imperial perature. Specific gravity is the
centi
meter inch foot gallon gallon ratio of the weight of a substance at
meter
a specified temperature to the
weight of an equal volume of a
reference substance (usually water),
I 1000 0.03613 62.43 8.345 10.02
0.001 1 3.613 X 10' 0.06243 0.008345 0.01002
also at a specified temperature. In
notations such as 20C/4C or
27.68 2.768 X I0< 1 1728 231 277.4
20/4C, the first temperature refers
0.01602] 16.02 5.787 X 10' 1 0. 1337 0. 1605
to the material and the second to
0. 1196 119.8 0.004329 7.481 1 1.201
0.8327 1
the reference substance. If the
0.099781 99.78 0.003605 6.229
reference temperature is (as in the
example) 4C, specific gravity is
numerically equal to density in
grams per milliliter. The dimen
is ML-*; specific
sion of density
gravity is a numeric.
Sprcific Gravity of Liquid* by Hydrometer

Liquids lighter than water:
141.5
Degrees API (for petroleum products) 131.5
sp gr 60F/60F
140
Degrees Baume (for other liquids) 1)0
sp gr 60F/60F
Liquids heavier than water:
145
Degrees Banine. (all liquids) = 145
sp gr 60F/60F
Mass per Unit Length

1 g/cm = 0.005600 lb/in. = 0.06720 lb/ft
I lb/ in. = 178.6 g/cm
1 lb/ft = 14.88 g/cm
Mass per Unit Area

I g/cm* - 2.048 paf
I psf - 0.4882 g/cm*
Table 14. Pressure
Baryes Kilo
or dynes grams Newtons Pounds Pounds
Centi Inches
Inches Feet
meters of
per per per per per of of Atmos
square square Bquare Bquare of mercury
square water water pheres*
mercury at 0"O
centi centi meter inch foot at 60 F at 60 F
meter meter at 0C (32F)
1 ~T7o2<r 0. 1 1.450 0.002089 7.501 2.953" 4.018 3.349 9.869_

x io- X 10' X 10' X 10 > x io X 10 ' X 10-'
1.807 1 9.807 14 22 2048 73.56 28.96 394. 1 32.84 0.9678
X 10! X 10'
10 1.020 1 1.450 0.02089 7.501 2.953 4.018 3.349 9.869
x 10' x io-< X io-< X 10' X 10' X 10' x io-
6.895 0.07031 6895 1 144 5. 171 2.036 27.71 2.309 0.06805
X I0<
478.8 4.882 47 88 0.006944 1 0.03591 0.01414 0. 1924 0.01603 4.725
x io-< X 10'
1.333 0.01360 1333 0. 1934 27.85 1 0.3937 5.358 0.4465 0.01316
X 10
3.386 0 03453 3386 0.4912 70.73 2.540 1 13.61 1. 134 0.03342
X I0<
2488 0 002538 248.8 0.03609 5. 197 0. 1866 0.07348 . 1 0.08333 0.0024S6
2.986 0.03045 2986 0.4331 62.37 2.230 0.8818 12 1 0.02947
X 10*
1.013 1.033 1.013 14.70 2116 76 29.92 407.2 33.93 1
X I0 X 10'
Units of Atmospheric
Pressure
I bnrye I dyne/em*
I bar = 10' dynes/cm1
(This is the internationally accepted meaning; but 1 bar is also sometimes used as a synonym of 1 barye
or I dyne/cm9.)
The standard atmosphere is based on 76 cm (= 29.92 in.) of mercury at 0C, at a location of

standard gravity and iB defined by the Tenth General Conference on Weights and Measures ( 1954) as
1.013.250dynes/cm* or 101.325 newtons/ meter'. Hence I atm equals 1.01325 bars or 1.03323 kg force
per square centimeter. (In power plant practice, steam condenser vacuum is referred to a 30-in.
barometer instead of 29.92 in.)
Table 16. Energy, Work, Heat

Joules
Ergs Kilo (new- Centi
(dyne- gram ton- Kilo- Kilo- . Foot Horse British grade
centi meters, watt- Calories power- thermal
(force)- calories pounds heat
hourB hours units
meters) metera watt units
seconds)
1 1.020 1 2.778 2.388 2.388 7.376 3.725 9.478 5.266
X I0 X io-' x io- X 10 10"
X 10-" X 10"" X X 10"" X 10""

9.807 1 9.807 2.724 2 342 0.002342 7.233 3.653 0.009295 0.005164
X 10' X 10-' X io-
1 X 10' 0. 1020 1 2.778 0.2388 2.388 0.7376 3.725 9.478 5.266
X 10-' X 10' X 10-' X I0 X 10<
3.6 3 671 3.6 1 8.598 859.8 2.655 1.341 3412 1896
X 10" X 10 X I0< X 10' X I0
4.187 0. 4269 4. 187 1. 163 1 0.001 3.088 1.560 0.003968 0 002205
X 10' X 10 X 10
4. 187 426.9 4187 0.001 163 1000 1 3088 0.001560 3.968 2.205
X 10"
1.356 0. 1383 1.356 3.766 0.3238 3.238 1 5.051 0.001285 7. 139
X 10' x io-' X 10' X IO"' X io-<
2.685 2. 737 2.685 0.7457 6.412 641.2 1.98 1 2544 1414
X 10" x io X 10' X 10' X I0
1.055 107.6 1055 2.931 252.0 0.2520 778.2 3.930 1 0.5556
X 10" X 10' X 10
1.899 193.7 1899 5.275 453.6 0.4536 1401 7.074 1.8 1
x 10" X I0 X io-
Energy. Work, Heat

I liter-atin = 24.20 cal -
101.3 joules = 0.09604 Btu
I (ft') (atm) -
2.719 Btu
I (ft1) (pai) = 0.1850 Btu
Table 16. Power
Kilo
gram Watts Kilo- Foot Foot t Btu
Ergs Kilo Calories Chu
per
(force)- (joules
per
calories pounds pounds Horse (IT) per
meters per-- watts' per per per power per
second per
second
second second minute
hour
second) hour
second
1 1.020 1 1 2.388 2.388 7.376 4.425 1.341 3.412 1.896

x io- X 10' X 10-' X 10 s x io- X 10" X 10' X 10-" X 10-' X 10'
9.807 I 9.807 0.009807 2.342 2.342 7.233 434.0 0.01315 33.46 18.59
X 10' X I0
1 X 10' 0. 1020 0.001 0. 2388 2.388 0.7376 44.25 0.001341 3.412 1.896
X I0
1 X 10" 102.0 1000 1 238.8 0. 2388 737.6 4.425 1.341 3412 1896
X 10'
4. 187 0.4269 4. 187 0.004187 1 0.001 3.088 185.3 0.005615 14.29 7.937
X 10'
4. 187 426.9 4187 4.187 1000 1 3088 1.853 5.615 1.429 7937
X 10" X 10' X 10'
1.356 0. 1383 1.356 0.001356 0.3238 3.238 1 60 0.001818 4.626 2.570

X 10' X 10-'
2.260 0.002304 0.02260 2.260 0.005397 5.397 0.01667 1 3.030 0.07710 0.04284
X 10' X 10' X 10 X 10-'
7.457 76.04 745.7 0.7457 178. 1 0. 1781 550 3.3 1 2544 1414
X I0 X 10'
2.931 0.02989 0.2931 2.931 0.07000 7.0000 0.2162 12.97 3.930 1 0.5556
X I0 x io X 10' X 10-'
5.275 0.05379 0.5275 5.275 0. 1260 1.260 0.3891 23.35 7.074 1.8
X 10 X 10- X I0 X 10-'
Horsepower
1 hp = 550 ft-lb/sec (definition) = 33.000 ft-lb/min = 1.980.000 ft-lb/hr - 745.70 atu
I electric hp = 746 watts (definition) = 1.0004 hp
I metric hp = 75 kg (force) -meters/sec (definition)
- 735.499 watts = 0.9863 hp
I boiler hp = 34.5 lb water evaporated per hour from and at 2I2F
= 33.472 Btu/hr = 13.155 hp (heat equivalent)
Refrigeration
1 ton of refrigeration (U.S.) = 288.000 Btu/day = 12.000 Btu/hr = 200 Btu/min
= 4.716 hp = 840.0 cal/sec = 0.9055 British ton of refrigeration
1 ton of refrigeration (British) = 321.200 Btu/day = 13.385 Btu/hr
= 223.1 Btu/min = 5.260 hp = 936.9 kcal/sec
= I.I 15 U.S. tons of refrigeration
The units arc approximately equal to the latent heat of fusion of one short ton and one long ton.
respectively, of ice per 24 hr.
Table 17. Viscosity
Absolute Viscosity, u
KiloKrani-mass Pound-mass Pound-force Pound-mass

Centipoises Poises
(ec)(nioter) (see) (ft) (sec) (fti) (hr)(ft)
1 0.01 0.001 6.720 X 10-' 2.089 X 10' 2.419

100 1 0. 1 0.06720 0.002089 241.9
1000 10 1 0.6720 0.02089 2419
1488 14.88 1.488 1 0.03108 3600
4.788 X I0 478.8 47.88 32.17 1 1. 158 X 10'
0.4134 0.004134 4. 134 X I0< 2.778 X 10" 8.634 X I0 1
Alternative Dimensional System*

The units of absolute viscosity are expressed alternatively in absolute units (dimensions M/TL) or in
equivalent gravitational units (dimensions FT/L1).
1 poise 1 g /(sec) (cm) 1 dyne-sec /cm*

1 lbM/(sec)(ft) -
I poundul-*ec/ftJ
1 slug/(sec)(ft) -
I lbF-sec/ft1
' kgM/(sec)(metcr) = I newton-sec /meter*
All tabulated viscosity data in this handbook are expressed in pound-mass per hour per foot units
Hast column). Laboratory data are expressed formally in centipoiaes, a metric unit of convenient size
for many liquids; water has a viscosity of I centipoise at a temperature of 20. 20C (68.4F).
Kinematic Viscosity, v
The kinematic viscosity is the absolute viscosity divided by the density of the fluid: ** u/o. The
cgs unit of viscosity is the stoke.
I stoke = I cmVsec = 0.1550 in.Vsec = 3.875 ftVhr

Viscosity can be measured in the laboratory by the time in seconds for free discharge of a given
volume of fluid through the capillary of an efflux viscometer (viscosimeter). The kinematic viscosity
in stokes can be calculated from the efflux time t by the empirical formula
v = At B/t cm1 /sec
where A and B are 0.0022 and 1.8, respectively, on the Saybolt Universal scale (United States) and
0.0026 and 1.72, respectively, on the Redwood scale (British). The viscosity of reactor coolants is
below the useful range of these and similar viscosity scales.
Table 18. Temperature

Centigrade to Fahrenheit
(Values are exact)
c 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 32 50 68 86 104 122 140 158 176 194
100 212 230 248 266 284 302 320 338 356 374
200 392 410 428 446 464 482 500 518 536 554
300 572 590 608 626 644 662 680 698 716 734
400 752 770 788 806 824 842 860 878 896 914
500 932 950 968 986 1004 1022 1040 1058 1076 1094
600 1112 1130 1148 1166 1184 1202 1220 1238 1256 1274
700 1292 1310 1328 1346 1364 1382 1400 1418 1436 1454
800 1472 1490 1508 1526 1544 1562 1580 1598 1616 1634
900 1652 1670 1688 1706 1724 1742 1760 1778 1796 1814
1000 1832 1850 1868 1886 1904 1922 1940 1958 1976 1994
1100 2012 2030 2048 2066 2084 2102 2120 2138 2156 2174
1200 2191 2210 2228 2246 2264 2282 2300 2318 2336 2354
1300 2372 2390 2408 2426 2444 2462 2480 2498 2516 2534
1400 2552 2570 2588 2606 2624 2642 2660 2678 2696 2714
Interpolation Table
C I 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 7 8 9
F | 1.8 3.6 5.4 7.2 9.0 10.8 | 12.6 14.4 16.2

Example: I054C =- 1922 + 7.2 I929.2F. -
Fahrenheit to Centigrade
(Centigrade temperatures to nearest 0. 1C)
F 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 - 17.8 - 12.2 -6.7 -1.1 4.4 10. 15.6 21.1 26.7 32.2
100 37.8 43.3 48.9 54.4 60. 65.6 71.1 76.7 82.2 87.8
200 93.3 98.9 104.4 110. 0 115.6 121.1 126.7 132.2 137.8 143.3
300 148.9 154.4 160.0 165.6 171. 1 176.7 182.2 187.8 193.3 198.9
400 204.4 210.0 215.6 221.1 226.7 232.2 237.8 243.3 248.9 254.4
500 260.0 265.6 271.1 276.7 282.2 287.8 293.3 298.9 304.4 310.0
600 315.6 321.1 326.7 332.2 337.8 343.3 348.9 354.4 360.0 365.6
700 371.1 376.7 382.2 387.8 393.3 398.9 404.4 410.0 415.6 421.1
800 426.7 432.2 437.8 443.3 448.9 454.4 460.0 465.6 471.1 476.7
900 482.2 487.8 493.3 498.9 504.4 510.0 515.6 521.1 526.7 532.2
1000 537.8 543.3 548.9 554.4 560.0 565.6 571.1 576.7 582.2 587.8
1100 593.3 598.9 604.4 610.0 615.6 621.1 626.7 632.2 637.8 643.3
1200 648.9 654.4 660 . 0 665.6 671. 1 676.7 682.2 687.8 693.3 698.9
1300 704.4 710.0 715.6 721.1 726.7 732.2 737.8 743.3 748.9 754.4
1400 760.0 765.6 771.1 776.7 782.2 787.8 793.3 798.9 804.4 810.0
1500 815.6 821.1 826.7 832.2 837.8 843.3 848.9 854.4 860.0 865.6
1600 871. 1 876.7 882.2 887.8 893.3 898.9 904.4 910.0 915.6 921.1
1700 926.7 932.2 937.8 943.3 948.9 954.4 960.0 965.6 971. 1 976.7
1800 982.2 987.8 993.3 998.9 1004.4 1010. 0 1015.6 1021. 1 1026.7 1032.2
1900 1037.8 1043.3 1048.9 1054.4 1060.0 1065.6 1071. 1 1076.7 1082.2 1087.8
2000 1093.3 1098.9 1104.4 1110.0 1115. 6 1121. 1 1126.7 1132.2 1137.8 1143.3
2100 1148.9 1154.4 1160.0 1165.6 1171. 1 1176.7 1182.2 1187.8 1193.3 1198.9
2200 1204.4 1210.0 1215.6 1221. 1 1226.7 1232.2 1237.8 1243.3 1248.9 1254.4
2300 1260.0 1265.6 1271. 1 1276.7 1282.2 1287.8 1293.3 1298.9 1304.4 1310.0
2400 1315.6 1321. 1 1326.7 1332.2 1337.8 1343.3 1348.9 1354.4 1360.0 1365.6
2500 1371.1 1376.7 1382.2 1387.8 1393.3 1398.9 1404.4 1410.0 1415.6 1421. 1
Interpolation Table
"F 1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
C 0.6 1 I.I 1.7 1 2.2 2.8 3.3 1 3.9 4.4 5.0

Example; 1054F =565.6 + 2.2 567.8C. -
Conversion Formulas
Centigrade to Fahrenheit: = 9i'c + 52
(f
32)
Fahrenheit to Centigrade: tc = %{t
Degrees Kelvin: *K tc + 273.16
Degrees Kankine: (R = t + 459.69
(R HtK -
Table 19. Specific Heat
1 cal/(g)(C) = I kcal/(kg)(C) 1 Btu/(lb)(F) - I ohu/(lb)(C) -

= 4.187 joules/(g)(C)
Specific heat was originally denned as the heat capacity of a substance relative to that of an equal
mass of water at a specified temperature. The property was therefore a diinensionless ratio. The term
is now generally used in the sense of heat capacity per unit mass per degree of temperature rise.
Table 20. Heat

Table 21 . Thermal Conductivity Capacity
Cal Watts Btu Btu Btu Calorie Joule Btu

per per per
(tc)(cm)(C) (em)CC) <hr)(in.)(K) (hr)(ft)(F) (hr)(ft')(F/in.)
gram gram pound
1 4. 187 20.02 241.9 2903

0 2388 4.782 57.78 693.3 1 4. 187 1.8
0 04961 0.2077 1 12 144 0.2388 1 0.4299
0 004134 0.01731 0 08333 1 12 0.5556 2.326 1
3 445 X 10-' 0 001441 0.006944 0.08333 1
1 kcal/kg - I cal/K
= I elm /lb
1 joule/(sec)(cm)(0C) -
1 watt/(cm)(C)
1 joule/Ojec)(m)(C) -
! watt/(m)(C) 0.01 watt/(cm)(C) -
Thermal conductivity is frequently stated as heat units per unit time, per unit area, per unit of tem-
l*;r;ture difference per unit thickness, written, for example, Btu/(hr)(ft,)(F/ft). For consistent
units the designation can be simplified as in the table. The inconsistent units shown in the last column
are commonly used in practical problems involving heat conduction through plates, walls, insulation,
etc. Conversion factors for the chu used in conjunction with the degree centigrade are the same as for
the Btu used in conjunction with the degree Fahrenheit; e.g., the Btu/(hr)(ft)(F) column serves also
forchu/(hr)(ft)(C).
Table 22. Heat Flux and Conductance

Heat Flux Thermal Conductance
Cal Watts Btu Chu Cal Watts Btu

(sec) (cm1) cm* (hr)(ft) (hr)(ft<) (sec)(cm')(C) (cm>)(C) (hr)(lt)(F)
1 4. 187 1.327 X 10' 7373 1 4. 187 7373

0.2388 3170 1761 0.2388 1 1761
7 535 X 10 " 3 155 X 10' 1 0.5556 1.356 X I0 5 678 X I0~ 1
1 356 X 10 - 5.678 X 10-' 1.8
I joule /(sec) f cm1) -

I watt/cm1 I joule/(sec)(cm')(C) = 1 watt/(cm>)(C)
I joule/CsecXmeter1) I watt/meter* I joulo/(sec)(meter,)(C) = I watt/(meter,)(0C)
- IX 10"* watt /cm' - I X 10< watt /(cm') (C)
1 ohu/(hr)(it)(C) - I Btu/(hr)(ft>KF)
Table 23. Internal Heat Generation and Power Density
Watts Cal Btu Btu

cm1 (scc)(cinl) (hr)(in.<) (hr)(ft)
1 0.2388 55.91 9.662 X 10'

4 187 1 234. 1 4.045 X 10'
0.01788 0.004272 1 1728
1 035 X I0 2 472 X 10 5 787 X 10" 1
I watt/cm" - 1 Mw /meter1 - 1.000 kw/liter

I chu - 1.8 Btu
Table 24. Electrical Units
Potential
Quantity of Electric differenceand
System Resistance Capacitance
electricity current electromagnetic
force
Absolute (cgs) electrostatic, esu. 10-"cstatcoulombs I0~'cstatamp !0"c-i statvolt lO'c-'statohm 10 -V Statfarads
MKS or practical, prau 1 coulomb 1amp 1 volt 1 ohm 1 farad
Absolute (cgs) clectroniaiinetir,
10-i abroulomb 10"" abamp 10-abvolts 10"abohms 10 abfarad
Magnetic Magneto
Magnetic Magnetic flux
System field motive Inductance
flux density
intensity force
Absolute (cgs) electrostatic, esu I0*c~sBtathenry

M KS or practical, prau 1 praoersted 1 pragilbert 1 weber 1 weber/meter* 1 henry
Absolut* (ogs) electromagnetic,emu 10"' oersted 10"' gilbert 108maxwells 10*gauss I0 abhenrys
(or lines)
c = 2.99793X I010,a numeric equal in magnitude to the speed of light in centimeters per second. Approximately,
c - 2.998 X lOio, ct = 8.988 X 10, tT - 0.3336X IO-", c~* - 1.113X 10-"
Example*:
1. 500amp = 500 X 10-' abamp = 50 abamp.

2. I X 10statcoulomhs -
(1 X I0)/(I0" X 2.998 X 10") coulombs - 3.336 X 10"* coulomb.
1 gilbert ampere turns
1 oersted 1 gilbert/cm
I gauss = I maxwell (or line) /cm*
Table 25. Concentration
Grama per Parts per Grain* per Grains per Normal solution: One gram equivalent
liter million* U.S. gallon Imperial gallon (molecular weight divided by hydrogen
equivalent) per liter.
Gold content of allay: The carat is the
1 1000 58.42 70. 15 number of parts by weight of gold per 24

0.001 1 0.05842 0.07015 parts of alloy. 1 carat -
>i (any mass
0.01712 17. 12 1 1.201 units) -41.6667 mg/g.
0.01425 14. 25 0.8327 1
* Conversion based on parta by weight in water of density I g/cm!.
Table 26. Corrosion*
mg mg mg
In. /year Mi la /month Mils/year
(em1) (month) (dm:)(mnntli) (dm)(<l.iy)
1 100 3 288 0. 004724/p 0. 3937/p 4. 724/p

0.01 1 0.03288 4.724 x 10 /p 0.003937/p 0.04724/p
0.3042 30. 42 1 0.001437/p 0. 1198/p 1.437/p
211 7p 2. 117 X 10V 695. 9p 1 83.33 1000
0.2117s 21. 17P 0.6959p 0 001 0.08333 1
2. 540p 254. Op 8.34l 0 012 1 12
1 month = Ka mean solar year.

* p = density of material, g/cm1.
4 ATOMIC UNITS, CONSTANTS, AND CONVERSION FACTORS

4.1 Units
The units of classical physics (the cgs units and the supplementary units of the
absolute electrical systems) are generally used in theoretical physics. Since these
classical units are inconveniently large for practical calculation on an atomic scale,
convenient nonsystematic units are defined for limited use.
4.11 Atomic Mass Unit, amu. The amu, expressed in the physical scale, is
defined as one-sixteenth of the mass of an O" atom.
1 amu = (1.659790 + 0.000044) X 10~ g
Numerically, this is the reciprocal of Avogadro's number on the physical scale.

4.12 Electron Volt, ev. The electron volt is the kinetic energy acquired by a
particle of unit charge (the charge of one electron) in falling through a potential
difference of one (practical) volt.
1 Mev = 1,000,000 ev
4.13 Barn. This unit of area is a measure of nuclear cross section.
1 barn = 10~" cm2

1 millibarn = 0.001 barn
4.14 Other Atomic Units. Other special units are defined in the various sections
of the handbook.
4.2 Physical Constants
Several important dimensional constants are introduced to express laws of atomic

and nuclear physics. The values in Table 27 are from the compilation by
Cohen, Du Mond, et al.* The compilation by Birge* was in general use until
recently.
4.3 Masses and Energy of Particles
4.31 Physical and Chemical Scales. In the physical scale, the atomic weight of
0" is takenas 16 exactly, whereas in the chemical scale, the atomic weight of oxygen
in its natural isotopic composition is taken as 16 exactly. Atomic masses and derived
constants may be expressed in either scale. Birge' gives 1.000272 0.000005 as the
ratio of atomic weight in the physical scale to atomic weight in the chemical scale,
and this value is adopted by Cohen et al. Birgc's ratio is based on an isotopic
composition Ol,:0":0H = (506 10):1:(0.204 0.008), but Nier7 and others have
since shown that the isotopic concentration of natural oxygen varies with the source
to an extent that causes the calculated ratio of the physical to the chemical scale to
range at least from 1.000268 to 1.000278. In the absence of an assigned standard
composition, the ratio therefore includes an inherent uncertainty, not associated
with precision of measurement.
Constants expressed per gram-molecule are all smaller, by the given ratio, in the
chemical scale than in the physical scale. This applies to atomic weights, Avogadro's
number, molar volume, the Faraday, and the universal gas constant. Atomic
weights of the elements in their natural isotopic abundance are expressed in the
chemical scale; hence the chemical scale generally applies in engineering calculations
involving the above-stated quantities. Particle and isotopic masses are expressed
in terms of amu in the physical scale.
4.32 Particle Masses, Energy Equivalents, and Wavelengths. Mass-energy
equivalents are given in Table 28, data for particles in Table 20, and wavelengths
and energy relations in Table 30. The values are those of Cohen et al.*
Table 27. Physical Constants*

Constant Value
Avogadro number and related constantst
Avogadro number N:
Chemical scale (6.02322 0.00016) X 10" mole"' J
Physical scale (6.02486 0 00016) X 10" mole >
Molar volume of ideal gas at 1 atm:
Chemical scale 22414.6 0. 6 cm'}
Physical scale 22420 7 0.6 cm'
Loschmidt number (molecules /cm" of ideal gas
at I atm) (2 68719 0 00010) X 10" cm >
Boltzmann constant and related constantst
BolUmann oonstant, k (1.38044 + 0 00007) X I0"'erg/C
(8.6167 0 0004) X IO-ev/C
(4.7871 0.0002) X 10-' ev/Ft
Universal gas constant. = Nk: /;'
Chemical scale (8.31470 0.00034) X 10' erg /(mole) (C)t

2781 . 70 + 0. ft-lb/(lb-mole)(C)t
1
I
1545.39 06 ft-lb /(lb-mole) (F)t
0.

(8.20575 0.00034) X 10"' liter-atm/(mole)(C)t
1.98591 >0 0008 cal/(mole)CC)t
1.98591 >0. 0008 chu/(lb-mole)(C)t
1.98591 >0. 0008 Htu /(lb-mole) (F)
J
Physical scale (8.31696 0.00034) X 10' erg/(inole)(C)
Electronic data:
Faraday constant, F:
Chemical scale 96495.7 1.1 coulombs /molet
Physical scale 9652. 19 0. emu/mole
+ +
1
1
(2 89366 0.00003) I0'<esu/mole
X X
Electronic charge, = F/N (1.60206 0.00003) 10"' emu

e
(1.60206 0.00003) X 10"" coulomb!

(4.80286 0.00009) X lO-'êsu
Charge-to-mass ratio of the electron, e/m. ... (5. 27305 0. 00007) X 10" esu/g
(1.75890 0.00002) I0'emu/g
X X
(1.75890 + 0.00002) 10" coulombs /gt
Gravitational constant, (6.670 0.005) X 0_1 dyne-cmVgram1!
G
(4.958 0.004) X 10"" lb-ft!/slug'T

Planck's constant:
Planck's constant, (6 62517 0.00023) X lO^'ergscc

h
(4 13541 X lO"" cv sec

-
H/1t 1.05443
0.00007)
0.00004) 10" erg sec
h
X
(
Ratio of physical to chemical scales, 1.000272 + 0.000005t

r
Rydberg constant:
R. - 109737.309 0.012cm'
+
2*'me'/ch<
109677 576 0.012cm-'
Stefan-Boltziriann and related constants:

Surface constant, cr - <i/60)(*V'c') (0.56687 0.00010) X 10 erg/(cm>)(K)<(sec)

'
(1.35393 >0. 00024) X 10"" calAcm'lCKi^secOt

(0 99831 >0. 00018) X I0"' chu/(ft')(K)< (hr)
X
(0.171 18 >0 00003) X I0-" ntu/(ft')(R)(hr)t

Density constant. 4,/e 10"" erg/(cm)(K)t
+
(7.5635 0.0013)
X
Wein's displacement law \,*XT (0.289782 0.000013) (cm)(K)

Schrodinger constant:
Fixed nucleus, lm/h' (1.63836 00007) X I0i;erg-' cm"1

0
Hydrogen atom, lix/h1 (p = reduced mass of

00007) X 10" erg-' cm
+
electron) (1.63748
0
Velocity of light:
+
(2.997930 000003) 10' cm/sec

X
c
0 0
c* (8.987584 + 0000181 X 0! em'/scc't

1
* Except where otherwise indicated, all data are taken directly from tables by E. R, Cohen et
al..
Analysis of Variance of the 195 Data on the Atomic Constants and New Adjustment. 1955. Rev.
2
Mod. Phyt., 7 363-380 (1955).

:
The ratio of the physical to chemical scales as given by R. T. Tiirite (1.000272 0.000005) adopted
is

t
by Cohen et al. In this table the constants on the chemical scale have been calculated using the ratio
1.000272 exactly. The "mole" and "lb-mole" mean the gram-molecule and pound-molecule, respec
tively, on the appropriate scale.
Derived from tables by Cohen et al.. lor. cit.
*J X
Value by R. T. Hirge. New Table of Values of the General Physical Constants, Rett. Mod. Phym.,
A
13: 233 (1941). Also, R. T. Birge, The General Physical Constants as of August, 1941. Phyt. Sor.
(London), Reptt. Progr. in Phyt., 8: 90 (1942).
4.4 Power
1 Mev/sec = 1.60206 X lOr" watt = 1.60206 X 10"" kw

= 3.8264 X 10"" cal/sec = 5.4678 X 10"" Btu/hr
1 watt = 6.24196 X 10" Mev/sec
Power density conversion factors are given in Table 23. Power, flux, and burnup
equivalents are given in Art. 5 of Sec. 1-1.
Table 28. Mass-Energy Equivalents*
Amu Mev Grains Ergs
1 931. 141 0. 010 (1.659790 0.000044) (1.491750 0.000043)

X 10 " X 10-'
(1.073951 + 0 000011) 1 (1.78252 0.00004) (1.60206 0.00003)
x io X 10-" X 10'
(6.02486 0.00016) (5.61000 0.00011) 1 (8.987584 0.000018)
X I0 X 10" X 10"
670.354 0.019 (0 624196 0.000012) (1. 112646 0.000002) 1
X I0 X 10"
I cv = (1.60206 0.00003) X I0~"erg

1 Mev - 1.60206 X I0"" joule - 4.4508 X I0"> kwhr
1.5188 X 10 - " Btu
= 3.8264 X 10" cal
- -
I . 8.988 X 10" joules = 2.496 X 10' kwhr 2.147 X 10" cal = 8.518 X 10" Btu
lib- 4.077 X 10" joules -
1.132 X 10" kwhr = 9.737 X 10" cal = 3.863 X 10" Btu
1 ev/atom (or molecule) = 23047 cal/mole (chemical scale)
I cal/mole (chemical scale) * 4.3389 X 10"s ev/atom (or molecule)
Equivalents are derived from the following values by Cohen et al.: c = (2.997930 0.000003) X
I0>cm/sec, I amu = 931.141 0.010. I g = (6.02486 0.00016) X 10" amu. 1 ev (1.60206 -
0.00003) X 10"" erg.
The heat-conversion factor is taken as 4.18684 joules /cal, and the molar volume on the chemical
scale as 2241 4.6 cm3.
Table 29. Rest Mass of Particles*
Particle Amu Mev Grams

(5.48763 0.00006) X 10"' 0.510976 +0.000007 (9. 1083 + 0.0003) X 10""

1.008982 0.000003 939.505 0 010 (1.67470 0.00004) X 10"
Proton 1.007593 + 0.000003 938.211 + 0 010 (1.67239 + 0 00004) X 10 "
Hydrogen atom. . . 1.008142 0.000003 938 722 + 0. 010+ ( 1.67330 0.00004) X 10 !'t
Hydrogen mass /proton mass = 1.000544613 0.000000006

Proton mass /electron mass = 1836.12 + 0.02
Reduced mass of electron in hydrogen atom = (9.1034 0.0003) X I0~3B k
* Except where otherwise indicated, all data are taken directly from tables by E. R. Cohen et al.,
Analysis of Variance of the 1952 Data on the Atomic Constants and a New Adjustment. 1955. Reva. Mod.
ny$., 27: 365-380 (1955).
t Calculated from data by Cohen et al., loc. cit.
Table 30. Wavelength and Energy Relations*

Property Value
Photons:
-
Wavelength, X. cm (12397.67 0.22) X \0'>/B
Wave number, f 1A, cm"' (8066.03 0. \ 4)E
Electrons:
Compton wavelength, h/me, cm (24.2626 0.0002) X 10-11
de Broglie wavelength, h/mv, cmt (1 . 226378 0.000010) X lO'/JS"
Neutrons:
Compton wavelength. h/.\lc. cm (13.1959 0.0002) X 10""
de Broglie wavelength, h/M.t: omt (3.95603 0.00005) X 10-'/
(2.86005 0.00004) X \0'/EH
Velocity, v, om/sect (1.38320 0. 00003)^ X 10J
Velocity of 0.025-ev neutron, meters/sec 2187.036 0.012
Energy, B, evt (5 22671 0. 000006)v' X 10"t
Energy of 2.200-meter /see neutron, ev 0.0252973 + 0.0000003
kT temperature for 2.200-m/sec neutrons, C 20.426 0.022J
v = velocity, cm /sec E energy, ev
* Except where otherwise indicated, all data are taken directly from tables by E. R. Cohen at al..
Analysis of Variance of the 1952 Data on the Atomic Constants and a New Adjustment, 1955. Reve. Mod.
Phye., 17: 363-380 (1955).
t Quantities involving velocity are for the nonrelativistic range.
t Calculated from data by Cohen ct al., lac, cit.
REFERENCES
1. Units of Weight and Measure (United States Customary and Metric), Definitions and
Tables of Equivalents, Natl. Bur. Standards Misc. Publ. 214, July 1, 1955.
2. Standard Time throughout the World, Noll. Bur. Standards Circ. 496, Aug. 1, 1950.
3a. Griffith, Eier: "The Heat Unit," Institute of Mechanical Engineers, London, 1951.
6. Stimson, H. F.: Heat Units and Temperature Scales for Calorimetry, Am. J. Phys.,
23: 614-622 (1955).
4. Establishment and Maintenance of the Electrical Units, Natl. Bur. Standards Circ. 475,
June 30, 1949.
5. Cohen, E. R., J. W. M. Du Mond, T. W. Layton, and J. S. Rollett: Analysis of Variance
of the 1952 Data on the Atomic Constants and a New Adjustment, 1955, Revs. Mod.
Phys., 87: 363-380 (1955).
6a. Birge, R. T.: A New Table of Values of the General Physical Constants, Revs. Mod.
Phys.,
13: 233 (1941).
b. Birge, R. T.: The General Physical Constants as of August, 1941, Phys. Soc. (London),
Repts. Progr. in Phys., 8 : 90 (1942).
7. Nier, A. O. : A Redetermination of the Relative Abundances of the Isotopes of Carbon,
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, and Potassium, Phys. Rev., 77: 792 (1950).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CF-51-8-10: "Manual of Pile Engineering," AEC Technical Information Service, Oak

Ridge, Tenn., Dec. 28, 1951.
Cohen, E. R., K. M. Crowe, J. W. M. Du Mond: " The Fundamental Constants of Physics,"
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1957.
Eshbach, O. W. (ed.): "Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals," 2d ed.. Sec. 1, pp.
148-166 and Sec. 3, pp. 01-35, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1952.
International Bureau of Weights and Measures: Reports of General Conferences.
National Bureau of Standards: Various Circulars and Miscellaneous Publications.
Zimmerman, O. T., and I. La vine: "Conversion Factors and Tables," 2d ed., Industrial
Research Services, Inc.. Dover, New Hampshire, 1955.
SECTION 2
NUCLEAR DATA
BY
HARRY SOODAK, B.S., M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Physics, The City
College of New York.
CONTENTS
PAGE PAGE
1 Fission- process Data 2-2 6 Resonance Integral Data 2-24
2 Cross Sections of Fissionable and Related 7 Fast-neutron Data 2-27
Heavy Atoms 25 8 Radiations and Their Ranges 2-34
3 Moderator Data 2-8 9 Atomic Weights 2-35
4 Fission-product Cross Sections 2-10 References 2-36

5 Thermal Cross Sections 2-12
2-1
NUCLEAR DATA
BY
Harry Soodak
1 FISSION-PROCESS DATA
1.1 Energy from Fission*-1'8
The energy from slow-neutron fission of U"5 is distributed as listed in Table 1.

The large amount, 168 Mev, of fission-product kinetic energy is converted into heat
within the very short range of the fission products (see Table 35). The 7 Mev of 0
energy is also converted to heat near the point of fission. The 18 Mev plus the capture
7 energy amounts to about 10 per cent of the total energy and is a source of heat in all
parts of the reactor. The 11 Mev of neutrino energy escapes from the reactor and is
not a source of heat.
Table 1. Energy from Slow-neutron Fission of U'"

Space Prompt plus
distribution Prompt energy, Mev Delayed energy, Mev delayed energy,
of heat Mev
Localized heat . . Fission-product kinetic energy, 168* Fission-product decay fin, 7{ 175
Dispersed heat. . Neutron kinetic energy ( 5) pluH Fission-product decay 79, 6J 18

prompt fission ys (7.5)t = 12.5 plus capture 7a
plus capture 7s
Total heat 180 plus capture ya 13 193

plus capture 7a
No heat Neutrinos from Q decay, 1 1H
E. J. Whitchouse, Progr. Nuclear Phy*., i

: I 20 (1952).
t R. Gambia, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Texas, June, 1955.
t Old, C. C, and J. W. Weil, TID-65, 1948.
1 K. Way and E. P. Wiener, Phya. Rev., 73: 1318 (1948).
1.2 Prompt-neutron Spectrum1
Of the total number v of neutrons emerging from a fission process, the large fraction

(1 0) is emitted promptly, and the small fract ion 0 is the delayed neutrons emitted
by excited nuclei formed in the jS decay of fission-product atoms. Values for the total
neutron yield v are given in Art. 1.3.
The c(l 0) prompt neutrons emitted from a slow-neutron fission of U,si are born
with an energy spectrum that is fairly well fitted by the theoretical expression
N(E) =
{-J e-" sinh (2E)H (1)
where N(E) dE is the fraction of neutrons emitted in the energy range between E and
* Superscript numbers refer to References at end of section.
2-2
Art. 1] FISSION-PROCESS DATA 2-3
(E + dE) and E is in Mev. The average neutron energy is 2.0 Mev. N{E) is a maxi
mum at E = 0.72. Table 15 of Sec. 7-3 lists N(E),
f* N(E) dE, and jg N(E) dE
as functions of E.
The prompt-neutron
is,
spectrum for Pu23' within experimental error, the same as
that for U"s.
Delayed- and Prompt-neutron Yields3
*
1.3
5
The delayed neutrons with significant yields fall into six groups. The neutrons
of each group are emitted exponentially from the time of fission with a certain half-
life. The half-lives are listed in Table along with the mean energy of neutrons in
2
each group. Also listed the precursor of each group. The delayed neutron
is
is
emitted following decay of the precursor atom.
(3
Table 2. Delayed-neutron Half-lives, Energies, and Precursors*
Group index Half-life, sec Mean energy, kev Precursor
54 250 Br"'
6 5 4 3 2 1
22 500 im
5.8 400 Br'-i>t
(I'")t
2.
500
1
0.46 400 (Sb' or As')t

0. 16 (Li')t
compiled from the various data presented in R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz. D. J. Hughes,

This table
is
and D. J. Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.. Now York,
1956.
Data in parentheses are uncertain. Li9 presumed to be formed as the long-range low-mass
is
t
fragment in a small fraction of the fissions.
Tables to of Sec. 8-1 present data on relative yields of the various delay groups.
2
It isseen that the half-lives are not all alike. An important reason for this that the
is
observed emission of delayed neutrons can be analyzed into sums of exponentials in
more than one way. The relative yield of neutrons emitted in group 0%/f), where is
i
the number of delayed neutrons emitted in group per fission and vff the total
is
rfii is
i
number of delayed neutrons emitted per fission.
1.4 Delayed Photoneutrons4
Delayed neutrons may also arise from photoneutron production by the delayed
y
rays. Because of the lack of high-energy 7s in fission-product radiations, delayed

photoneutrons are of significance only for reactors containing deuterium atoms or
Table 3. Half -life and Maximum Yield of Delayed Photoneutrons
in D20-U!3S Reactor*
a
Half-life, tec 10

Yield.
2.5 78
41 24
B.
144
4
462 4.0
1.620 2.5
5.940 2.8
15.840 0.39
190.800 0. 12
1.105.000 0.05
* A. Lundby and N. Holt. Nucleonics, 12(1): 24 (January, 1954).
beryllium atoms. For these atoms, the photoneutron threshold energies are 2.22 and
1.67 Mev, respectively. The half-life of each delayed photoneutron group the
is
5-decay half-life of the atom that the precursor of the excited atom emitting the
is
y ray. The half-lives and maximum yields of delayed photoneutrons in a DzO-UJ3S

reactor are presented in Table The maximum yield that obtained all the
3.
if
is
See Kef. chap.

1.
*
3.
2-4 NUCLEAR DATA [SEC. 2
fission-product 7 rays were born inside an infinite block of DjO. Absorption or
degradation of the y ray by fuel or other material and leakage of the y ray out of the
important neutron region of the reactor would both reduce the yield below the
maximum.
1.5 Prompt Gammas
A fission in U"6 results in the emission of 7.5 Mev of prompt 7-ray energy. The
energy spectrum of the individual y rays is roughly a decreasing exponential with
7-ray energy. The average 7-ray energy is 0.9 Mev, and thus somewhat over 8 7s
are emitted (on the average).
1.6 Delayed Gammas and Betas''8
About 6 Mev of 7-ray energy is emitted by the fission products as they 0 decay
toward stability. The rate of release of this 6 Mev diminishes with time and for not
too short times roughly behaves as
r = 1.3r12 Mev/(sec) (fission) for t> 10 sec (2)
where I is the time in seconds after the occurrence of the fission and T is the 7 energy
emitted in Mev per second per fission. This formula leads to
-
]
Py = 0.032P[r
(t + <o)- for > 10 sec (3)
t
where Pr the power of a reactor that has been running steadily for time sec, at
is
f0
a
which time the reactor shut down, and P-, the delay power at the time sec after
is
is
t
shutdown. Pr expressed in watts and Py in Mev per second, then
If
is
Py - X 10uPje[r0-2 - + to)-"-*] Mev /sec for > 10 sec (4)

2
(t
I
The rate of energy during the first 10 sec somewhat higher than the value of Py
is
7
at 10 sec. The spectrum of these after-shutdown rays peaks at about 0.8 Mev
7
t
and extends up to about Mev.

3
For fission-product rays, the energy release for > 10 sec roughly the same as
is
0
that for rays. As a result, Eqs. (2), (3), and (4) apply also to the delayed energy.
0
7
1.7 The Fission Products' ll
In 99.8 per cent of all fissions, the products are two heavy nuclei (fragments). In
the remaining 0.2 per cent of all fissions, light particle of long range also emitted.
is
a
Table 4. Fission -product Distribution*

Fraction of total
number of atoms after
Atom or a burnup of 10 per cent
atoms at a thermal flux of I0U, per cent
Rare earths 24.
4
t
Rare (rases 16.2

Zr 15.0
Mo 12.5
Cs 6.4
Ru 5.4
Sr 4.4
Te 4.0
Ba 3.2
Br 0.8
I.
Subtotal 92.3
Other element.*
7.
7
Total ToO
W. L. Robb, J. B. Sampson, .1. H. Stehn, and K. Davidson, Nucleonics, 13 (12): 31 (1955).
J.
*
Distribution of specific ran? earths at 10 per cent burnup Nd, 9.9 per cent; Ce, 6.0 per cent; La,
is
t
3.1 per cent; Pr, 3.0 per cent; Pm, l.f per cent; Sm, 0.7 per cent; Eu. 0.5 per cent; Gd, 0.1 percent,
for a total of 24.4 per cent. See also Table of Sec.
1.
1
4
Art. 2] CROSS SECTIONS OF FISSIONABLE ATOMS 2-5
These light particles are presumed to be energetic a particles with energies ranging
up to 28 Mev.
The main fission products fall into two groups, the heavy group and the light
group. The light group peaks at a mass number near 95, and t he heavy group peaks
near 140. The yield at the peaks is G to 7 per cent and is lower by a factor of several
hundred at mass number ~120 (corresponding to symmetrical fission) and at mass
numbers 80 and 155. The kinetic energy of the light fragment peaks near 90 Mev.
The heavy-fragment energy peaks near 60 Mev. The average total kinetic energy
of both fragments is 168 Mev.
Table 4 lists the atomic composition of fission products in a reactor that has had
10 per cent of its U"5 content burned up at a thermal flux of 10u. The composition
changes only slightly with further burnup.
2 CROSS SECTIONS OF FISSIONABLE AND RELATED HEAVY ATOMS

2.1 Spontaneous Fission14
Fission is an exothermic reaction. As a result it can and does occur spontaneously.

Table 5 lists rates for some heavy atoms.
2.2 Thermal Cross Sections*18
Table 6 lists thermal-neutron data for fissionable and fertile materials. Data not
taken from "Neutron Cross Sections" (BNL-325) are from Ref. 3, Chap. 1. The
notation used is defined in Art. 5, Thermal Cross Sections. The numbers in paren
theses preceded by a multiplication sign are the /

numbers defined in Art. 5. The
Table 5. Spontaneous Fission Rates of Some Materials*

Material Number of fileiont/(g)(tec)
Th" 4. 1 X 10'
Us" <l.9 X 10-'
U"< 3.5 X 10-
gm 3 1 X 10<
U" 2.8 X 10'
rjm 7.0 X 10-'
Np"' " 1.6 X 10"
Pu>" 1. 1 X 10"
Pu" 1.0 X 10
Pu> 4.6 X I0>
Pu 8. 2 X I0>
Studier and Huiienga, Phyt. Rev.. 6: 546 (1954).
Table 6. Thermal Data for Fissionable and Fertile Materials*
ffi,(2.200)," .7,(2.200), ,((/>) .((*).

Atom barns
V a(2.200)
V^barns^ at 20C barns
Th" 7.0 12.5

U(nat) 7.68 4.18 2 47 0.837 1.33 8.3
(X0.99) (X 0.977)
U 593 524 2.55 0. 132 2. 29
(X0.996) (XI. Oil)
U" 698 590 2.47 0. 183 2.09 10
(X 0.974) (X0.977)
rjiaa 2 75 0 8.3
Pu 1032 729 2.91 0.416 2.02
(XI. 073) (X 1.056)
The for USM, Um, Pw,M are taken from page I of R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes,
values
and D. J.
Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics," chap. I by J. A. Harvey and J. E. Sanders,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1956, and differ somewhat from the BNL-325 values
of Table 23.
* Sec Ref. 3, chap. 1.
2-6 NUCLEAR DATA [Sec. 2
neutron yield per fission v is independent of neutron energy in the thermal region.
The cross-section ratios do, however, change (according to the numbers). / As a
consequence, the neutron yield per absorption ij is a function of neutron energy. For
2,200-meter/sec (0.0253-ev) neutrons, the ij values may be calculated by dividing
by 1 + a(2,200). For a Maxwell distribution at temperature ~20C, the values are
different and are listed under i)(th). For U, U233, and U236 the value of r)(lh) is insensi
tive to neutron temperature change in the thermal region. For Pu23', it is found that
ri(lh) decreases by 0.0007 per centigrade-degree rise. Thus for Pu*"
dr,(th)
0.0007/C (5)
dT
2.3 Cross Sections at Various Energies*
Table 7 presents for U"5 the average value of ofE^ (the product of fission cross
section times square root of neutron energy) for several energies. By average value
is meant the average over resonances in the neighborhood of the listed energy. For
a pure l/v cross section, orE^ would be independent of energy. The table exhibits
the departure of the average fission cross section from the l/v behavior and shows the
cross-section "window" in the energy range of a few electron volts.
Table 7. Average Fission Cross Section of U23S as Function of Neutron Energy*

Average value of
Energy E
or energy range barn y/ev
0
97
1. 5-6 cv 21
7. 8-10. 8 ev 240
70 ev 240
100 ev 245
200 ev 275
400 ev 270
700 ev 275
1 kev 230
1. 25 kev 320
1. 75 kev 240
2. 2 kev 340
3 kev 305
5 kev 340
10 kev 370
20 kev 400
50 kev 470
100 kev 570
200 kev 670

* R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. .!. Hughes, and D J. Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics,'
chap. 3 by H. A. Bethe, McGraw-Hill Book Company. Inc., New York, 1956.
Table 8. Capture-to-fission Ratio for U2" and Pu239 for Various Neutron Spectra*
Capture-to-fission ratio for

Spectrum of median fission energy,
cv
TJjii Pu
30 0.65
100 0.52 0.81
1.200 0.47 0.60
15.000 0.41 0.45
* R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J.Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics,"

chap. II, pp. 378-379. by II. Hurwiu, ,Ir., and R. Ehrlich, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1956.
Table 8 lists values of the capture-to-fission ratio a = ajar for U235 and Pu23* for
various spectra of incident neutrons. These values were obtained by measuring the
See Ref. 3, chaps. 3 and 11.
Art. 2] CROSS SECTIONS OF FISSIONABLE ATOMS 2-7
number of fissions and the number of captures that occurred in a sample placed in the
Hanford reactor. The incident-neutron spectrum was controlled by using various
shields around the sample.
Measurements of 7; for U"3, U"5, and Pu2" at neutron energies of 30 and 900
kev are presented in Table 9. The neutrons used in these measurements were
photoneutrons.
2.4 Cross Sections for Fast Neutrons*
Cross sections averaged over the neutron spectrum at the center of some fast
reactors are listed in Table 10. Also given are the calculated cross sections averaged
over the fission spectrum. The fast reactors and the neutron spectrum are described
in Art. 7. Transport cross sections are given in Table 32, Art. 7. It may be noted
from Table 10 that the value of a for U"5 in the central spectrum of EBR I is
0.15
0.114
1.32
Using the value v = 2.47 + 0.1 = 2.57 leads to 17 = v/(l + a) = 2.31, which agrees
with the 900-kev value of Table 9. For Pu"9, however, use of r 2.91 + 0.1 3.01 - -
and a = 0.11/1.87 = 0.059 leads to tj = 2.84 as opposed to the 2.52 of Table 9.
Cross sections averaged over the equilibrium neutron spectrum of natural uranium
aregiven in Table 11. Table 31 characterizes this spectrum.
Table 9. Values of n for the Fissionable Materials at 30 and 900 Kev*

Value of v for neutrona of energy
Atom
30 kev 900 kev
2.25 2.60
U"' 1.86 2.28
Pu> 2.01 2.52
* M. S. Kozodacv, Proc. Intern. Con}. 4: 352 (1955).
Table 10. Fission and Capture Cross Sections at the Centers of Fast Reactor Cores*
Cross section, barns, at center of

Cross section for a
Atom and fission spectrum,

reaction
barns
EBR I Godiva Zephyr I Zephyr II
Fission in:
Tb" 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.075
U" 2.36 2. 19 1.94
U" 1.32 1.3 1.46 1.36 1.28
U" 0. 152 0.20 0. 18 0.21 0.28
Np" 0.79f 0.9 0.8 0.9 1. 18
Pu>" l.87t l.87t l.87t 1.87t 1.89
Pu'"
Radiative capture in:
Au"" 0.25f 0. 12 0. 174 0. 146 0. 137
U" 0. 15
rjiM 0. I32t 0. 10 0. 133 0. 130 0.096
Pu" 0. lit
* R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eds.), "Phyaica and Mathematics,"
chap. 9. p. 289. by J. Codd, L. R. Shepherd, and J. II. Tait, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1956.
t These values are calculated by using known cross sections aa functions of energy and averaging
over the measured central spectrum of EBR I.
X This cross section was obtained at the core boundary of EBR I.
See Ref. 3, chap. 9.

Table 11. Average Cross Sections in Natural Uranium Equilibrium Spectrum*' t
Atom and reaction Average cross section, barns
Fission in:
U>" 2.8
U"' 1. 8
U"" 0.01
Np' 0. 16
Pu" 1. 80
Pu" 0. 25
Radiative capture in:
Au1" 0.43
C" 0.21
* R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics."
chap. 9. p. 291. by J. Codd. L. R. Shepherd, and J. H. Tait. McGraw-Hill Book Company. Inc., New
York. 1956.
t Neutrons in spectral equilibrium in natural uranium. Such a spectrum is found some distance
inside a block of uranium at a depth sufficient for the source neutrons to have lived several generation
times in the uranium. Table 35 describes such a spectrum.
2.5 Fission "Thresholds"" "

Fission, being an exothermic process, occurs spontaneously and is not a true
threshold process. The probability per unit time that a nucleus splits is quite small,
as shown by the spontaneous fission rates of Table 5. If the nucleus is given sufficient
excitation energy, however, the fission activation energy barrier is overcome and the
nucleus splits promptly. To within a few per cent, 5.25 Mev of -y-ray energy is
sufficient to cause measurable photon-induced fission in various nuclei ranging from
Th to Pu. This is the photofission "threshold." For the thermally fissionable
nuclei, the binding energy of an incident neutron is sufficient to overcome the activa
tion energy barrier. For the nonthermally fissionable nuclei, the binding energy
must be supplemented by kinetic energy of the incident neutron in order to overcome
the barrier. As a result, the fission cross section of these nuclei is essentially zero up
to some energy and then rises rapidly to a first plateau, at which point the barrier is
essentially overcome. Table 12 lists the values of the fission cross section at the first
plateau that occurs near 2 Mev. Also listed are the energies E\<, and E\\a at which the
cross section is one-half and one-tenth of the plateau value.
Table 12. Fission Cross Sections of Nonthermally Fissionable Nuclei*
Atom y(~2 Mev), barnst By,. Mevt Mev",

BMo.
Th 1 4 1. 25
0. 11
Pa"' 1.0 0.8 0.46
U"< 15 0 62 0. 36
U" 0.8 1. 1 0.8
U"< 0 54 1.45 1 25
Np>" 14 0 6 0 37
* Values from the curves of BNL-325.

t This is the value of the cross section at the first plateau. This value is reached at about 2 Mev.
% is the energy at which the fission cross section drops to half the plateau value,
B^
t 'a the energy corresponding to one-tenth of the plateau value.
3 MODERATOR DATA
3.1 Nuclear Properties of Standard Moderators*-16-18
Table 13 presents some important nuclear properties of the usually considered

moderators. The number N of molecules per unit volume is calculated from the
formula
See Ref.
N-% (6)
1, chap. 1.5.
Art. 3] moderator data 2-9
Table 13. Nuclear Properties of Standard Moderators
Number of
Macroscopic Thermal- Age from
Nominal molecules Slowing- Diffusion
absorption diffusioD fission to
density per unit down power coefficient
Moderator cross section length thermal
p volume N(t. (epi), U = LAVs. (2.200),
g/cm' A', AV.i. (2.200), cm-1 cm U T,
cm-1 cm cm*
10 "/cm'
H*0 1.00 0 0334 0.0220 1 38 0.179 2.85t 31

DrO 1.10 0 0334 0 000037 0.180 1 07 170 125
M) (0 16% H.O) 1.10 0.0334 0 000072 0.180 0.952 115 125
Be 1.84 0.1229 0 00123 0.156 0.542 21 97
BeO 2.96 0.0713 0 000727 0 123 0.530 27 105. 155
C 1.60 0 0803 0 000386" 0.0595 1.04 52 365
'This value ia based on vs (2,200) = 4,8 millibams rather than the Table 19 value of 3.2 millibarns. The higher
raiseis mentioned in Ref. 1. chap. 1.5. The actual value of <rabi(2,200) dependson the impurities presentin the graphite.
For Be and BeO, the Table 19 value of 10 millibarns was used for Be. Reference 18gives 6 millibarns as the pure Be
nine and 9 millibarns as the value of the commercial beryllium used in the experiment. Reference 17finds a crosssection
for BeO that is 18 per cent lower than the value listed in the above table.
f The value is for water at room temperature, ~25C. Between this temperature and 93C, L rises by 0.006 cm/C,
-
is,
That dL/dT 0.006 cm/'C.
N Avogadro's number, M
the molecular weight, and the moderator
is
where
is
ia
p
density. The macroscopic absorption cross section for neutrons of velocity 2,200
meters/sec is given by Afo-Oi,.(2,200), where o-0(,,(2,200) the sum of the absorption
is
cross sections of the atoms composing the molecule, as given in Table 18. The
slowing-down power given by Na,(epi), where {o-.(ept') the sum over the atoms
is
is
composing the molecule of the products times <r,(epi) for each atom, where o-.(epi)

13 the epithermal or free atom scattering cross section, listed in Table 18.
The square of the thermal-diffusion length L" defined as one-sixth the mean
is
square distance between the birth position of thermal neutron and the death position
a
an infinite block of material. The values listed are in line with the measured values
in
reported in the references.

The age t defined as the mean square distance between the birth position of a
is
fission neutron and the position at which the neutron becomes a thermal neutron.
In most of the referenced measurements of the age, the mean square distance
measured directly, but to the position of being absorbed in the indium resonance at is
1.46 ev rather than the (ambiguous) position of thermalization. A calculated mean
square distance between indium resonance and thermal added to give the net age
is
from fission to thermal. In recent experiments the time dependence of thermal-

neutron flux measured following the pulsed introduction of fast neutrons into a
is
block of moderator. Such measurements can be analyzed to give the age, thermal-
diffusion length, and absorption cross section. The age values listed are in line with
the values reported in the references. Both reported values of for BeO are given
r
because of their large difference. These values were obtained by the two different
methods. The larger value of 155 cm2 was obtained by the pulsed source method.
The listed value of the diffusion coefficient >' given by Ii'AToVu (2,200) and the
is
is
value to use in Fick's law* absorption cross sections used in the calculations are
if
those for 2,200 meters /sec. If, however, the Maxwell average cross sections <rai,,(th)
are used, then the diffusion coefficient should be taken as D = L2Naab,(th). This
point discussed in Art. 5.
is
3.2 Metal-Water Mixturest

The age from fission to thermal in mixtures of water with aluminum and water with
zirconium given in Table 14 of Sec. 6-2.
is
in = D&ptk where jtk the current density and ytk the flux of thermal neutrons.
*
is
t.See Ref. chap. 1.5.

1.
3.3 Collisions and Time to Slow Down
According to the continuous-slowing-down theory, the number of collisions required

to slow down a neutron from the energy Ea to the energy E is given by
fE" IdE 1 , Eo
which is equal to 18/{ when E = 2 Mev and E = 0.0253 ev. Thus, 18/( may be
called the number of collisions required to thermalize and is listed in Table 14.
Table 14. Number of Collisions and Time Required to Thermalize
Moderator Number of collisions Time, 10 ' sec
HiO 19 6.6
D,0 35 31
Be 87 58
BeO 103 74
C 113 153
The time required to slow down from the energy E<>to the energy E is given by
[E>
l dE
_ 2 /l _ 1\
where v is the neutron speed. For the energy values chosen above, l/i>0 is negligible
and v 2,200 meters /sec. The resulting time may be called the slowing-down time
and is also listed in Table 14.
4 FISSION-PRODUCT CROSS SECTIONS

For absorption of thermal neutrons, the fission products are divided into three
groups, Xe136, Sm14', and the remainder, or "low-cross-section," fission products.
4.1 Xenon10''
The first group, Xe'", is part of the fission-product chain

2 min 6.7 hr 9.2 hr 2X10yeara
Tc>36 -> I us Xeus > Cs1" Ba1"
For fission in Um, the Xe13e atom is formed in 6 per cent of all fissions. The yield
for direct formation is 0.3 per cent. In the remainder of the 6 per cent, the Xe"* is
formed by decay of I'". The Xe136 yield in Pu33* fission is about the same as in
TJ13S The thermal-neutron (Maxwell average) absorption cross section of Xe13' is
listed in Table 15 as a function of neutron temperature. The two possible sets of
values that are listed are 13 per cent apart. Picking a cross-sectional value of
a = 2.3 mcgabarns and taking the yield y = 0.06 result in the product <ry = 0.14
megabarn in disagreement with the value ay = 0.195 10 per cent measured at the
Materials Testing Reactor. The Table 19 (BNL-325) entry for Xe136 when used with
Eq. (15) gives a (20C) = 2.80 mcgabarns and ay = 0.17 mcgabarn.f
4.2 Samarium13'"
The atom Sm1<9 is the stable isotope of the fission-product chain
1.7 hr 47 hr
Nd> > Pm' Sm1"
and is formed in 1.3 per cent of fissions in U135. The thermal-absorption cross section
in the neighborhood of room temperature is 6.6 X 10* barns.
* See Ref. 3. chap. 5.
t For further discussion of Xe1,& yield and cross section see Table 26 of Sec. 1-1.
Art. 4]
fission-product cross sections 2-11
Table 16. Maxwell Average Absorption Cross Section of Xem*
Cross-section possibility!
Neutron temperature,
K
A, megabarns B, megabarns
300 2 24 2.50
400 2.05 2.30
500 1.85 2.08
600 1.67 1. 88
700 1.48 1.70
800 1.34 1.54
900 1.21 1.38
1000 1.08 1.23
R. A. Charpie. J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics,"

chap. 5. p. 177. Fig. 9. by S. Bernstein and E. C. Smith, MoGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1956.
t Tbe spin of Xe"1 is presumed to be /
nance is due to J M m Possibility B refers to the other oase, J
Possibility A refers to the case that the Xe115 reso
+ yi m 2.
Table 16. Um Fission-product Cross Sections for Thermal Neutrons

Atom Yield y and absorption cross section orl
Xe'. V = 6%
<r.b.- 2.37- 0.0018 (7" - 300K) megabarns
where T > neutron temperature in K
300 < T < 1,000
8m'" V- 1.3%
M
" 6.6 X I0< barns

Low-crons-section group. V- (2.200)
100%
, , 1-80 barns at 0 % burnup
\ = 65 barns at 10% burnup for 10" flux
Table 17. Estimated Fission-product Cross Sections as Function of Neutron Energy*
Neutron energy E, Average Um fission cross section ay, Fission-product absorption cross section
cv barns per fission, barns
10* 23 15
10" 8.S 2.8
10' 3.7 0.49
I0> 1.7 0. 10
10* 1.3 0.04f
* R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics,"

chap. 11. p. 376. by H. Hurwitz, Jr., and It. Ehrlich, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1956.
t This value is about half of that estimated on the basis of the t-Mev cross sections of Table 25.
4.3 Low -cross-section Fission Products",1"
The "low-cross-section" fission products can be regarded as if they were a single

fission product formed with a yield of 100 per cent. The cross section of this product
for U1" has been estimated to be 80 barns at 2,200 meters/sec. The composition of
these low-cross-section fission products changes with time in the reactor because of
the greater neutron absorption in the higher-cross-section atoms. As a result, the
average cross section diminishes with time. At a neutron flux of 10'4, the cross section
has dropped to 65 barns after a burnup of 10 per cent of the U2'5.
The above results are summarized in Table 16, where the Xe cross section is taken
at about the average of the possibilities of Table 15.
4.4 Intermediate and Fast Cross Sections
Table 17 presents fission-product cross sections at various energies based on esti

mates of resonance parameter distributions.
6 THERMAL CROSS SECTIONS

5.1 Notation and Values"
Tables 18 and 19 present slow-neutron data for isotopes and elements. All cross
sections in these tables arc those of "Neutron Cross Sections," BNL-325. Table 16,
however, suggests the use of a different value for the Sni1" absorption cross section.
Tabic 6 lists different values for thermal data of the fissionable atoms. Also, Table
16 gives a different value for the thermal cross section of Xel".
The subscripts describing the cross section a have the following meaning:
abs = absorption by any process including fission

= scattering
F = fission
act = activation
c = capture, radiative capture, absorption by the ny process
A quantity denoted by 0(2,200) means the value of Q for neutrons of speed 2,200
meters/sec, corresponding to a kinetic energy of 0.0253 ev. A quantity denoted by
Q(th) means the value of Q for thermal neutrons at a particular temperature. If a
thermal value is listed without a corresponding temperature, it may be assumed that
the temperature of the material in which the measurement was made was not far from
room temperature. The scattering cross section is listed for both thermal and
'epithermal" neutrons. The epithermal cross section <r,(epi) is the scattering cross
section of the "free atom," free of binding effects of chemical or crystal nature, and
is usually the actual scattering cross section for some range of neutron energies above
thermal. In summary
<r(2,200) = value for 2,200-meter /sec neutrons

a(th) = value for thermal neutrons
tr,(epi) = epithermal or free-atom scattering cross section
The quantity is defined as the average loss in the natural logarithm of the neutron
energy due to a scattering collision. For neutrons slowing down through the reso
nance region, is given by
- i + Yzrr ln r ^
-
[j^)IV
where r =
(M (10,
and M is the atomic weight of the atom. The values of in Tabic 18 arc calculated
from these equations. An approximate expression accurate to 1 per cent for M > 10
is
(u)
*mWTH
The quantity cos 6 is the average value of the cosine of the angle through which the
neutron is scattered. For neutrons slowing down through the resonance region, cos 6
is given by
coil
T^j
= (12)
which the formula used to obtain the values in Table 18. For thermal neutrons,
is
Eq. (12) may also be used except for small M and except for materials in which the
effects of binding between the atom and its neighbors are important.
Art. 5] THERMAL CROSS SECTIONS 2-13
Table 18. Slow-neutron Properties of the Elements*
Nominal Atoms
Element
Atomic density, per cm3 1 -- COS S
, (2.200), c ((A), <r, (cpi),
weight barns barns barns
g/em' (XI0 )
iH 1.008 0.333 1.0 0.332 38 (gas) 20.4

iD 2. 0147 0.666 0.7261 0.00046 7 3.4
II.- 4.003 0.832 0.4281 0 0070 0.8 0.83
iLi 6.940 0.534 0.0463 0.9031 0.2643 71.0 1.4 0.9
.Be 9.02 1.84 0. 1229 0.9255 0.2078 0.010 7 6. II
>B 10.82 2.535 0. 1411 0 9379 0. 1756 755 4 3.7
<e 12.01 1.60 0.0803 0 9440 0. 1589 0.0032 4.8 4.66
7N 14.008 0.9520 0. 1373 1.88 10 9.9
.0 16.000 0.9580 0. 1209 0.00019 4.2 3.75
iF 19.00 0.9646 0. 1025 0.009 3.9 3.6
itNe 20. 183 0.9667 0.0967 <2.8 2 4 2.6
uNa 22.997 0.9712 0.0254 0.9708 0.0852 0.505 4.0 3. 1
uMl 24.32 1.741 0.0431 0.9724 0.087 0.063 3 6 3.4
11AI 26 97 2.699 0.0603 0.9751 0.0730 0.230 1.4 1.4
Si 28.06 2.42 0.0519 0.9760 0.0702 0. 13 1.7 2.2
I.P 30.98 2.34 0.0455 0.9783 0.0637 0. 19 5 3.4
i<8 32.06 2.0 0.0376 0.9790 0.0616 0.49 1. 1 1. 1
itCI 35.457 0.9810 0.0558 31.6 16
,A 39.944 0.9832 0 0497 0.62 1.5 0 68
,.K 39.096 0.87 0.0134 0.9828 0 0507 1.97 15 2. 1
uCa 40 08 1.54 0.0231 0.9832 0 0495 0.43 3 3.0
tiSc 45 10 2 5 0 0334 0.9851 0 0441 24 0 24
nTl 47 90 4 5 0.0566 0.9860 0 0415 5.6 4 4.2
nV 50 95 5.96 0.0705 0.9868 0 0391 4 98 5 4.9
..Cr 52.01 6.92 0.0801 0.9871 0.0383 2.9 3.0 3.9

:.Mn 54.93 7 2 0.0789 0.9878 0.0363 13.2 2 3 1.9
nFe 55.85 7.85 0.0847 0.9880 0 0357 2 53 II 11.4
,Co 58.94 8.71 0.0890 0.9886 0.0338 37.0 7 5.8
Ni 58.69 8.9 0.0913 0.9885 0.0340 4.6 17.5 17.4
Cu 63.57 8 89 0 0842 0.9894 0.0314 3.62 7.2 7.7
isZn 65.38 7. 19 0.0662 0.9897 0.0305 1.06 3.6 4.0
i:Ga 69.72 5.9 0 0510 0.9904 0.0287 2.77 4 7.3
wGe 72 60 5.46 0 0453 0.9907 0.0275 2.35 3 8.7
>Aa 74.91 5 73 0 0461 0.9910 0 0267 4. 1 6 7.8
iSe 78 96 4.5 0 0343 0.9915 0.0253 11.8 II 7.8
Br 79.916 3.12 0.0235 0.9916 0.0250 6.6 6 6.0
. Kr 83.7 0.9920 0.0239 28 7.2
.-Rl, 85 48 1 532 0.0108 0.9921 0.0234 0.70 12 5 4
i& 87 63 2.6 0.0179 0.9923 0 0228 1.16 10 9.8
Y 88 92 3.8 0.0257 0.9924 0.0225 1.28 3
Zr 91.22 6.44 0.0425 0.9926 0 0220 0. 180 8 6.2
uNb 92.91 8 4 0.0545 0.9928 0.0216 1. 1 5 6.5

uMo 95.95 10.2 0.0640 0.9930 0 0209 2 5 7 6.0
oTe 99 0.9932 0.0202 100
iRu 101.7 12.2 0 0723 0 9934 0.0197 2.46 6 6 S
uRh 102.91 12.5 0.0732 0.9935 0 0195 150 5 5 5
Pd 106.7 12. 16 0.0686 0.9937 0 0188 8.0 3 6 4 7
Ar 107.880 10.5 0.0586 0.9938 0.0186 62 6 6.4

Cd 112.41 8.65 0.0463 0.9940 0.0178 2,550 7
(XI. 3)
uln 114.76 7.28 0.0382 0.9941 0.0175 190 2.2
iiSn 118 7 7.3 0.0370 0.9943 0.0169 0.60 4 4.8
i.Sb 121 76 6.691 0.0331 0.9945 0.0165 5.5 4 3 4. 1
iTe 127.61 6.25 0.0295 0.9947 0.0157 4 5 5 4.4
ul 126.92 4.94 0.0234 0.9947 0.0158 6 7 3.6 3.7
nXe 131.3 0.9949 0 0153 35 4.3
iCs 132.91 1.873 0.0085 0.9949 0 0151 29.0 20 10 6.9
I'-i 137 36 3 78 0.0166 0.9951 0 0146 1. 17 8 5.9
:La 138.92 6.15 0.0267 0.9952 0.0145 8.9 15 5 9.2
isCe 140. 13 6 9 0.0297 0.9952 0 0143 0 70 9 6 2.8
Pt 140.92 6.475 0.0277 0.9952 0.0142 11.2 3.9
Nd 144 27 6.96 0 0291 0.9953 0.0139 46 16
iPm 147 0.9954 0.0137 60
Table 18. Slow-neutron Properties of the Elements.* (Continued)
Nominal Atoms
Element Atomic
weight
density. per cm1 1 cos 6 i <r.. (2.200).
barns barns
. (P0,
barns
K/cm' (XI0 -")
Sm 150. 43 7.7 0.0308 0.9955 0.0134 5,500

(XI. 5)
eiEu 152.0 5.24 0.0208 0.9956 0.0132 4,600 8
(X.95)
Gd 156.9 7.94 0 0305 0.9957 0.0128 46.000
(X.85)
..Tb 159.2 8.33 0.0315 0.9958 0.0126 44
6oDy 162.46 8.56 0.0317 0.9959 0.0124 1. 100 100
iHo 164.94 8.76 0.0320 0.9959 0.0122 64
I l-'.r 167.2 9.16 0.0330 0.9960 0.0120 166 15
saTm 169.4 9.34 0.0332 0.9960 0.0119 128
ioYb 173.04 7.01 0.0244 0.9961 0.0116 36 12
7iLu 174.99 9.74 0.0335 0.9962 0.0115 108
7.Hf 178.6 11.4 0.0384 0.9962 0.0113 105 8
jiTa 180.88 16.6 0.0553 0.9963 0.01 11 21.3 5 6
7.W 183.92 19.3 0 0632 0.9963 0.0109 19.2 5 5.6
TtRe 186.31 20 0.0647 0.9964 0.0108 84 14
7Oa 190.2 22.48 0.0712 0.9965 0.0106 14.7 II IS
77lr 193. 1 22.42 0.0699 0.9965 0.0104 430
7Pt 195.23 21.37 0.0659 0. 9966 0.0103 8. 1 10 12
7Au 197.2 19.3 0.0589 0.9966 0.0102 98.8 9.3
oHg 200.61 13.546 0.0407 0.9966 0.0100 380 20
(X95)
.iTl 204.39 11.86 0.0349 0.9967 0. 0098 3.3 14 10
..Pb 207.21 11.347 0.0330 0.9968 0.0097 0. 170 II 11.3

uBi 209.00 9.8 0 0282 0.9968 0.0096 0.032 9 9. 28
uPo 210 0.9968 0.0096 7.0
lAt 211 0.9968 0.0095
boRq 222 0.9970 0.0091
7Fr 223 0.9970 0.0090
..Ra" 226.05 5 0.0133 0.9970 0.0089 20
iiAc"' 227 0.9970 0.0089 510
oTh 232. 12 11.5 0.0298 0.9971 0.0087 7.45 12.5 12.5
iPa"' 233. II 0.9971 0.0087 40
t.U 238.07 18.7 0.0473 0.9972 0.0084 7.68 8.3
(X.99)
9lNP'" 239.13 0.9972 0.0084 60
,.Pu' 239. 13 19.6 0.0494 0.9972 0 0084 1.025 9.6
(XI. 075)
* Cross sections from BNL-325.

6.2 2,200 Meters/sec and Thermal Cross Sections

To calculate the thermal cross section for absorption or for fission, it is necessary to
know the spectrum of the thermal neutrons and the cross-sectional variation with
neutron energy through the range of thermal energies. The thermal cross section
o(th) is an average value defined such that the product of a(lh) [or a macroscopic cross
section based on a(th)\ times the total flux of thermal neutrons results in the correct
value for the reaction rate.
If the cross section varies inversely with the neutron speed (is proportional to \/v),
and if the thermal spectrum is that of a Maxwell distribution at the absolute tem
perature T, then
a(th) = (13)
^<r(*r)
where a(kT) is the value of the cross section for neutrons of kinetic energy kT and k
is the Boltzmann constant, (the universal gas constant R per mole divided by Avo-
gadro's number). The kinetic energy of a neutron of speed 2,200 meters/sec is
Art. 5] thermal cross sections 2-15
Table 19. 2,200 Reaction Cross Sections by Isotope and Element*
Reaction cr s sections. 2.200 meters/sec

Element Isotope, %, TyJ
H 332 2 millibarns
H"(-~I00)
H=(0.OI5) 0. 46 0.10 millibarn I2.4years, 0.57 0.01 millibarn
He
He'(0.000l3) np 5.400 300
He(~IOO) 0 0
Li 71.0 1.0
Li(7.52) (m 945) 23 8 millibarns
Li'(92.48) 0.85 sec, 33 5 millibarns
.Ho Be'(54d) np 51.000 6.000
no < 1
Be(IOO) 10 1 millibarns 2.7 X 10 years, 9 3 millibarns
iB (18.5 per cent B">) 755 2
B'(I8.8) (na 4.010) 0.45 0.20
np <0. 2
B"(8I.2) 0.03 sec, <50 millibarns
C 3.2 0.2 millibarns
C'(98.89) 3.3 0.2 millibarns
C'(l.ll) 0.5 0.2 millibarn 5,570 years, 0.9 0.3 millibarn
C"(5570 years) <200 2. 4 sec, <l microbarn
jN 1.88 0.05
N(99.63) np 1.75 0.05
ny 0.08 + 0.02
N'(0.37) 7 . 4 sec, 24 8 microbarns
iO <0. 2 millibarn
0'(99.79)
O"(0.037) na 0.25 0.15 5.570 years C, 0.5 0. 1
O"(0.204) 29 sec, 0.21 0.04 millibarn
.F F"(I00) < 10 millibarns 11 sec, 9 2 millibarns
iiNe <2.8
Ne*>(90.92)
Ne(0.26)
Ne"(8.82) 40 sec, 36 15 millibarns
11N1 Na( 100) 505 10 millibarns 15.0 hr, 0.53 0.02
63 4 millibarns
Mg>'(78.60) 33 10 millibarns
M(I0. 1 1) 270 90 milliharns
Uk'H 11. 29) 60 60 millibarns 9.5 min. 26 + 2 millibarns
i>Al A1"(I00) 230 5 millibarns 2.30 min, 0.21 0.02
iSi 0. 13 0.03
Si(92.27) 80 30 millibarns
Si(4.68) 0.27 0.09
Si"(3.05) 0.4 0.4 2.62 hr, 110 10 millibarns

i.P P'(IO0) 0. 19 0.03 14.3 days, 0. 191 0.010
*S 0.49 0.02
S"(95.0I8) na 1. 8 1.0 millibarns
cairn 75m np 125 100 millibarns 25. 1 days P", 2.3 1.0 millibarns
no < 8 millibarns
S'(4.2I$) 87 days, 0.26 0.05
S"{0.0I7) 5.0 min, 0. 14 0.04
11CI 31.6 1.0
Cl(75.4) np 0.30 0. 10 3 .08 X 10' years. 30 20
tut < 0.05 millibarns 87 days S", 0. 17 0.04
Cl(3 .08 X I0> years) 90 30
Cl"(24.6) 37.5 min, 0.56 0. 12
I.A 0.62 0.04
A(0.37) 35 days. 6 2
A(0.063) 265 years, 0.8 0.2
A "(99 . 600) 109 min, 0. 53 0.02
A"( 109 min) >3.5 years, >60 millibarns
,.K 1.97 0.06
K"(93.08) 1.87 0. 15 1.3 X 10" years. 3 2{
K(0.012) 70 20
np <I
K"(6.9I) 1. 19 0 10 12.5 hr. 1.15 0.11
Table 19. 2,200 Reaction Cross Sections by Isotope and Element.* (Continued)
Reaction cr<)ssections, 2.200 meters see
Element Isotope, %, TyJ
loCa 0.43 0.02
Ca(96.97) 0.22 0.04
Ca(0.64) 40 3
Ca(0. 145)
Ca(2.06) 152 days, 0.63 0. 12
Ca(0.0033) 4. 8 days, 0.25 0. 10
Ca"(0. 185) 8.5 min, I.I
0.1
8o So(IOO) 24.0 1.0 20 sec, 10 4
85 days, 12 6
20 sec + 85 days, 22 2
(20 sec-. 85 days)
Ti 5.6 0.4
Ti'(7.95) 0.6 0.2
Ti"(7.75) 1.6 0.3
Ti>(73.45) 8.0 0.6
Ti(5.5l) 1.8 0.5
Ti(5.34) <0.2 5.8 min, 0. 14 0.03
..V 4.98 0.02
V(0.24) 250 200
\"(99.76) 3. 76 min, 4.5 0.9
nCr 2.9 0.2
Cr'(4.3l) 16.3 + 1.3 27. 8 days, 13.5 1.4
Cr(83.76) 0.73 0.06
C'r"(9.55) 17.5 1.4
Cr"(2.38) <0.3 3.6 min. 0.37 0.04
iiMd Mn(100) 13.2 0.4 2.58hr. 13.4 0.3
i.Fe 2.53 0.06
na <5 millibarns
Fe(5.84) 2.2 0.2 2.96 years, 2.2 0.5

Fe"(9l.68) 2.6 0.2
Fe(2. 17) 2.4 0.2
Fe"(0.3l) 2.5 2.0 46 days, 0.9 0.2
no < 1. 5 millibarne
17C0 Co(IOO) 37.0 1.5 10.4 min, 16 3
5. 28 years, 20 3
10.4 min + 5. 28 years, 36.0 1.5
(99.7% of 10.4 min -> 5. 28 years)
Co"(l0.4 min) 1.75 hr, 100 50
Co(5. 28 years) 1. 75 hr, 6 2
iiNi 4.6 0.2
Ni"(67. 76) 4.2 0.3
Ni(26. 16) 2.5 0.2
Ni"(1 . 25) 1.9 1.0
Ni"(3.66) 15 2
Ni"(l. 16) 2.56 hr. 1.6 0.2
56 hr, 6 3
Ni"(2.57hr)
iiCu 3.62 0.04
Cu"(69. 1) 4.3 0.3 12.8 hr, 3.9 0.8
Cu(30.9) 2. 11 0.17 5. 14 min, 1.8 0.4
oZn 1.06 0.05
Zn<(48.89) no 15 10 microbarns 250 days, 0.5 0.1
12. 8 hr Cu< < 10 microbarns
Zn"(27.8l) na < 20 microbarns
Zn"(4. 1 1) na 6 4 microbarns
Zn(18. 56) na < 20 microbarns 13.8 hr. 97 10 millibarns
52 min, 1.0 0.2
Zn'(0.62) 2.2 min, 85 20 millibarns
iiGa 2.77 0. 12
Ga(60.2) 2.0 0.2 20. 2 min, 1.4 0.3
Ga(39.8) 4.9 0.4 14.2 hr, 5.0 1.0
nGe 2.35 0 20
Gp'(20.55) 3.3 + 0 3 11.3 days, 3 1
Gp"(27.37) 0.94 0.09
Ge"(7.67) 13.7 I.I
r.o(36.74) 0.60 0.06 82 min, 0 .45 0.08
Cic"(7.67) 0.35 0.07 57 sec, 30 20 millibarns
12 hr, 0.2 0. 1
<~50'; of 57 sec - 12 hr)
Reaction cross sections, 2.200 meters/sec
Element Isotope. %. TyJ

OmhtX !
11A1 Ai"(IOO) 4.1 0.2 27 hr. 4.2 0.8

iSe 11.8 0.4
Se'<(0.87) 48 7 123 days, 26 6
Se(9.02) 82 7 18 sec, 7 3
Se"(7.58) 40 4
Se>(23.52) 0.4 0.4
Se(49.82) 0.59 0.06 57 min, 30 10 millibarns
17 min, 0.5 0.1
Se(9. 19) 2.0 1.4 67 sec, 50 i
25 millibarns
25 min, 4 2 millibarns
(Order of isomers unknown)
uBr 6.6 0.5
Br(50.52) 10.4 1.0 4.6 hr, 2.9 0.5
18 min, 8.5 1.4
Br"(49.48) 2.6 + 0.4 35.9 hr, 3.5 0.5
: Kr 28+5
Kr'(0.35) 34.5 hr, 2.0 0.5
Kr'l2.27) 95 15
KrS'OI.56) 45 15
Kr"( 11. 55) 205 10
Kr"(56.90) <2 4.4 hr. 0.10 0.03
9.4 years, 60 20 millibarns
(23^ of 4. 4 hr - 9.4 years)
Kr(9.4years) <I5
Kr(l7.37) <2 77 min, 60 20 millibarns
Kr"(77 min) 2.8 hr, <600
nRb 0.70 0.07
Rb"(72. 15) 19.5 days, 0.72 0.15
Rb';(27.85) 17.8 min, 0. 12 0.03
Rb"(l7.8 ruin) 15.4 min, <200
iSr 1.16 0.06
Sr"(0.56) <3 65 days, 1.0 0.3
Sr"(9.86) 2.80 hr, 1.3 0.4
Sr'(7.02)
Sr"(82. 56) 53 days, 5 + 1 millibarns
Sr(53 days) 19.9 years, < 90
Sr(l9.9 years) 9.7 hr, 1.0 0.6
Y V"(I00) 1.28 0.08 64 hr, 1.26 0.08
Y'(63 hr) 6 1 days, < 7
Zr 180+4 millibarns
Zr"(5l.46) 0.10 + 0.07
Zr"(l 1. 23) 1.52 0. 12

Zr(l7. II) 0.25 + 0.12
Zr"(17.40) 0.08 + 0.06 63 days. 0.09 0.03
Zr"(2.80) 0.1 0.1 17.0 hr, 0. 10 0.05
uNb Nb"(IOO) I.I 0.1 6.6 min, 1.0 0.5
Nb(2.2 X I0< years) 36 days. 15 4
Mo 2.5 0.2
Mo"(l5.86) <0.3 6.9 hr, <6 millibarns
Mo"(9. 12)
Mo( 15 . 70) 13.4 1.3
Mo"(16.50) 1.2 0.6
Mo'(9.45) 2.1 0.7
Mo(23.75) 0.4 0.4 67 hr, 0.45 + 0.10
Mo">(9.62) 0.5 0.5 14.3 min, 0.20 0.05
uTc Tc"(2. 1 X I0> years) 100 25
uRu 2.46 0.12
Ru"(5.7) 2. 8 days, 10+4 millibarns
RuH2.2)
Ru(l2.8)
Ru'(l2.7)
Ru'"'(l7.0)
Rui(31.3) 41 days, 1.2 0.3
Ru'"(l8.3) 4.5 hr. 0 7 0.2
Reaction rr jss sections. 2.200 meters/sec

Isotope, %,
Element r^t
..Rh Rh'"(100) 150 7 4.5 min. 12+2

44 sec, 140 + 30
uPd 8.0 1.5
Pd'(0.8) 17.0 days, 4.8 1.5
Pd"(9.3)
Pd'!(22.6)
Pd'(27. 1)
Pd'(26.7) 13.6 hr, 12 3
Pd(13.5) 22 min. 0.3 0.1
4lAg 62 2
Ak''(5I.35) 30+2 2.3 min, 44 9
Ag'(48.65) 84 7 270 days, 2.8 0 5
24. 2 sec. 110 20
<sCd 2.550 100
(not X 1.3)
Cd'(l . 22) 6.7 hr, 1.0 0.5
Cd";0 87)
Cd(l2.39) 49 min, 0. 2 0.1
Cd'"(l2.75)
Cd>"(24.07) 5. 1 years, 30 15 millibarns
Cd"MI2.26) (20.800)
(not 1/p, X 1.3)
Cd"<(28.86) 43 days, 0. 14 + 0.03
53 hr, 1.1 0.3
Cd"(7.58) 2.9 hr, 1.5 0.3
iiId 190 10
In>(4. 23) 49 days, 56 12
72 sec, 2. 0 + 0.6
In>(95.77) 54. 1 min, 145 15
13 sec. 52 6
loSn 0.60 0. 10
Sn"'(0.95) 112 days. 1.3 0.3
Snm(0.65)
SnM0.34)
Sn(14.24) 14.5 days, 6 2 millibarns
Sn>>'(7.57)
Sn"(24.0l) 250 days, 10 6 millibarns
Sn"(8. 58)
Sn(32.97) > 400 days, 1 1 millibarn
27.5 hr. 0. 14 0.03
Sn'(4.7l) 130 days. 1.0 0. 5 millibarns
40 min, 0 .16 0. 04
(Order of isomers unknown)

Sn"'<(5.98) 10 min, 0. 2 0. 1
10 days, 4+2 millibarns
(None of 10 min - 10 days)
D1Sb 5.5 1.0
Sb'"(57.25) 5.7 0.5 2. 8 days, 6.8 1.5
Sb'(42.75) 3.9 0.3 21 min, 30 15 millibarns
1.3 min, 30 15 millibarnfl
60 days, 2.5 0.5
{% of 21 min and 1.3 min - 60 daya
unknown)
itTe 4.5 0.2
Tr>(0.0S9) 70 70
Te(2.46) 2.7 0.9 110 days, T.I 0.5
Te'"(0. 87) 390 30
Tc"(4.6l) 6.5 1.2 58 days, 5 3
Te'"(6.99) 1.50 0. 15
Tc>"(!8. 71) 0.8 0.2 110 days, 90 20 millibarns
9.3 hr. 0.8 0.2
Te'(3l.79) 0.3 0.3 33 days, 15 5 millibarns
72 min, 0. 13 0.03
Te'(34.49) 0.5 0.3 30 hr, <8 millibarns
25 min, 0. 22 0.05
Table 19. 2,200 Reaction Cross Sections by Isotope and Element* (Continued)
Reaction cross sections. 2.200 meters/sec

Element Isotope, %. Titt
Safel r1
ul I'i'ilOO) 6.7 - 0.6 25.0 min, 5.5 0.5

I(l.7 X 10' years) 12.6 hr. II 4
I'"(8. 1 days) 2.3 hr. 200 150}
*iXe 35 5
Xe<(0.096)
Xe'"(0.090>
Xe'"( 1. 92) <5
Xe>(26.44) 45 15
Xc'(4.08) <5
Xe"(2l. 18) 120 i 15
Xe>(26.89) <5 5. 3 days, 0.2 0.1
Xe'(10.44) <5 9. 13 hr, 0.2 0. 1
Xe'r9.l3 hr) 2.72 0.11 X 10"
(not l/, X 1. 16)
Xe>(8.87) <5 3.9 min, 0. 15 0.06
Cs ri(IOO) 29.0 1.5 3.2 hr, 17 4 niillibarnN
2. 3 years,26 5
(-100', of 3.2 hr 2.3 yea r)
(b'(2.6 X 10" years) 13.7 days. 15 8
Cs'"(33 years) 33 min. <2
uBi 1.17 0.10
Ha""(0. 101) 12.0 days, 10. 1 1.0
Ha'"(0.097) 7 . 2 years. 7 2
Ba'(2.42) 2 2
Ba"(6.59) 5.6 0.9

Ba'"(7.8l) 0.4 0.4
Ba'(ll.32) 4.9 0.4
Ba"(7l.66) 0.68 0. 10 85 min. 0.5 0. 1
Ba'(S5 min) 12.8 days. 4 1
iiLa 8.9 0.3
La">(0 089)
I.ai"(99.9ll) 40 hr, 8.4 + 1.7
I.a'(40 hr) 3.7hr, 3.1 1.0
nCe 0.70 0.08
(>'"(0. 19) 25 25 34.5 hr. 0.6 0.2
8.7 hr, 6.3 1.5
O"<(0.26) 9 6 55 sec, 7 5 millibarns
140 days. 0.6 0.3
0.63 - 0.06
*
Ce>(88.48) 32 days, 0.31 0. 10
f. ;>(II.
07) 1.0 0.2' 32 hr. 0.95 0.05
Pr'"< UM) 11.2 _0.6 19.2 hr. 10+3
Pr'(l9.2 hr) 13 7 days. 18 3

Nd 46 2
Nd'(27.l3) 18+2
20
Nd""(l2.20) 280
Nd'"(23.87) 4.5 0.5
Nd's(8.30) 52 4
Nd'(l7. 18) 9.2 0.8 11.3 days, 1.8 + 0.6
Nd>"(5.72) 3.2 1.0 1.8 hr, 3.7 1.2
Nd>"(5.60) 2.8 1.5
ii Pm Pni1,,(2. 5 years) 3.3 days. 60 20
itSm 5.500 200
(not l/i', X 1.5)
Sm,M(3. 16) 400 days. <2
.Sin'(l5.07)
.Sm'"(ll.27)
^m>(l2.84) 66.000 3.000}
Sml(7.47)
Sm''(73 years) 10.000 2.000}
.Sm'"(26.63) 47 hr, 140 40
Sni""(22 53) 24 min, 5.5 I.I
iEu 4.600 400
(not l/i>. X 0.95)
Eu">(47.77) 9.000 3.000} 9.2 hr, 1.400 3001
Eu'"(l3 years) 5.500 1.500}
Eu'"C52.23) 420 -- 100}
Reaction cr<M sections. 2.200 meters/sec

Element Isotope, %,
ffdb.t .!
Eu'"(l6 years) 1.500 400$

Eu'"(l . 7 years) 14.000 4.000 J
,.Gd 46.000 2.000
(not I/d, X 0.85)
Gd>"(0.20) 230 days, <I25
Gd"'(2. 15)
Gd'( 14.73) 70.000 20.0008
Gd'"(20.47)
Gd"7(l5.68) 160.000 60.000 1
Gd"(24.87) 18.0 hr. 4 2
Gd'(2l.90) 3.6 min. 0.8 0.3
uTb Tb'(100) 44 4 73 .lays, >22
sDy 1.100 150
Dy>"(0.052)
Dy'(0.090)
Dy>*>(2.298)
Dy"(l8.88)
Dy'(25.53)
Dy'(24.97)
Dy'"(28. 18) 1.3 min. 510 20
139 min. 2.100 300
(1.3 min 139 min)
Dyi'(l39 min) 82 hr. 5.000 2.000&
BTHO Ho'" 64 3 27.3 hr, 60 12
Er 166 16
Er'"(0. 136)
Er'"(l.56)
Er'"(33.4)
Er""(22.9)
Er"(27. 1) 9.4 days. 2.0 0.4
Er"(l4.9) 2.5 sec + 7.5 hr, 9 2
sTni Tm'"(l00) 128 4 129 days, 130 30
>.Yb 36 4
Yb'"(0. 140) 32 days. 1 1.000 3.000
Yb"(3.03)
Yb"'(l4.3l)
Yb'(2l.82)
Yb'"(16. 13)
Yb"<(31.84) 101 hr, 60 40
Yb(12.73) l.8hr, 5.5 + 1.0
iiLu 108 5
Lu"(97.40) 3.7 hr, 35 15

Lu'"(2.60) 6. 8 days, 4,000 800
nHf 105 5
Hf"'(0. 18) 1.500 1.000
Hf"<5. 15) 15 15
Hf'"(18.39) 380 30
Hf>(27.08) 75 10
Hf>(l3.78) 65 15
Hf'(35.44) 13 5 46 days, 10 3
7,Ta Ta">(l00) 21.3 1.0 16.4 min, 30 10 millibarna
III days. 19 7
(~95<-; of 16.4 min -> III
days)
Ta'(lll days) 5.5 days, 30.000 15.000
t.W 19.2 1.0
Wio(0. 14) 60 60 140 days, 10 10
W>(26.4) 19 2
W>"(I4.4) 11 + 1
W"<(30.6) 2.0 0.3 73 davs, 2. 1 0.6
W"(28.4) 34 3 24 hr, 34 7
Wi'(24 hr) 65 days. 90 40
84 4
Re>"(37.07) 100 8 92 hr, 100 20
Rc>"'(62.93) 63 + 5 18 hr, 75 15
Reaction cross sections, 2.200 mcters/seo
Isotope, %,
T^t
..Ob 14.7 0.7

Os""(O.OI8) 97 days, <200
0'( 1. 59)
Os'( 1. 64)
Osi"(l3.3)
Os>( 16. 1)
Os"">(26.4) 16.0 days, 8 3
Os'"(4I.O) 31 hr, 1.6 0.4
Os'"(3lhr) 700 days, 60 20
..Ir 430 20
Ir">(38.5) 1.4 min, 260 100
74 days, 700 200
(1.4 min 74 days)
Ir>(6I.S) 19.0 hr, 130 + 30
raPt 8. 1 0.4
Pt'(0.012) I50 150
Pti"(0.78) 8 8 4. 3 days, 90 40
Pt>"(32.8) 1.2 0.9
Pt>"(33.7) 27 2
Pt>(25.4) 0.7 0.7 18 hr, 80 1.0
Pt(7.2) 4.00.5 31 min, 3.9 + 0.8
r,Au Au''(l00) 98.8 0.3 2. 7 days, 96 10
Au'"(2.7days) 3. 15 days, 26.000 1,200

380 20
Hi
(not l/p, X 0.95)
Hg""(0. 146) 3.100 1.0001
Hg''(l0.02)
Hg'(l6.84) 2.500 + 800S
Hg(23. 13) <60l
Hg*(l3.22) <60J
Hg(29.80) <60J 47 days. 3.8 0.8
Hg*><(6.85) <60j 5.5 min, 0.43 0. 10
uTl 3.3 0.5
TT(29.50) 11.0 0.9 2.7 years. 8 3
Tl(70.50) 0.77 + 0.08 4.2 min, 0. 10 0.03
Fb 170+10 millibarns
Pb'(l48) 0.8 0.6
Pb"(23.6) 25 5 millibarns
Pb'(22.6) 0.70 0.03
Pb"(52. 3) <30 millibarns 3.2 hr, 0.6 + 0.2 millibarn
oBi Bi(I00) 32 2 mUlibarns 5.0 days, 19 2 millibarns
Reaction cross sections, 2.200 meters/sec

Ele Isotope, %,
ment Tw
rati of
Rn Rn(54 sec) 30 Bee, <0.2J

Rn'"(3.83 days) 11.2 days, 0.72 0.07|
Ra">( 11.2 days) 3.64 dBys, 130 20} <100
Ra(3.64 days) I4.8days, 12.0 0.5|
Ra( 1.620 years) 41.2 min, 20 3J <0. 1 milli
barn
Ra""(6.7 years) <10 min, 36 5J <2
tiAc Ac'(22 years) 510 40 6. 13 hr, 520 50 <2
BTh Th'"* IB. 6 days) 1.500 1.000
Th"( 1. 90 years) 7.3 X I0 years, 123 I5| <0.3
Th"(7.3 X I0 years) 45 II
Th(8.0 X 10* years) 27 2 25.6 hr, 35 10} < 1 millibarn
Th(l00) 7.45 0.15 23.3 min, 7.34 0.15 <0. 2 milli
(1.39 X 10" years) barn
Reaction cross sections, 2,200 meters/sec
Isotope, %, T,
Th">(23.5 min) 24. I days, 1.400 200} 15 25

Th(24. I days) <10 min, 1.8 0.55 <I0 milli-
barns
Pa">(17.3 days) 1.500 250
Pa"'(3.4 X I0 years) 1.32 days, 200 155 19 .t: 5 mOli-
bar^s
Pa"( 1. 32 days) 27. 4 days. 760 1005 700 1 100
Pa'" (27. 4 days) 1.18 min, 40 6 <0. 1
6.7 hr, 26 4
Pa'(UXi) (1.18 min) <500
(UZ) (6.7 hr) < 5.000
7.68 0.07 4. 18 0.06
(not X 0.95) (not \/v, same
factor as U")
U"(20.8days) 25 10
U"'(4.3 days) 400 300
U"(73 years) I. 62 X 10' years. 300 2005 80 20
U'"(l .62 X I0l years) 588 7 2.52 X 10' years, 52 2 532 6
U"<(0.0057) 92 7 7. 1 X 10' years, 72 + 105 <0.65
(2.52 X I0> years)
U'(0.714) 694 I0|| 2.40 X 10' years, 107 5J 582 10]
(7.1 X 10>years)
U'"(2.40 X 10' years) 6.7 days. 9 25
6 2
U'"(99.3) 2.73 0.03 23.5 min, 2.76 0.09 <0.5 milli-
(4.50 X I0 years) barn
U'"(23. 5 min) 17 hr. 22 55 15 35
Np'"(4. 4 days) 900 300
Np"(22 hr) 2.800 800
Np"(2.2 X 10' years) 170 20 2. 10 days, 169 6 19 3 mUli-
barns
Np"(2. 10 days) 1.600 100
Np'(2.3 days) 7.3 min, 35 105 <3
60 min, 25 155
Pu"'(89.6 years) 2.44 X 10' years, 403 105 18 2
Pu'"(2.44 X I0< years) 1,025 + I3* 6.6 X 10' years, 315 16* 738 9"
Pu"(6.6 X 10" years) 13. 2 years, 250 40 <4
Pu"'(l3.2 years) ~5 X 10' years, 380 505 950 50
Pu'(3.8 X 10' years) 64 15j 4.98 hr, 9 2
Pu"(4.98 hr) 7 .6 X 10' years, 170 90}
Pu"<(7.6 X 10' years) II hr, 1.9 0.35
Pu"(l0 hr) I I. 2 days, 260 1505

Am'"(470 years) 620 30 15.8 hr, 700 2005 3.2 0.2
500 years, <50j
(20% of 15.8 hr 500 years)
Amm(15.8 hr) 2.500 1.000
Am'"(500 years) 8.000 1.0005 4,600 300
Am"'(8.0 X 10' years) 26 min, 74 4 <50 millibarns
Cm'"(162. 5 days) 20 105 <55
Cm"(35. 1 years) 500 300 | 19.2 years, 490 70
Cm'"(l9.2years) >500 years, 15 105
Cm'"(>500 years) 2,000 years, 200 1005 1.800 300
Cm'"(2.000 years) 15 105
Bk'(290 days) 500 2005
Cf"(470 years) 900 400 { 270 1005 600 400}
Cf"(l0 years) 1.500 1.0005
CP" 2.2 years, 3.000 2.0005
Cf>'(2. 2 years) 18 days, 30 105
CP" <25
E>" (20 days) 38 hr, 300 150}
E'" <I55
(See footnotes on page 2-23.)

0.0253 ev and is the value of kTn for T. = 293.6K. Thus, Eq. (13) may be rewritten
as
a{th)
=^5(^)^.(2,200) (14)
where Tn is the neutron temperature on the Kelvin scale.

All listed absorption and fission cross sections except those specially marked follow
the 1/v law in the thermal region. The cross sections that do not follow the l/v law
closely are so marked by placing underneath them the symbol (X/), where the num
ber / following the multiplication sign is the "/ number." For these cross sections,
the / number is denned such that the thermal value in a Maxwell distribution at
Kelvin temperature Tn is given by
/
for not too high temperatures. For high temperatures, the / curves and cross-
sectional curves of BNL-325 should be consulted.
In computing ratios of absorption or fission cross sections, the 2,200 values may be
used if the cross sections are l/v. In general
w(th) /">o-<(2,200)
= U '
*(lh) (2,200)
where superscripts (1) and (2) refer to the different cross sections and where it is
/
understood that = 1 for a l/v cross section.
In problems concerning diffusion of thermal neutrons, the correct cross sections to

use are the thermal ones rather than the 2,200 values. Use of thermal values is con
sistent with the use of thermal scattering cross sections and measured diffusion
lengths. In problems where measured values of diffusion lengths are used, the 2,200
absorption cross sections may be used with only slight errors arising if they are multi
plied by their /
value and if the diffusion coefficient D in Fick's law is chosen to be
consistent with the absorption cross section jaau (2,200) and with the measured value
of the diffusion length. The resulting values of D and of quantities (such as transport
cross section) derived from D are not then consistent with scattering data and should
not be used together with scattering data. Also, if the diffusion coefficient D is
obtained directly from scattering data, then the use of 2,200 cross sections is incorrect
and thermal cross sections should be used.
Footnotes to Table 19.

From BNL-325 and suppl. I.
t Stable iaotopea are listed with their per cent (by atom) abundances in parentheses, whereas unstable
isotopes are listed with their half-lives in parentheses.
X Except where marked np (for a proton release reaction) or na (for an a release reaction), all absorp
tion cross sections up to uBi are due to radiative capture (n-y) reactions. For the higher atomic
numbers, all absorption cross sections are due to ny or fission reactions or both.
| The activation cross sections are the cross sections for the process that leads to the listed activity.
Thus, for example, 0.S7 millibarn is the cross section of H' for formation of a radioactive atom of half-
life 12.4 years. All activation cross sections are due to ny reactions, except where the radioactive
product is listed. In some atoms, more than one activity is induced by neutron absorption. Thus for
CI", a 3.08 X l0*-year activity is caused by an ny reaction with a cross section of 30 20 barns, and
an 87-day activity (due to S") is caused by an np reaction with a cross section of 0.17 0.04 barn. In
the case of Co" two activities are induced by the ny reaction, both being due to CoM. The 10.4-min
activity is that of an excited state of Co*0 and is formed with a cross section of 16 3 barns. The
5.28-year activity is that of the ground state of CoM and is formed with a cross section of 20 3 barns.
The cross section for formation of either one of these activities is given as 36.0 1.5 barns. Finally,
it is stated that 99.7 per cent of the decays of the 10.4-min activity results in the formation of the
5.28-year activity. Other cases of isomeric activities (activities due to different states of the same
nucleus) are treated in the same way. When the order of decay of the isomeric activities is unknown,
it is so stated.
f All cross sections so marked are values for thermal neutrons rather than 2,200 values.
J Not l/v, X 0.981 0.005.
Not l/, X 1.075 0.010.
When a reaction rate is computed as the product of cross section times flux, the
same (thermal or 2,200) cross section should be used as was used in obtaining the flux
value. If the flux value is calculated by dividing a measured reaction rate by the
2,200 cross section, then this same 2,200 cross section should be used to obtain the
reaction rate.
6.3 Neutron Temperature"-"
Because of neutron loss by absorption or leakage, the neutrons are not in a Max-
wellian distribution at the temperature T of the material. Because of stronger
absorption at lower energies, the spectrum is shifted toward higher energies and the
effective temperature T of the neutrons is higher than the material temperature. A
relationship that may be used is . .
= 1 + o.9Af (17)
T am
where M is the atomic weight of the important moderating atom (H in HjO, D in
D2O), a,(th) is the thermal scattering cross section of the important moderating atom,
and <iab,(,kT) is the absorption cross section present per atom of important moderator,
evaluated at the energy kT. Equation (17) should be expected to give wrong answers
for heavy moderators, M > 25, or for sufficiently absorbing media, Mo^lo, > 0.5.
6 RESONANCE INTEGRAL DATA

6.1 Homogeneous Mixture*'"
For a homogeneous mixture of absorbing material and a weakly absorbing diluent

material, the Wigner formula states that the probability p(i?o, Ec) of a neutron
escaping capture by the absorbing material while slowing down from the energy E0
to the energy Ec is given by
In p(, Ec) = - A
(18)
. . _
~
fE ^ rj dEE
Wnete
h. 1 + + <rr.)/(N^D +
<fh. = absorption cross section per atom or molecule of absorbing material

o>, = resonant scattering cross section per atom or molecule of absorbing material
a = nonresonant scattering cross section per atom or molecule of the absorbing
material [<r,(epi) may be used]
an = cross section per atom or molecule of diluent material [<r,(epi) may be used]
Nd ~ ratio of number of diluent atoms or molecules to number of absorbing atoms or
molecules
= average loss in In E per scattering with absorbing material
d = average loss in In E per scattering with diluent material
For infinite dilution Nd > , the absorption integral A becomes
fB dE
)b.
A~ = (20)
a'h'-E
Values of A are listed in Table 20 for the usual experimental arrangement in which
the sample surrounded by thin layer of cadmium in order to eliminate capture
is
in the sample by very slow and by thermal neutrons. For such cases, the value of Ec,
the cadmium cutoff energy, depends on the thickness of cadmium used and on the
energy variation of <rab, near Ec and usually falls near ev. The energy E0 a high
is
0
5
.
See Ref. 3, ohop. 6.

*
Art. 6] RESONANCE INTEGRAL DATA 2-25
Table 20. Infinite Dilution Resonance Absorption Integrals (Barns)
from Cadmium Cutoff (~0.5 ev)*
Calculated! Measured by
l/i Activation Absorption
31 28
0. 12 0.25 -0.24 0.27
0.027 0.9
0.095 ~0. 16 0. 18
0.06 0.5
0.084 ~0 . 072 <2
0.22 0.6
14.3 12
0.89 I.I
2.0 2
10.6 ~10.7
2.5 3.0
2.2 ~2. 2
1.3 1.9
12 5.9 -11.8 10.8
I.I 2. I. 2.3
90 16.3 49.3
2.0
1.6 3.7 4. 3.3
0.8 1.9 4.4
0.8 0.92 2.2
0.48
20 0.62 9.2
1.38 15
170 1.8 36.8 33
62 4.8 147
0.53 16
0.62 0.91
3
0.47 3.87 8.3
1.1 13
1.060 66 656 375
3.6 23
27 >650
82 13 74
1.206 37 1.160
26 1.050
1.752 87 2.640
0. 26 4.3
115
3.0 162
I.I -138
2.0 36
150 2.9 140 130
0.53 7.5
4 0 II. 5.5
4.9 11.3 7
40
61 > 1.750
1.400 950
720
2.778 51 '~ 1.750 2.800
4. 21.
555 9. 590
180 IS 355 170
1.630 44 1,160
310 33 305
7.680 420 3.500
976 37 1.370
3. 69
1.390 45 1.558
Table 20. Infinite Dilution Resonance Absorption Integrals (Barns)
from Cadmium Cutoff (~0.6 ev).* (Continued)
Calculated t Measured by
Atom
Resonance i/v Activation Absorption
wHg 31. 73
siTl'O' 4.8 129
iiTI 0.04 0.5
uPb 0.08 0. 1
uBi 0.014 0.5
toTh* 83 3.2 69.8
.lU" 650 234
>260 255 271
HU"> 290 1.2 282; 297
Pu"t 250H
* R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics,"

chap. 6, p. 186, by R. L. Macklin and H. S. Pomerance, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1956.
t The calculations of the resonance integrals separate the value into two components, a pure reso
nance contribution and a l/p contribution. In this table, the l/p contribution is taken as 0.44 times
the cross section at 2,200 meters/sec.
X These are values of the resonance fission integral.
I This value is estimated graphically from a curve of fission cross section vs. energy. The cutoff
energy here is 2.0 ev.
energy and may be regarded as fission spectrum energy. The value of Aa is inde
pendent of the temperature of the mixture.
For finite dilution, the absorption integral A is a function of Nd<td + "n which
is the (nonresonant) scattering cross section present per atom or molecule of absorber.
The integral is also a function of material temperature because of the Doppler broaden
ing of the resonances. Table 21 presents calculated values of A at 300K for U"*
and Th"* as a function of Ndo-d + <r,. These values are based on the resonance
parameters listed in BNL-325 and agree well with measured values of A.
Table 21. Absorption Integral from Cadmium Cutoff

in Homogeneous Mixtures Containing U238 and Th83!*
With scattering cross section (barns) present per absorbing atom of

Absorbing
atom
20 80 200 2.000
12.5 25 38 99
Th 11.5 21 31 66
* L. Dresner, Nuclear Sci. Eno., 1: 68 (1956).
6.2 Lattice Arrangement*
For a lattice cell consisting of a lump of material surrounded by a weakly absorbing

moderating material, Eq. (17) is replaced by
In p(, B.)
A
(21)
Nuiwu + NdZdo-d + fr*
where it is here assumed that the lump may contain diluent material as well as
absorbing material and
* See Ref. 1, chap. 1.5, and Ref. 3, chap. 6.
Art. 7] FAST-NEUTRON DATA 2-27
"u = epithermal scattering cross section c,(epi) per atom or molecule of moderating
material
in = average loss in In per scattering with moderating material
Nm = ratio of number of moderating atoms or molecules in cell to number of absorb
ing atoms or molecules
A.ff = "effective" absorption integral
Equation (21) is valid only when the energy average flux of resonance neutrons is con
stant across the lattice cell. Any spatial variation (such as the spatial depression
caused by absorption in the lump) must be corrected for.
According to a modification of the Wigner formula, the effective absorption integral
is given by
1.// -A[ 1 +
n/A
A + (22)
(M/S) + Xo- (M/S) + X
where A is the absorption integral of the lump material and is given by Eq. (19), M/S
is the ratio of lump mass to lump surface area, n is an integral involving the square
of the integrand of Eq. (19) and is such that for large lumps (large M/S) the surface
absorption Atff A is given correctly, and X0 is a parameter chosen to allow A,// to
approach A* as the lumps diminish toward atomic size (M/S approaches zero).
Thus, X0 is given by
*/A
X =
(AJA) - 1
(23)
Table 22 lists values of A, ii/A, and X0 for lumps of undiluted U metal and Th'"
metal. For lumps of diluted U or Th (e.g., oxides of the metals), A may be obtained
from Table 21 and Am from Table 20. Table 23 lists values of n/A for diluted U as a
function of Ndcd + ., the scattering cross section present per atom of U.
Table 22. Parameters for the Effective Absorption Integral from Cadmium
Cutoff in Lumps of Ths and U"**
Material A, barns nl A, g/cm' Xo, g/om*
Th"" metal 8.37 0.55 o.ot

U metal 10.2 2.95 0. II
" P.. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J.

Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics,"
chap. 6, p. 104. by R. L. Macklin and H. S. Pomerance, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. New York,
1956.
Table 23. Surface Absorption Integral p/A in Homogeneous Mixtures

Containing Uranium*
Scattering Surface
croee lection absorption
per U atom, integral p/A,
tarns g/cm'
8. 3 (pure U) 2.95
20 1.8
40 1.0
60 0.5
* From U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, " Reactor Handbook vol. I. p. 521. Fig. 1.5.20, AECD-
3645. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1955.
7 FAST -NEUTRON DATA

Cross sections of fissionable and related heavy atoms are given in Tables 7 to 12.
Cross sections of fission products are given in Table 17.
7.1 Absorption Cross Sections*
Table 24 lists for some materials the ny cross sections for Sb-Be photoneutrons of
effective energy 30 kev.
Table 24. Radiative Capture Cross Sections for Sb-Be Neutrons

of Effective Energy 30 Kev*
Crou
tectum, f
Atom barns
itAl" 0.0016
V 0.059
Mn" 0.078
Cu" 0.065
ioZn" 0.033
iiAs" 1.2
uMo'" 0.57

uRh'" 0.20
Pd"> 1.4
47Ag'0' 2. 1
1.0
nSb'> 2.8
2.2
7Pt>M 0. 28
I.S
* V. Hummel and B. Hamermesh, Phyt. Rev., 81: 67 (1951).
t The quoted errors are about 20 per cent.
Table 25 lists the ny cross sections for fission neutrons of listed effective energy
1 Mev. It is seen that the behavior of the 1-Mev capture cross section is a general
increase toward heavier atoms, accompanied by sharp drops at the magic neutron
numbers 50, 82, and 126.
Table 26 lists cross sections averaged over the fission spectrum for threshold np and
not reactions in various materials.
7.2 Transport Cross Sections
A cross section often used in multivelocity diffusion calculations is the transport

cross section a, defined by
"u = "tot "cos 8, (24)
where o> = transport cross section
a = elastic scattering cross section
cos 8, = average value of the cosine of the angle of scattering in elastic scattering
ffioi = o-t, + a + "Vn = total cross section

oin, = inelastic scattering cross section
In one-group calculations, use is made of the one-group transport cross section a',r,
defined by
o'lr = Oft "tt COS 6, (7i, cos 0,- (25)
where cos 0<n is the average value of the cosine of the angle of scattering in inelastic
scattering. It is often assumed that cos 6\ = 0, in which case the two transport
cross sections are equal.
trtr a' when cos 0, 0
(26)
The two cross sections are always equal for lower energy neutrons where inelastic
scattering does not occur. Thus, when o-,,, = 0
"tr = a'tr ftct a, COS 8

= <r6. + <r. (1 -
cos 8)
* See Ref. 3, chap. 9, and Ref. 29, chap. 4.
Table 25. Radiative Capture Cross Section for Fast Neutrons
of Effective Energy 1 Mev*
Atom Number of neutrons in nuclide Cross section, millibarns
nNa" 12 0.26
nH| M 0.6
iiAl" 14 0.37
iSi" 16 1. 1
iiC\" 20 0.74
iA' 22 0.93
nK" 22 2.9
ioCa 28 1.9
uV" 28 1.8
Mn 30 3.82
iCo 32 II. 0
iNi" 36 5. 1
JlCu" 34 11.4
iiCu" 36 6.0
i.Zn 38 23.2
i.Ga" 38 20.9
iiAs" 42 22.5
iBr" 44 42.5
>iBr 46 19
i.Kr" 48 <I0
i.Kr" 50 2.4
itRu" 48 23. 1
itRu" SO 1.8
iiSr" 50 2. 1
Y
30 7.0
.,Nb" 52 41
uMo" 56 10.4
,iMo' 58 12.3
.iRu'" 58 30
.iRu"< 60 31
.Rh" 58 109
.rAg'" 60 85
62 178
.In" 66 223
ioSn'" 70 >I4
ioSn"> 72 >I2
ioSn'" 74 19
nSb"> 70 90
ill"' 74 105
nXe> 82 1.0
itBai" 82 2.3
i7La' 82 5.0
iCe'" 82 5.4
iiCe' 84 4.2
Pr'" 82 11.0
Nd'< 86 40
oNd"" 88 80
;iLu" 104 158
tiLu"' 105 330
iiTa"" 108 142
nW' 112 71
Re> no 180
Re'" 112 165
nPt1" 120 64
Au'" 118 120
Hg"< 124 102
tPbM 126 2.0
nBi"' 126 3.4
D. J. Hughes, R. L. Garth, and J. S. Levin, Phy: Rev., 91: 1423 (1953).

t Values are given 50 per cent.
Table 26. Cross Sections of Threshold Reactions for Fission Spectrum Neutrons*
Reaction Croat tection, millibarnit
iBe'di.ajHe* 10
.B>'(n,a)Li' 0.085
0.014
iF"(n,p)0" 0.5
4.5
nNa"(n,p)Ne" 0 7
nNaM(n,)F 0.4
iiAl"'(n,p)Mg" 2.8
iAl"(n,a)Na 0.6
uMg(n,p)Na" 1.0
uMg(n.p)Na 2.0
MSi(n,p)Al" 4
i.Si(n,p)Al 2 7
iiP"(n,p)Si 19
iP"(n.a)Al 1.43
S"(n.p)P" 30
nS(n,a)Si" 3.0
i7Cl(n,p)S 16
i:Cl"(n,a)P" 3.0
i7Cl"(n,p)S 0.24
l,V"(n,a)Sc" 0.08
* D. J. Hughes, "Pile Neutron Research," Table 4-1, p. 100, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
Reading, Mass., 1953.
Table 27. Transport Cross Sections <r,r for Neutrons of Energy 1 Mev*
Element Cross section, Element Cross section,

barns barns
Ti 2.1 ioSn
i.Fe 2.1 .8b
iCo 3.0 iTe
t.Ni 2.5 isBa
Cu 2.8 iiCe
icZn 3.3 7lHf
iSe 3.5 7iTa
iiSr 4.8 74W
nZr 4.6 7tAu
.iNb 4.2 toHg
Mo 4.6 11Pb *.[
47Ag 4.4 tiBi 4. 1
<iCd 4.4 i.Th 5.3
win 4.1
* M. Walt and H. H. Barschall, Phyt. Rev.. 93: 1062 (1954).

Equation (27) applies to slow and intermediate energy neutrons, with a, being the
ordinary elastic scattering cross section. The equation is sometimes written as
cos 6), which is valid if a^, is small.
otr = o-,(\
Table 27 lists values of the transport cross section o-,r for 1-Mev neutrons. Table 28
lists values of the one-group transport cross section a'tr for neutrons having the energy
spectrum in Godiva.
7.3 Fast Reactors
Tables 10 and 28 present average, or one-group, cross sections appropriate to the

neutron spectrum in the listed reactors. The reactors include EBR I, Godiva,
Zephyr I, and Zephyr II. The compositions of the cores of these reactors are given
in Table 29. Godiva is an unreflected reactor. The others have reflectors of natural
uranium.
A rough comparison of the neutron spectra in Godiva, EBR I, and the fission
spectrum is presented in Table 30, which pertains to the spectra at the center of the
listed reactors. The spectrum at the core boundary of Godiva is slightly more
energetic than the central spectrum because neutrons near the boundary have made
fewer collisions. In EBR I, the spectrum at a point near the core boundary was
Table 28. One-group Transport Cross Section a'iT in Godiva Spectrum*
Transport
cross section
Atom barns
Be 1.1
B 2.2
C 2.2
Fe 2.5
An 4.5
Bi 5.1
Th 5.1
U" 6.0t
U"s 6.5
U>" 5.6
Pu 7 6
* R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J. Hitches, and D. J. Littler (cds.), "Physics and Mathematics,"
chap. 9. Tables 7 and 8. by J. Codd, L. R. Shepherd, and J. H. Tait. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1956.
fThis number is from Zephyr II.
Table 29. Composition of Fast Reactor Cores*
Fraction of volume occupied by material in core of
Material
Godiva EBR I
ut 1 0.55
NaK 0 0.25
Steel 0 0.20
Zephyr I Zephyr II
Pu 0.48 0.52
U(nat) 0.33 0
Ni 0.10 0.11
Cu 0.02 0.02
Fe 0 0.06
Air 0.07 0.29
* R. A. Charpie. J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eds.), "Physics and Mathematics,"

chap. 9. p. 287. by J. Codd, L. R. Shepherd, and J. H. Tait, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York. 1956.
t This is uranium enriched to above 90 per cent in U"1.

Table 30. Comparison of Neutron Spectra in Fast Reactors
Fraction of neutron density in the group for

Energy group,
Mev
Godiva center* EBR I centert Fission spectrum
0-0.4 0.21 0.31 0.10

0.4-1.4 0.41 0.37 0.34
>1.4 0.38 0.32 0.56
R. E. Peterson and G. A. Newby, Nuclear Set. Eno., 1:112 (1950).

t H. V. Lichtenberger, F. W. Thalgott, F. W. Kato, and M. Novick, Proc. Intern. Con/. 3: 345,
Geneva (1955).
found to be slightly degraded in comparison with the central spectrum as a result of

inelastic scattering in the uranium reflector.
The spectrum deep inside the uranium reflector is that for which the cross sections of
Table 11 apply. An approximate spectrum of neutrons in spectral equilibrium in
uranium is presented in Table 31. This neutron flux spectrum is fairly uniform in the
range 0 to 0.2 Mev with a peak at about 0.1 Mev. For higher energy neutrons, it
drops approximately exponentially. At 1 Mev, the flux per unit energy range is
about 10 per cent of the peak value.
Table 31. Natural Uranium Equilibrium Spectrum*' f

Energy Fraction of
group, neutron flux
Mev in energy group
0-0.2 0.35
0.2-1 0.55
1-2 0.08
>2 0.02
* From R. A. Charpie, J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eda.), " Physics and Mathematics,"
chap. 9, p. 290, Fig. I J, by J. Codd, L. R. Shepherd, and J. H. Tait, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1956.
t This is the spectrum measured at a depth of about 20 cm inside the uranium blanket surrounding
the core of Zephyr. It is claimed that this spectrum is only slightly less degraded (from the original
fast neutrons leaking out of the Zephyr core) than that which would obtain at a larger depth inside a
larger uranium block. See Table 15 for cross sections averaged over this spectrum.
7.4 Inelastic and Nonelastic Cross Sections
The nonelastic cross section an, is defined by
0~ne Olol 0~$t 0~abt T ffn (28)
Values of an, for various materials at several neutron energies are presented in Table
If the absorption cross section is small, then a, = e^,,.
32.
Table 32. Nonelastic Cross Section for Fast Neutrons at Several Energies*
Cross sectiont (barns) at
Element
2.5 Mev 3.3 Mev 4. 1 Mev 14 Mev
.C 0.6
nNa 0.5 0.6
nMg 0.8 0.8 1.7
11AI 1.0 0.8 0.8 1. 1
uP 0.7
isS 0.5
irCl 0.6 0.9
oCa 0.4
iCr 1.4
wFe 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.3
rCo 1.4
isNi 0.8 1.4 1.4
iiCu 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.35
loZn 2.2 2.2 1.6 1.4
i.Sc 1.9 1.4
41M0 1.9
Ag 2. 1
.Cd 2.2 2.3 2.3 1.8
itSn 1.7 1.7 2. 1 1.8
.iSb 2.0 2. 1 2. 1 1.9
uTe 2.0 2.0
I 2 0 1.9
Ba 0.8 2.2
7.W 2.6 2 4
-..11k 2.6 1.0 V4
nPb 1.7 1.7 2.4
uBl 0.6 0.6 1. 1 2.4
* M. V. Pasechnik, Proe. Intern. Conf. 2. Paper 3 (1956).

t Quoted errors range from 5 to 50 per cent. The majority are in the range 10 to 15 per cent.
Table 33 presents the (inelastic) cross section for scattering of neutrons above the
energy E to below the energy E for various materials and several E values. If the
neutrons of energy greater than E are treated as one group, the listed cross section is
then the group average cross section for scattering out of the group (to below E).
The listed cross sections apply to the case in which the neutrons in the group have the
fission spectrum. Table 34 breaks up this one-group cross section for E = 1.4 Mev
into two parts. The cross section for scattering into the energy range 0.4 to 1.4 Mev
is listed along with that for scattering to below 0.4 Mev. The sum of these two is the
net group cross section of Table 33.
Table 33. Inelastic Scattering of Fission Neutrons*
Cross section, t barns for scattering from above to below
Element
0. 7 Mev 1. 4 Mev 5 Mev
iiAl 0.09 0.32 0.76

Ti 0. 19 0.56
..V 0.22 0.58
Fe 0.28 0.69 1.20
iiNi 0.28 0.71 1.31
itCu 0.30 0.90 1.41
oZn 0.31 0.96
wZr 0.30 0.96 1.57
7Ag 0.84 1.66 1.99

.Cd 0 66 1.52 2. 14
io8n 0.37 1. 12 2.01
7.W 1 08 2.23 2.72
7Au 1.00 2.04 2.68
uPb 0.21 0.71 2.21
uBi 0.20 0.73 2.35
H. A. Bethe, J. R. Beyster, and R. E. Carter, LA-1429. December, 1955.

t Quoted errors are about 15 per cent for the 0.7 Mev cross sections, 7 per cent for the 1.4- and 5 per
cent for the 5-Mev cross sections.
Table 34. Inelastic Transfer Cross Section for Fast Neutrons*
Transfer cross section, f barns

Atom
li ffn
iiAl 0.27 0.05

.iTi 0.48 0.08
nV 0.49 0.09
itFe 0.56 0. 13
IiNi 0.61 0. 10
iiCu 0.78 0.12
loZn 0.82 0.13
.oZr 0.80 0. 16
Ag 1.19 0.47
4iCd 0.92 0.60
toSn 0.87 0.25
rW 1.68 0.55
7Au 1.51 0.53
Pb 0.60 0. II
iBi 0.61 0.12
H. A. Betbe, J.R. Beyster, and R. E. Carter, LA-1429. December, 1955.

t ** is the atomic cross section for scattering neutrons (by inelastic scattering) from group i to
group ;. Group I is 0 to 0.4 Mev; group 2 is 0.4 to 1.4 Mev; group 3 is greater than 1.4 Mev.
8 RADIATIONS AND THEIR RANGES

8.1 Charged Particles"-"
Charged particles at velocities usually encountered in reactors and related facilities
lose most of their energy by ionizing the atoms of the material they are traversing.
On the average, the particles lose 33 ev of kinetic energy per ion pair produced.
The range of electrons in aluminum is given to within 5 per cent by the formula
. . J = 412 -m-o.oin m*
_
for 0.01 <E 2.5 ., 2.5 .,
3(mg/cm)
| _ 530 106 for E > 2 5 (29)
where i?fl(mg/cms) is the range in milligrams per square centimeter of aluminum of an

electron of kinetic energy E Mev. The range in other materials is roughly the same
in milligrams per square centimeter.
Table 36. Maximum Range of Fission Products*

Range,
Material mg /cm1
Air 3.0
Al 3.7
Cu 5.2
U 12.6
* E. Segr* and C. Wiegand, Phyt. Rev., 70: 808 (1946).
The range of a particles in air at standard conditions is given to within 10 per cent
by the formula
. . . . / = 0.56S for E < 4 /om
_ I UE _ 2 62
j
Ka(cm of air) for 4 < < 8 (30)
where E is the a-particle energy in Mev. In other materials, the range of a particles
is given to within 15 per cent by the formula
fi(mg/cm') - 0.56A^ft(cm of air) (31)

where A is the mass number of the material.
For protons, an approximate formula is
RP(E) Ra(4E) (32)
which states that the range of a proton of energy E is approximately that of an a of
energy 4E.
The maximum range of fission products in some materials is given in Table 35.
8.2 Neutrons*""
In contrast to charged particles, which have a definable range, neutrons and y rays
are stopped approximately exponentially. In this exponential approximation, use
is made of the relaxation length, which is the thickness of material that, owing to
absorption, causes a drop in intensity by a factor of e.
For thermal neutrons, the relaxation length is equal to the thermal-diffusion length,
which can be made quite small in absorbing materials. Thus, thermal neutrons can
be shielded out in a fraction of an inch of boral. Neutrons of energy up to about
1 Mev may be readily stopped by moderating them to low energies where they can be
absorbed easily. The relaxation length in such cases is about equal to the slowing-
down length (square root of the age of the neutrons), which can be made as small as a
few centimeters by use of hydrogen atoms. The very energetic neutrons, several
Mev and up, are the most difficult to shield against. Table 36 lists illustrative values
of the relaxation lengths for these neutrons in various materials.
Final absorption of the neutrons is usually accompanied by the emission of y rays.
The use of boron results in a comparatively soft y ray of 0.5 Mev. Lithium, however,
absorbs neutrons with essentially no production of y rays. Table 9 of Sec. 7-3
8ee Ref. 8. chap. 2.
Abt. 9] ATOMIC WEIGHTS
presents data on the production of y rays by thermal-neutron capture. Gammas also
result from inelastic scattering of neutrons.
Table 4 of Sec. 7-2 lists the values of the neutron flux, at various neutron energies,
that results in a dose rate of 7.5 mrem/hr.
Shielding of neutrons and radiation dose are treated in detail in Sec 7-3.
8.3 Gamma Rays" "

For y rays in the energy range 0.1 to 10 Mev, a flux of about 600 Mev/(cm')(sec) is
required to produce a dose rate of 1 mrem/hr.
~600 Mev/(cm)(sec) - 1 mrem/hr (33)
for photons in the energy range 0.1 to 10 Mev.
The energy flux that results in
1 mrem/hr diminishes for softer photons. At 0.01 Mev, the flux is 3.5 Mev/
(cm,)(sec). The reason for this is the high photoelectric cross section for soft ys,
which causes the y energy to be absorbed in short distances. For the same reason,
however, the soft 7s can be shielded out very easily.
Table 36 lists illustrative values of relaxation lengths in various materials for y rays
coming out of a reactor.
Detailed information concerning -y-ray shielding is presented in Sec. 7-3.
Table 36. Illustrative Values of Relaxation Lengths in Various Materials

for Fast Neutrons and for Gamma Rays*
Relaxation length, cm
Density,
Material g/om*
Fast neutrons Gamma rays
1.0 ~I0 30
1.62 ~ 9 19
1.85 ~ 9 18
Beryllium oxide 2.3 ~ 9 14
2 3 11 15
2. 7 ~10 13
3. 5 8.0 10
4. 3 6 J 8
7.8 ~ 6 3.7
11.3 ~ 9 2.5
* S. Gladstone, *' Principles of Nuclear Reactor Engineering, " Table 10.3, p. 609. D. Van Nostrand
Company. Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1955.

t Portland concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, gravel, and sand.
t Barytes concrete is a mixture of Portland cement and BaSO< aggregate.
4 Brookhaven concrete is a mixture of Portland cement and iron aggregate.
9 ATOMIC WEIGHTS' "

The atomic mass or weight scale is a scale of the masses of neutral atoms in terms
of the atomic mass unit, the amu. The amu is defined such that the mass of the
0" atom is exactly 16 amu. The conversion factors between the amu and the gram
and between the amu and its energy equivalent (through E = mc1) are
1 g = N amu
N - 6.025 X 10" - Avogadro's number
(34)
(35)
1 amu = 931 Mev (36)
Reference 37 gives a list of the atomic masses of the nuclides.

The packing fraction /
is defined as
/-^ (37)
where M is the atom mass in amu and A is the mass number. The binding energy
/
per particle BE /A can be obtained from through the relation
(38)
where Z is the atomic number. The binding energy of an additional neutron, when
added to the incident kinetic energy, gives the energy of excitation of the compound
nucleus formed by neutron capture.
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission: "Reactor Handbook," vol. 1, chap. 2, AECD-3645,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1955.
2. Gamble, R.: Ph.D. Thesis, University of Texas, June, 1955.
3. Charpie, R. A., J. Horowitz, D. J. Hughes, and D. J. Littler (eds.): "Physics and
Mathematics," chap. 7, Progress in Nuclear Energy, ser. 1, vol. 1, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1956.
4. Lundby, A., and N. Holt: Nucleonics, 12 (1): 24 (January, 1954).
5. Way, K., and E. P. Wigner: Phys. Rev., 73: 1318 (1948).
6. Rockwell, III, Theodore (ed.): "Reactor Shielding Design Manual," chap. 3, U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, TID-7004, March, 1956.
7. Moteff, J.: Nucleonics, 13 (5): 28 (May, 1955).
8. Clark, F. H.: Report NDA-27-39, Dec. 30, 1954.
9. Whitehouse, E. J.: Progr. Nuclear Phys., 2: 120 (1952).
10. Steinberg, E. P., and L. E. Glendenin: Proc. Intern. Conf. 7: 3 (1956).
Robb, W. L., J. B. Sampson, J. R. Stehn, and J. K. Davidson: Nucleonics, 13 (12): 31
11.
(1955).
12. Studier, M. H, and J. R Huizenga: Phys. Rev., 96: 546 (1954).
13. Hughes, D. J., and J. A. Harvey: "Neutron Cross Sections," BNL-325.
14. Koch, \V.: Phys. Rev., 77: 329 (1950).
15. von Dardel, G. F., and N. G. S. Sjdstrand: Phys. Rev., 96: 1245 (1954).
16. Scott, F. R., D. B. Tomson, and W. Wright: Phys. Rev., 96 : 583 (1954).
17. Ramanna, R., G. S. Mani, P. K. Ivengar, and B. V. Joshi: Proc. Intern. Conf. 5:
24, Trombay, India (1956).
18. Geraseva, L. A., A. V. Kamayev, A. K. Krasin, and I. G. Morosov: Proc. Intern. Conf. 5:
13, Trombay, India (1956).
19. Antonov, A. V., A. I. Isakoff, I. D. Murin, B. A. Neupocoyev, I. M. Frank, F. L.
Shapiro, and I. V. Shtranich, Proc. Intern. Conf. 5: 3 (1956).
20. Melaika, E. A., M. J. Parker, J. A. Petruska, and R. H. Tomlinson: Can. J. Chem.,
33: 830 (1955).
21. Hurwitr, Jr., H.: Proc. Intern. Conf. 4: 328 (1956).
22. Deutsch, R. W.: Nucleonics, 14 (9): 89 (1956).

23. Hughes, D. J.: "Pile Neutron Research," chap. 3, Addison- Wesley Publishing Com
pany, Reading, Mass., 1953.
24. Coveyou, R. R., R. R. Bate, and R. K. Osborne: /. Nuclear Energy, 2: 153 (1956).
25. Cohen, E. R.: Proc. Intern. Conf. 5: 405 (1956).
26. Dresner, L.: Nuclear Sci. Eng., 1: 68 (1956).
27. Walt, M., and H. H. Barschall: Phys. Rev., 93: 1062 (1954).
28. Peterson, R. E., and G. A. Newby: Nuclear Sci. Eng., 1: 112 (1956).
29. Pasechnik, M. V.: Proc. Intern. Conf. 2: 3 (1956).
30. Bethe, H. A., J. R. Beyster, and R. E. Carter: LA-1429, December, 1955.
31. Katz, L, and A. S. Penfold: Revs. Mod. Phys., 24: 1 (1952).
32. Aroux, W. A., B. G. Hoffman, and F. C. Williams: AECU-663.
33. Segre, E, and C. Wiegand: Phys. Rev., 70: 808 (1946).
34. Coryell, C. D., and N. Sugarman: "Radiochemical Studies: The Fission Products,"
McGraw-HillBook Company, Inc., 1951.
" Principles of Nuclear
35. Glasstone, S.: Reactor Engineering," chap. 10, D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1955.
36. Mittelman, P. S., and R. A. Liedtke: Nucleonics, 13 (5): 50 (1955).
37. Physica, 21 : 367-424 (1955).
SECTION 3
MATHEMATICS
BY
ALSTON S. HOUSEHOLDER, Ph.D., Head of Mathematics Panel, Oak Ridge

National Laboratory.
WARD CONRAD SANGREN, A.B., M.A., Ph.D., Chief of Computing, General
Atomic, General Dynamics Corporation; formerly Chief of Computing and
Mathematics, Curtiss- Wright Research; Assistant Chief of Mathematics Panel,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
CONTENTS
3-1 ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY PAOK

3 Series and Expansions of Functions 3-05
BY ALSTON S. HOUSEHOLDER 4 Differential Equations 3-106
5 Other Topics 3-125
PAOE
Bibliography 3-140
1 The Algebra of Scalars, Vectors, and
Matrices 3-2
2 Trigonometry and Complex Numbers . . . 3-15 3-3 PRINCIPLES OF HIGH-SPEED
3 Loci: Curves and Surfaces 3-24 COMPUTING MACHINERY
4 Algebraic Equations 3-35
5 Probability and Statistics 3-55 BY WARD CONRAD SANGREN AND
References and Notes 3-62 ALSTON 8. HOUSEHOLDER
3-2 ANALYSIS 1 Digital Computing Machinery 3-142
2 Analogue Computing Machinery 3-146
Bibliography 3-148
BY WARD CONRAD SANGREN
1 Differential and Integral Calculus 3-64

2 Function Theory 3-75
3-1
3-1 ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY
BY
Alston S. Householder
Generally speaking, algebra and geometry are distinguished from analysis in that
they do not involve the notion of limit. Nevertheless most practical methods for
solving equations do involve limiting processes, even though the definition of the
solution does not. Hence some familiarity with limits will be presupposed in certain
portions of the present section.
1 THE ALGEBRA OF SCALARS, VECTORS, AND MATRICES

This article will begin with the basic concepts and operations of algebra and of
analytic geometry.
1.1 Sum, Products, and Powers
The real numbers include the integers (the null element 0; the positive integers 1, 2,
3, 4, ... ; and the negative integers 1, 2, 3, . . .); the rationals, which
include the integers as well as any number expressible as a fraction whose numerator
and denominator are both integers; and the irrationals, such as r, y/2, which are not
so expressible.
1.11 The basic arithmetic operations are the two summative operations of addition
and subtraction and the two multiplicative operations of multiplication and division.
These operations can be further classified as direct (addition and multiplication) and
indirect (subtraction and division). Any two real numbers can be combined by any
of the four basic operations, and the result is again a real number with one exception:
Division by zero is not allowed.
The indirect operations are related to the direct operations as follows: The differ
ence a 6 is defined to be that number x which satisfies the equation 0 = 6+1;
the quotient a/6 is defined to be that number y which satisfies a = by. Since Qy = 0
whatever y may be, it follows that when 6=0 and a = 0, then y could be anything,
and when 6=0 and aÔ, there is no y that could satisfy the equation a = by.
Signs of aggregation are parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], braces j }, and, less com
monly, the vinculum or horizontal bar. They have the force of punctuation marks
and signify that the enclosed operations are to be performed before any further
combination is effected. Thus 6/(2 + 1) = 6/3 = 2, the division being withheld
until the addition set off by the parentheses has been performed.
Where signs of aggregation do not intervene, the following conventions are always
understood to hold:
1. Multiplicative operations are performed before summative operations.
2. Multiplicative operations are to be performed in the order in which they occur.
3. Summative operations are to be performed in the order in which they occur.
Thus, 6/2 + 1=3 + 1=4; 1+6/2 = 1+3=4; 6/2-3=3-3=9, but
6/(2 3) = 6/6 = 1; 6/2/3 = 3/3 = 1.
The commutative laws and the distributive law are satisfied by all real numbers as
follows:
Commutative law: a + 6 = 6 + o. 06 = 6a.
Distributive law: 0(6 + c) = 06 + ac.
3-2
Sec. 3-1] ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY 3-3
A variant of the distributive law is
(6 c)/a - b/a c/a

and this constitutes the rule for summing fractions with a common denominator.
Other rules for combining fractions are as follows:
a c
" ac
b' d bd
ad
a/b "
eld be
a c ad + be
=
b+d bd
and the cancellation law is
ac a
bc~ b
A ratio is a quotient; a proportion is a statement that expresses the equality of two

ratios. Thus the ratio of a to 6 is commonly written o:6 and is simply the quotient
a/b. The colon is therefore a particular sign of division. Four numbers a, b, c, and d
are said to be in proportion if a:b c:d, or a/b = c/d. This is sometimes written
a:b: :c:d, the double colon being thus a form of the equality sign. A number c is
said to be the third proportional to a and b in case a/b = b/c, and then b is said to be
the mean proportion between a and e.

If a/b = c/d, then it is also true that
b/a -- d/c
- - - d)
a/c = b/d ad = be
(o b)/b = (c d)/d (a + 6)/(o 6) (C + rf)/(c
More generally, if
a\/bi = Oj/ftj = 03/63 = f
then
(moi + n,as + na3 + -)/(n,bi + nj&j + n3&3 +)"'
provided only that the numbers ni, 7i2, n3, . . . are such that
ni&i + nibt + n>b3 + ^0

When two or more quantities are to be added, each is called a term; when they
are to be multiplied,
each is called a factor. The product of n equal factors is called
a power:
a a a"
the number a is called the 6ose and n the exponent of the power. Powers are com
bined according to the following rules:
an am = an+m aH/am an~n = \/am~n (a*)m anm

ab = (ab)n a"/6" = (a/b)"
When n = m, the second of the above relations is to be regarded as providing a
definition: a" = 1 except when a = 0, and 0 is meaningless. When n m, the
second relation also defines the use to be made of negative exponents: a~~ = 1/a".
The operation inverse to that of taking a power is that of extracting a root. Thus if
xn = a then x =
\/ a
by definition, provided it is further true that a and x are of like sign. Note that
when n is even and a negative, no such (real) x exists (see the discussion of complex
3-4 MATHEMATICS [Sec. 3
numbers in Art. 2.1). When such an x does exist, it is called the nth root of a. Also
o is the base or radicand, n the index. When n is even and o > 0, there is always an
x > 0 satisfying the relation x" = o, and in that case it is also true that ( x)" = a.
Although x is also an nth root of a, nevertheless the radical designates x and never
as.
The following relations govern the use of radicals:
V"/ V
m f~
a =
nm /~
V
nt
V* =
n/my
Va
.
= am/"
\/a \/b = \/ab yfa/y/b = \V a/b

These and similar relations are readily established by using fractional exponents; for
example, V tya = [(a)1/m]1/n = a"*""' = "\Va. In the second relation above, the
fraction n/m is not to be used as index of a radical unless n/m is in fact an integer.
However, the form am,n is always permissible, and the equation is to be taken as
defining the expression when the exponent is fractional. It can be verified that all
previous laws of exponents are valid even with fractional exponents. A natural
extension permits the use of even irrational exponents.
As special cases of the above laws of radicals, the relations
y/aPb = a y/b y/ a/b" = yfa/b

give examples of possible "simplification" of radicals.
When attention is fixed upon the relation between the power and the exponent, the
base being fixed, the exponent is called a logarithm. There are two frequently used
systems of logarithms, the natural, or Napierian, with base e = 2.718 . . . , and
the common, or Briggsian, with base 10. The natural logarithms are useful in analysis
and will be discussed there and in Art. 2. The common logarithms are useful in
computation. The following identities hold for any (fixed) base:
log (NM) = log N + log M
log (N/M) = log N log - M
log Nm = m log N
log ty N = (log N)/m

For common logarithms it is true in particular that
log (n X 10m)
= m + log n
This implies that the decimal part of the (common) logarithm is not affected by the
location of the decimal point in the number, and this accounts for the utility of 10 as
a base. Let N = n 10, where m is an integer, positive or negative, and 1 < n < 10.
Then, since log 1 = 0 and log 10 = 1, it follows that 0 < log n < 1. Hence log N
is the sum of an integer m, called the characteristic of the logarithm, and a pure
decimal log n, called the mantissa of the logarithm. The mantissa is always non-
negative, and its value is independent of the location of the decimal point in N . The
characteristic may be positive, negative, or zero, and its value is determined solely
by the location of the decimal point in N. Note that
log AT- - -(m + 1) + (1

- log n)
Hence, unless log n = 0, then 1 log n is the mantissa of log N~l and (m + 1) is
its characteristic.
1.12 Bases of Enumeration. The statements just made rest upon the fact that
moving the decimal point corresponds to multiplying or dividing by a power of 10,
and this, in turn, is due to the use of the decimal base in our common system of
enumeration. That is to say, any number is represented in the form
10s 10
+ d_i 10"1
<i_2 10"' +
+ dt + di + do +
where each d is one of the 10 integers 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9. Any number whatever
(instead of 10) could be used as base, and in recent years the base 2 (or sometimes 23
or 24) is used for many automatic computers, for scalars, and in other special situ
ations. In the binary system a number is represented in the form

+ a2
2
+ an
2
+ a -f 2"1
+
where each a is either 0 or 1. It is sometimes desirable to convert from decimal to

some other specified representation or back again.
If the numbers are integers, let the two representations be
JV = d0 + di 10 + dt 10l + = 6o + b,/3 + 62/3s +
+ M'
- I:
where 0 represents the other base and each 6 has one of the values 0, 1, 2, ... ,
ft
Given the decimal representation: Divide N by 0, and the remainder is b0; divide
the quotient by 0, and the remainder is 6i ; continue, obtaining 62, 63, . . . , in turn.
Given the representation in the base 0: Form in sequence
&'_, = b,P + 6,_,

b',-i = &'-t0 +
= 6\_20 +
Then b'o = N in decimal form.

If the numbers are not integers, let the nonintegral parts have the representations
D = d_, 10-
+ d_, - 6_i + 6_j

10"' + /3"1 0" + +
Given the decimal representation: Multiply by 0, and the integral part of the
product will be 6_i ; multiply the nonintegral part of the product by 0, and the integral
part of this product will be 6-2; . ...
Given the representation in the base 0: Form in sequence
b'-p+t = 6'-,1+i/0 + 6-M+2

= b'-n+i/p +
6'_M+>
Then D =
It
is presupposed that the computations themselves are performed decimally.
Analogous rules can be formulated when the other base is to be used for computation.
1.13 Polynomial products can be formed by repeated application of the associative
law, but the following are of frequent occurrence:
- -
(ax + by) (cx + dy) = acx* + (ad + bc)xy -f- cdy*
- -
(x + i/)(x y) = x1 y1
(xl + xy + y')(x
- -
y) = x y*
- -
(x + x*y + xy2 + ys)(x y) = x4 y*
(z* + x'y + xV+ xy' + y*)(x y) = xi y*
(x
-
xy + t/s)(x + y) = x + y'
(x* x*y + x*y* xy3 + y*)(x + y) = x' + y*
(x y)* = xs 2xy + y*
(x y)* = x' 3x*y + 3xy* y3
(x y)* = x* 4x'y + 6xV 4xy> + y*
The identities in this last group are cases of the binomial series that can be written
as follows:
- x'
(")
(3)

(x + y)n + x-'i/ + *"~V *"~V
+

- -r+
r(r -
n(n 1) (n 1)
where 2 1
1)
When n is a positive integer, then
(see also Art. 5), and the polynomial has exactly n + 1 terms. When n is not a
positive integer, there are infinitely many terms defined. If x 1 and
\y\
it
<
1,
can be shown that the infinite series converges (cf. Art. 3.6 of Sec. 3-2) and provides
method of computing the quantity represented on the left (thus for x = = n =
1,
a
y
J>,the series represents y/2).
This one way of extracting roots. Another to use logarithms table
is
is
if
is
a
available. Thus from a table of common logarithms one finds log =
0.30103.
2
Then log \/2 half this, or 0.15052. Hence one has only to return to the table to
is
find what number has 0.15052 as its logarithm. For still other methods see Art. 4.
1.14 Progressions, Sequences, and Series. succession of
A
progression
is
a
numbers
Ml, Vt, U Un, .
.
.
each of which, after the first, obtainable from the preceding by fixed rule. If
is
a
Un = Un-i where fixed, the progression arithmetic; u =Un-\r where
is
+
if
is
is
d
is d
r
fixed, the progression geometric; Un = vn~l where the vs form an arithmetic pro
if
gression, then the progression (of the us) harmonic.

is
ui = a, the sum of n terms of an arithmetic progression

If
is
+ + 2d) + + + - l)d] = n[a + - l)d/2]
(n
(n
a
d)
+
+
(a
(a
[a
and the sum of n terms of geometric progression

is
a
a + ar + ar* + + ar_1 = o(l - r")/(l -

r)
a succession of numbers Ui formed according to some rule, and a
A
sequence
is
formed by summing these numbers. Simple formulas for sum (as in the
is
series a
arithmetic and geometric progressions) are available in only few special cases.
a
If the nth term u polynomial in n with constant coefficients, then the sum of
is
a a
the first n terms polynomial of degree one greater. The method

is
also undeter
of
mined coefficients can be used to obtain the sum. This best illustrated by an
is
example. Let Un be quadratic in n. Then = ui cubic in n.

ut u
+
is
Hence let
Un = a + bn + cn1 s = Bn + Cn1 + Dn>
+
A
are known and A, B, and D are to be determined. For deter

C,
where a, and
b,
mining these four coefficients one can assign to n any four convenient values (including
even 0). On taking n = one obtains
3,
0,
2,
1,
=
A
A+B+C+D=a+b+c
+ 2B AC SD = 2a + 36
A
5c
+
-f
A + SB 9C D = 3a + +
+
27 66 14e
For methods of solving such equations see Art. 4. The method of undetermined
coefficients can be applied in other situations but only when the form of the result is
known or can be conjectured.
1.2 The Algebra of Vectors

This may be applied in situations where spatial orientation and localization become
significant. vector exemplified by a directed line from one point (its origin) to
A
is
Sec. 3-1] ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY
another point (its terminus). If a is the vector with origin 0 and terminus P (Fig. 1),
then the vector with origin P and terminus 0 is a. If b is the vector with origin P
and terminus Q, then a + b is the vector with origin 0 and terminus Q. If P, Q, and
R are in a straight line, and if the segment PR = aPQ, then the vector with origin P
and terminus R is orb. If the line ST is parallel to the line PQ and the segments are
equal, ST = PQ, then the vector with origin S and terminus T exemplifies (or is)
the same vector b. A vector may therefore be thought of as freely movable from
place to place but fixed in length and direction. (In more rigorous phraseology the
vector b is the class of all segments parallel and equal to the segment PQ and similarly
oriented.)
Examples of vectors are finite motions, velocities, accelerations, and forces. On
the other hand masses, temperatures, and energies are nonvectorial, or scalar, quanti
ties. When vectors are being discussed, it will be convenient to represent them by
0
Fia. 1.
boldface, lower-case Roman letters and to represent scalars by lower-case Greek

letters.
The null vector 0 satisfies with any vector a the identities
a + 0 = a 0a=0
Hereafter the null vector will be indicated as a simple zero. The commutative lav)
holds for addition and for multiplication by scalars:
a + b = b + a a& = aa
Subtraction is defined as follows:
a + (b - a) = b
There are two distributive laws:
<*(a + b) = aa + ab (a + 0)a = aa + /3a
If
two vectors are parallel, one can be expressed as a scalar multiple of the other
and they are said to be linearly dependent. In general, vectors a and b are linearly
dependent in case scalars a and f) exist, not both being zero, such that aa + /3b = 0.
If this equation is satisfied only by a = f? = 0, then a and b are linearly independent.
It should be observed that if one vector, say b, is null, the two vectors are necessarily
linearly dependent whatever a might be, since one has only to take a = 0 and /3
arbitrary but ^ 0.
Let ei and e* be any two linearly independent vectors, and let x be any vector in
the plane of these vectors. Let these be drawn from a common origin O, and let
them terminate at Bi, Et, and X, respectively (Fig. 2). From X draw PX parallel
to 0Et and intersecting OEi (extended if necessary) at P. Then 0 is the origin
sad P the terminus of a scalar multiple of et; P is the origin and X the terminus of a
scalar multiple of es. Let these be { iBj and 2e2. Then
x = tei + hei
Thus x is resolved into components along ei and es, or it is expressed as a linear combi
nation of ei and ei. Its components are i-iei and f2e2; the scalars i and {2 are its
coordinates in the vectorial coordinate system (d, e2). Any other point 0' could have
been used instead of 0 as the common origin. This would have led to different
points E'i, E't, X', and P' but to the same scalars fi, {j.
When a vectorial coordinate system such as (ei, e) is associated with a particular
point 0 as origin, the system forms a point-coordinate system (0; ei, ej). Associated
with each vector x drawn from 0 as origin is a particular point X, its terminus. The
coordinates fi, 2 of x in the vectorial coordinate system (ei, es) are said to be the
coordinates of the point X in the point-coordinate system (0; d, e).
Any vector not in (or parallel to) the same plane with ei and ei is not expressible
as a linear combination of Ci and e2. If e> is such a vector, then ti, et, and es are
linearly independent. Any vector in the same 3-space is expressible as a linear
combination of these three vectors. Hence they form a vectorial coordinate system
for the 3-space, and, when associated with any point 0 as origin, the point and the
vectors form a point-coordinate system for the 3-space.
In general, n vectors ai, as, . . . , a. are linearly dependent if there are n scalars
ai, at, . . . , a, not all zero, such that
"
2a, Ei aiai + ai&2 +
+ ora = 0
If the equations can be satisfied only by taking ai = orj = = a = 0, then the

vectors are linearly independent. A space of vectors is of dimensionality n in case
there is a set of n linearly independent vectors, whereas any n + 1 vectors are linearly
dependent. In an n-dimensional space let ei, e2, . . . , e be linearly independent.
Then if x is any vector, x, t\, e, . . . , e are linearly dependent and, in fact, one can
express
x = 2fce;
Thus one may speak of the vectorial coordinate system (ej). When these vectors are
associated with an origin O, the vectors and the point form a point-coordinate system
(0; e<) as in the cases of two and three dimensions.
If the vector x is called a geometric vector, the set of its coordinates ({i, fa )
in any coordinate system may be called an arithmetic vector, and each coordinate &
is an element of the arithmetic vector. For purposes of notation it is convenient to
distinguish the column vector, where the d are written in a column, from the row
vector, where they are written along a line. When the column vector is intended, we
shall enclose the elements between braces { fi, . . . , J for convenience of printing.
The column vector will be designated x; the row vector will be called the transpose
of the column vector and designated xT. Either arithmetic vector x or xT represents
the geometric vector x in the given coordinate system (e,), but a change in coordinate
system will in general change the representation (see Art. 1.3).
If y = 27j,ei is any geometric vector, represented in the coordinate system e< by the
arithmetic vector y jm, . . . , t/J, then the sum
x + y = 2(fc + m)ti
is represented by the arithmetic vector
= +
X + V [fl + 11, . . . , fn IJ)
the product
ay = 2(ai),)ei
by the arithmetic vector ay = (cnti,
. . . , avn). In particular, if a = 0, ay is the
null vector, and the null arithmetic vector is (0, . . . ,0).
1.3 Transformations and the Algebra of Matrices
In the point-coordinate system (O; e;), let the point 0' correspond to the vector d
(Fig. 3). If X corresponds to x in the same system and to x' in the system (O'; e,),
then x = d + x'. In terms of arithmetic vectors and coordinates,
x = d + x' & = ( + '<
These equations relate the coordinates of a given point before and after a translation
of axes (changed origin but fixed vectorial system).
To be compared with the coordinate change caused by changing the coordinate
system is the coordinate change brought about by
moving the point but keeping the coordinate system
fixed. If the point X undergoes a translation, rep
resented by the geometric vector d, to the position
X', then x' = d + x, so that
x' = d +x '(
= *< + ii
Here it is understood that the coordinate system
remains fixed as (0; e<).
Let e'i, . . . , e' be any n linearly independent
vectors in the same n-dimensional space. Then any 0'
vector x = 2{ie< is also expressible in the form Fio. 3. Translation of axes.
z = 2',-e'i. But any e',- is expressible as a linear
combination of the e,, and likewise any e< is expressible as a linear combination of the
t'j. Hence for some ttj and '/,
e', = Xtete't, e< = 2,e',t,i (1)
Hence
x = Zie,, = ZiZ,e'
= Eye',*', =
SiXten'tii'i
It follows that
h = 2,'*,'y =
t'i
Z<i(2) (2)
From these relations arise the rules of matrix algebra. Let the numbers t,-,- be
written in a square array as follows:
/til 12

ln\
the first subscript being constant along row, the second along a column. Then the
a
product of the array, regarded as a matrix E, by the column arithmetic vector x the
column arithmetic vector x' according to Eqs. (2). If E' the matrix of the then is
is
the product of E' by z' Hence

is
x.
x = E'x' x' = Ex (4)

Let e stand for the arr,ay (ei, . . . e) and for the array (e'i, e'). That
e'
. .
.
,
,
is, these are row vectors whose elements are geometric vectors. Then, by the same
multiplication rules
e' = eE' = e'E (5)
e
matrix can be thought of as made up of column vectors or of row vectors. To

A
multiply matrices one multiplies the first matrix by each column of the second or else
each row of the first matrix by the second matrix. Thus the matrix whose
F
if
is
columns are
-
. .
:
.
(/.,/. U)
F
then EF = (E/ Eft, . . Efm)

.
Matrices are added by adding corresponding elements, as with the addition of vectors.
A scalar multiplies matrix when multiplies every element.
it
a
The following commutative, associative, and distributive laws are satisfied:

+ = + + (B + C) - (A B) +C
B
B
A
A{B + O = AB AC = (AB)C
- A(BC)
- aC + PC
+ +
a(B aB aC + 0)C
(a
C)
+
But note that in general AB and BA need not be equal.

Since
e = e'E = (eE')E = e(E'E)
it follows that the effect of the product matrix E'E upon e is to leave it unchanged.
Hence
E'E = /
the identity matrix, and E' is said to be the reciprocal or inverse of E:
E' - E' - E~l
Both designations F' and E~' are in use, and both will be used here, according to
convenience. It is also true that
EE' =7 E - E"
The effect of changing the vectorial coordinate system is simply expressible now in
terms of matrices and arithmetic vectors: Let
x = ex = eV
be a geometric vector represented by the arithmetic vector x in coordinate system (e)
and x' in coordinate system (e'). Let
e = e'E e' = eE>
relate the two systems. Then the representations are related by
x' = Ex x - E'x'
This gives the result of changing the vectorial coordinate system. Suppose, on the
other hand, that the coordinate system remains fixed but every point in space is dis
placed in some fashion. The result is a point transformation, and it is linear provided
there exists a set of vectors (f) such that any vector x = ex is transformed into
x* = fx. That is to say, the arithmetic vector x that represents x in the system (e)
represents x* in the system (f). In particular e< is transformed into fi for each
* - 1, 2, .... .
Let f = eF . Then
x* = ix = eFx = ex*
Hence x* is represented in the system (e) by the vector
x* = Fx
Now let the same transformation be referred to the coordinate system (e') instead
of (e). Then
x e'x' x' Ex
x* = eFx = e'EFX = e'EFE'x' = e'x'*
Hence the arithmetic vectors x' and x'* that represent x and its transform x* in the
system e' are related by
x'* = EFE'x'
The matrices F and EFE' are said to be similar.
To return to the system (e), if F is any matrix, then F defines a linear vector trans
formation if the vector x* = eFx = ex* is made to correspond to any vector x = ex.
Thus, with respect to a given coordinate system, every linear vector transformation is
specified by a matrix and every matrix defines a linear transformation.
It was not required that the system f = eF of vectors into which the coordinate
vectors transform should be itself a coordinate system, i.e., that the vectors fi be
linearly independent. If the vectors f< are linearly independent, then the vectors
e< can be expressed as linear combinations of the U, then the matrix F' exists, and
e - fF'
In that event any vector x* is the transform of one and only one vector z, where, in
fact, if x* = ex*, then x = ex with x = F'x*. In this event the matrix F and the
transformation are said to be nonsingular or of rank n.
If the vectors U are linearly dependent, then there exists an arithmetic vector x ^ 0
such that fx = 0. Since f = eF, eFx = 0. But the vectors ei are linearly inde
pendent, whence Fx = 0. In this event the columns of F are said to be linearly
dependent, F is said to be singular, and its rank less than n.
Among the vectors f< there is a maximal set of linearly independent vectors. If
there are r vectors in this set, then every vector in the set (f ) is expressible as a linear
combination of these r vectors and every column of the matrix F is expressible as a
linear combination of the same r columns of F. The set (f) and the matrix F are both
said to be of rank r. The transformation transforms every vector x in the space into
a vector x* which lies in the r-dimensional subspace of linear combinations of these r
independent vectors of the set (f).
1.4 Multivectors and Determinants
1.41 Bivectors and Trivectors. If the vectors a and b are drawn from the same
origin, they can be regarded as forming two sides of a parallelogram or bivector, which
will be designated [a,b]. Interchanging the order
of the vectors will be taken to reverse the sign of t T ~y\ r
the bivector, just as interchanging origin and termi- A C b J y'
nus of a vector reverses its sign. This accounts for x~& \ 1 \
the first of the following relations: \ V
[a,b] = -[b,al K"B-J

(6)
= [a,b] = a]a,b]
!<*a,b] (7) Flo 4 A bivector.
[a, b + c] = [a,b] + [a,cj (8)
The second of these is easily verified. The third provides a rule of composition con
sistent with that for vectors. From these relations one proves readily that
[a,a] = 0
[a,b] = [a + Xb, b] - [a, b + Xa]
where X is an arbitrary scalar (see Fig. 4). Moreover, if

a = aiei + a2e2 = eo b = 0iei + /32ej = eft
then [a,b] = |o6|[ei,e2]
where
" 01 I _ _ I W1 a* I
I a a
I at Pi | 1 Pi Pa I
is called the determinant of the arithmetic vectors o and 6.

If the vectors a, b, and c are drawn from the same origin, they can be regarded as
forming three edges of a parallelepiped or trivector, which will be designated [a,b,c].
Interchanging any pair of the vectors will be taken to reverse the sign of the trivector.
This and the other two relations given below form a natural generalization of the case
for bivectors:
[a,b,c] = -[b,a,c] [a,c,b] [c,b,a] =
(9)
= [a,Xb,c] = [a,b,Xc] = X[a,b,c]
-
[Xa,b,cj (10)
[a, b, ci + cs] [a,b,ci] + [a,b,Ci] (11)
One verifies readily that

0 -
[a,a,c] = [a,b,a] = [a,b,b]
[a,b,c] = [a + Xb, b, c] = [a + Xc, b, c] = [a, b + Xc, c] =
Moreover if
a = aiei + cuaes + asej = ea
b = 0iei + foej + 0e3 = eb
c = 7iei + 7ie2 + yie = ec
then [a,b,c] = |a6c|[ei,ej,e,]
where
at ft 71
ft 7s ft 71 ft 71
= ft yt
\abc\ en l ft 7.
or?
P 73 ft 71
at ft yt
i at 3
ft ft
= 5. ft ft
71 71
-ft <*i
7J
at
71
+ 71
ai
ft
oct
ft
7i 71 yt
The two-by-two determinants are called minors. In general, when any row and any
column of a determinant are deleted, the resulting determinant is a minor of the
original. The first line of this continued equation defines the value of the determi
nant by giving an expansion. Note that by virtue of Eq. (9) other expansions are
possible, for example,
OTl - ,
I ai
VI yi ' ,
at or, 71
|aic| = =
+L

|6oc| ai _P as 71
a
ft 73 !
a
ft i 71 I
as
The next line in the above equation asserts that the transposed determinant has the
same value and permits still other expansions. According to Eq. (9), an interchange
of columns in a determinant leads to a reversal of sign. If one first transposes, then
interchanges columns, then transposes again, the result is an interchange of rows in the
original. Hence an interchange of a pair of rows leads to a reversal of sign.
1.42 Multivectors. One can readily carry on to four-vectors, five-vectors, . . . ,
and for each case write down the basic relations (9), (10), and (11) and obtain the
determinant. The rules for manipulating and expanding determinants are much
more easily illustrated in particular than stated in general. In the complete expansion
each term contains exactly one element from each column and exactly one from each
row. For a fourth-order determinant one can write
|aocd|
= aiAi + ajAt + ajAj + a>At
= ftBi + PtBt + |3jJ5i + ftB<
= a,A, + ftB, + 71C1 +ii>i
where the quantities Ai, Bit Ci, Z><are, respectively, the cofaclors of ai, ft, yi, Si, and
ft
ft
71
73
*2
4s Bi = - at
at
71
7i
*2
St
ft 74 *4 at 74 6t
71
At = 71
74 *4
Since |66crf|
= 0, it follows that
/Mi + (3tA, + (3,At + t3,A, = 0
Likewise
a\B\ atBt a%B% -|- atJBt =
-f-
+ +
0 0
aiA, ftB, 7iC2 ,>2 =

+
Properties (9) to (11) for multivectors apply directly to determinants. For exam
ple, for third-order determinant, one has
a
\a,b,e\ " -\b,a,c\ =

1.43 Products of Determinants of the Same Order. In general, let the n vectors
t\i, a2, . . . a in n-space be expressed in terms of the vectors e< by the relations
,
Sec. 3-1] algebra and geometry 3-13
or, in matrix form,
a = eA
Then the multivectors are related by
[i a] = [ei,e,, . . . ,e]|A|
where the determinant
\A\ = |oi,Oj, . . . ,On\
Let e = fE
so that a = fA' A' - EA
[a,,a,, . . . ,a] = [f,,f,, ,U]A'\
-
Then . . .
[e,,e,, . . . ,e] [f , ,f,, . . . ,f] E\
By comparing these identities one finds
|A'| = \EA\ = \E\

\A\
Thus the determinant of the product of two matrices is the product of their determi
nants. In particular, since
=
|/|
1
therefore when = A~l,
E
- - =
|A-'|-|A|
|/|
|A~A|
1
Hence =
|A|-<
is,
that the determinant of the inverse of matrix (when exists) the reciprocal of
it
is
a
the determinant of the matrix.

1.14 Linear Dependence and the Solution of Equations. Let the m vectors
= eai = . . . m) be such that the multivector
1,
li
[ai,a, ^
0
am]
and let the m + vectors a; and be linearly dependent. Suppose

y
1
= a!?, + +

amm
y
and form the multivector [y,as, . . . ,am]. Then
[y,alp . . . ,a] =
{2a2
.a,,ai, ...
- [fiai.a,,
[y
,a,]
. ,a] = ii[ai,a2, . . . ,aj
.
.
Thus
[y,a,, . . ,a] = {,[a,,a2 a]
.
and likewise
[ai,y al = {ataâj, . . . ,a]
Each of the multivectors on the left a scalar multiple of that on the right, and to
is
evaluate this scalar multiple one can take any minor on the left and the corresponding
minor on the right. This Cramer's rule for solving linear systems. The arbitrary
is
vector resolved along the vectors ai am, and these must therefore be
is
y
linearly independent. In fact, any m vectors ai, . ,an are linearly dependent
if
.
.
and only the multivector [ai.aj, . . ,am] vanishes.

if
1.5 Metrics
perpendiculars are drawn from points and given line, intersecting this
If
to
B
A
is a
line atA' and B', respectively, then the segment A'B' the orthogonal projection of
AB on the given line. The orthogonal projection of a broken line made up of seg
ments AB, BC KL simply A'U, the same as the projection of the straight-
is
line segment AL.

Let = ex and = ey be two vectors. The scalar product of these vectors xy
y
x
the product of the length of either vector into the projection of the other upon it.
is
Therefore
xy = xZew = J(ie,)i?i = ZSf,e,e,)j,-
3-14 MATHEMATICS [SEC. 3
Let 7,7 = e.ej, and let G = (7,,) be the matrix of the 7,7. Then
xy = xTGy = yTGx (12)
Each element 7,, of G is the scalar product of two of the coordinate vectors e* and e,,
and in particular, for i = j, yu is the square of the length of e,-. The matrix G is said
to represent the metric of the space.
If each e; is of unit length and orthogonal to all other e,-, the vectors e,- are said to
form an orthonormal basis. In this event G = /, xy = xTy = yTx.
In general the matrix G can be written
G = eTe
(13)
Let e = IE (14)
represent a coordinate change. Then

G = ETiTtE = ETHE (15)
where H = Ff (16)
represents the metric corresponding to the base f.

If f and e are both orthonormal, then
O = H = I 1 = ETE = EET
Then the matrix E, whose transpose is its own reciprocal, is called an orthogonal matrix.
Since \ET\ = \E\, it follows that
\E\* = - \E\ = 1
|/|
and the determinant of an orthogonal matrix either +1 or

is
1.
Since, for any metric xx = xTGx
G,
squared length, essentially positive and,

is
is
x it
a
the e,- are linearly independent, can vanish only when = 0. matrix sym
is
G
if
metric GT = G; a symmetric matrix for any x, xTGx >
0,
positive semidefinite
G
G is
if
if
and xTGx = only when x = then Any matrix expressible
0,
is
-positive definite.
if
in the form = ETE positive semidefinite, and conversely, any positive semi-
is
G
definite matrix can be so expressed. If (and hence G) nonsingular, then posi

E
is
is
G
tive definite.
Covariant and Contravariant Representations. x = ex, the arithmetic
If
1.61
vector x sometimes said to be the contravariant representation of in the system (e)
is
and the vector x' = Gx said to be the covariant representation. If = ey, =Gy,
y'
is
then xy = x'Ty = xTy' = y'Tx = yTx'.

Let the system (e') satisfy

e*V -
/
That to say, the ith vector of the system ('), then

is
if
is
e*
The coordinate systems (e) and (e') are said to be reciprocal. Let e' = efi'. Then
= ex = e'x', = ey = e'y', follows that
it
if
y
x
xy xree'y' xTIy' = xTy'
for any vectors and y. Hence x' and are the covariant representations of and
y'
x
Hence representation that covariant with respect to a system (e) contra

is
y.
is
a
variant with respect to the reciprocal system (e').

The product of two bivectors [a,b] and [x,y] will be defined as the determinant
..... - ax
bj
ay
I
[a,b][x,y]
^
j
In general, the product of two multivectors of order m will be the determinant of

order m whose elements are the scalar products of the vectors taken in pairs.
The magnitude of a vector a is its length and is designated ||a||. Clearly ||a|| > 0,
and Hall* = aa.
The magnitude of a bivector [ab] is the area of the parallelogram and is designated
l![a,b]|[. Clearly ||[a,b]|| > 0, and one can show that
||[a,b]||' = [a,b][a,b]
In like manner the product of a multivector by itself is the square of its own magnitude.
Let |[a|| = = 1, and let 8 represent the angle from a to b.
[|b|| Choose an ortho-
normal system (e) in the plane of a and b. Then
l|e,|| = ||e,|| - ||[ee,]|[ = 1
Let a =- eo, b = e6. Then by definition sin 8 and cos 8 are the quantities (see Art. 2)
sin 8 = \ab\ cos 8 = aTb " ab
More generally, if <pis the angle from x to y and x = ex, y = ey, where (e) is ortho-
normal in the plane of z and y, then
\xy\ - IWI llyll sin * xTv = IMI IIj/II cos

*>
The bivector [x,y] may be regarded as a kind of product of the vectors x and y.
This is called the outer product, and the scalar product xy is sometimes called the
inner product of x and y. Neither the outer product nor the inner product is a vector.
Ip 3-space, but only in 3-space, one can define the cross (or vector) product
z=xXy = -y X x
as follows: If the system (e) is orthonormal, then
fi = H /.
{'
_ s 11 j.
s'
{1 iji
v> 1 vt . t
It follows that
xz = yz * 0
and if w = etc is any vector in the same 3-space, then
zw = \xyw\
2 TRIGONOMETRY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

2.1 Complex Numbers and Vectors
The equation x* + 1 =0 cannot be satisfied by any real number, but if one defines
t =
the equation will be satisfied by either i or by i.

Numbers of the form x + iy, where x and y are both real, are called complex num
bers. If one requires such numbers to satisfy all the ordinary rules of algebra, it can
be shown that every algebraic equation of degree n has exactly n roots of this form.
If x = 0, a number is a pure imaginary.
From the definition it follows that
J*" = 1 = J j+S = _1 j4*+3 = _j (17)
where n is any integer, positive or negative. This suggests a geometric interpretation

of complex numbers as follows: With any origin O, a horizontal (real) axis and a
vertical (imaginary) axis represent x + iy by the terminus of the vector (x,y) or by
the vector itself. Then the sum of x + iy and u + iv is represented by the vector sum
of the vectors that represent these numbers. The product i(x + iy) is obtained
by rotating the vector x + iy counterclockwise through 90. The vectors u(x + iy)
sine
v'eose,
AW-e) ;
.
in(-e)l
o i u
Fio. 5. A
geometric interpretation of com- Fio. 6.
plex numbers.
and vi(x + iy) will be obtained by stretching the initial and rotated vectors by factors
u and v, respectively, and the final product
(u + iv)(x + iy) = (ux - vy) -f i(vx + uy)
is the sum of the stretched vectors. Geometrically (Fig. 5) the construction is as

follows: Let U, P, and Q be the points corresponding to 1 + 0 i, x + iy, and w + iv,
and let W correspond to the product. Then the triangle OQW is similar to the
triangle OUP [cf. Eq. (21)].
Let
r = Vac' + V1 > 0
represent the length of the vector x + iy, and let 0 represent the angle measured in a
counterclockwise direction from the real axis to the vector. Then one defines the
quantities cos 0 and sin 0 by
sin 0 = y/r cos 0 = x/r

These definitions are equivalent to those given in Art. 1.5. These are functions of the
angle 0 alone, their values being fixed by 0 and independent of r. Clearly
sin 0 = 0 sin 90 sin 180 =0 sin 270 1

cos 0 = 1 cos 90 cos 180 = -1 cos 270 = 0
and, in general, for any 0

-1 < sin
- 1 < cos 0
0 < 1,
< 1
(18)
By taking r = 1 and applying the Pythagorean theorem one has
sin' 0 + cos* 9 = 1 (19)

for any 0.
Any complex number can be written in either of the equivalent forms
x + iy - r(cos 0 + i sin 0) (20)

called, respectively, the rectangular and the polar forms. One calls r the radius vector
or modulus, 0 the amplitude or argument, x the real part, and iy the imaginary part of
the number. From geometry it is clear that in multiplying two complex numbers the
modulus of the product is the product of the moduli and the amplitude of the product
is the sum of the amplitudes of the separate factors (cf. Fig. 5):
i sin
<p)
i
*>)
r(cos + sin 0)8(cos )]
0
0
if
the final form being given by direct multiplication.

A number of results follow from this identity. Let r = s = 1, and take succes
sively equal to 90, 180, 270, 360. The results can be summarized in the following
table:
90 + 9 180 + a 270 + e 360 + 9
sin cos 9 sin 9 cos 9 sin 9

cos sin 9 cos 9 sin 9 oos 9
Since (cos 9 + i sin 9) (cos 9 i sin 9) = 1

and (cos 9 + i sin 9)[cos ( 9) + sin ( 9)] = 1
it follows that
cos ( 9) = cos 9 sin (-9) = sin 9 (22)
This is illustrated by Fig. 6.

Hence the above table can be supplemented:
90 - 9 180 - 9 270 - 9 360 - 9
cos 9
sin cos 9 sin 9 sin 9

cos sin 9 cos 9 sin 9 cos 9
Still with r = s = 1 in Eq. (21), on comparing the second and final forms one has
sin (if + 9) = sin <pcos 9 + cos ^ sin 9

(23)
cos (^> + 9) = cos <pcos 9 sin <psin 9
On referring to Eq. (22) one has also
sin (y> 9) = sin ^ cos 9 cos <psin 9

(24)
cos (cos 9 + sin <psin 9
H 9 = n then
sin 29 = 2 sin 9 cos 9

(25)
cos 29 = cos' 9 sin1 9 = 2 cos' 91 =12 sin* i
If 9 in Eq. (25) is replaced by 9/2, one obtains
sin (9/2) = V(l - cos 9)/2 cos (9/2) = + cos 9)/2 (26)
Given any complex number
z x + ty
r(cos 9 + i sin 9)
the conjugate complex number is
I = x iy = r(eos 9 i sin 9)
Note that the product of a number by its conjugate is the square of its modulus,
zz = r; the sum of a number and its conjugate is twice the real part, z + z = 2x.
The sum, difference, product, or quotient of two conjugates is the conjugate of the
sum, difference, product, or quotient of the numbers themselves.
2.2 The Trigonometric Functions; Basic Identities
Along with the functions sin 9 and cos 9 already defined, one can form four others:
tan 6 = sin 9 /cos 8 = y/x

cot 9 cos 9/sin 8 = x/y
sec 9 = 1/cos 9 = r/x (27)
esc 8 = 1/csc 8 = r/y
where, as usual,
* + iy = r(cos 8 -f- t sin 9)
These satisfy the following identities:
+ tans 8 = sec5
- csc
1 8
(28)
1 + cot* 0 9
The first is obtained from the complex number
1 + * tan 8 = sec 9(cos 8 + i sin 9)
the second from the complex number
cot 8 + i = esc 9(cos 8 + i sin 9)
Complete reduction formulas for all the functions can be obtained by applying those
derived for sin 9 and cos 9 and the above definitions. The following table summarizes:
-8 90 8 180 8 270 (9
sin - sin 6 cos 8 + sin 9 cos 8

COB cos B +sin 9 COB 0 sin 0
tan tan 8 T cot 8 tan 8 + cot 8
cot cot 8 tan 0 cot 0 + tan 8
sec sec 8 T esc 9 sec 8 esc 8
CSC esc 8 sec 0 + esc 8 sec 0
The quadrant of an angle 9 is defined by first expressing it in the form

8 = 8' +n- 360
where 0 < 9' < 360 and n is any integer, positive or negative. Then the quadrant
of 9 is
I if 0 < 9' < 90
II if 90 < 9' < 180
III if 180 < 9' < 270
IV if 270 < 9' < 360
The algebraic sign of each function is constant throughout any quadrant according
to the following table:
I II III IV
sin + + _
cos + +
tan + +
oot + +
sec + +
080 + +
Since adding or subtracting integral multiples of 360 has no effect upon the value of
any of the trigonometric functions, these functions are said to be periodic with period
360. Actually the tangent and cotangent have periods 180.
Exact values of the functions of certain particular angles can be obtained by elemen
tary methods (in an isosceles right triangle each acute angle is 45; in an equilateral
triangle any altitude forms congruent right triangles) :
0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180
sin 0 H \,Vl Vi/2 1 V3/2 \/V2 H 0

cos 1 Vi/2 I/V2 0 -H -I/V2 -Vi/2 -1
tan 0 1 Vi 00 -Vi -1 -1/V5 0
cot so VI 1 1/V3 0 - \/Vi - 1 -VI 30
sec 1 V2 2 00 -2 -VI -21 VI -1
2 Vi 2/Vj" 1 2/Vi V2 2 00
The table can be extended through the quadrants III and IV by applying the reduction
formulas.
Other common multiple angle formulas are
<p)
tan (6 <p) = (tan 9 + tan ip)/(\ + tan 9 tan
tan 29 = tan 9/(1 tan1 - (29)
(30)
9)
2
tan (9/2) = sin 9/(1 =

-
cos cos
9)/sin
+
(31)
9)
(1
9
sin + sin v> = sin [(9 p)/2] cos [(9
+ + +
*>)/2]
2
9
sin sin )/2]

cos cos
-
+
2
9
cos cos ip = 2 sin [(9 + *>)/2] sin [(9 >)/2]

9
9) <p)
tan tan 
9
The radian measure of an angle the length of the arc of unit circle intercepted
is
by the angle when the center coincides with the vertex. Since the complete circum
ference 2r, the radian and degree measures are related by
is
t radians = 180 (34)
For a circle of any radius the intercepted arc of length the radian measure
is
if
r,
s,
of the angle
is
= s/r (35)
9
and this a pure number. Hereafter, unless otherwise specified, angles in the formulae
is
will be understood as given in radian measure.

The rule that the amplitude of product of two complex numbers the sum of the
is
a
amplitudes of the factors [Eq. (21)] the same as the rule for combining logarithms
is
(Art. 1.1). Hence one can define the real number = 2.718 to ...
e
ewi = exp (ri) =

1
from which follows that

it
exp (i9) = cos sin

+
9
9
t
cos = [exp (t'9) + exp (-9)]/2 (36)

9
sin = i[exp (t'9) exp (-i'9)l/2

9
For theoretical purposes convenient logarithmic base, and logarithms to the base
is
a
e
are known as natural logarithms and abbreviated In.

e
Any
iy
complex number x can be written

+
x + = r(cos + i9) = exp

iy
+ sin exp + i(9 + 2r)]

(p
[p
(37)
1
9
*
where p = In r is the real natural logarithm of the positive real number r. One may
also say that
In (x + iy) = p + i(0 + 2nr) (38)
where n is any integer, positive or negative. The natural logarithm is defined, there
fore, only up to integral multiples of 2xt.
Inverse trigonometric functions are also multiple-valued. By definition if fen
represents any of the six trigonometric functions, then
9 = arcfen u if u = fen 8
Thus arcsin } may have any of the values
r/6 2m i.e., 30 n 360

5t/6 2nr i.e., 150 n 360
and arccos } may have any of the values
\o 2nx
To remove this ambiguity one defines the principal value of an inverse function,
designated by a capital letter, to be just one of the possible values. A common con
vention is as follows:
jt/2 < arcsin u < ir/2
0 < arccos u < -r


t/2 < arctan u < t/2 ,Q.
-t/2
< arccot u < r/2
(M>
0 < arcsec u < x

t/2 < arccsc u < r/2
In place of arcsin u, arccos u the symbols sin-1 u, cos"1 u, . . . are some
times used.
The hyperbolic functions are defined by applying real exponents to the exponential:
sinh x [exp x exp ( x)j/2 ,.-.

cosh x = [exp x + exp ( x)]/2
tanh x = sinh x/cosh x
coth x = cosh x/sinh x /..>
sech x =- 1/cosh x
i
csch = 1/sinh x
They are related by identities analogous to those satisfied by the trigonometric

identities:
1 -
cosh1 x sinh* x =
tanh* x = sech' x
1
(42)
coth* x 1 = csch* x
sinh (2x) = 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh (2x) = 2 cosh* x 1 ,,.
= 2 sinh* x + 1 ( i}
cosh* x + sinh* x
sinh (x/2) = -y/(rosh x - l)/2 (44>

cosh (x/2) = V(cosh x + l)/2
The circular (or simple trigonometric) and the hyperbolic functions are related as
follows:
sin 0 = i sinh (i6) sinh x = i sin (t'x)
cos 9 = cosh (i$) cosh x = cos (jj) ,,-..
tan 9 = i tanh (id) tanh x = i tan (uc)
cot 9 = i coth (ifl) coth x = i cot (ix)
2.3 The Solution of Triangles
Of the six elements in any triangle (three sides and three angles), given any three
of which at least one is a side, the other three can be computed by means of tables of
trigonometric functions.
In case the triangle is a right triangle, let the two legs be x and y, the hypotenuse r.
Then the acute angle adjacent to the side x is 8, where
x + iy = r(cos 8 + i sin 8)
The other angle is the complement of 8. Of the four formulas
sin 8 - y/r tan 8 = y/x

cos 8 - x/r x1 + y1 = r'
any given pair of the elements x, y, r, and 8 will be found in exactly two, and each of
these can be used to give one of the others.
i
If and y are given, the Pythagorean theorem may be incon
venient to use for finding r. An alternative is first to find 8
and then use one of the two formulas
r = y/sin 8 = x/cos 8
An isosceles triangle can be divided into two congruent

right triangles. For an arbitrary scalene triangle, let the
angles a, 0, and y be, respectively, opposite the sides a, b, and
c Let R be the radius of the circumscribed circle (Fig. 7).

Then the law of sines is
2R = a/sin a = 6/sin 0 = c/sin y
The law of cosines is
a* = 6' + c* 26c cos a
6" -
c + a* 2ca cos 0-
c* = a* + 6* 2ab cos y
The fam of tangents is
- c)/tan - 7)/2]
- a)/tan -
= (6 + c)/tan [(0 + 7)/2]
(6 [(f)
-
(c
(a - 6)/tan [(a - a)/2]
0)/2] -
[(7 (c
(a
+ o)/tan [(7 + a)/2]
+ 6)/tan [(a + 0)/2]
(48)
Let r be the radius of the inscribed circle, and let

s = (a + 6 + c)/2 (49)
be half the perimeter of the triangle. Then

r = - o)(s - 6)(s - c)/*]M
[( (50)
and
sin (/2) = - 6)(g - c)/(&c)]V*
cos (a/2) = [s(s - a)/(6c)]tt
[(
(51)
tan (a/2) = r/(s a)
with corresponding formulas for the functions of 0/2 and y/2.

While space does not permit giving the derivation of all these formulas, it may be
noted that some are direct interpretations of vector formulas. Thus let
c = a b
Then cc = aa 2ab + bb
which has the interpretation
||C||
=
||*||
- 2||a||

||b|| cos y + |tb||s
where y is the angle between a and b. This is one of the forms of the law of cosines.
Again let a, b, and c be vectors to the vertices A, B, and C of the triangle. Then
a = b||, . . . One verifies that
||c
.
a, = = -
b,
c,
b)
[b
[c
b
a]
[a
a
c]
c
which proves that
6c sin a = ca sin = ab sin
y
(3
This equivalent to the usual statement of the law of sines.
is
For solving a triangle the following cases are to be distinguished:

Given two angles and side. The third angle can be found from
1.
a
a + = 180
+
y
0
If the given side a, then find
is
2R = o/sin a
and thence
= 2R sin = 2R sin
y
b
c
0
2. Given two sides and the included angle.
Method a. Use the appropriate form of the law of cosines to find the third side,
then the law of sines to obtain another angle.
Method Suppose the sides are and the angle a. Then
b.
c,
b
+ y)/2 = 90 - a/2
(0
tan [(0 = cot (a/2)

+
7)/2]
Hence the law of tangents yields
tan \(H - 7)/2] = [(6 - c)/(b +

c)] cot. (a/2)
Knowing
>)/2 and y)l2 one can find and y. Thence use the law of sines
(0
(0
to find a.
3. Given two sides and nonincluded angle. Let these be a, 6, and a. From the law
a
of sines
sin = (6/a) sin a
0
Knowing both and a, one finds and thence by another application of the law of
y
c
0
sines. There are possible complications, however. If

sin a > a
b
the triangle impossible and there no solution. If

is
is
sin a < a <

b
6
two solutions are possible (Fig. 8). There possible

is
a
j,
and possible obtuse angle = 180 (3,

(3'
acute angle
0,
6. a
either of which may be the angle opposite side

4. Given three sides. One may find a from the law of cosines:
cos a = (6s + cl - al)/(2bc)

or one may use the formula for sin (a/2), for cos (a/2), or for tan (a/2). Correspond
ing formulas can be used for or 7.
0
The area of triangle

is
a
Area = (,H)bc sin a = rs = [*( - a)(s

b)(s
c)]>4
2.4 De Moivre's Theorem and Other Identities
Repeated application of Eq. (21) gives
sin $)n = cos (n0) sin (n0) (52)

+
(cos
6
i
i
If 9 is replaced by 9/n and the nth root extracted on both sides, it follows that
(cos 9 + i sin 9),A* = cos (9/n) + i sin (6/n)
However, if p is any integer,
cos 8 ** cos (9 + 2pr) sin 9 = sin (9 + 2px)

Hence
(cos 9 + i sin 9)" = cos (9/n + 2px/n) + i sin (9/n + 2pir/n) (53)
where p is an arbitrary integer. This is a special case of Dc Moivre's theorem.

Exactly n distinct values are obtainable on the right by taking p = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
* 1.
When 9=0, Eq. (53) defines the n roots of unity. These roots include 1 in all
cases, 1 when n is even, but no others are real. The root w denned by taking p = 1
is a primitive root, all roots being powers of this one. In fact, if u = ui and
up = cos (2xp/n) + ' sin (2xp/n) = exp (2pxt/n) (54)
then clearly ap i v*. Any up satisfies
X' - 1 = (x
- l)(l"-' + I""' +
+ X + I) =- 0
and since &> ^ 1, it must be true that
w.-i + -* + . . .
+ u + 1 = 0
or _i + w_j +
+ m + 1 -0 (55)
Expansion of the left member of Eq. (52) permits the expression of sin (n9) and
cos (n8) in terms of sin 9 and cos 9:
sin (nd) = n sin 9 cos"-1 9 sin' 9 cos""* 9 +
(56)
cos (n9) - cos" 9 sm* 9 cos" J 9 + -
It is possible also to express sin (n9) /sin 9 and cos (n9), as polynomials in cos 9 alone
For this we deduce a recursion. Note, first, that
cos 9 = cos 8
cos (29) -2 cos2 9-1
Now by Eq. (32) we have
cos (n9 + 9) + cos (n9 9) = 2 cos 9 cos (n9)
Hence when cos (n9) and cos [(n

1)9] have been so expressed, one can obtain
cos [(n + 1)9]. With n 3, 4, ... we obtain sequentially
cos (39) = 4 cos' 9 3 cos 9

cos (49) = 8 cos4 cos 9-8 9-1
Next,
sin 9 Bin 9
sin (29) = 2 sin 8 cos 9
and by Eq. (32)
Bin (n9 + 8) + sin (n9

9)
= 2 sin (n9) cos 9
Hence
Bin (39) = sin 9 (4 cos1 9-1)
sin (49) = sin 9 (8 cos" 9 - 4 cos 9)
When expressions involving trigonometric functions arc integrated analytically

(Art. 1.2), it is desirable, when possible, to replace products by sums. The formulas
<p)
2 sin 0 sin )
*>)
<p)*>)
sin cos = sin + + sin
(9 (0
(57)
(9 (9
0
2 2
cos cos <p = cos + cos
+
<p)
9
can be applied repetitively to break up products of sines and cosines. They also
permit decomposing powers of sin and cos This can be done recursively [i.e.,
9.
0
having expressed cos" as sum of terms in cos (p9), < n, one can form cos cos"
p
9
0
and apply Eq. (57)]. Otherwise, one can apply the following formulas:
_(l)/i2-i sin" = cos (n0) - n cos - cos (n0 - -
+
(n0 20) 40)
0
_(l)(-i)/2-i sin = sin (n0) - n sin (n0 - 20) n even
0 - -
(^)
sin (n0 n odd (58)
+
40)
- -
(")
2"-1 cos" = cos (ra0) + n cos (n0 20) + cos (n0 +

40)
0
LOCI: CURVES AND SURFACES

3
3.1 Parametric and Nonparametric Representation
Given a point-coordinate system (0; e), the coordinates of the vector x = ex

are unrestricted, then the vector can represent any point in the space. if But the
if
x
<
are required to satisfy some equation

>(fc,fc, ,.) = (59)

0
only those vectors which terminate on some hypersurface will be allowed and Eq.
x
(59) will be the equation of this hypersurface. In fact, all coordinates but are
specified, then must be such that Eq. (59) satisfied. When n = the "hyper if
2,
is is
|,-
surface" an ordinary curve; when n = an ordinary surface.

3,
it
is
Certain simple geometric properties of the surface can sometimes be deduced

directly from Eq. (59).
degenerate surface one for which the factorization
A
is
*>(,{., - - - ,.) = <p'(Su ,f.V({i 0

possible. In this event the surface consists, in fact, of two surfaces

is
<p'
= <p" =
Thus, in the plane, since

{,* - (|i - , + )
follows that the curve
-
it
I,1 ?2'
=
0
consists actually of two straight lines,

- = =
2
j
1
+
,
0
Symmetry with respect to the hyperplane present in case = can be replaced

is
0
i
by without affecting the equation. Thus the curve

i
i + 2{a
=
3
symmetric with respect to the line = 0.

When the simultaneous replacement of
is
...
{i
i, /, by ,, respectively, leaves the equation unaltered, the sur

face symmetric with respect to the linear space defined by
is
<-/- -
0
Thus the curve

i* + + 2J =
1
symmetric with respect to the origin = =

1
2
is
0.
Asymptotic cylinders may reveal themselves when one solves Eq. (59) for some
coordinate , as a function of the others. Suppose the solution has the form
ii = i/ft
,
where wi and ft arc independent of the particular variable and are such that they
do not vanish simultaneously. Unless ft constant, the equation
is
=
ft
0
a surface in the
l)-dimensional space of d, . . e,-_i, ej+i, . . . e.
(n
defines
,
.
,
line drawn in the direction e, through every point of this surface, one has
If
is
a
a
cylindrical surface in the original n-space, and this also has the equation ft = 0. This
cylindrical surface asymptotic to the surface of Eq. (59), which to say that as
is
is
&
becomes infinite through either positive values or negative values or both, the surface
of Eq. (59) approaches the cylindrical surface.
Thus the equation
iiit -1=0
can be solved for and for
i
2:
= l/{. = 1/f.
s
Zi
The first solution shows that the straight line = an asymptote; the second that
is

0
the straight line = an asymptote (in the plane a straight line "cylindrical
is
is
i
a
surface").
The extent of a surface shown to be limited when, in the solution for some as a
is
fc
function of the other variables, one finds possible to assign values of these variables
it
that would render complex. Thus the equation

fi
4{, - {, - =
4
can be solved:
= VV +4 = 2 V*i* -
h
2{i

Any real value of will yield real value of &; on the other hand, unless fj* >
&
i 1,
a
i.e., either > or else < then would be complex. Hence no value of
fi
1,
1 i
i
on the range < < will be found on the curve.

i
1
It sometimes happens that symmetries, asymptotes, etc., are not apparent in the
equation as given initially but that they can be revealed by suitable transformations
of coordinates. This requires the selection of a vector and matrix such that on
A
h
setting
= + Ax'
x
the equation in the new variables For surfaces

{,-
will exhibit the features of interest.

of the second degree the theory of these transformations will be developed below
(Art. 3.3).
If the coordinates are required to satisfy two equations simultaneously, say
|;
= =
p
0
^
the points, in general, lie on a surface of lower dimensionality. In the plane two
equations generally define a finite set of points; in 3-space they define a curve. In
3-space three equations define finite set of points; in 4-space they define curve.
a
a
In n-apace, n equations define a curve in general. This curve the common

is
1
intersection of the n hypersurfaces (in 3-space the intersection of two ordinary

1
surfaces).
Consider in 3-space the curve of intersection of the surfaces
Vi(ti,M>) = *>(i,f.,{) = (60)
0
In general one can select arbitrarily a &, say and solve for and as functions of

3,
i
j. The equations are then in the form

= ftto = ft(r) = Mr)
,
,
(61)
Ei
where, in this case, ^-s(t) = t. In general, when each fc is defined as a function of an
independent variable r, one says the equations of the curve are in parametric form.
Given equations in the form of Eq. (61), one could solve, say, for t as a function of
Is and substitute into the other two equations, obtaining
ft = &>l({3) it = U>l(h)
or, what comes to the same,
i - o>,(,) = - *>,({,) - 0
ftspecial case of Eq. (GO). Analogous steps are possible in n-space.

Analogously a surface in a space of three or more dimensions can be represented by
two parameters:
ii = Mr,*) (62)
A curve, in a space of however many dimensions, is a one-dimensional manifold; s

surface is a two-dimensional manifold. Either an r-dimensional manifold in an
n-dimensional space, n > r, can be represented in parametric form:
= *<(n
. ) (63)
where, in particular, n,
. . . , rr may be any r of the coordinates, or it can be repre
sented by requiring that n r equations be satisfied simultaneously:
*>,( {)
- - >--(,, . . . ,{,,) = 0 (64)
3.2 Lines, Planes, and Hyperplanes
Let a be any fixed vector and a a constant. The equation

ax -a = 0
(65)
is satisfied by any vector z whose projection upon a is fixed and equal to a/||a|| (see
Art. 1.5). Hence when z and a are drawn from a fixed origin O, x must terminate on
a hyperplane orthogonal to a and at a distance a/||a|| from O. Hence Eq. (65) is the
vectorial equation of this hyperplane.
Given the point-coordinate system (0;e), let
represent the metric. Then if a ea, x = ex, it follows that ax = aTGx. Hence if
a' = Oa is the oo variant representation of a, Eq. (05) takes the form
a'Tx -a = 0 (66)
Conversely, given an equation in the form of Eq. (66) and a particular point-
coordinate system (0;e), let a be the geometric vector whose covariant representation
is a': a = eG 'a', and let x = ex. Then Eq. (66) is equivalent to Eq. (65) and is
therefore the equation of the hyperplane as described. Thus when Eq. (59) is linear as
in Eq. (66), the hypersurfacc is a hyperplane, and conversely. It should be observed
that Eq. (05) is independent of any coordinate system but Eq. (66) is not.
In case the system (0;e) is orthonormal, a' = a and G = /. In this event
The vector n = a/||a|| is a unit vector in the direction a. If v = a/||a||, then the
equation
nTx - v = 0 (67)
where n = en, is equivalent to Eq. (66). This is called the normal form of the equa
tion of the hyperplane. If y = ey represents any point Y in the space, the equation
nTx nTy = 0
represents the hyperplane through Y parallel to the original hyperplane, and the
distance between the two planes is nTy v. This is
also the perpendicular distance from the hyperplane of
Eq. (67) to the point Y. Hence, the distance S from a
hyperplane to a point Y is given by
S = nTy - v (68)
where the positive direction is that of the normal n.

In given an orthonormal system, any unit
the plane,
vector n has coordinates (cos u, sin a) for some angle pIa g
m, this being the angle from d to n (Fig. 9). Hence
the normal form of the equation of a straight line in the plane can be written
i cos u + |j sin a v = 0
(69)
The general equation (66) of the straight line can be written
ii + ath -o = 0 (70)
involving three parameters, an, at, and a; but in fact only two are significant, since
one can multiply through the equation by any constant. Hence two geometric con
ditions suffice to determine the line. Such a pair of conditions might be the unit
normal n (determined by the angle u) and the normal distance v from the origin.
They might be the intercepts ptei and p2ei where the line crosses the coordinate axes.
H Pipi 0, then the equation is

i/pi + {j/pj = 1
This is known as the intercept form of the equation.

The inclination of a line is the angle it makes with the axis (0; e,), and the slope
of the line is the tangent of this angle. If x' and x" represent two points on the line,
- r)/(t"i -
the slope is
< = (fi 1'.)
when the system is orthonormal. When the slope p. and the intercept p2e2 are known,
the equation of the line is
ii pi = 0
and when the slope n and any point a are known, the equation is
- at) - (i - ax)
({i = 0
These are called the slope-intercept and the point-slope forms, respectively.
Returning to a space of arbitrary dimensionality, let ai and a} represent any two
points. If z represents a point on the line joining them, then x ai and x as are
linearly dependent. Hence there exist scalars at and as, not both zero, such that
ai(x - a,) + at(x - a2)

= 0
or X = (oia, + a2a5)/(ai + at) (71)
This has several interpretations: x represents the centroid of the points a, and a2
weighted by ax and at (either or both "weights" may be negative); x represents the
point which divides the line segment from a, to ai in the ratio at/ax. That
is,
the
if
points are Ax, At, and X, then

A\X /X Aj =
at/ax
direction significant). Again,
is
'the
if
t = ax/ (ax at)

+
Eq. (71) equivalent to

- r*, + - r)a,
is
then
r(ai -
(1
(72)
x x
or to = a2
+
aa) (73)
either of which is a parametric form of the equation of the straight line through A i and
Ai. Likewise
x = a + tu (74)
is a parametric form of the equation of the line through A in the direction u.

Given any coordinate system (0;e), not necessarily orthonormal, these equations
That Eq. (71) becomes
is,
can be written directly in terms of the arithmetic vectors.
X = (ai<Ji + atai) /(i at) (75)
+
and elsewhere each geometric vector can be replaced by the arithmetic vector that
represents it.
Given any distinct points A\, A%, . . A represented by a,, a.., . . ar, the
r
.
.
,
point X represented by in the same plane with these points and only
is
if
if
1)
(r
x
the vectors x at, . . . a, are linearly dependent, hence and only there
if
if
z
,
exist scalars a\, at, . a, not all zero such that
- a,)
.
.
,
- a,) =
+
ai(x r(z
0
Hence point X represented by a vector
a
= (cr,a,
+ A)/(ai +
+ a,)
+
(76)
a point in the plane through Ah . . . Ar, and any point in this plane can
is
1)
(r
,
be so represented. In fact, X the centroid of the points Au . . . A, with
is
,
weights a,. With any coordinate system (0;e), Eq. (76) equivalent to
is
on
X = (<*,a, +
a&r)/(ax +
+ ar) (77)
+
This the parametric, equation of the plane, since of the parameters on,
is
1)
it (r
r
possible, for example, to hold any one
a only are essential and
is
. .
1
r
.
fixed.
3.3 Conies, Quadrics, and Hyperquadrics
If Eq. (59) quadratic in all the variables, represents a hyperquadric quadric

is
it
(a
in 3-space, conic in 2-space). Such an equation can be written in the form
xTAx - 2a.Tx + a = (78)

0
Let be any matrix of < n linearly independent columns, and let be vector of
U
a
r
elements. If represents any point P, then

p
r
-
x + Ut (79)
p
a point in the plane through whose directions are given by the columns of U.
P
is
Substitution into Eq. (78) gives
PUTAUt - 2(a - ApVUl pTAp - 2aTp + a = (80)

+
This equation quadratic in the elements of Hence the intersection of a linear

is
t.
with hyperquadric again a hyperquadric (for brevity we shall omit the

is
space
a
prefix and speak only of quadrics).

If nonsingular, the equation
.A
is
Ap = (81)
a
can be solved for p. In this Eq.

/,
(80) has the form

U
case,
if
lTAt a' =
+
where a' = a aTp
Hence the point a center of symmetry (since replacing by does not affect the
P
is
t
t
equation). bisects all chords through and called the center of the quadric
It
it
is
then the quadric a central quadric. If singular, may or may not be possible
is
it
A
is
to satisfy Eq. (81). Consider first central quadrics.

We may suppose the origin to have been moved to the center. Hence a = 0, and
the equation has the form
xTAx + a = 0 (82)
Again the substitution of Eq. (79) gives
tTUTAUt + 2pTAUt + pTAp + a = 0 (83)
If the columns of U are such that

pTAU = 0 (84)
then P is the center of the quadric of Eq. (83). When the coordinate system (0;e) is
orthonormal, Eq. (84) means that the columns of U are orthogonal to the vector pT A.
They will be said to be conjugate to the vector p. There is a hyperplane of vectors
orthogonal to a single vector pTA. Hence a matrix U with linearly independent
columns and satisfying Eq. (84) could have as many as n 1 columns.
If P is on the quadric, pTAp + a = 0, and if U satisfies Eq. (84), then Eq. (83)
becomes simply
tTUTAUt = 0
and the hyperplane through P whose directions are given by U is tangent to the
Its equation is
quadric.
pTA(x - p) = 0
or, since p is on the quadric,
pTAx + a = 0
When the coordinate system is orthonormal and A = /, Eq. (82) takes the form
xTx + a = 0
which states that the squared length of x is a. Hence for the surface to be real it is
necessary that a < 0, in which event this is the equation of a (hyper)sphere (a circle
in 2-space) whose center is the origin and squared radius a.
Returning to the more general equation (82), we can rephrase the property of
conjugacy as follows: Two vectors u and v are mutually conjugate in case
uTAv = vTAu = 0 (85)
If u and v are conjugate, let the line through the center of the quadric in the direction
u intersect the quadric at P. Then v is parallel to the tangent hyperplane at P. The
same statement holds when u and v are interchanged.
A vector v is not, in general, orthogonal to the vectors to which it is conjugate, but
it will be if v and Av are linearly dependent:

Av - Xf (86)
Vectors v exist satisfying Eq. (86) only if the matrix A \I is singular, i.e., only if X
is such that the determinant of this matrix vanishes:
\A - X/| = 0 (87)
This determinant expands into a polynomial in X of degree n, and hence Eq. (87) has
n roots, not necessarily distinct. For each such root X there is a nonnull vector v
satisfying Eq. (86). In fact, if X is a root of multiplicity n, then Eq. (86) will be found
to have m linearly independent solutions. These can be chosen mutually orthogonal
and of unit length.
Any root X of Eq. (87) is called a proper value (or latent root or characteristic value or
eigenvalue) of A, and a vector v satisfying Eq. (86) is called a proper vector (or latent
rector or characteristic vector or eigenvector) belonging to X. It can be shown that
proper vectors belonging to distinct proper values are orthogonal. In fact, let
Au = itu Av = Xn X ^ ft
Then vTAu = uTAv = iwTu = \uTv
But since uTv = vTu, it ^ X; therefore uTv = vTu = 0.
Let V represent the matrix of n orthonormal proper vectors:
VTV = I = VVT
Thus V is an orthogonal matrix. In multiplying A by each column of V in turn to
form .A V one obtains
(\iv,,\tv2, . . . ,\,v) = VA
where A = diag (Xi X)
is formed of the proper values of A, each with its appropriate multiplicity. Hence
AV = VA
or A = VAVT VTAV = A (88)
Now let
x = Vy VTx = y (89)
Then Rq. (82) becomes
yTVTAVy +c = 0
or, by virtue of Eq. (88),
yTAy + a = 0 (90)
The substitution of Eq. (89) represents an orthogonal transformation of axes. In
fact,
= eVy =
fj/
x ex
where = eV
f
Equation in the especially simple form

is
(90)
Z\,V a =
0
The quadric intersects the (0;f.) axis at the two points a/X, which are v
f

real and only a/X, > 0. If this holds for every every axis intersected and
is
if
if
the quadric an ellipsoid. There no restriction in supposing a < a < t,
0,
If
0.
Xi is
A is
then every and the matrix positive definite. If the inequality fails for
is
>
0
some Xi, the quadric hyperboloid (for methods of carrying out the reduction
is
a
numerically see Art. 4.5).

If the matrix singular, Eq. (81) cannot be satisfied in general but the reduction
is
A
of to the form of Eq. (88) still possible, with one or more null elements in the
A
is
diagonal of A. If the substitution of Eq. (89) made in Eq. (78), the result has the
is
form
yTAy 2bTy a = -
+
(91)
0
Such surface paraboloid (in the plane parabola; see Art. 3.4).
is
3.4 Loci and Coordinate Systems
locus in the plane the curve containing all points that satisfy a given geometric
is
A
condition. Thus circle with radius and

a
center ('(c) the locus of all points X(x) at a

is
distance from C. Hence the vector x must

p
satisfy the equation

- c)(x - -
p'
c)
(x
In an orthonormal system (0;e), x ox

if
and = ec, the equation

is
c
- e)f(x - -
P
(x
c)
conic defined as the locus of points X

is
A
Fio. 10. Ellipse. such that the distance of X from a fixed point
(called the focus) and that from fixed line
d
F
the directrix) are in fixed ratio (called the eccentricity). If < the conic
1,
(called
<
a
an ellipse (Fig. 10); = parabola (Fig. 11); > a hyperbola (Fig. 12).
if
1,
1,
<
if
is
a

Fia. 11. Parabola. Fig. 12. Hyperbola.
Let the directrix in normal form (Art. 3.2) be
nz = r
and let f represent the focus. Then the conic is
e(x
- f)(x - f) = (nx - )* (92)
referred to an orthonormal system it is

- f)T(x - f) = (nTx - ,)* (93)
For a parabola, < = 1, it is convenient to take
= {0,1 j v = -X/2 < 0 /= JO.X/2}

Then Eq. (93) becomes
iJ + (I. - X/2)8 = (f2 + X/2)*
or ti* = X, (94)
This is the form to which Eq. (90) reduces after a suitable change of origin when
X = 0, and it corresponds to a directrix parallel to the axis (0;ei). When Xi = 0, the
directrix is parallel to the axis (0;e3) and the equation can be written
Any parabola can have its equation written in the form of Eq. (94) after a suitable
rotation and translation of axes. Conversely any curve whose equation can be put
into the form of Eq. (94) is a parabola. The parameter X is the length of the lotus
rectum, which is the focal chord parallel to the directrix. It is also twice the distance
of the focus from the directrix. The curve is symmetric with respect to the line
through the focus perpendicular to the directrix [the axis (O;e0 in Eq. (90)], and this
is therefore called the principal axis of the curve. The principal axis intersects the
curve at a point midway between the focus and the directrix [the origin in Eq. (94)],
and this point is called the vertex. The curve lies entirely in the half plane {a > 0.
For the ellipse and hyperbola, if the directrix is taken parallel to either axis (0;ei)
or (0;e2), Eq. (93) will have a form like Eq. (78) with A already in diagonal form:
A A. Suppose the directrix parallel to the axis (0;ej). Then after a translation
to the form of Eq. (82) with a = 1, the equation of an ellipse becomes
fiVoi' + = 1 i > ai > 0 (95)
and that of a hyperbola

faV-i* - iVs = 1
(96)
Both curves are symmetric with respect to both axes. Hence each has two foci
and two directrices. The longest chord in the ellipse is of length 2on, called the major
axis; en is the major semiaxis. The shortest central chord (diameter) is of length
2otj, called the minor axis; <n is the minor semiaxis. The points +aie, are the vertices;
the foci are iaitei; the directrices 1 = +a,/t, for ellipse as well as for hyperbola.
For a hyperbola the lines
1/01
= it/at
are asymptotes.
For the ellipse and for the hyperbola, alternative definitions are possible relating
to the two foci instead of to a focus and associated directrix. The foci being f and F z \
and X being any point on the ellipse, the relation
F\X + FtX
2a i
holds, and if X is any point on the hyperbola,
FiX - FtX = 2a,
Coordinate systems of the form (0;e) hitherto discussed are called rectilinear or
Cartesian. Other types are possible and sometimes convenient. If X is any point
in the plane, given by x = ex, and if the system (0;e) is orthonormal, let
P = i + ' <p = arctan (,/,)

(97)
i
p cos if {j = P sin <p
Then p and <pare the polar coordinates of .V.

Given any two fixed points Pi and P% determined by p, and p, if
- -
p, = p. P! = p,|| (98)
||s
||s
||
then pi and pi are called bipolar coordinates of X.

In 3-space, p, <p,and j, where and <pare defined by Eq. (97), are called cylindrical
p
coordinates of X [still assuming (0;e) orthonormal].

Spherical coordinates in 3-space are defined thus: Take a > > to satisfy
0,
0
p
c* = i + ' = <r
p
.'
+
^
 1=0 cos 
ii
8
p
= cos sin
j
^ (100)
8
p
= sin
0
p
3

for the roverse transformation.

Spherical coordinates in higher dimensions can be defined recursively:
pi' = 1' pt*

p,! = Si* p = + pi*

+
<p, - arctan (i/pi)

2
<pi = arctan (j/p2)
3.6 Approximate Representation of Functions
Many useful functions, such as sin x and log x, are not easy to compute directly
;
some experimental functions are known only to the extent of a limited number of
measured values. In either case one often wishes to deduce from a set of tabulated
values at least an approximation to some value not included in the table. This can
be done in various ways when the function sufficiently smooth, and one of the
is
commonest and generally most convenient ways by polynomial interpolation.

is
One supposes that a polynomial can be found which agrees with the function at a
if
sufficient number of known points, should be in fairly close agreement elsewhere, at

it
least within the interval between the extreme points.

Let fix) be the function to be represented (a scalar function of the scalar variable
x), and suppose that the values f(xi) are given at each of a set of points Xj. Let P(x)
be the polynomial of lowest possible degree such that
P(Xi) =/(*,) (101)
for each x,-. Taking Fix) as an approximation to fix) is interpolation when x lies
between the least and greatest of the x>, extrapolation otherwise.
The case is simplest when the x, are equally spaced :
Xi = xo + ih (102)
where ft is some constant. The displacement operator E is defined by
Efix) = f(x +
ft)
(103)
Then E[Ef(x)] = Efix fix +
+
ft)
2ft)
whence one can write

= fix
E*f(x)
+
2ft)
and by extension
= fix +
>/(i) uft) (104)
where u any real number, positive, negative, or zero. In particular

is
-/(*) =
fix - ft)
The difference operators A, V, and can be defined symbolically by

8
- - E->
= E - = EM _ - (105)
A
6
1
It to be emphasized that these have no meaning except when applied to function.

is
a
The last of these definitions, for example, has the interpretation that
*/(*) = fix + ft/2) - fix - ft/2)

These operators are called, respectively, the forward-, backward-, and central-difference
operators. The central mean operator defined by
is
= (#H + -H)/2 (106)

p
From the first of Eqs. (105) follows that

it
= +
E
A
- PM
(")
whence E> + A) = + u& + Aa + A + -

(1
(107)
1
thus operational equation applied to /(x0), one has

If
is
= fix,) +

fix) A'/(x) +
+
uAfixo)
x = u =
+
Xo)/A
(x
Xo wft
This series terminates only u a nonnegative integer. However, one truncates

is
if
if
the series after n + terms, the result a polynomial in x of degree n:

is
1
- fix,)
(")
Pix) + uA/(x0) + + A"/(x,

(109)
)
satisfying Eq. (101) for = n. In particular, for n = one has the

0,
. .
1,
1,
i
.
,
linear interpolation polynomial determined by xo and ij. This Newton's forward-

is
difference formula, and useful for not too large positive u.

is
Since, likewise,
- - V)-'
E
(1
one can expand E in powers of V and obtain Newton's backward-difference formula
useful for numerically small negative u:
P(x) -/(*,) + uV/(x) +

(" J X)
V/(x.)
++("
+
n"" J) V"/(x) (110)
This polynomial agrees with /(x) at x_i, . . . ,x_.

...
x0,
A polynomial which agrees with /(x) at xo, Xi, x_i, x%, x_s, is the central-
difference formula
P(s) - /(*.) + MM*/(X.) +

|
M*
/(*.) +
u(lZ*
U
l2)
3,
'
M*V(X) +
ul(ui
WV 11
4,
'
V(X,)
+,(u-i)(u.-2>)^/(x;) +
.,, (111)
01
When forward differences are to be used, it is convenient to tabulate these according

to the following scheme:
Xo f(Xo) A/(Xo) A!/(xo) AV(xo)

x, /(*,) 4f(x,) A'/(x.)
Xj /(x5) A/(x,)
Xi f(li)
Central differences and means can be tabulated as follows:
X-t f{x.t)
if(*-H)
x_, /(!_,) m*/(x-,) *'/(x_,)

a/(x_M) '/(x-n)
Xo /(xo) /./(xo) *'/(x0) /x8'/(xo) '/(xo)
if(xu) V(x)
x. /(xi) /.a/(x.) a/(x,)
8/(xM)
Xj /(Xj)
When the x, are not equally spaced, one forms the divided differences:
- /(x,)]/(x - X.)
- Xi)
/(x,x,) = [/(Xo)
= (/(Xo,X|) -/(Xi,Xj)]/(Xo
/(Xo,Xi,X2)
/(x0,X,,X2,Xj) - [/(Xo,X,,X2) -/(Xi,XS,X3)]/(Xo - xt)
It can be shown that the divided differences are symmetric in their arguments:
/(x0,Xi) - /(X|,Xo)
/(Xo,Xi,Xj) - /(Xo,Xj,Xi) - /(Xi,Xo,X2) =
Then the polynomial P(x) that agrees with /(x) at x(>, x\, . . . , x is
P(x) =/(x0) + (X
- Xo)/(Xo,Xi) + (x
- X0)(x X|)/(lo,Xi,Xi)
* +

+ (x xo)(x Xi) (x x_i)/(x0,xi, . . . ,x) (112)
Explicit formation of the interpolation polynomial is not necessary and not desirable
unless the same polynomial is to be used several or many times. If only one or two
interpolations are to be made, Aitken's method is to be recommended. This is a
recursive procedure, each step being like a linear interpolation. Let P.(x) J(xi), "
and let Pit(x) represent the linear interpolation to x based upon x,- and xy. Then
Piiix) = [(x - *.)P, - - x,)P.]/(x, -

(x Xi)
Now let P,,jt(x) represent the quadratic interpolation to x based upon the points x,-, x,,
and xj. Then it turns out that
P<ik(x) = [(X - Xi)Pih - (x

- Xj)Pit]/(x, - Xi)
Likewise if Pi,u(x) represents the cubic interpolation to i based upon xi, x,, x*, and x(,
then
Pi mix) = [Or - Xi)Pikl - - i,)P;*i]/(x, -
(x Xi)
It is to be noted that each P.y ... is symmetric in all subscripts.

If f(x) were exactly a polynomial, say of degree n, then any selection of n + 1 points
ii, Xj, Xk, . . would give the same Put.. Ax). At each stage of Aitken's inter
polation it is necessary to choose two different sets in order to take the next step of
going to a polynomial of higher degree. Whenever these two different sets yield
results that are in sufficiently good agreement, it is unnecessary to go farther.
The error made in interpolating by a polynomial of degree n based upon xo, xt, . . . ,
i, can be shown to be not greater than
M\u(x)\/(n +1)1
where w(x) = (x Xo)(x
xi)
(x
x)
/
and M is the maximum value of the (n + l)st derivative of on the interval that con
tains all n + 2 points x, Xo, ii, . . . , x. The polynomial w(x), and hence the error,
ran become quite large outside the interval containing the n + 1 points Xo, X\, . . . ,
i whence extrapolation is generally unreliable. Within the interval w(x) oscillates,
and when the points x< are uniformly spaced, or nearly so, the oscillations will be
greatest near the ends and least toward the middle.
4 ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
This article on algebraic equations will be concerned principally with techniques of

numerical solution, and certain general principles upon which these techniques are
based. In Art. 4.1 the treatment of linear equations will be discussed, most of the
background having been laid down already in Arts. 1.2 to 1.5. The general theory of
nonlinear algebraic equations will be outlined in Art. 4.2. In particular, one is some
times interested in certain relations among the roots rather than in the roots them
selves, and these relations can often be determined in a simple way from the coeffi
cients. With the background given here, the strictly numerical techniques will be
given in Art. 4.3, some of which apply to transcendental equations as well. A brief
resume of methods applicable to systems of nonlinear equations will follow in Art. 4.4.
The latent root problem was raised in Art. 3.3 and the numerical treatment will be
developed in Art. 4.5.
4.1 Systems of Linear Equations
The problem of solving a system of linear equations is that of finding the elements
of an arithmetic vector x to satisfy
Ax = fc (113)
where A is a known matrix and k is a known arithmetic vector. Whatever may have
been the original setting of the problem, one is always free to postulate an arbitrary
coordinate system (0;e), orthonormal or not, and relate the equations to the system.
Thus if
eA a (ai,as, . . .) eA- = k
Eqs. (113) can be interpreted as those satisfied by the coordinates of k in the resolution
along the vectors ai, as, . . . of the columns of A. Or one can take I
= ex and inter
pret each scalar equation (113) as the equation of a hyperplane whose common
intersection x is required. In the special case when A is positive definite, one may
suppose that the system e is such that ere = A. Then if x = ex, one is asking for the
contravariant representation x of x (Art. 1.5) given its covariant representation k.
Finally, if A is symmetric, whether or not it is positive definite, the equations can be
related to Eq. (81), with x = p and k = a, and interpreted as defining the center of a
central quadric. Each of these interpretations suggests techniques for solving.
Equations (113) axe said to be homogeneous when k = 0, nonhomogeneous when
k 0. When A is square and nonsingular, there is a unique solution x for any k.

Clearly if k = 0, x = 0, and this is said to be a trivial solution of a set of homogeneous
equations.
Consider the case k = 0; suppose that A has n rows and N columns, where n and N
may or may not be equal; and let p be the rank of A. If p < N, the columns of A are
linearly dependent and, in fact, there are N p linearly independent vectors xi,
xt, . . . , zy_p, each of which satisfies the homogeneous equation Ax = 0. Moreover,
any linear combination of these xs also satisfies the homogeneous equations. Since
p < n, one can pick out p rows of the matrix A that are linearly independent. These
correspond to p of the equations, and any x that satisfies these p homogeneous equa
tions will satisfy them all. From the resulting matrix one can pick out p linearly inde
pendent columns. After a possible rearrangement these can be supposed to be the
/>
first p. The p equations can then be solved for i, i, . . . , in terms of the remain
ing to give the general solution of the homogeneous equations.
{s
Nonhomogeneous equations have a solution and only the rank of the augmented
if
if
matrix (A,k) the same as the rank of alone. If = n, this always the case,
.4
is
is
p
since the rank of a matrix cannot exceed the number of its rows. If the nonhomo
geneous equations (113) have a solution x, and the homogeneous equations Ay
0
if
also have a solution y, then clearly
Ax ~ - A(x + \y)
so that x k
+ \y also satisfies the nonhomogeneous system, where any scalar.
is
X
In experimental work often happens that the elements of are the the vector
it
k
results of experimental measurement and are therefore subject to experimental error.
In such a case the system of Eqs. (113) often overdetermined, which to say that
is
is
n > N, but one expects the system to be satisfied only approximately. Strictly one
seeks a vector x satisfying
Ax=h
+
(114)
r
where the residual vector to be small in some sense. The simplest criterion hat
is
is
r
t
rTr be minimized. In terms of orthonormal coordinates, this means that the vector
h
projected orthogonally upon the space of the columns of and hence that is
is
r
orthogonal to all columns of A: rTA = 0. Hence x determined by the normal
is
equation
ATAx = ATk (115)
This the method of least squares. It may be that the measurements will not be
is
regarded as of equal reliability but that measures of relative reliability can be assigned.
Let ui > represent the weight assigned to the ith measurement, and let
0
= diag [ui,ci>i,
$2
. ,]
.
.
Then instead of minimizing rTr one minimizes rTUr. Thus (being positive definite)
fi
taken to define an underlying metric, and will be taken orthogonal to the columns
is
of with respect to the metric O. This means that rTQA = and the normal
0,
A
equation
is
ATUAx = ATSik (116)

Evidently Eq. (115) special case of Eq. (116) with = and both are spe
/,
is
n
a
cial cases of Kqs. (113) in which, indeed, the matrix positive definite or, at least,
is
semidefinite.
To return to Eqs. (113), square and theoretically singular, then a mathe
if
A
is
matical analysis required. If known numerically only and square, will

A
it
is
is
is
seldom turn out to be strictly singular, although may be so nearly singular that an
it
accurate solution difficult (or even impossible). At any rate, the "solution" first
is
arrived at, which will, in any case, be only an approximation because of rounding
errors, will need to be improved by an iteration of some kind.
Most of the common methods can be classified as direct and iterative. direct
A
method would yield an exact solution after finite number of arithmetic steps, except
a
for the presence of rounding errors. While such methods are themselves iterative in
character, the term will be reserved here for those methods whose individual steps are
relatively simple but which define merely an infinite sequence of approximations
approaching the true solution as a limit. Strictly, an iterative method is one t hat will
improve any given approximate solution, although beyond a certain point rounding
errors will contaminate the results and there will be no assurance that subsequent
application of the method will, in fact, yield an improvement.
A large class of direct methods are based upon Gaussian elimination and differ only
in the order in which the computations are carried out. If an ^ 0, multiply the first
equation by an/an and subtract from the second. In the resulting equation the
coefficient of {i will be
OT21

(cni/oii)ofn = 0
Thereafter use this new equation in place of the second equation.

Next multiply the first equation by orsi/an and subtract from the third. The
coefficient of i in the resulting equation will likewise be 0. Thereafter use the new
equation in place of the original third. Proceeding thus one obtains n 1 new
equations, from all of which the term in fi is missing. The original first equation
together with these n 1 new equations constitute a system that is (apart from the
inevitable rounding errors) entirely equivalent to the original system. Thus i has
been eliminated from the last n 1 equations by means of the first.
One could, of course, have used any equation other than the first, say the tth pro
vided an 5^ 0, in order to eliminate i from every equation but the tth. Rounding
errors will be minimized by selecting that an known to the largest number of significant
figures or, when these do not differ, selecting the largest. One could also have selected
any other J to be eliminated.
Having eliminated, say, {i from n 1 of the equations, one selects one of these,
using it to eliminate {j, say, from the remaining n 2 equations; from these one is
selected to eliminate |3, etc. The final result will be one equation that contains {
but no other ; one that contains only {_i and ; one which contains only _j, f_i,
and It is now possible to solve for ; substitute and solve for sub
stitute both and solve for _.; . . . , eventually obtaining all the elements of the
vector x. This is called back substitution.
To organize the computation exactly in accordance with the description would
necessitate rather more recording than is strictly necessary. One notes that assuming
the equations to have been taken in order and the & eliminated in order, the result
of the elimination is a set of equations in the form
Wx = h (117)
where IF is an upper triangular matrix, which is to say that all its nonnull elements aro
on and above the main diagonal. Such matrices are readily inverted (precisely by the
method of back substitution). Moreover, the inverse is upper triangular, and the
product of two upper triangular matrices is again upper triangular. An upper
triangular matrix with units along the diagonal is unit upper triangular. The inverse
of such a matrix is also unit upper triangular, and the product of two such are again
of the same type. Analogous definitions and statements hold for (unit) lower tri
angular matrices.
Now in the reduction of the original system to the form of Eq. (117), each step
involves the multiplication on the left by a unit lower triangular matrix of a simple
form (only one off-diagonal element is nonnull at each elimination). The result of all
these is again that the system has been multiplied on the left by a unit lower triangular
matrix. This proves that in general, given any matrix A, it is possible to factorize
it into a product of the form
A = LW (118)
where L is unit lower triangular and W is upper triangular (or where W is unit upper
triangular and L lower triangular).
The diagonal elements of L are all known (to be ones) and those above the diagonal
are zeros; the elements of W below the diagonal are zeros. Hence in L and W together
there are ns elements to be determined, and these fill out a square array. Crout's
method and the Doolittte method amount to writing first the rectangular augmented
matrix (A,k) and passing directly to a new rectangular array that can be written
schematically
(L'\W,h)
the significant elements ofL being placed where the null elements of W would go.
The elements in this array are determined by relation (117) together with
k = Lh
and can be determined in sequence as follows: first row of W, first column of L, second
row of W, second column of L, . . . , and each element of h can be found along with
the corresponding row of W. Thus the first row of IT is precisely the first row of A ;
the elements in the first column of L are determined from the relation
X,in ~ an t > 2
knowing X21, one can find the elements of the second row of W by
XjlWl, + U2; = atj j > 2
the elements of the second column of L are found from
X.'iwu + Xi2Ci)u = an i; > 3
....
To complete the solution the factorization must, of course, be followed by

back substitution. Note that one could solve simultaneously any number of systems,
each having the same matrix A of coefficients, by merely replacing A by a matrix, one
column for each of the systems. In particular, if h is replaced by the identity /, then
after the factorization L~' will appear instead of k and the back substitution will
produce A~'.
If D is a diagonal matrix whose elements are those of the diagonal of W, then
D-*W = U
where U is unit upper triangular. Hence A can be written
A = LDU
In particular, if A is symmetric, U = LT. The recording can be further reduced in
that case in that only L and D (or D and U) need be written. If V = LD^, a sym
metric matrix can be written

A = VVT
and this is the Choleski method, or the square-rooting method. Unless A is positive
definite, this method has the slight disadvantage of introducing imaginary quantities.
The method of partitioning is rather different in character. Let A be partitioned in
any manner
A =
it1
\An t2)
An)
with, however, An and An. both square matrices. Suppose An-1 is known. Then
if the inverse is similarly partitioned
VC Cn)
one can verify that
Cn = (An
At\An~1A\tTl
- -cJUnAu" (119)
C
Cu = A.r'U,, - AC)
The method is useful in special cases when a particular submatrix is easily inverted.
One can. also 2X2 minor, one
invert by progressive enlargement: having inverted the
can border this to a 3 X 3, then border this to a 4 X 4, and so on, sequentially, where
at each stage An is a row vector, ia
column vector, and A2! a scalar.
A large class of iterative methods are based upon a decomposition of A into the sum
of two matrices:
A = A, + At (120)
of which the first is readily inverted, and defining the sequence x, by
An,
A\x,+i
- Ax,
k
- As,
m (121)
Let r, = k (122)
It is essential that the vectors r, (or ,) become progressively smaller. If an iteration

of the form of Eq. (121) converges, t hen it converges for any starting vector Xo whatever.
In the method often called the (Gauss-) Seidel method Ai agrees with A on and below
the main diagonal and is null elsewhere. The method is known to converge when A
is positive definite. It also converges when each diagonal element exceeds in magni
tude the sum of the absolute values of off-diagonal elements in the same row or again
if it exceeds the sum of the absolute values of off-diagonal elements in the same column.
Another common method is to take for Ai the diagonal elements of A. This also
converges if each diagonal element exceeds in magnitude the sum of the magnitudes
of the off-diagonal elements in the same row (or in the same column).
In the Seidel method one takes the individual equations in rotation and solves the
^ i), thus
(j
ith equation for using the current approximations for the
J,-
- - - ... - - {
, - ... -
iiti<'+ *. ,._,&_,(+" o,,4+1eJ+,<) <"
(123)
whereas in the other method one retains the until the end of a complete cycle:
nti('+ = xi - o.iii'') - ow-ifa-i1'1 - fl.<+i{ - - (,{<')

(124)
The method of relaxation differs from the Seidel method only in that instead of following
strict rotation, that equation always selected which gives rise to the greatest
is
a
change in the This a desirable procedure when the computation by hand but
is
is
.
not feasible with automatic machinery.

is
Often an iteration of the form of Eq. (121) [including Eqs. (123) and (124) when the
equations are taken in strict rotation but not otherwise] can be made to converge more
rapidly by application of Aitken's i1 process as follows: Define the operator by
A
Afc('> - - A'fi'"'
{< A'fi'"' = Ai - Afc'"'
= Ai - Afc'"'
{j
Having obtained three consecutive sets of iterates
<) {|C'+
instead of forming in the ordinary way, one forms
'< - I/'4-* - [Afc]7Afc<"

One can think of the {'< as being elements of new starting vector z'o.
a
The 4* process will sometimes convert divergent iteration to a convergent one. How
a
should not be applied for theirs* time until after a number of simple iterations
it
ever,
have been carried out.
The iterations of Eqs. (123) and (124) are especially useful when the equations are
the difference equations used to approximate differential equations. In such a case
the matrix has a great many null elements and the equations are simple but many
A
number. It sometimes happens that the equations can be grouped in such way
in
that instead of solving each equation individually for the corresponding {i, one can
solve a group simultaneously for the corresponding set of {s. For example, the matrix
A might have the form
/A0 A15 Au
A = IAn Ao A*i
M A3! Ao
where the same small submatrix Ao occurs repeatedly. Then Ao can be inverted once
and for all. The block method will also accelerate convergence. The 4' process can
be applied equally well to the results of such an iteration. However, every application
of the 4* process should be followed by a simple iteration to reduce rounding errors
unless the simple iteration is divergent.
Geometric considerations lead to other iterations useful in some cases. Let Eqs.
(113) represent n hyperplanes whose common intersection is required. If u is any
vector whatever, then
uTAx = uTk (125)
is also a hyperplane through the point. Let xo represent any point. Its orthogonal
projection Xi upon the plane of Eq. (125) will be closer to x than is Xo unless xo is itself
on Eq. (125). The projection can be found by solving to obtain that X for which
Xi = Xo + \ATu
satisfies Eq. (125). The simplest choice for u is one of the coordinate vectors a. If
these are taken in rotation and a complete cycle is regarded as one iteration, the 4'
process can be applied to any three consecutive iterates.

Let Eqs. (113) represent the resolution of the vector k upon the columns of A. Let
xo represent any approximate resolution that yields a vector Axo deviating from k
by the residual
ro = k Axo
If u is any vector, project ro orthogonally upon the vector Au, adjoining the project ion
to Axo. Unless r0 is itself orthogonal to Au, the new residual will certainly be shorter
than ro. Analytically one takes
so that uTAT(rD -
Xi Xo + Xu
XAu) = 0

since ri = ro XAu
is the new residual that is to be orthogonal to Au upon which the projection is made.
Again the simplest choice for u is one of the ej, and if a complete cycle constitutes an
iteration, the 4! process can be applied to three consecutive iterates.

The last method can also be applied to the problem of least squares of Eq. (114),
and the normal equations need not be formed explicitly. If each new vector Au is
chosen, not arbitrarily, but orthogonal to all preceding, then the iteration terminates
and the method is a direct method.
When any direct method is used, one obtains a vector x0 that, in fact, will deviate
more or less from the true solution x because of rounding errors. Hence when the
computed vector x0 is substituted into the equations, a vector Ax0 will result that
deviates from k by
r0 = k
Axo = Ax Ax0 = A(x
xo) = Aso
s0 = x
where
x0
Hence Xo differs from the true solution x by a vector s0 that, though unknown, satisfies
the equation
A.s = r0 (126)
having the same matrix as the original set. If the Crout method has been used or anv
factorization method that gives A in the form of Eq. (118), then the major portion
of the work required for solving Eq. (126) has already been done. Naturally one will
I

not obtain the true solution of Eq. (126) but only an approximate one. Nevertheless,
if this solution is added to xo, the result will generally be an improvement.
If Co is an approximation to A'1, then
C, - C0(2/ - AC) = (2/ - CA)C (127)
will often be a better one. It will be better provided the deviation matrix
R = I - AC
is sufficiently small in some sense. A sufficient condition is that the sum of the magni
tudes of the elements of every row (or of every column) be less than 1. If this is true,
one can be assured that C will be an improvement over Co and that, in general, any
Cr+, = C(2/ - AC,)

will be an improvement over C
until the improvement becomes submerged in the
rounding errors.
Hitherto all matrices have been supposed real. A complex system can always be
written in the form
(A + iB)(x + iy) =h+ik
When this is multiplied out and real terms and imaginary terms equated, one has
Ax By = h
Bx + A y - k
Hence this is equivalent to the system of order 2n:
0 =
(fc)
(b a)
Complex linear equations therefore reduce directly to the real case.
4.2 Theory of Equations
In this article will be considered polynomials of degree n > 0:
-
atx" + aii"~l + aix"-1 +
-

fix) + o

s ao(i cix"-1 + cn) ^
+
ctx'~* an (128)
0
<T|Z"-
is,
and their zeros, that the roots of the algebraic equation

f(x) = (129)
0
The fundamental theorem algebra asserts that an algebraic equation has at least one
of
root, real or complex. Given this easy to prove that an equation of degree n has
it
is
ezactly n roots, which may or may not be all distinct. The remainder theorem asserts
any constant, the remainder after dividing f(x) by x f(r):
7i
that
is
is
if
r
r
f(x) m -r)q(x) +/(r)

(x
(130)
Indeed, the relation f(x) m r)q{x)

must hold identically (i.e., for all x,
R
{x
including x = in particular), which proves the theorem. The factor theorem asserts
r
that x a factor otf(x) (the division and only a root of Eq. (129).
is
exact)
if
if
is
is
r
This a direct consequence of the remainder theorem.

is
xi root of Eq. (129), then f(x) xClq\(x), where qi(x) s

a polynomial
If
(z
is
is
a
degree n Evidently every root of qi =0 also a root of Eq. (129), and con
of
1.
is
versely, any root of Eq. (129) must be either xt, which causes x Xi to vanish, or else
number is such that q\(xi) = 0. x2)<f2(x),
Again, ?i(x2) = then qi(x) =
(x
a
0,
if
where qs a polynomial of degree n After continuing the argument n steps, one

2.
is
x),
finds that f(x) a constant qn times the product of n factors xi)
(x
is
(x
and that X\, Xt, . . x. are roots of Eq. (129) and there are no others. This proves
,
3-42 MATHEMATICS [SBC. 3
the assertion made above that there are exactly n roots. It is clear that q = o0,
whence
f(x) = a0(x - xi)(x - xi)
(x - in) (131)
The fact that an algebraic equation of degree n can have no more than n roots can
be phrased in the following often useful forms: If a polynomial of degree n or less
vanishes for n + 1 distinct values of x, it vanishes identically, and if two polynomials
of degree n or less are equal for n + 1 distinct values of x, then they are identically
equal.
On multiplying out the right member of Eq. (131) and comparing coefficients of the
various powers of z with those in Eqs. (128), one has
y Xi = ci -
oi/ao
i
I
ii.j)
XtXj = c2 = aj/ao
(132)
I
j,t)
XiXjXk = Cj = at/ao
The summations extended over only the distinct combinations of distinct xs.
-
are
Thus for n 3,
- X\Xi
y XiXj + X\X% + Ills
These are called the elementary symmetric functions of the roots.

If one substitutes x = y + h in Eqs. (128), the result can be written in the form
f(y + h) =f(y) + hf'{y) + hT(y)W +
+ h"PKy)/nl (133)
after collecting the several powers of h. In this expansion, f'(y), the coefficient of h\ is
called the (first) derivative of/ evaluated at y. Likewise /" is the second derivative,
/'" the third, . . . (cf. Art, 1.1 of Sec. 3-2).
The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives, the derivative of a constant
is zero, and multiplying a function by any constant multiplies any of its derivatives by
that constant. By applying the binomial theorem (Art. 1.1) to (y + h)' one obtains
the formula for the derivative of a power:
(y)(.) _ n(n - 1)

( - * + l)y-* (134)
Also one verifies directly that
[/(.)|0) =/(.+/) (135)
the jth derivative of an + jHh derivative of the function
is,
that derivative the

is
t'th
(i
itself.
If g(i) any polynomial, then
is
+ - g(y) hg'(y) +
+
k)
g(!l

whence /(,/ + h)g(y + = f(y)g(y) + h[f(y)g'(y) +f'(y)g(y)]

+
h)
It follows that
W-fg'+fo (136)
Corresponding formulas for higher derivatives are obtainable from other terms in the
above expansion.
Let [xo,f(xo)\ represent a point on the curve, whose equation
is
-/(.)
U
Sec. 3-1] ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY 3 43
The straight line whose parametric equations are
ii = xo + h 2 = /(xo) + mh
with variable h, has slope m, passes through the point [xn,/(xo)], and intersects the
curve at points corresponding to those values of h which satisfy
f(x0) + mh = /(*, + h)
On applying Eq. (133) and collecting terms this gives
0 = h[f\x0) - m] + A/"(*o)/2! + . . .
(137)
The equation is evidently satisfied by h = 0, which corresponds to the point [xo,/(x0)]

itself. If one takes
m = /'(x0)
then h = 0 is a double root of the equation in h. The line is then said to be tangent
to the curve, and /'(x0) is the slope of the curve. If it is also true that/"(x0) = 0, t hen
h = 0 is a triple root, and the point [xo,/(xo)l is said to be an inflection of the curve.
Suppose x0 is a root of Eq. (129), and let m = 0. Any root of Eq. (129) is given by
it + k, where h is a root of Eq. (137) with m = 0. If f'(xo) = 0, then h 0 is a
double root of Eq. (137) and xo = 0 a double root of Eq. (129). Hence Xo is a double
mot of Eq. (129) if and only if
/(x) = /'(x) = 0
double root of Eq. (129) root also of the first derived equation
is,
that
is
a
fix) = (138)
0
More generally, root of multiplicity m of Eq. (129) a root, of each of the first m
is
a
1
derived equations. Also a root of multiplicity m of Eq. (129) a root of multiplicity
-
is
m of Eq. (138).
1
Hence all multiple roots of Eq. (129) are zeros of the highest common factor of f(x)
and/'(x), and there no such factor (other than a constant), then Eq. (129) has only
if
is
simple roots. Consider the following algorithm: For uniformity let
-/ /-/'
/.
and for any convenient 7,- > let

0
7./i = 7i+l/.+l<fi+l

fi+i (139)
where q>+t the quotient,

/<+J the remainder after division. Let m be the smallest
is
index for which

/-+. =
0
Then / the highest common factor of and /1.

is
/o
Many numerical methods require that the roots be isolated at the outset, i.e., that
for any desired root some region be known to contain that and no other root of the
equation. The sequence of Eq. (139), besides providing the highest common factor
of /and /', permits the isolation of real roots by means of Sturm's theorem. When the
functions are written in order, /0, fi, ft, ...
and evaluated for any a, let Va represent
,
the number of variations in sign in the sequence (thus the sequence has two
1-
-)
variations, whereas +H and each has but one). Then neither a nor
if
j3
H
root of Eq. (129), and vanishing are ignored in the sequence, the difference
if
V U
fi
a
m Vf the number of roots between a and each root being counted once
is
0,
regardless of multiplicity.
Budan's theorem more easily applied but gives less information: In the sequence
is
/", . . . the difference in the number of variations at a and may exceed the
/',
/,
number of roots on the interval (roots being counted according to multiplicity) but
always by an even number. special case Descartes' rule signs: The number of
A
of
is
sign variations in the coefficients may exceed (and is never less than) the number of
positive real roots, but always by an even number.
In Eq. (130) let
q(x) = qox"-1 + g,x"-J + + g_i
On multiplying and comparing coefficients one finds
'la
= a0
?<
Oi + qi-yr /(r) = a + qn-ir
This justifies the algorithm known as synthetic division: For dividing /(i) by x r, the
coefficients of the quotient and the final remainder are obtainable from the following
scheme:
at
o0 a2 a [r
q0r qir q_ir
qi
qo 92 /(r)
Let
f(V + r) = g(y) ^ b*y + bxy* ++& (140)
If Eq. (129) has roots xi, x xu, and if g(y) = 0 has roots jfi, j/2, . . . , yH, then
(if the roots are suitably ordered) each Xi = v; + r. Hence one says that to obtain
the equation g = 0, the roots of Eq. (129) are reduced by r (which could be a negative
number). Now
g(y) = g(x - r) - b(x - r)n + bi(x - r)""1 +

+ b
Hence 6 is the remainder after dividing f(x) by x r; 6_! is the remainder after

dividing the quotient by x r; . . . . Hence for reducing the roots of an equation

one can extend the method of synthetic division:

Ol ai o_i a.
9or 9ir 9-ir

9o 9i 92 9-i b.

9V q'ir ?'_sr

9'o 9'. 9' 6.-!
In this table if r > 0 is such that the qs on any line together with the 6s on and above
that line are all nonnegative, then r is an upper bound of the roots of Eq. (129). For
this implies that every bi > 0, whence g > 0 for y > 0, whence > 0 for x > r. / r If
is an upper bound to the roots of }(x) = 0, then r is a lower bound to the roots of
Eq. (129).
In case the coefficients a, of f(x) are all integers, if r is a rational root in its lowest
terms p/q, then p divides a and q divides do. Thus all rational roots can be found by
trial and divided out, and all multiple roots can be removed after the highest common
/
factor of and /' is found.
Since/' represents the slope of the graph off, it is evident geometrically that between
distinct zeros of f(x), f
must vanish at least once. This is Rolle's theorem (between
/
consecutive zeros of there must be an odd number of zeros of/', counting multiplicities).
Between consecutive zeros of /' there may be one or no zero of /.
An nth-order linear homogeneous difference equation is a relation of the form
oo{+ + aii+r-i +
+ ai, =0 oo ^ 0 (141)
connecting any n + 1 consecutive terms of a sequence . If a sequence is such
that any n + 1 consecutive terms satisfy Eq. (141), then the sequence is said to be a
solution of the difference equation. If J, and r\, are any two solutions of Eq. (141),
then a(, + f}y, = f is also a solution, where a and (3 are arbitrary fixed scalars. If
Xi is any root of Eq. (129), then the sequence *< satisfies Eq. (141). If Xt is a double
root of Eq. (129), then it can be verified that vxt' also satisfies Eq. (141); if Xi is a
triple root, then also vhd' [or, equivalently, v{v l)!,'-'] satisfies Eq. (141); . . . .

Hence there are always at least n distinct solutions of Eq. (141). Conversely it can be
shown that given n distinct solutions {,(u, . . . , {'"' of Eq. (141), any solution is
expressible as a linear combination of these. Equation (129) is the characteristic
tquation of Eq. (141).
In case the terms 0, ti, . . . , -i of a solution are known, other terms of the
sequence can be obtained recursively by applying Eq. (141) with v = 0, 1, 2, . . .
consecutively. Hence these initial values determine the solution uniquely. Of par
ticular interest is the solution
an = n
The initial terms of the sequence a, can be shown to satisfy Newton's identities
awn + Oi =0
Oocrs + ai<ci + 2a2 = 0
floff.i + Oia2 + ojff3 + 3oa = 0
(143)
aoff + aia_i + + Hn-Kn + na = 0
If the difference equation can be reversed to obtain (note that

on ^ 0, <r_i, <r_i, . . .
n =
n).
If one sets h(v), a function of y, on the right of Eq. (141), the result is a nonhomo-
geneous difference equation. Given any particular solution f, of the nonhomogeneous
equation, if is a solution of the homogeneous equation, then j", + <x, is again a
solution of the nonhomogeneous equation.
Application of difference equations will be made in Art. 4.3, but more important
is the fact that most numerical methods of solving differential equations require that
they first be replaced by approximating difference equations, not necessarily linear.
4.3 The Solution of Algebraic Equations
The two roots of a quadratic equation ax' + bx + c =0 are given by the quadratic
formula
x = (-6 V^-4oe)/(2a)
The quantity
A = 6* 4ac
which occurs under the radical is called the discriminant of the equation. If A < 0,
the roots are complex and distinct. Otherwise they are real, and they coincide when
A = 0.
Formulas exist for the roots of a cubic and also for the roots of a quartic equation.
For numerical computation they are of little practical value, and for equations of
degree 5 or higher such formulas do not exist for the general case (clearly they do in
special cases, as when factorization is known to be possible). However, there are
various methods of successive approximation, which permit a determination as
accurate as may be required (or as the accuracy of the coefficients will justify, in case
these are only approximate).
It will be supposed in this article that the equation to be solved has only simple
roots. It has already been shown (Art. 4.2) that all multiple roots satisfy an equation
of lower order which is obtainable from the equation and its first derived equation.
As a practical matter, however, an equation can have even a single pair of equal
roots only when its coefficients satisfy a certain algebraic identity. If the coefficients
were selected at random, the probability is zero that such an identity would be satisfied.
Other equalities among the roots imply other identities to be satisfied by the coeffi
cients. One can be assured that if the coefficients are given experimentally, then
unless they are required a priori to satisfy the conditions, they will not do so in fact.
However, there may be roots that are nearly equal. A pair of nearly equal real roots
will be nearly equal to a root of the derived equation (this will lie between them), and
it may be advantageous to find first this root of the derived equation.
For finding a real root, the method of false position is one of the simplest. Let the
equation be given by Eqs. (128) and (129), and let a be the root required. By graph
ing the function or otherwise, one can determine numbers io and xi such that the root
a alone lies between x0 and xi. The root a can be supposed a simple root, since
multiple roots can be found otherwise (Art. 4.2). Then/(x0) and/(xi) will be opposite
in sign. The chord joining the points [xo,/(xo)l and [x\,f(xi)] will therefore cross the
axis between xo and xi at
12 = \xo}(xi)
- Xl/(X0)]/[/(Xl) - /(xo)]
If /(xo) and /(x2) are opposite in sign, proceed with x% replacing xi ; otherwise proceed
with i2 replacing x0. One obtains thus a sequence of values of x that approach a.
Horner's method is equally simple. Suppose xa is an integer and Xt < a < x<>+ 1.
Reduce the roots (Art. 4.2) by x0. In the new equation the desired root is a xo
< 1. By trial determine the largest number of the set 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, . . . , 0.9 that
does not exceed a Xo, and reduce again by this amount. Let xi be the total amount
by which the roots have been reduced. Then the desired root in this equation is
a -xi < 0.1. By trial find the largest number of the set 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, .... 0.09
that does not exceed a Xi, and reduce by this amount, making a total of Xi. At
each step one finds an additional decimal in a.

In practice only a few steps of this kind will need to be taken (one, two, or three)
unless there is another root very close to a. At some stage let z = a Xi satisfy
boz" + fciz"-' +
+ bn = 0
or bn-iz = b b_2Zs
boz* (144)
If 2 is very small by comparison with all other roots, then all terms on the right that
contain z will be small by comparison with b. Then, approximately,
z = -6/6_i
and this approximation, when substituted for z on the right, gives a still better approxi
mation. This cycle can be repeated as many times as desired.
This process of repeated substitution is one of a very large class of iterative methods.
If the equation is written in the form

x = *>(x) (145)
which can be done in infinitely many ways, one can define a sequence by
x+i = ip(x,) (146)

with a suitable initial term xo, and if the sequence converges, it converges necessarily
to a root a of Eq. (146). When xo is sufficiently close to a, the sequence will converge
provided
!*>'(*) I < i
throughout some interval containing a (for derivatives of functions other than poly
nomials, see Art. 1.1 of Sec. 3-2). f
This means that the graph of has a sufficiently
small slope throughout the interval. The optimal situation is that the curve shall be
horizontal at x = a:
*>'(<*)
= 0
and this holds for Newton's method, which utilizes the iteration
x+i = x, - f(x,)/f'(xr) (147)

In practical application Newton's method does not differ greatly from Horner's
method except that in the former one chooses xo to satisfy either zo < a < zo + 1 or
else i0 > a > lo 1, always so that neither /' nor /" vanishes between xo and a and
so that/(io) and /"(xo) have the same sign. This means that if the curve is concave
down, one starts below the axis; if concave up, then above the axis. One then
diminishes the roots by xo, then by the nearest tenth, then the nearest hundredth, but
never by enough so that the curve is crossed. Again the equation can eventually be
put into the form of Eq. (144) when z has become small enough.
If the roots of /
= 0 are to be included among those of Eq. (145), then >(x) must be
of the form
<fi(x) m x -f(x)/g(x)
where g and / have
no zeros in common. Conversely, if <pis any such function, one
can use it to an iteration by Eq. (146).
define Newton's method takes g = /', but
this is by no means the only possible choice. For an arbitrary g the sequence will not
necessarily converge. On the other hand, various choices for g will give more rapid
convergence than Newton's method, though generally at the expense of more complex
calculations at each step.
A simple application of Newton's method to the equation z1 a = 0 gives a
standard iteration for a square root,
z,+i - (z, + o/z,)/2

Convergence of these and of many ot her sequences can be accelerated by the appli
cation of Aiiken's S* process. This was described in Art. 4.1 for sequences of vectors
and applies equally to sequences of scalars. It will, in fact, convert a divergent
sequence to one that converges.

A sequence of a different type is used in Bernoulli's method. Any solution {, of the
difference equation (141) can be expressed as a linear combination of the powers of the
roots of Eq. (129):
= a,Xi' + orsXi' + + aZ.'
as already explained. If the equation has a root of largest modulus, call this X\.
Then if a, 5* 0,
= Xi'[a, + caixt/Xi)' + +an(xjxl)']
and as r increases, all terms but the first within the bracket will decrease to zero.
Hence in the limit
hy - *,+i/, x, (148)
If the initial values {0, (it . in-i are chosen arbitrarily, there is zero probability
0/ selecting these by chance so that ai = 0. Nevertheless on might be so small as to
retard the convergence seriously. The special choice , = a, (Art. 4.2) gives all roots
equal weight.
For accelerating convergence, the t1 process should be applied to the sequence of
quotients h, rather than to
The method can be restated by saying that the roots of the sequence of equations
I ' 1
I -0
form a sequence that approaches zi in the limit provided the modulus of Xi exceeds
that of any other root. If
> 1**1 > W > > |z.|
then it is also true that the roots of the sequence of quadratics
. 1
form two sequences that approach Xi and Xj in the limit. Thus if Eq. (129) has a pair
of conjugate complex roots of maximum modulus, then the sequence ,+i/r will not
approach a limit but these quadratics will define converging sequences.
Again let
|i.| > W > M > W >
Then the sequences formed from the three roots of
i, ,-i {,-. 1
+i z. Sr-1 I
t,+. s+l i. X
t.+i i,+l ,+ ! X
approach x,, x, and i>, and likewise for the equations of higher degree that are
similarly constructed.
Lot
,(> = 1
z,w = z,
i. -!
.
Jr+l {.
,-! l,-l\
= , {,-.
r+l 1
Each of these determinants can be formed from determinants of lower order in the
following manner:
and the sequence of quotients of consecutive determinants have the products of the
roots as their limits:
A/2' = ,+,</$, - i.x, i.x, -
In particular, if |xi I > |ij| > |z,| > , since A, approaches Xi and A,<2) approaches
XiXj,
fc,</A,- xs
Likewise
In principle, therefore, all roots canbe found by this process, although rounding errors
become increasingly difficult to control.
The smaller roots, however, can be obtained independently. One has only to
observe that the roots of
ax" + a-ix"_l + + <lo 0
are the reciprocals of the roots of the original equation. Consequently the largest
roots of this equation are the reciprocals of the smallest roots of the original equation.
Bernoulli's method has the advantage that rounding errors do not accumulate within
the same sequence (although they do build up as one passes from one sequence to a
sequence of higher order). The method has the disadvantage of slow convergence.
Graeffe's method converges more rapidly but accumulates the rounding errors. To
apply this, one writes the equation in the form
2
<JoX" + a.x" + a3x"
squares both sides of the equation, and re-collects all terms on the left. The result is
an equation containing only even powers of x. If one substitutes
the result is an equation each of whose roots y,- is the square of a root of the original i?
equation. After v repetitions, the result is an equation whose roots are the pth powers
of the roots of the original equation, where p 2'.
It is most convenient to divide through the original equation by a0 at the outset and
hence to start with the form
X" + fjl"-1 + CiX"'4 + = c,x"~l
+ ex*'* +
After steps let the equation be
X" - C,X"-' + CtX--' - C,X"~ + =0

Then, with p = 2,
C, = x," + x2" +
& = X,"X;- + XfXt' +
d = Xi"X2"X," + XSISX," +
But
X| + Xlp + - *l'(l + Xj/Xi +
)
where all terms after the first within the parentheses become small, provided
Nil > Nl > Nil >
In this event, when v is sufficiently large,
<"i = Xl"
Likewise if
Nil > Nil > Nil > |x.| > '
then Xi'Xj' + XiXi + = x,"xtP(l + XjO/Xj" +
-)
where, again, all terms after the first within the parentheses become small. Hence,
when y is sufficiently large,
Ct = xi^xi"
C./C, = x+
Other roots can be found in like manner until the sequence of inequalities is broken
= |xi+2|.
is,
by an equality; that |z<| > |xi+i|, but |x,+1|

Whenever an equality occurs between moduli of roots, the pth root of the corre
sponding quotient C;+s/C+i will not converge. If the coefficients of the equation are
real, complex roots occur only in conjugate pairs, and failure to converge will ordinarily
be due to the presence of such a pair. complete analysis of all possible cases would
A
be quite long, but suppose, for example, that
= !> = > |ij| > \xt\ >

xi exp (ifl) exp (i0)

p
Then Ci = 2p" cos (pfl) 4- x, xt" +

-
+
Ct p" + 2xap* cos (pfl) +

Hence for sufficiently large,
*
(\ * p"
but C\ will oscillate because of the term in cos (pfl). Nevertheless, when cos (pfl)
is
close to 1, also true that

is
it
C, = 2p cos (pfl)
and therefore, the equation
-
if
X1 C,X C\ =
+
taken at suitable values of the roots will tend toward x, and x^.
is
v,
For solving transcendental equations Newton's method applies directly. Bernoulli's
and Graeffe's methods also apply but with the following modification: If z = x~l, let
viz) = z"/(z-')
Then these methods can be regarded as methods for finding the roots of = 0
beginning with the smallest instead of the largest. Interpreted as methods of obtain
ing the smallest roots, then they apply to transcendental equations viz) = 0.
4.4 Systems of Equations
Newton's method can be generalized to apply to systems of equations, but in order

to describe the method it is necessary to make use of partial derivatives (Art. 1).
Let the equations be
v>itx,h, ,{.) 0 -
*.({>,&, ,.) -0
If we let x and / represent the vectors
x = ifi.ij, ...,{ | / = \vi,v% . . . ,vA

these equations are, in vector form,
fix) = 0
The first partial derivatives of the with respect to the form the Jacobian matrix,
which will be represented
U =
Let a represent the solution vector, and let y<, = a

Xo represent the deviation of x<>
from a. The Taylor expansion has the form
fia) = /(x) +/,(x)2/, +
where the terms omitted are of second degree or higher in the elements v> of y. But
since a is the solution, fia) = 0, whence
/ = -hia - x0) +
/
where the elements of and of /, are to be evaluated for x = x0. Suppose xo is close
to a so that the terms that have not been written are small. Then if these terms are
is,
neglected and the equations solved for x\ with xi replacing a, that the equations
-
/*Xl = frit
f
are solved for xi, then xi should be closer to a than The solution not possible
is
is
x0.
unless the matrix /*(xo) nonsingular, but in this event
is
Xt Xo /,"'(xo)/(Xi))
It possible to continue the iteration and write

is
Xf = Xi -
However, the system of high order, one would wish to limit the number of matrix
is
if
inversions. that converges, although more slowly, given by

A
sequence
is
x,,+i = xp - fx~lix<,)fixp)
where the same reciprocal matrix /r'(ii) used throughout.
is is
Another method of solving the system generalization of the Seidel method for
a
solving linear systems. The function

2vix) =/r(x)/(x)
is essentially positive and has its minimum value of 0 at x = a. Let <pzbe the vector
of partial derivatives of ip with respect to the ,-. Then the system
<?, = o
14
is equivalent to the original system if /, is nonsingular. These equations are, in
detail,
*>,(ti,, ,.) = 0
.(!, ,*.) -0
One selects an approximation ,<0) to the solution, and thereafter one solves in sequence
-0
>t,[.(I>,S*(0W>,
-0
. ,I<0)1
#>f,[i(,>.i(,>,{it0). >(0)1
for {i(,) in terms of the assumed {j'0', . . . , |<w; then for s(" in terms of the newly
obtained |i(1) and the assumed a(0), . . . , Sni0>, ....
The cycle can be repeated
as many times as necessary. Thus the solution of the original system of nonlinear
equations is approximated by solving a sequence of nonlinear equations each in a
single unknown. For solving each equation of the sequence one can use any of the
methods described in Art. 4.3.
These methods also apply to transcendental systems.
It has been presupposed here that the solutions to be found are real. For complex
i
solutions, in place of the vector x write + iy, where x and y are real. When this
substitution is made, the vector becomes /
f(x + iy) = g(x,y) + ih(x,y)
where g and h are real vectors, each depending upon the two real vectors x and y.
Instead of the system f(x) = 0, one has now the system of order 2n:
g(x,y) = 0
h(x,y) = 0
Either the Newton or the Scidel method can be applied to this system.
4.6 Latent Roots and Vectors

For a symmetric matrix A its characteristic equation
\A -\I\ =0 (149)
has arisen in Art. 3.3. The equation has important applications also in cases when A
is not symmetric. If E is nonsingular and
A' = E-*AE
then A and A' are similar and represent the same transformation but in different
coordinate systems (Art. 1.3). Since
E-'U - = A' -\I

then \A
- \I\\I)E
= \A' - \I\
Hence the characteristic function

?(X) = \A - \l\ (150)
is the same for similar matrices, and hence so are the characteristic roots (or latent roots
or proper values).
A diagonal matrix
A = diag (X\2, . . . ,X) (151)
has the characteristic function
v(\) = (X, - X)(X5 - X)

(X. - X)
Hence if A is known to be similar to A, the diagonal elements of A are necessarily the

latent roots of A.
If
X,-
any latent root of A, then the matrix
X(/ singular and the equations
is
A
is
An - \iXi ytTA = \njiT (152)
both have nontrivial solutions (that
is,
solutions a\ ^ and j/,- ^ 0). Such solutions
0
are the latent vectors (or characteristic vectors or proper vectors) If symmetric, one
A
.
is
can take x,- = j/,.
The characteristic polynomial can be written
= (-)"(*" - TiX""1 7jX"- -
T.)
+
>(M (153)
Then = trace 7 = \A\
A
71 (154)
where trace the sum of the diagonal elements of A. Also 71 the sum and yn
A
is
is
the product of the latent roots of A. In general, 7, the sum of all principal minors
is
of order of A.
t
If ^(X) any polynomial in then ^(A) matrix obtained by replacing by
A
is
X,
is
X
a
in ^(X). Whereas in general two matrices are not commutative, <p(A) and w(A) are
if
any two polynomials in A, these matrices are commutative:
(A) = u(A)+(A)
The Cayley-Hamillon theorem states that any matrix satisfies its own characteristic
equation:
<p(A) -
0
It possible to form matrices satisfying equations of degree less than n. In general,

is
the polynomial ^(X) of lowest degree with leading coefficient unity for which ^(A) =
0
(\/>
may or may not be different from >) the minimum polynomial for A, and the
is
equation
*(X) =
0
the minimum equation. Then any polynomial for which u(A) =
0,
u(X)
is
is is
^(X)
if
divisor of w(X).
a
If x any vector and the minimum polynomial for A, certainly <l/(A)x = since
0,
\j/
is
ifr(A) = Hence polynomials u(X) exist such that u(A)x = 0. Let (X) be the
0.
polynomial of lowest degree with leading coefficient for which this true. Then
is
1
w(X) divides ^(X). In particular, for any X' and any x true that (A X'/)x
0,
is
it
if
then X' divides the minimum polynomial, whence X' a latent root and x a latent
is
X
vector of A.
For any matrix A, there exists matrix
a
= diag (Ai.Aj, . . ,Am) (155)

A
similar to A, where m < n and each Ai either scalar and equal to a latent root X,,
is
or else
- X./
/,
+
A* (156)
"0
0 1 0
0 0 1

0 0
and = (157)
/1
If of order then /1" = Since similar to A, there exists a nonsingular

0.
is
/1
is
A
v,
matrix X such that

AX - A-A (158)
All latent vectors of occur among the columns of X. The matrix the Jordan
is
A
normal form of the matrix.

The matrix A is either diagonal or upper triangular, and its diagonal elements are
the latent roots X, of A. If w(X) is any polynomial, (A) is also upper triangular and
its diagonal elements are a>(X,). One proves inductively that for any integer *,
A' = XA'X-1
and hence that
o,(A) = X(A)X-'
Hence the latent roots of a(A) are (X,).
The matrix A is always a diagonal matrix and the columns of X are all latent vectors
of A unless the elements of A satisfy certain algebraic identities. Unless such relations
or equivalent ones are assigned a priori and imposed, a matrix whose elements are
fiven numerically as a result of measurements subject to error may be assumed to
be diagonalizable. Only this case will be considered.
Even real matrices may have complex latent roots and latent vectors. Hence it is
necessary to consider complex matrices. A complex matrix A is said to be Hermilian
in case it is equal to the conjugate of its transpose. The conjugate transpose will be
designated by an asterisk:
A* = AT
Evidently a real matrix is Hermitian if and only if it is symmetric.

In dealing with Hermitian matrices it is convenient to say that complex vectors x
and y are orthogonal if x*y = 0. A complex matrix U is said to be unitary in case
U*U = UU* = /
in case reciprocal to its own conjugate transpose. Evidently real
U
is,
that
is
is
is it
if
and unitary, orthogonal.
it
Hermitian matrix has only real latent roots, for Hermitian and
A
if
A
is
Ax = \x
then x*Ax = Xx*x
But i*ireal, and so x*Ax when Hermitian.

A
is
is
is
Latent vectors associated with distinct latent roots of a Hermitian matrix are
orthogonal. Ixst
Ax = Xj Ay = ny ^
p
X
Then y*Ax - Xy*x x*Ay = iix*y

real, on taking the conjugate of the second equation one has
But since
is
it
y*Ax = ny*x
This can hold only y*x = x*y = and, indeed, also y*Ax = x'Ay =
0.
if
Suppose a latent root Xi and an associated latent vector u\ have been found. One
can normalize Uj so that
U\*U\ =
1
Let u'j be unit vector orthogonal to Ui, u'z a unit vector orthogonal to both Hi and
a
u'j, . . ii' a unit vector orthogonal to all preceding vectors. Then

.
Ui = (wi,M'a, . ,')
.
.
unitary and the matrix

is
^'-(o1
a)
similar to A. Hence when one latent root and vector of a Hermitian matrix are
is
known, one can obtain a Hermitian matrix of order n whose latent roots are the
1
remaining roots of A. Moreover, since the process can be repeated with A\, this
shows that any Hermitian matrix call be diagonalized (cf. Art. 3.3).
Given u\, a matrix Ui can be formed as follows: Let Ui be written in the form
-(:)
where u is a scalar and w a vector of dimension n 1. Then
v =
So, -w* \ _ (1
_ -)/(1 _ -^
\t / llWW*/
satisfies requirements.
If AiVs = Xsf2, then
Hence if X is a latent root and i)j its latent vector i

vector for At, then X8 is a latent root of A
and
is an associated latent vector.

Nothing has yet been said about finding a particular root Xi and the corresponding
vector ui. Let v be any vector, and define the sequence
v0 = v v, * Av,-\ = A'v
It is known that A can be put into the form
U\U*
A =
where U is unitary and A is diagonal. Hence
v, = UA'U*v
Hence each element of v, is a linear combination of th powers of the X,-. Hence as v
increases (cf. Bernoulli's method, Art. 4.4), the ratio of corresponding elements in
consecutive iterates approaches the largest latent root Xi and the vector v, approaches
the latent vector u\ associated with \\.
For the root, let
<P,+? -
% = V*UA.'+l'U*V
Then having formed v, one can form
which, in general, gives a better estimate of the root.

Convergence can be accelerated by using the i* process on the vectors t>. A quite
different device can also be used effectively at times. Convergence is rapid when the
largest root is much larger than the others. Since A id has the same latent vectors
as A and the roots Xi /x, it is sometimes possible to adjust m so as to increase this
ratio.
If the largest root is a multiple root, it will have associated a characteristic subspace
of dimensionality equal to the multiplicity of the root. On proceeding with the
matrix At, one will obtain Xi again and a latent vector of At that will correspond to
another latent vector of A, that
is,
one lying in this characteristic subspace.

If the two largest roots are nearly equal but not quite, convergence will be slow. If
so, let to be vector distinct from and form the similar sequence
v,
a
= w w,
A
wo 'too
Likewise let
a, = VoTv, 0, = WoTw,
For sufficiently large the matrix

v
P,
(a,
\
will be singular if the roots are strictly equal, and if not, the roots will satisfy the
equation
1 <* 0,
X oi 0+i = 0
X Qr+J &y+2
Also if ii and xs are the associated latent vectors, then approximately
v, = SiXi'Xi + i\t>xt
W, = 7lXirXi + V2*l'Xl
from which equations Xi and xs can be found.
Analogous conclusions can be drawn when three or more roots are nearly equal.
For nonsymmetric matrices the case is somewhat more complicated because of the
possibility of complex roots and because associated with any latent root X will be two
latent vectors x and y (more, of course, for multiple roots), which satisfy
Ax = Xx A*y = \y
It will be assumed that the matrix can be diagonalized. Then it can be shown that if
Xi and X are distinct latent roots, Xi being the latent vector of A corresponding to Xi,
y: that of A* corresponding to X2, then xt and yt are orthogonal:
yt'x, = xi*yi = 0
In fact, one has
Ax, = X,xi yt*A = X2!/2*
whence yi*Ax, X,!/2*xi = X^'i,
and the conclusion follows.

If A has a latent root \, that is larger in magnitude than all others, then the sequence
uo = u u, = Au,-i
and the sequence
o " v v, = A*v,-i
will approach the corresponding proper vectors, and the ratio of corresponding
elements of consecutive iterates will be Xi. Indeed, if both sequences u, and v, are
being formed, and if
a, = Vo*u, = vr*Uo
then the sequence
dy+i/a,
also approaches Xi.

Suppose Xi and Xj are equal in modulus and exceed in modulus all other roots. Then
for sufficiently large v one has approximately
u, = tiXi'xi + hM'xi
v, = viXi'y, + ijjXj'i/s
Let a, be as defined above, and let |8, be formed by means of iterates of two other
vectors. Then Xi and X* will satisfy
1 a. (3,
X Cty+l 0*+i = 0
X2 a,+i 0r+i
and Xi, xt, y\, yi can be found from the above equations, together with the correspond
ing ones using the other iterates.
6 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS

The development to be given here of probability and statistics will be primarily
algebraic in character, with indications, however, of how the theory is extended by the
use of derivatives and integrals.
6.1 Basic Principles
The abstract theory of probability is concerned with a space or set 5 (sample space
or phase spare) of points Eh Eit . . . which may or may not be discrete. In case
they are discrete, then with each point Ei is associated a positive real number p(E,)
such that
Zp(\) = 1 (159)
where the sum is taken over all points Ei in S. Let A be a subset or region of 5.
Then associated with A is the real number
p(A) = S p(Ei) (160)
where the sum is taken over all points Ei in A. The points Ei will represent elemen
tary events, the regions A compound events, and the numbers p(Ei) and p(A) their
probabilities. Each Ei is (or represents) a possible outcome of an experiment; the
event A will be said to occur in case there occur any of the Ei that belong to A. The
actual assignment of the probabilities p(Ei) is a physical problem, not mathematical.
Thus, in tossing a single coin, one commonly assumes that the outcome will be one of
but two possible events, heads, which we denote Ei, and tails, which we denote Et
(the possibility that the coin may stand on edge is generally neglected). Then S
consists of only two points, Ei and 2. Usually one supposes that p(Ei) = p(Et) and
hence that each is H> but this assumption is by no means necessary, and, indeed,
experience or observation may suggest the need for a different hypothesis.

Suppose the coin is tossed twice. Let E\ and E\
represent the two possible events
on the second toss. Considered as a single experiment, there are four possible out
comes. Let these be
E"i (Ei,E'i) E" i = (Ei,E\) E"i = (Ei,E'i) E'\ ** (Ei,E't)

Thus, for example, E"i is the event that heads occurs on the first toss and tails on the
second. Let A be the event "at least one head." Then A consists of E"\, E"t, and
E"i. One commonly supposes that the have equal probability, but again mathe
matical probability as such imposes no such requirement. One could assume that
two unlike throws are more probable than two like throws and hence that E"s and
E"3 both have higher probability than either E"i or E'\. Such an assumption might
require some revision of physical laws but would not affect the laws of probability.
Some new symbolism will be convenient in this section. If A and B are two subsets
of S, then AB is that subset whose points belong to both A and B, A is the subset
of all points of S not belonging to A, B A is the subset of all points of B not belong
ing to A, A \J
B is the subset of all points belonging to either A or B or both. The
assertion A = 0 signifies that there are no points in A [and hence that p(A) = 0);
AB = 0 signifies that A and B have no points in common; A C B or B A signifies 3
that all points of A belong also to B (hence p(A) < p(B)}; A\J
B S signifies that,
every point of S belongs to A or to B or to both; EitA signifies that the point Ei
belongs to A.
If AB =0, then
U)= p(A) + p(B)
p(A
U)= p(A) + p(B) - p(AB)

and in all cases
p(A (161)
The conditional probability of A given B is
p(A|B) - p(AB)/p(B) (162)
provided p(B) ^ 0. In case p(A|B) = p(A), then A and B are said to be (statisti
cally) independent. Thus, in the above example of two tosses of a coin, let A be JE" ,
and E"z (heads on the second throw), and for B take E" \ and E"t (heads on the first
throw). If p(E"i) = \i
for every *, then p(A) - X - p(B) = p(A\B). Then A
B are statistically independent.
if,
and But say,
p{E'\) = p(E"t) = p(",) = p(E",) -
%
H
p(A) = = p(B), but p(AB) = p("i) = whence p{A\B) = Hence
H
then
and would not be independent, and whereas the a priori probability of heads on
B
A
the second throw remains J^, the probability that heads would follow heads (granting
this new assumption) only J>.
is
Equation (162) can be rewritten
p(A\B)p(B) = p(AB) (163)
which becomes, in the case of independence,
p(A)p(B) = p{AB)
by B' = BC in Eq. (163), the formula can be extended to

B
one replaces
If
p(ABC) = p(A\BC)p{B\C)p{C) (164)
and the process can be continued. If one replaces by B" B\J in Eq. (161)
C
B
and expands, one has
f(iU BKJ C) = p(A) + p(B) + p(C) - p(BC) - p(AC) - p(BC) p(ABC)
+
(165)
The extension to more complex cases can be made in like manner. In order to obtain
Eq. (165) necessary to note that
is
it
A(B \J C) = ABKJ AC (AB)(AC) = ABC

These relations are readily verified.
type of experiment often considered in probability theory that of sampling from
is
A
population. population of n consists of n objects aj, o2, . . . a that are at least

A
a
conceptually distinct. Let the event Ei represent the drawing of a,-. To say that
the objects have equal chances of being drawn to say that all p{Ei) are equal and
is
hence that
p{Ei) = n-'
for every (other assumptions are possible and often true). sample of > may
A
1
r
i
be drawn either with or without replacement. If with replacement, then one may
(but need not) assume that before the second drawing conditions are restored to their
former state. If so, one may let En represent the event of drawing oj on the first
trial, a,- on the second, with = not excluded, and all have equal probability,
if
j
i
then
p(Eit) = n~*
More generally, any particular sample of drawn with replacements from a population
r
has probability n~r, granted the above assumptions of uniformity. If the draw
of
n
ing without replacement, no o, can be drawn twice and a total of

is
- n(n - - + 'P,
(
*r
1)
1)
r
distinct drawings are possible, account being taken of the order of the drawing (in stud
poker, for example, the order influences the betting). The probability of a particular
drawing 1/n,. But the same final sample (e.g., the same hand in bridge, where
is
= 13, re =
52) could have been drawn in any one of different ways. Hence there
r!
r
are
W _ - r!(n-r)!
(A - rj
n! n
c M Vz =
\
(
\n
'
r\
distinct possible samples of r, no account being taken of order. One says that there
are n, permutations of n things r at a time and I 1 combinations of n things r at a time,
the permutations distinguishing order, the combinations not. If all combinations

have the same probability of being drawn, then the probability of any particular one
"'/(?)
Drawing a sample of r from a population of n is equivalent to separating the n
objects into two classes, one of r objects (those drawn), the other of n r objects
(those not drawn). More generally, n objects can be divided into fc classes with rt
in the first, r2 in the second, . . . , r in the fcth in
n!rj!
rt!
distinct ways, it being understood that
U + r% +
+ rk = n
Important in nuclear theory is the placement of objects in cells. If there are n

objects and r cells, and if no cell can accommodate more than one object, then, if
r
r > n, there are ( I distinct ways of accommodating the n objects. If all arrange
ments have equal probabilities, the probability of any particular one is 1 / ( r\> it
being assumed that the objects are indistinguishable. If any cell can accommodate
any number of objects, each object has r choices, independently of where the others
have gone, whence there are r" arrangements and any one has a probability r~",
although not all these are distinguishable if the objects themselves are not distinguish
able (if two objects exchanged places one would not know it). The number of dis
n
tinguishable arrangements is ( and if these are equally probable (as in
)>
Bosc-Einstein statistics), the probability of any one is 1 /I )

The case of drawing with replacements provides a typical example of independent
events. Note that if independence is assumed (as it normally is) in tossing coins and
dice, tossing a coin any number of times is equivalent to drawing from a population
of 2 with replacement and tossing a die is equivalent to drawing from a population of
6 with replacement. In drawing without replacement, however, the outcomes of

successive drawings are not independent.
To return to the general formulas, Eq. (160) can be generalized also as follows:
p(A U B\C) = p(A\C) + p(B\C) - p(AB\C) (166)

If
B.WB!U--WBl=S
and if BiB, = 0 for every i and j, then also (ABi)(ABj) = 0 for every t and j and
ABi \J
ABt \J
ABk = A \J
Hence p(A) = p(ABt) + p(ABi) + + p(ABt)
- p(4|B,)p(B,) + + p(A\Bk)p(Bk)
From the identity
p(Bi\A) = piB^/piA) = p(A\Bi)p(Bi)/p(A)
one deduces Bayes's rule
k
p(BAA) = [p(A|B,)p(B,)l (167)

p(A\B<)p(B [p(A|B,)p(B,)l (167)
l
When the points in the sample space are not discrete, then one assumes a probability
density function whose integral over the entire sample space 5 is unity. The integral
over any subspace A is the probability p(A). The case can be reduced approximately
to the discrete case as follows: Divide S into regions A such that each p(A) is small;
from each such region select a point E and associate with E the probability p{A).
6.2 Moments
Let a number x; be associated with each point Ei of a sample space S. This asso
ciation defines a function X over the sample space in the sense that the function X
will be said to take on the value xt when event Ei occurs. Such a function X is known
as a random variable. For a given number x, let A represent the set of all points Ei
for which ii
= x. i
If is not included among the x,, the set A is vacuous, but in any
event
p(X = x) = V p(E<) (168)

A
is the probability that X will take on the value x. If A is vacuous, then
p(X = x) = 0;
otherwise the sum is taken over all Ei in A.

Let p represent the vector whose ith element is p(Ei), and let
D, = diag (zi,xs, . . . ,x)

represent the diagonal matrix of the values x, assumed by X. Then if e is (as usual)
the vector each of whose elements = 1, the rth moment of X is
Mr = eTDx'p (169)
This is also called the expectation of X' and is sometimes denoted E(Xr). The first
moment m = m is called the mean, and the zeroth moment mo = eTp = 1, since this
is the sum of the p{Ei).
For any X the rth moment about X is
a'r = er(D. - \I)'p

= Mr - r\Mr-, + XS"- +
(170)
Of particular interest are the moments almul the mean
v = r(D. - m/)'P (171)
Evidently r, = 0. The second moment about the mean, <r* = vj, is called the
variance, and its positive square root a is the standard deviation. From Eq. (170) for
-
X = m one has the formula
T1 = M2 mi (172)
which expresses the variance in terms of the moments m and mi- Since the same
formula can be written with n't and m'i replacing mi and mi, it follows that the second
moment is least when taken about the mean.
If Y is another random variable defined over the same space S, one can define its
moments in the same fashion. Let m<, m, , o- represent the means and standard
deviations of the two random variables. Then the mean of the sum X + Y is the
-
sum of the means:
m*+, = eT(Dx + Dy)p m* + m, (173)
The variance of the sum is somewhat more complicated. First define the covariance
of A' and Y by
- n,I)(D, - ji7)p
- n,eTDp - itveTDIp
cxy= eT(Dx
= eTDxDyp
C = eTDxD,p - mm
+ ji*MerP
(174)
and the correlation r, by

ffir, = c (175)
Then since
(Dx +D, - A - m,/)" = (D, - ,x,/)2 + 2(DX - mz/)(D - nj) + (D, - ,/)
it follows that the variance of X + Y is given by
= ax% + at* 1aayrxy (176)
When rXy = 0, the variables Ar and Y are said to be nncorrelated or statistically inde
pendent, and then one has simply
ax+y' = a,* + a,*
When rXy = 1, the variables are proportional, and in all cases 1 > rxy > I.
All the above definitions apply whether the probabilities p(Ei) are known a priori
or empirically. By the latter is meant that in N trials one observes that the event
Ei occurs ni times and then takes p(Ei) = ni/N. When the sample space S consists of
infinitely many points Ei, whether discrete or not, the definitions have a natural
extension but require the use of the notion of limits.
Among the values assumed by the random variable Y, let y be a particular one, and
let B represent the set of all Ei with which this value y is associated. Let e represent
the vector whose ?'th element is 1 if EaB but is otherwise 0. Then
p{Y - - eBTp = p(B)

t/)
Likewise let represent the set of all Ej for which X = x, and let represent the
A
ex
vector whose j'th element EjiA but otherwise 0. Then
if
is
is
1
p(X = eATp = p(A)

x)
Let represent the vector whose i'th element EitAB but otherwise 0. Then
if
is
is
eAB
1
p(X = x, = = eABTp = p(AB)

y)
Y
In Art. 5.1 was said that and are independent in case

B
it
p(AB) = p(A)p(B)
If At, . . are the sets associated with all the distinct valuesxof X; Bi, Bt, . . .
A
A
i,
the sets associated with all the distinct values of Y; and every Aa and Bb
B
is
if
;/
independent, then the variables X and arc independent. The proof can be made
Y
by expressing as the sum of all the vectors e^s in the expression eTDxDyp, which can
e
then be shown to reduce to n*iiy, whence follows that A' and are independent.
Y
it
5.3 Distributions
Consider an experiment with but two possible outcomes, "success" or "failure."

Let these have probability and = p, respectively. If E\ denotes success and
p
1
q
Ex failure, let x\ = and xt = 0. Then

1
> -
S)
(J
Hence m p, pi p, and
p
<rJ = - p* = p(l - = pq
p)
p
Now let the experiment be repeated n times. Altogether there are 2" possible
distinct outcomes for such an experiment. Let Xi have the value in case of success
1
on the ith trial, 0 otherwise, irrespective of outcomes on the remaining trials. Then
p(Xi = 1) = p, and
X = ZX,
is a random variable whose value is equal to the total number of successes. Then the
mean number of successes is
= S/iXi np
since each ^ = p. Likewise, since any two X> and Xj are obviously independent, .
<ti% = Sffij' = npq
Now the probability that any k of the Xf = 1 and the rest 0 is pV~* but there are
f selecting
(lb)
ways a set of whence the probability of exactly successes, without

k,
k
specifying when they should occur,
is
p(X = = b(k;n,p) = pV-*
k)
(177)
This known as the binomial distribution, and has the mean np and the variance
is
it
This
a function of the argument and the parameters n and p. This an
is
is
npq. k
example of a distribution function whose argument ranges over a finite number of
discrete values, all integers from to n inclusive. The parameter n can be any posi
0
tive integer, and can be any number on the interval from to
1.
0
p
Of considerable importance in the theory of radioactive decay the Poisson
is
distribution
p(k;m) = m*exp (-m)/JfeI (178)

Here the argument and can have any nonnegative integral value, while the
A;
is
parameter to can have any positive value. This represents the probability that
exactly counts will occur in a given interval of time the expected number of counts
if
k
(the mean) in that interval to. Both the mean and the variance of this distribution
is
have the value to.

An example of a continuous distribution given by the normal (or Gaussian)
is
density function
V(i) = (2,r)-exp (-x/2) (179)
and the normal distribution function

-
f'm
*<*) #>() dy (180)
If variable normally distributed, then

This has zero mean and unit variance.

is
a
probability that will assume a value on particular interval from x to

it
the
h
a
approximately 2hip(x) and more precisely equal to *(x +

(x
h)
is
h).
+
is
i
h
The approximation valid only for small but the expression by means of *
h,
is
is
rigorously correct for all

h.
common application of the normal distribution the following: Suppose that a

A
is
series of repeated measurements made for the purpose of ascertaining the magnitude
is
given quantity (length, duration, weight, or what have you). Assuming the
of
a
measurements to be independent of one another and free from bias, they can be
expected to scatter in some fashion about the true magnitude. Let to be the mean
these measurements, and let y, be the deviation of these measurements from the
of
mean. Hence the t/,- constitute an empirical distribution with a mean of 0. Let <r be
their standard deviation, and let Xi = yi/a. Then a sufficiently large number of
if
measurements have been made so that a can be regarded as a fair approximation to

the "true" standard deviation, the x> can be supposed to have been drawn at random
from normal population.
a
Now each y, can be regarded as a value assumed by a random variable F,-, and the
If an are any fixed scalars, one can verify that for the random
y'i
are independent.
variable
one has, generalizing Eqs. (173) and (176),
In particular, if there are N variables Yi and one takes each <*,= 1/N, then z is the
mean. Since <r,,2 = <r* is the same for all, one has that
of = <r*/N (181)
N'1 times the

is,
that the variance of the mean of .V independent measurements
is
mean of each. It also true that even though the yi may not themselves be normally
is
distributed, in the limit for large jV the means are normally distributed.
One can now ask by how much the mean m of the N measurements could be expected
to deviate from the true value of the magnitude, and the question can be answered
in the following sense: Suppose the true magnitude were given by some number m'.
Then an error of m' m has been made. If one made many sets of experiments,
each set consisting of taking -V measurements and finding the mean, these means
define random variable M whose mean m' and whose variance a*/N. Hence he
is
is
a
t
random variable
X = (M - mO y/N/a
has the distribution of Eq. (180). The probability of being in error by as much as
therefore 2*(x), where
is
\m' m|
x = |m' m|
\/iV/<r
NOTES AND REFERENCES

selected bibliography relating to the material of this section given below. No
A
is
attempt has been made to select from the countless elementary texts on algebra,
trigonometry, and analytic geometry. Although Ref. written as a text, contains
it
is
7
considerably more material than to be found in American texts on the subject.

is
Reference may be considered to be the definitive treatise on manipulative algebra,

3
as are Refs. and, in some sense, 16 in their respective areas.

9,
2,
Much of the older theory of determinants rephrased in more recent books as

is
theory of matrices. Reference 15 indispensable for those interested in the manipula

is
tive theory of determinants. While Ref. brief and elementary, nevertheless

is
it
1
includes a considerable amount of material.

Reference 20 the classical treatise on computational methods. Among the more
is
recent publications Refs. and 13 give detailed computational layouts while Ref. 10
8
stresses the theoretical background.

Among the many books on probability and statistics, most stress particular fields of
application. No attempt has been made to select from these. Of the more general
developments Ref. noteworthy for its success in combining rigor with lucidity.
is
6
1. Aitken, A. C: "Determinants and Matrices," Oliver Boyd, Ltd., Edinburgh and

*
London, 1946.
2. Burnside, W. 8., and A. W. Panton: "The Theory of Equations with an Introduction
to the Theory of Binary Algebraic Forms," Longmans, Green Co., Ltd., London,
&
1886.
3.Chrystal, G.: "Algebra," A. & C. Black, Ltd., London, 1893.
4. Courant, Richard, and David Hilbert: "Methods of Mathematical Physics," vol.
1,
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1953.

5. Cramer, H.: "Mathematical Methods of Statistics," Princeton University Press,
Princeton, N.J., 1945.
6. Feller, William: "An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications," John
Wiley <fcSons, Inc., New York, 1950.
7. Hall, H. S., and S. R. Knight: "Higher Algebra," 4th ed., Macmillan Co., Ltd.,
&
London, 1929.
8. Hartree, D. R.: "Numerical Analysis," Oxford University Press, New York, 1952.
9. Hobson. E. W.: "A Treatise on Plane Trigonometry," Cambridge University Press,
London. 1897.
10. Householder, A. S.: "Principles of Numerical Analysis," McGraw-Hill Book Com
pany, Inc., New York, 1953.
11. Kendall, M. G.: "The Advanced Theory of Statistics," Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd.,
London, 1947-1948.
12. MacDuffee, Cyrus Colton: "Vectors and Matrices," Mathematical Association of
America, 1943.
13. Milne, William Edmund: "Numerical Calculus," Princeton University Press,
Princeton, N.J., 1949.
"
14. Morse, Philip M., and Herman Feshbach : Methods of Theoretical Physics," McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953.
15. Muir, Thomas: "The Theory of Determinants," Macmillan & Co., Ltd., London,
vol. 1, 1906; vol. 2, 1911; vol. 3, 1920; vol. 4, 1923.
16. Salmon, George: "A Treatise on Conic Sections," Longmans, Green & Co., Inc., New
York. 1929.
17. Schwerdtfeger, Hans: "Introduction to Linear Algebra and the Theory of Matrices,"
P. Noordhoff N.V., Groningen, Netherlands, 1950.
18. Turnbull, H. W.: "The Theory of Determinants, Matrices, and Invariants," Blackie
*Son, Ltd., Glasgow, 1929.
19. Turnbull,' H. W., and A. C. Aitken: "An Introduction to the Theory of Canonical
Matrices,' Blackie & Son, Ltd., Glasgow, 1932.
20. Whittaker, E. T., and G. Robinson: "The Calculus of Observations," Blackie & Son,
Ltd., Glasgow, 1940.
3-2 ANALYSIS
BY
Ward Conrad Sangren
1 DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1.1 Differentiation
The derivative of a function is the limit, if it exists, of the ratio of the increment of
the function to the corresponding increment of the independent variable when the
increment of the independent variable approaches zero. The increment of a variable
is the difference between two values of the variable. There are many notations for
the derivative of a function y = /(x) with respect to x. Among these notations are
P- y' Dy D,y f f'(x)

dx ax
The definition of a derivative can therefore be expressed, assuming the limit exists, by
f (*,) - lim
ari-.xi
/(*'>-/(*)
Xt X\
. lim
Ai-o Ax
&
Note that the derivative is defined only at a point ii

and that the notation /'(x)
implies that the derivative is defined at each point xi of the set of values of x under
consideration. The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation.
The derivative has both geometric and physical interpretations. The common
geometric interpretation is that the derivative /'(x) represents the slope of the curve
y = /(x) at the point (x,y) on the curve. Physically the derivative is often inter
preted as the velocity. The velocity at any instant of time is the derivative of the
distance with respect to the time.
Since the derivative of a function y = /(x) with respect to x is also a function of x,
it may also be differentiable. The function df/dx or /'(x) is called the first derivative
of /(x) and its derivative, denoted by (d/dx) (df/dx) m d'f/dx1 or /"(x), is called the
second derivative of /(x) with respect to x. In similar fashion further differentiation
leads to higher derivatives. A few of the notations for the nth derivative of y f(x) "
are
pL
ax"
*L
ax"
,<*,(*)
The concept of a partial derivative of a function of several variables corresponds

to the fundamental concept of the derivative of a function of one variable. Let
v = f(x,y), and take y to be the fixed value yr, then since v is a function of x only, its
derivative with respect to x may be defined like that for an ordinary derivative. This
derivative is called the partial derivative of v with respect to x and is denoted by such
symbols as
dv df .
Tx
" U p
8-64
Sec. 3-2] analysis 3-65
is,
The defining equation for this partial derivative therefore,
/(*, + **, </) -/fa.,y.)

Mxi yi) m lim
<yr Ar
.0
In similar fashion the partial derivative of with respect to defined by
is
y
v
_//., _ /fall Af) ~ /fallgl)
+
lim V'
\
Air-.o Ay
Table 1. General Differentiation Rules
Sums, Products, Quotients, and Powers:

u = u(x) = (x) = constant
- ' +
v
c
(cuY = cu' (u + + w)' +
- nu*-1
w'
1. >'
v
2. (u)' (uv)' = w'w + uv'
*'-H)' '-^
4. (uv)" = u"u + 2uV uv"
+
5. (")' = u(ln u)' = In u v

+
u
^
Function Functions:
of
- and u = ^(x)
f(u)
v
A) dv du
_ dg _ d!v _ /dw\s dv d*u
df
d*
g
'
dx du dx du dx dx1 du1 \dx/
Vdx/ du dx'
Implicit Functions:
h(x,y) - * /(x,y,z, = *
/
. .
0
0
0
.)
dy
dy -3h dx dy
_

/.
=
I
"
(ir ax
/
dA/<>y
Inverse Functions:
x = x(y) *
^
0
^ -J- n' ^ -d'x/dy*

10 = =
dx dx/dy dx1 (dx/dy)'
Functions a Parameter:
of
x = = = a, *
^
o) 0(0
0
y
~ a"^'
12 ' = 13 ' - =
dx a, dx1 a,1
= *>(x,y) = *(n,n) whore u = u(x,y) and = i(z,y)

t>
<f
dx du dx de dx dy du dy dv dy
an Integral:
of
Differentiation
=/(x)
4~
15. /"*/(')
dx a
J
16- d' " - 'fa)fffa.) Mr ?fa.O #

+
T"
dx
0'fa)fffa>f)
/
/<*)
,
Ox
.
A geometric interpretation of these partial derivatives is much like that for an

ordinary derivative. The partial derivatives f* and /, where v = f(x,y), can be
interpreted as the slopes of the curves of intersection of the surface v = f(x,y) with the
planes y = constant and x = constant, respectively.
Since the first partial derivatives fx and/ of v = f(x,y) are also functions of x and y,
it may be possible to obtain the partial derivatives of /, and /, and thus obtain second
derivatives. Among the notations used for the second partial derivatives are the
following:
"= s/"
W
a aH' a'f
fdv\ =
~ =f Hr
dx ax' to'
a^
ay \dy/ dy' dy'
( \
\dy/
= a*"
mf " = g = j"' m
a%v
A (}
dx dx dy dy dx dy \dx/
The cross derivatives fly and /, need not be identical, but if they are both continuous,
it can be shown that they are identical.
Higher-order partial derivatives are defined by repeated differentiations with respect
to any of the independent variables. For functions of three or more variables, partial
differentiation is carried out by holding constant all the independent variables except
one and then taking the ordinary derivative of the resulting function of one variable.
The differential of the dependent variable y = /(x), denoted by dy, is defined by
dy - f'(x) Ax
It is convenient to define the differential dx of the independent variable x as equal to its

increment Ax. The total differential of a function v = f(x,y) is denoted by dv, and is
defined by
, av A . av
dv = Ax -\ Ay
dx dy
Again it is convenient to define the differential of the independent variables x and

y by
dx = Ax and dy = Ax
The definitions for differentials extend straightforwardly to functions of three or more

variables.
1.2 Integration
The concept of integration, or the integral concept, involves, as does differentiation,

the application of a limit process. In most engineering problems the only type of
integral encountered is the Riemann integral. In some applications in physics and
mathematics it is desirable to consider other integrals such as Stieltjes integrals and
Lebesgue integrals. The term integral, by itself, will refer here to a Riemann integral.
1.21 Definite Integral. Consider first a real-valued, bounded function /(x) defined
on the interval a < x < b. Next divide the interval a < x < b into an integer
number n of subintervals where the points of division x< are such that
O = Xo < Xi < Xl < Xi-l < Xi < xn-i < x, = 6
Now form the sum
/(x,*)(x, - xo) +/(x,*)(x, - x,) +

+/(x*)(x - x_,)
where Xi* is any value of x in the ith subinterval; that x,_i < This
is,
x,-* < Xi. sum

more conveniently expressed by
is
- *_,)
y
/(x.*)(x,-
1=1
Sec. 3-2] analysis 3-G7
Finally let n increase without limit, and let the length of each subinterval Xi x,_i
tend to zero; then the value of the sum may approach some limiting value. When
this limit exists, it is called the definite integral of f(x) from o to b and is denoted by
6
/(*) dx
This definition is expressed by

n
fbf(x) dx = lim y f(xi*)(xi - Xi-i)

-1
Although the limit is indicated with only n tending to infinity, the important aspect
of the limit process is that every subinterval Xi tend to zero and therefore n
tends to infinity.
The most common geometric interpretation of a definite integral is that of an area.
If /(i) /(i) dx is the area under the curve y
y where
J
> 0, then the
f(x)
and above the x axis which is bounded by x = a and x =
b.
A customary physical interpretation of the definite integral relates distance and
velocity. If the velocity is given as a function of time, that = f(t), then the
is,
v
distance covered from time to time given by
is
a
s
/> di
Some of the important properties of definite integrals are given in Table It
2.
is
understood in this table that the functions are bounded and integrable.
1.22 Indefinite and Improper Integrals. Let f(x) be bounded and integrable;
then the integral fit) dt, where x any intermediate value in the interval (a,6),
is
is
J
called the indefinite integral. The indefinite integral often written without the
is
limits of integration, that This notation arises from converse theorem

is,
//(<) dt.
a
to the fundamental theorem of integral calculus, which states that fix) a con
is
if
tinuous function in the interval, then the indefinite integral <p(x) m /(<) dt has the
J
derivative = Since F(x) = <p(x) +

where any constant, also has
fix).
is
d<p/dx
c,
/(i) as its derivative, possible to write without confusion

it
is
- F(x)
J/(z) dx or J/(x) dx = F(x)

+
c
If a function (x) has fix) as its derivative for all values of in an interval, called
it
F
is
x
a primitive for f(x).

An integral called improper either the interval of integration becomes infinite
if
is
or the integrand become infinite at one or more points of the interval of integra
if
tion. The improper integral /(<) dt said to exist lim /(<) dt exists and
is
if
is
J/
J/
a a
defined as that limit. In order that f(t) dt exist, necessary that both limits
it
is
J
lim /(<) dt and lim /(<) dt exist. If f(x) has an infinite discontinuity,
J* ~z
/
J/
x z->
.
b
f
at a point in the interval (a,6), then the /(<) dt said to exist both limits
if
is
x0
I
fx,-n fb
lira /(<) dt and lim /(<) dt exist and assigned the value of the sum
it
is
J" -*0 /+
/
of the two limits. Improper or infinite integrals are, therefore, limiting cases of
proper or finite integrals.
Table 2. Formal Properties of Integrals
Interchange of Limit*:
1. = -
Jbf(x)dx fl/Wdz
Addition of Intervals of Integration:
2. dx = dx + fbf(x) dx
Jbaf(z) [CafW
I ndependence from Parameter of Integration:

3. /*/(*) dx - fbaf(l)
dt =
/*/ of* etc.
Linearity of Integration:
4. / c/(x) dx = c f f(x) dx c is a constant
5. IMx) + f,{x)\ dx - P/i(x) dx +

fba
dx
/*/(x)
Integration by Parts:
6. dx - -
Jbaf(x)g'(x) [/(x)ff(x)]* y*/'(x)8(x)dx
where [/(x) - f(b)g(b) - f(a)g(a)
Change of Variable:
7. =
JbafWdx JdAaU)]g'(t)dt
= x, (d) -
6,
where (() and g(c) a
Absolute-value Inequality:
8.
JbaXz) dx|< jha\f{x)\dx
|
Dominating-function Inequality:
tora<xb
f*
fix) <g(x)
jha
9. f(x) dx < o(x) dx

if
Schwarz's Inequality:
fb
/(z>*
, . "|i ^
- , J
fb /,(l) * /"ft ff, **
'
d*
,
,
10. dx
/a
/a
/o
[
]
Firtt Theorem of Mean Value:
- /(0)
/*

11. /"*/(*)*(*) dx o(x) dx
fix) continuous and in a < x < For g(z) = /(x) dx ~

1,
where
>
and o < < b.

is
(x)
g

y/
f(8)(b a) and m(6 a) < f(z) dx M(b a), where m and Af are lower and upper bounds
<
JI
a
for fix) in a x <
<
Second Theorem of Mean Value:

-
/"'
12. dx g(a) Ax) dx ,7(6) - A*) dx

/J
+
jbaf{x)g{x)
where g(x) bounded and monotonic non decreasing, where/ integrable, and where a < <
is
is
Fundamen/ai TAeorem o/ Integral Calculus;

/(x) bounded and integrable in the interval (a,b) and there exists a function Fix) such that
If
is
if
dF/dx - /(x) for all x in (a,6), then fXf(t) dt - F(x) - F(a)

Sec. 3-2] ANALYSIS 3-69
1.3 Differentiation and Integration Tables
Table 3. Differentiation Formulas

(e and n are constants, u, v, and w are functions of x. toga = In, = 2.7182818285,
M = logic e = 0.4342944819)
No. Ax) No. Ax) -/(x)

- /'(x)
dz dx
1 c 0 17 sin" u (1 - u)-Wu'
du 18 cos"' u -(1 - u)-*V
2 CU CU c
dx 19 tan-1 u (1 + u)""u'
u + v + to u' + ' + w'
20 cot"1 u -(1 + u)-V
3
ttn' + inj' 21 sec"1 u u-i(uj _ i)-Mu-
4 uv
u Uv' 22 C8C~>W -u-'(u' - 1)-W'
5 23 sinh u cosh u u'
9 V1
24 oosh u sinh u u'
6 w 26 tanh u sech* u u'
7 W ra>-iu< 4. u.' ln u 26 ooth u - csch1 u u'
27 secli u sech u tanh u ti'
-LL-i u',
d/(u)
8 fM du
28 esch u csch u coth u u'
29 u (1 + )-Mu'
-
sinh-1
9 e* e'u'
l-W
30 cosh-1 u (
- u')-'u'
l)"û'
10 In u
u
31
32
tanh-1 u
coth-1 u
(1
-(u> - l)-'u'
11 sin u cos u u'
sin u '
33 sech-1 u -u-'(l - u)-*V
12 cos u
13 tan u sec> u u'
34 csch-1 u -u->(l + u)-Wu'
36 ln sin u cot u u'
14 cot u esc* u u'

36 ln cos u
15 sec u sec u tan u u'
esc u cot u ' 37 ln sinh u tanh u u'
16 CSC u
38 ln cosh u ooth u u'
j
Table 4. A Short Table of Integrals
/(x)dx -
fX/(t)dt
1.
J c dx " ex
2.
o
J[ <m(x) dx
dv .
- e jZ u) df
f du .
3. / u dx uv I v dx
7 dx / dx
-1
i dx - n
n + 1
5.
J- i dx = In
Jim\-jwmdz.luM
7.
J f -- dx a-'t"
8.j b" dx (o ln 6)"1k"
9.
y ln x dx x In x x
Forms Containing a + 6x:

- - In
J/
10. ^ dx (a + 6x)
a + bx b
11.
J/
2
a + bx
dx - i
b1
[a + bx
- a ln (a + 6x)]
- - 1
12.
J/ (o + 6x)>
dx
6 L
T bx) H
-! I ln (o 4-
o + 6xJ
Table 4. A Short Table of Integrals. (Continued)
13.
J/
*'
a 4- bx
dx = i \-
b'l 2
(a + bx)' - 2a(a + bx) + a' In (a + 6*) 1
J
14.
//

(a + bx)'
dx - -b'L \ a + bx
- 2a In (a + bx) ^ 1
a + bz-1
15.
/_L dx = - i In a + 6l
/ _-L_
bx)
IB. dx - -Lln_^
./ Ha + bx)' a (a 4- bx)
' .6
/
. 1 . a 4- 6x
_J_
17. dx = h In
7 x'(a + 6x) ax a1 x
a + 2bx , 26 . a + bx
18.
// i(a + bx)1-1
dx =
a'x(a 4- bx)
H
a
In
x
Forma Containing Va 4- bx:
Va + bx dx = ~ V(a + 6x)
y/
19.
36
- 2(2 ~ 3fa)
V^^T^
20.
JfxVa-+Yxdx =
156
-
21. j x'Va + bxdx - 2(8a' 12abx + 156'x>) \/(a + bx)'
f Va + 6x
22. dx = 2 Va + 6x + a
'f x Va^=
+ .
'/ Va
1 2 Va + bx
23.
+ bx
* y^=
/ Va + bx
2(2 ~
36'
tj)
Vo-T^
./ VST i.w
. / 1 .
dx -
1 .
In
/Va
1
+ bx - VaA
1
26.
'/ i Va + ox Va VVa + bx + Va/
- ~ tanh-"
27.
J/ xVa + bx
dx
Va \
.. /a + *
o
iI
Va + bx b ,is
.(j-
i" Vo + 6x ~a xVa + bx
i r<fLM^' taWI
_ a(a +
29.
Jf x(a + 6x)=Wdx =
b' L 4 n 2n J
Forms Containing c* x1 and Xs c*;
30.
1
dx = - tan-1 -
7 C + xt Vc' + X'
31.
/-L_
/ - r' x
. 1 . c 4- x
dx = In -
2c c x -
-
tanh'-
c
x' '< c
32
./-L_
/ - x c
dx
1
In
2c
x <
X 4- c
iooth-'- x- > c'
Forma Containing a 4- 6x and c 4- ex:
33 .
//

dx = L_ ,
(1+^)
(a 4- 6x)(c + ex) ae c6 Va 4- ex/
- - In - - In
Jf - ?
34.
(a + bx)(c 4- ex)
dx f
ae-c6L6
(a + 6x)
e
(c + ex) 1
J
35.
Jf ! _dx =
_L_('_L_+
ae c6 Va
Înl^
+ bx' ae c6
c.c4-
(a + 6x)>(c + ex) + 6x a
/f
x . a c 4- es
86.
I
(a 4- 6x)'(c + ex)
dx
6(ae - c6)(a 4- bx) (ae - c6)
In
a + 6x
Forma Containing Va + bx and Vc + ex, u = a + bx, o = c + ex, k ** at be:
k + 2bv î k' / dx
3,/ Vui> dx =
46e
Vu
8oe y
.o / 1 j
dx = -
1 i Vu
In
- Vie
V*e
2
tan'
i Vu
38.
'/ o Vu Vke e Vu + V*ee V-ke V-ke
39. A L_ dx
J
- In (V6 du + bVi) =
/2 tan"'
tan-' \/-r^
*
Vu~, VU V-ke b"
- ^ - at f
'I -^dx
ae +-\- c6
cb
40. /"
fce 2(>e ^ Vur
Vuc
' iVui tVP
Formj Con/atntnp Vx' a':
43.
J Vx' a dx - i [x Vx o> o In (x + Vx' a')]
-
/f
44. dx In (x + Vx a')
Vx o
4o. I dx =
ax
- eiM"' - or
ax
gec-'-
1 x Vx' a'
(
+ V*+*\
'f
1
if, dx = 2 In
Vx' /
^)
x + a' V
-
47.
/ ^"'dx = VxT + ^ a In
(
+
~ "' - -
If
V'J> dx = Vx a' a cm " ?
48.
i x
' dx
4. / _z
J V(x' o' Vx a>
-
a')>
so.
'
/ dx - - Vx' a' + In (x + Vx o>)
Vx'
Vx' a
:dx = T
J x'Vz' a'
- VfE!!' VxTTT')
JfVz'a'dx
52. = + In (x +
z' x
Va'
j
Form* Containing x':
53. Va' x' dx = 1

(x Vo * + a' sin"'
^)
dx = sin or cos-1 -
/35T
54.
-i - - iln (lWEII*)
'( x Va> - x
55. dx
V / 1
- a In
56.
/ iz = VaTTT'
(

/ V(o> - -i - 2"* VaT^T' 22.'si-.f

|~x
V(a
+
x)'dx x')>
+
A*
J]
57.

a
2
2
L
4
58.
V(a x')>
dx =
fa'
a VaJ~ - x'
./
59. / - z' dz - - - V(a' -T^ji + - (z Vo - x +
x> Va* a' sin"' 5 )
60.
7 Va
l' - i- dz - - - Vo - x + - rin-i 5
-' 2
61.
J/" x> va~
L -
dx = - V^
62. f^", dx =
Vo - X
sin-' ~
*
63.
y/"
V(o' - 1')" dz Va -
Forms Containing Va + 6x + ex1:
A" = a -f- 6x 4- ex* 4oc - 6J
/ VX Vc \ 2vV/
2" +
fiS.
/_L_dx--L.inh-(/ - ^
if c > 0
V V.Y Vc \V4oc 6>/
I ax = -=L sin ! I
/ Va V^c VvV - 4ac/1 if c < 0
2(2cx + 6)
f ! dx
J
VA
/ VXdx
(2rx + 6) 1
2kl y/x
dx
VX
.
y/_^_rfx
-x/a7
=
^-A/-
e 2c y
dx
-
/
2(fcx + 2a)
. dx
a* Va- (, Vx
Va a
2. /xVvdx=^Y_^/'V*dx
7 3c 2c J
if a > 0
73
' x v/a Va" V * 2 Va/
^J_ . _ ' * + 2 \
JJ zy/X
-,
74. dx
V-o ( - if < 0
\x V6* 4ac/
75 If
1 .
dx =
2 Va if a = 0
/ xV.Y **
76
/ * 2J VX J xV.Y
, ex T 6
- ax = 1 . _,
sin
7 Va 2t
25x ex* Vr \Zbs + ac
Trigonometric Forms:
78. / sin x dx = cos x
70. / cos x rfx = sin x
80. / tan xdx = In cob x = In sec x
81.
/ cot x dx In sin x = In cbc x
82.
J sec x dx In (sec x + tan x) = In tan
^-
+
^
S3.
J cbc x dx = In (esc x + cot x) = In tan
^
2
84. sec5 x dx = tan x

^
So. f esc1 x dx = cot i
86. / sec x tan z dj = sec x
87. esc x cot x dx esc x

y
88. y aina x dx = Mix ~ sin x cos x) = >gx
>i sin 2x
89.
J cos1 x dx H(* 4" sin * cos x) \x 4- ^ ain 2x
90.
, .
Jf tan5
.
rdi
. ,
tan x x
sin (m )x sin (m 4- n)x

mf*n
91-
J/ sin mx sin nz ax =
2(m ~ n) 2(m 4- n)
f cos fm n)x cos (m 4- n)x
-
,
I am mx cos nx ax
2(m n) 2(m + )
/f
. (m n)x
sin fm . sin (m 4-
-
+
93. cos mx cos nx ox = 4~ ; mwn
2(m n) 2(m + n)
Xrer*e Trigonometric Forms :

94. arcsin x dx x arcsin x 4- a/ 1 xs
j
y
95. arccos x dx = x arccos x x1
96. f arctan x dx x arctan x >2 In (1 4- x5)
Hyperbolic Forms:
97.
y ainh x dx = cosh x
98. y cosh x dx sinh x
99.
y tanh x dx = In cosh x
100. y coth x dx = In Binh z
101. y sech x dx = arctan (ainh x)
102- y each x du In tanh >x
103. y sech1 x dx tanh x
each* x dx = coth x
104. y
sech x tank x dx = sech x
105. y
csch x coth x dx = each x
106- y
Exponential and Logarithmic. Forms:
107. y e* dx = e'
-
JI a'
IOS. dx -^1-
In a
109. y x-e* dz - xv* n

y x*_ie* dz

110.
J In x dz - x In x - z
-
/[
111. x" In zdz i"*' T-l"^ ! ]
Ln + 1 (n + 1)J
dz -
//
112. ln (ln x)
x ln x
,,,
113. /[ e"
sin . *( sin nx n cos nx)-
J nx dx =
,,,[..r .
a' +

e"(a cos nx + n sin fix)
114.
JI cos nx ax
a' + n
Definite Integral*:
-
115.
^0
*- - dx =
f\ (lni)' 'dx r()
...
116. f' x
J/ ,
1
dx

m
1
- 1
. ,
m > 1
117.
/fn0 -. if a > 0; 0, if a = 0; - -. if a < 0
a' + z' 2 2
.. l * sin mx dx = it ., ..
118.
J
/ 0n x
if m > 0; 0, if m = 0;
2 2
. if m < 0
1.9.
120.
/o-tan^d_x
12L
/-=L^.:
122. /" dx - -2a Vr - I' a > 0
123. Jq z'e ''dx

4
1.4 Numerical Differentiation and Integration
Given a set of numerical values of a function, the processes of numerical differenti

ation and integration consist, respectively, of calculating the derivative (or deriva
tives) by means of these values and of computing the values of a definite integral from
the set of values of the integrand. In both numerical differentiation and integration
the problem is solved by representing the function by an interpolation formula and
then differentiating or integrating as desired. Interpolation formulas are discussed

in Art. 3.5 of Sec. 3-1.
It was noted in Art. 3.5 of Sec. 3-1 that a polynomial which agrees with f(x) at
Xo, X\, x_i, Xj, x_j, ...
is the central-difference formula
= /(xo) + m /(*.) tt(u' ~ P)

P(x) + iV(x) + n a>/(*.)
^
jjHj^ u.(M. - - 3) . . .
4!
iyM.
5!
+
- /(x.) + A"' + P) AV* + A'y-

+ u
I*
A V. + M(W,37
+
where x xo + uA. Since u => 0 at x0, the derivative at x0 is given by
_ A'-.+A'y-,
/'(xo) PW = 1
(*lzL^
*
+ . .
.)
Higher derivatives can be obtained in like fashion by further differentiating P(x).
Near the beginning of a set of tabular values Newton's forward-difference formula
is more convenient and near the end of the set Newton's backward-difference formula
is more convenient than the central-difference formula.
There are a large number of quadrature formulas for the approximate integration
of a function specified by a set of numerical values. As previously noted, any of the
interpolation formulas can lead to quadrature formulas. The trapezoidal rule and
Simpson's rule are the most commonly used. If h is the length of each subinterval,
the trapezoidal rule is
ydx = - + 2y, + + + 2i/_, + y)

/. (i/o 2i/2
and Simpson's rule is
z+nh

V dx --
n
o
(tfo + 4y, + 2y2 + 4y, + 2yt + + 2y., + 4y_i + V.)
where n in this last ease must be an even number; i.e., the number of subintervals is
even.
Gauss's formula (see references) is the most accurate of the formulas ordinarily
used and can be used advantageously with high-speed machines.
2 FUNCTION THEORY
2.1 Real Variables
The subject matter of real variables may include the following topics: the system
of real numbers, sequences, infinite series, ordinal and cardinal numbers, set theory,
functions/ and limits, continuity and discontinuity, differentiation and integration, and
measure* theory. Infinite series and differentiation and integration are of such scope
that tliey arc discussed in other articles. Ordinal and cardinal numbers and measure
theopy are not felt to be essential here.
The System of Real Numbers and Sequences. The foundation of the
,nepry of functions of a real variable depends upon the real-number system. Although
!n!f refined concept of the real number is the starting point for any discussion of the
ftyhdamental parts of higher analysis, only the more important concepts and results
^*ill beindicated.
The concept of the natural numbers or positive integers 1,2,3, . . . may be taken
as a starting point. The class of rational numbers is obtained from the positive integers
by allowing the inverse operations of addition and multiplication, namely, subtraction

and division. The totality of positive integers, negative integers, zero, and fractions
constitute the class of rational numbers.
It is generally appreciated that certain numbers such as \/2 and r are not rational
numbers and cannot therefore be represented by the ratio of two integers. Irrational
numbers arc generally derived from the rational numbers by either Cantor's theory or
Dedekind's theory.
Cantor's theory of irrational numbers depends upon the concept of a sequence of
rational numbers. If by some suitable process a first, a second, a third, . . . rational
number can be formed successively, and if to every positive integer n one and only one
rational number a* corresponds, then the numbers
Hi, at, . . . , On, . . .
in this order, corresponding to the natural order of the positive integer, are said to form
a sequence of rational numbers. The individual numbers that form the sequence are
called the elements of the sequence. The sequence
Hi, os , a, . . .
will be denoted symbolically by |o).

A sequence of rational numbers |a) is called convergent or regular if for an arbi

trary > 0 there exists a number N such that for every n > N
|a

an+m\ < where m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
The essential feature of Cantor's theory of irrational numbers is the assumption that
corresponding to every convergent sequence of rational numbers there exists a uniquely
determined object called a real number. Any real number can, therefore, be regarded
as being represented by a convergent sequence of rational numbers. Two real num
bers A and B defined by the convergent sequences of rational numbers \a \ and |6]
are said to be the same number or are equal if there exists an integer N such that for
all values of n > N
m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
\a+ b+\ <
where < is an arbitrarily small positive number.

The real-number system consists of rational numbers, since any rational number a
can be represented by a convergent sequence \cu\, where o = a for all n, and the real
numbers that are not rational, i.e., the irrational numbers.
In the Dedekind theory of the real-number system the real numbers correspond to
partitions of the rational numbers. A partition is formulated in the following manner.
Divide all the rational numbers into two classes R and S. In class R every number
is less than any number in S, and in class S every number is greater than any number
in R. For an irrational number there is no largest number in R and no smallest
number in S. For a rational number there is either a largest number in B or a smallest
number in S. It is possible to show that Cantor's method of convergent sequences and
Dedekind's method of partitions are equivalent in that starting with the rational
numbers the same system of real numbers can be developed.
If there exist a sequence \a | and a real number A such that the sequence {a A |
\
forms a null sequence, then the sequence \an\ is said to converge to the limit A and is
denoted by
lim a A \
n to \
This definition says that for every t > 0 there exists an N such that for all n > (f,

\an A\ < t. Every sequence that does not converge in the above sense is calli^
divergent. The Cauchy or general principle of convergence states that the necessary an }
sufficient condition for the convergence of the sequence |a| is that for every < > 0,
there exists an N such that for n > N, \an+m o,| < t, where m = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
The system of real numbers can be considered sufficient for the needs of the theory \
of functions of real variables, since the real numbers form a closed system with respect
to arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
extraction of roots of positive numbers, and powers, and the limiting process. A
number system is called closed with respect to an operation or process if this process
results in a number contained in the system.
It is possible to set up a one-to-one correspondence between the points of a straight
line and the real-number system. Because of this possibility, the properties and
definitions of the real-number system have a geometrical interpretation.
2.12 Set Theory. The starting point for most mathematical developments is
certain objects such as numbers or letters. A set (or class or aggregate or collection)
is defined by any property that any particular one of these objects does or does not
have. The objects that have the property are called elements of the set. This is
symbolized by
s*S
where s is an element and S is the set. An empty set does not contain any elements;
i.e., there are no objects having the property of the set.
Two sets Si and S2 are called equal, and in symbols Si = Si if every element of S,
is an element of St and conversely if every element of Sj is an clement of Si. If all
the elements of a set Si are simultaneously elements of a set Si, then Si is called a
subset of Sj, and this relationship is denoted by Si C Si. The notation S2 3 Si
indicates the same relationship, and Si is said to include Si. If Si C S2 and Si C Si,
then S, = St. If S, C S, and S, C S,, then S, C S,. If S, C S, but S, is not
equal to St, symbolized Si ^ St, then Si is called a proper subset of Si.
The intersection (or logical product or meet) of two sets Si and Sj is denoted by
Si C\ St and is the set consisting of all elements common to the sets Si and S2. The
union (or logical sum) of two sets Si and Ss is denoted by Si W Si and is the set con
sisting of all elements that belong to at least one of the sets Si and St. The definitions
ofintersection and union hold for an arbitrary number of sets. If the intersection of
two sets Si and Si is the empty set, then the two sets are called disjoint or mutually
exclusive. If Si is a subset of a set S, then the complementary set of Si with respect to
S is the set of elements of S obtained by omitting the elements of S that are elements of
Si. Generally the term complement of a set is used with respect to a fundamental,
and therefore understood, set, such as the set of real numbers.
Sets may first of all be classified into finite and infinite according to whether they
contain a finite or infinite number of elements. An infinite set is called enumerable
if,
if,
(or denumerable or countable) and only a one-to-one correspondence can be set
up between the elements of the set and the positive integers. Here the term countable
will be used to indicate either finite or an enumerable set. noncountable or
A
a
nonenumerable set a set that neither finite nor enumerable. The following results
is
is
dealing with countable and nonenumerable sets are well known:

Any subset of a countable set also countable.
5. 4. 3. 2. 1.
is
The sum of a countable set of countable sets also countable.

is
enumerable.
The set of rational numbers

is
The set of irrational numbers and the set of real numbers are nonenumerable.
The set of all algebraic numbers enumerable. An algebraic number the root
is
is
the polynomial equation
of
tux* =
0
i-0
where a, ^ and all the en's are integers.
0
The set of transcendental numbers nonenumerable. The real numbers that

6.
is
are not algebraic are called transcendental.

In the discussion of the real-number system the set of points on a line was noted to
correspond to the set of real numbers. This set of points called a linear point set or,
is
briefly, a linear set. linear set all its points lie in a finite interval.
bounded
A
if
is
tAn open interval, symbolized by (a,6), consists of all points x such that a < x <
A
b.
.
closed interval, symbolized by [a,b], consists of all points x such that a < <
b.
x
point a called limit point (or limiting point or accumulation point) of a set
A
is
S
a
[
S,
. there exists point of the set different from a, in every neighborhood of the point
a
f
For a linear set a neighborhood of a point a means the open interval

+ ),
(o
t,
a
i
there > 0. It can be shown from the definition that every neighborhood of a limit
<
Kjint contains infinitely many elements of the set. If every point of an interval a
is
imit point of a set

S,
then the set said to be everywhere dense. The set of all limit
S
is
>oints of a set called the derived set (or derivative) of the set and denoted by
S
is
is
S
The closure of
S,
and the limit points

S,
denoted by consists of all the points of

V.
that is, = W S'. Any point of a set which not a limit point
S,
called an
S
is

is
f
totaled point.
point a called an interior point (or inner point) of set there exists a neigh
is
if
S
A
a
I
borhood of a containing only points of S. point called an exterior point of a set

A
is
a
there exists a neighborhood of a containing no points of S. If a point neither

is
if
jS
S,
n interior nor an exterior point of a set then called a boundary point of the set.
is
it
set contains all its boundary points and therefore its limit points,
|lf ilf
called closed.
it
is
a
every point of a set an interior point, the set called an open set. perfect set
A
is
is
closed set where every point of the set a limit point of the set. Finally,
is
a
is
a
continuum is a set that is perfect and everywhere dense. It may be noted that the
complement of an open set is a closed set and conversely.
For a linear set S a point a is called an upper bound if s < a for every point s of the
set S. The point a is a lower bound if > o for every point s of the set. The point a
is called the least upper bound for the set S if it is an upper bound and if for any > 0
there exists a point of 8 greater than a . The greatest lower bound a for a set is
similarly a lower bound such that there is a point of the set less than a + t, where
* > 0.
Two of the important theorems of set theory follow.
Heine-Borel Theorem. Let the closed set of points S be covered by a set of intervals ;
then there exists a finite number of intervals that likewise cover S. A set S is said to
be covered by a set of intervals / if every point of the set S is interior to at least one
of the intervals of the set /.
Weierstrass-Bolzano Theorem. If S is an infinite bounded set there exists at least
one limit point.
2.13 Functions and Their Limits. If in the course of a discussion a symbol may
be assigned various numerical values, the symbol is called a variable. A constant
assumes but one numerical value during a discussion. A real variable has values in the
set of real numbers. Given two variables x and y, y is called a function of x if to
every value of x in the domain of x there is determined a definite value or values of y.
This functional relationship is denoted symbolically by y = f(x). x is called the
independent variable and y is called the dependent variable. The vital aspect of the
definition of a function is that for every value the independent variable takes on, the
corresponding value or values of the dependent variable are uniquely determined.
The set of values that the independent variable assumes is prescribed and is called
the domain. The set of values taken on by the dependent variable is called the range.
A function is called single-valued if the dependent variable takes on but one value for
each value of the independent variable. If for any value of the independent variable
the dependent variable takes on more than one value, the function is called multivalued
(or multiple-valued).
A polynomial function has the form
n
Oox" + OiX"-1 + + a,-ix + o s Y ail"-'
where the a,- are constants and n is a positive integer. A rational function is theratio
of two polynomial functions. An algebraic function is defined by means of the
equation
7 /.(i)a._, = 0
where the/;(x) are rational funct ions of x. Transcendental functions are functions that
are not algebraic.
The theory of functions of a real variable deals with correspondences between two
sets of real numbers, designated the independent and dependent variables. The
terminology of set theory therefore applies to the set y. The function /(x) is said to be
bounded, have a least upper bound, etc., if the set y does. If the least upper bound
of a function is a point taken on by the function, then it is called the maximum (or
maximum value) of the function. The minimum is associated similarly with the
greatest lower bound.
The quantity f(x) is said to have a limit b as x tends to x<>if for any c > 0 there
exists a i > 0 such that |/(x) 6| < c for all x for which 0 < |x Xo| < *. Sym
bolically this relation is written
lim /(x) = b
From the definition of the limit of a function, it follows that if the limit exists, the
value approached by fix) as x approaches xo does not depend upon the value of f(x)
at io and also is independent of the particular set of values that x takes on in approach
ing xo. If the independent variable x is allowed to take on only values larger than
io or less than xo, then the respective limits are called right-hand and left-hand limits.
These are symbolized, respectively, by
lim f(x) = f(x<>+) or lim f(x)

x>x*
and lim f(x) = f(xt>~) or lim fix)
i<Xo
The Cauchy or general principle of convergence states that a necessary and suffi
cient condition for the existence of a limit to fix) as x tends to Xo is that for > 0
0 < |x" a\ < \x' a\ < 4.

-
there exists a 8 > 0 such that \f(x") f(x')\ < t for all values of x', x" for which
-
A function may depend upon the values taken on by two or more independent
variables. Again the vital aspect of the functional relationship is that whenever each
of the independent variables assumes a value, a corresponding value or set of values
of the dependent variable is uniquely determined. Given a function of two or more
variables, there exist two types of limits: iterated limits and simultaneous limits.
Let fix,y) be the function of two independent variables x and y, and let (xo,yo) be the
limit point; then
lim I" lim fix,y)~\ and lim [" lim f(x,y)~l
xfXt |_V*I/o J
V'W Vx >lo J
are called iterated (or repeated) limits. An iterated limit indicates that first an
ordinary limit is taken for one variable holding the other variable (or variables) fixed
and then a limit is taken for the other variable (or other variable with the remaining
fixed). The simultaneous limit
lim f(x,y)
x*xt
has the value A if for c > 0 there exists a positive number 4 such that \f(x,y) A\ < t
for all x and y such that 0 < \x io| < 4 and 0 < \y yo\ < 4. If the simultaneous
limit exists, then the two iterated limits exist and are equal. The converse does not
hold, since the simultaneous limit can be nonexistent and yet the two iterated limits
may exist and even be equal.
2.14 Continuous and Discontinuous Functions. A function fix) is said to be
continuous at a point Xo if
lim f(x) = /(xo)
xXo
such that |/(x) f(x0)\ <

is,
that for there exists a

> > for all x such that
0,
0
4
t

Xt\ < In words this definition states that the limit shall exist at xo, that the
S.
|x
function defined at xo, and that these two values are equal. f(x) continuous in the
is
is
interval [a,b] continuous at every point x, where < x and at the end
is
it
if
<
if
b,
a
points
lim /(x) /(a) and - lim f(x) = f(b)
x*a* x*b~
The quantity f(x) said to have an ordinary discontinuity (or jump discontinuity
is
or simple discontinuity or discontinuity of the first kind) at the point x0 the right-
if
hand and left-hand limits at point exist but are not equal; i.e.,
a
lim f(x) * lim fix)

%*Xt* X~*Xa~
the right-hand and left-hand limits exist and are equal but the function has
If
different value, i.e.,

lim fix) = lim fix) fix0) *
then the function has a removable discontinuity at the point Xi>. When the right-hand
limit or the left-hand limit or both these limits fail to exist at point i0, then the function
has a discontinuity of the second kind at the point x.
A function is continuous on the right at a point if the right-hand limit has the same
value as the function at the point. Continuity on the left at a point and continuity
on the right and left in an interval are denned in a corresponding fashion, /fx) is
called uniformly continuous in the interval [a,b] if for > 0 there exists a t > 0
-
independent of the xo in the interval [a,b] such that |/(x) /(io)| < e for all satis i
fying \x Zol < S.
Let f(x) be continuous in the interval [a,b], then the following results hold:
1. f(x) is uniformly continuous in the interval.
2. /(a) and/(6) have opposite signs; then there exists at least one value of x in the
interval for which f(x) vanishes.
3. /(a) & f(b); then as x takes on all values between a and 6, f(x) takes on at least
once all values between f(a) and fib).
4. If f(x) is single-valued in [a,b], then there exists at least one point of [a,6] at which
f{x) takes on a maximum value. Likewise there exists a value of x where the minimum
is attained.
5. The function is bounded in that interval.
6. The function is uniquely determined at every point of the interval by prescribing
the function at a set of points everywhere dense in the interval [a,b].
2.2 Complex Variables

2.21 Complex Plane and Sphere. Complex numbers have been discussed in
Art. 2 of Sec. 3-1. The set of complex numbers can be put into one-to-one corre
spondence with the points of a plane. This correspondence associates the complex
number z =x + iy with the point in the plane whose rectangular or Cartesian
coordinates are (x,y). Because of this association this plane is called the complex or
z plane. This geometric association for complex numbers not only gives a geometrical
interpretation for operations involving complex numbers but also allows the use of
geometric terminology such as points and distances when discussing complex numbers.
When the improper point z = o is added, the complex plane is closed.
The number or point z can also be thought of as a vector that originates at the origin
of the coordinate system and ends at the coordinates (x,y).
The points of the closed complex plane can be mapped by stereograph ic projection
one-to-one onto the points of a sphere called the Riemann sphere (or sphere of com
plex numbers). In this mapping, the south pole is placed at the origin and correspond
ing points for the sphere and plane lie on a ray that originates at the north pole.
The following relations involve the absolute value = y/x* and the con
y*
+
|z|
jugate = iy: i
z
+ Z2 = Zl
1.
Zi z2.

zTT2 = ziZj; (zi/z2) = 2,/22.

-
2.
3. zl =
|zi |i|
|z|. |z|.

the distance between the points Zi and z2.
z2|
is
4.
|z2| > |zi| says that the point z2 farther from the origin than zi.
6. 5.
is
< |zi| + |z2| corresponds to the geometric statement that no side of a

z2|
+
|zi
triangle greater than the sum of the other two sides.

is
> ||zi| |z2|| states that no side of triangle less than the difference
z2|
is
|zi
7.
of the other two sides.

2.22 Functions of Complex Variable. The concepts and definitions for real
a
variables generally have significance for complex variables, called a complex

is
z
variable in the course of discussion assumes various complex values. Given two
if
it
a
complex variables and w, w called a complex function the complex variable to if

of
is
z
every value of in the domain of there determined a value or values of w. Again

is
z
w called single-mlued takes on only one value for each value of and w multiple-
is
it
if
is
z
valued takes on two or more values for any value of z. Polynomial, rational,
it
if
algebraic, and transcendental functions are defined for complex variables in the same
fashion as for real variables. The distinguishing feature is the use of complex con
stants and the complex variable z in place of the real variable x.
A neighborhood of a point zi is the circular region
- <
Zi|

|z
where > 0. The definitions of limit point, interior point, open set, and closed set
<
as given in the article on set theory are applicable to a set of complex numbers. An
open region, or just region, denotes an open set that
is,
connected; that any two points
is
the set may be joined by continuous curve all of whose points belong to the set.
of
a
closed region a region plus all its limit points. region called simply connected
is
is
A
every closed curve within the region encloses only points of the region. region
A
if
not simply connected called multiply connected.

is
that
is
an integral taken along closed curve that the boundary of a region, the
is
is
If
a
commonly called a contour integral. closed curve called positively
A
if is
is
integral
the interior of the curve lies to the left of the curve as the curve traversed,
is
oriented
i.e., the direction counterclockwise. If only the initial and terminal points of a
is
curve coincide, then the closed curve called simple.

is
The quantity /(z) said to have the limit u>o as approaches zo for any >
if
is
<
*. 0
z
such that |/(z) w<>\ < for all for which <
zo|
there exists a > <
0
0
5
|z
z
t
iy
= u(x,y) -f- iv(x,y), where = x
iy
Let h /(z) = u + and u and are real
+
z
v
functions of x and y; then the limit can be expressed by
lim /(z) = lim u(x,y) + lim v(x,y) = Uo + ivt = u>o

i
* x*xt xaro
f
Ifyi yyo
The results for limits with complex variable follow almost directly, therefore, from
a
corresponding results for real functions of two real variables.

single-valued function /(z) of complex variable called continuous at a point
is
A
a
tt
if
lim /(z) =/(z0)

C*0
The three requirements of the definition are, again, that first the function be defined
at zs, second the limit must exist as z0 approached, and finally the limit value must
is
equal the value of the function at zo. The results of real variables concerned with
continuity lead to analogous results for complex variables. For example, a function
if
continuous in bounded closed region, then uniformly continuous in that

it
is
is
.Hz)
a
bounded in that region, that is, |/(z)| < M where M a finite positive
is
is
it
region;
number; |/(z)| has a finite upper limit in the region; and an inner point of the
if
is
z0
region such that /(z0) ^ then there exists neighborhood of z0 for which /(z) 76 0.
0,
The derivative of /(z) at the point zo defined by

is
z*o Zo t Az
z
where /'(zo) denotes the complex number that the limit, exists, assumes. The
it
if
differentiation rules for real variables can be extended essentially without change to
variables. function that has derivative at every point of region
A
is
complex
a
a
called differentiable in the region.

It,
Let to = /(z) be a continuous single-valued function of in region let a and be

f}
a
z
two points of R, and let be a curve of finite length connecting the two points and
C
Furthermore, let zo = a, zi z = be a sequence of points on

C C,
lying in R.
p
wd let in be any point on the curve between z<_i and Zj. The integral /(z) along
of
the limits a and which symbolized by dz, defined by

0,
is
is
between
jcf(z)
n
=
jcf(z)dz
= lirn /(*)(*. - *_,)
lJ(z)dz

where the limit indicates that n tends to infinity and that the absolute value of every

subdivision 2<_i| tends to zero.
\zi
Since /(z) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y) and dz = dx + dy, the complex integral can formally
i
be written as follows in terms of real integrals:
/() dz = \u(x,y) dx - v(x,y) dy] + [v(x,y) dx u(x,y) dy]
+
i
/
/
J
The curve may be represented by the real parametric equations
C
x = g(t) and = h(t)
y
where < < a s(0) + iVi(O), and- = j(l) + tVi(l). Let the functions p(0
1,
0
0
t
and h(t) be single- valued and have continuous first-order derivatives; then
ff(z) - -
fl
dz [ug'(t) vh'(t)] dt + Wit) + uh'(t)] dt
f^
i
The following elementary properties for complex integrals may be noted:
f(z) dz f(z) dz m f(z) dz; that is, the sum of two integrals
1.
I
I
/
taken along two successive curves equal to the integral taken over the entire curve.
is
dz reversed,
is,
/(z) /(z) dz; that the direction of integration
is
2.
if
/
the value of the integral remains the same except for sign.
-
[ft(z)
fc,
h*
+
3. [fci/ito ktft(t)] dz dz + dz.

fc
fcMz)
4. /(z) dz < ML, where |/(z)| < M for any on and the length of the
L
C
is
z
/ /
c
I
curve C.
2.23 Analytic Functions. single-valued function f(z) which differentiable,
A
is
has a first derivative at every point, in region called analytic (or regular or
is,
that
is
a
holomorphic) in the region. function /(z) called analytic at a point z<> its
A
is
if
derivative exists at every point of some neighborhood of zo.
The concept of analytic functions, or analyticity, particularly unifying and
is
important for mathematical physics. Two necessary and sufficient conditions for the
function /(z) u(x,y) iv(x,y) to be analytic in the region D follow:
+
Cauchy-Riemann Equations. The four first-order partial derivatives of u and

1.
v
with respect to x and exist and are continuous in the region D, and they satisfy the
;/
Cauchy-Riemann differential equations
du _ dv du _ dv
dx dy 9y dx
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem and Morera's The integral dz of the

2.
Theorem. /(z)
/
continuous function /(z), when taken along the entire boundary curve of any sub-
C
region of the region D, zero.

is
a. Cauchy-Goursat Theorem (Necessity). Let /(z) be single-valued and ana

lytic within and on a closed curve C; then
/(z) dz -
0
c/,
Morera's Theorem (Sufficiency). Let /(z) be continuous in simply con

b.
nected region; then

if
/CO dz =0
/.
c
for every closed curve lying within the region, /(z) analytic in that region.
is
Although it is possible to formulate other necessary and sufficient conditions for
analyticity, it is customary to consider the consequences of analyticity whether they,
in turn, imply analyticity or not. Some important consequences of analyticity
follow.
1. Canchy's Integral Formula. If f(z) is analytic in a region D, then Cauchy's
integral formula
2m JC z
z0
is valid for every simple, closed, positively oriented curve C and for every point z0
interior to the curve C.
2. Higher Derivatives. If a single-valued function f(z) is analytic in a region, then
not only does the function by definition have a first derivative in the region but it also
has all higher derivatives. The formulas
/(*)
1 V
- l (
2rt JC
IC _-/(*\
(z
+1
, dz n - 1, 2,
(z zo
zo)
are valid with the same conditions used for Cauchy's integral formula.
3. Laplace's Equation. If /(z) = u + iv is analytic in a region, then the functions
u(x,y) and v (x,y) satisfy in that region the partial differential equation
dx1 dy*
This equation is called Laplace's differential equation and is of great importance in

mathematical physics. A function that has continuous second partial derivatives
and satisfies Laplace's equation is called a harmonic function. If f(z) = u + iv is
analytic, then u and v are called conjugate harmonic functions.
i. Taylor's Series. If /(z) is analytic in a region D with a boundary C, then at each
interior point zo, /(z) can be represented uniquely by a power series of the form
y a(z
- z0)n
i-O
where o =
,fM(zo)
nl
This series, called a Taylor's series, converges and represents /(z) in the largest circle
with center z0 that encloses only points of D. If z0 = 0, a Taylor's series is called a
Maclaurin's series.
5. Laurent's Series. Let/(z) be analytic in the annular region D bounded by two
concentric circles with center z0; then /(z) can be represented by the Laurent's series
V a(z

zo)"
a = - zo)-""1^)
where
^ jc (f <2f
and C is a simple closed curve lying in D and enclosing the inner circle.
6. Identity Theorem. If two functions are analytic in a region, and if they coincide,
in any neighborhood of any point Zo of the region or any curve terminating at z0 or
even for an infinite number of distinct points with the limit point Zo, then the two
functions are equal throughout the region.
7. Principle of the Maximum Modulus. The maximum modulus of a function
analytic in a closed region always lies on the boundary of the region.
8. Liouville's Theorem. If a function /(z) is analytic and its modulus |/(z)| is
bounded for all values of z in the complex plane, then /(z) is a constant.
2.24 Singularities and the Classification of Functions. If a function can be
made analytic at a point z0 by merely assigning the function a new value at the point
Zo, then the function is said to have a removable singularity at z0. An isolated singular
point of a function is a singular point that can be enclosed by a circle containing no
other singular point of the function. An isolated singular point Zo of a function f(z)
is called a pole of order n if a positive integer n exists such that
(z
- *,)V()
is analytic at z = z0 and is different from zero when z = z0. In case n = 1, the pole is
called a simple pole. An isolated singular point Zo of a function /(z) is called an
essential singularity of f(z) if
lim (z r0)"/(z) -
t*Zti
tends to infinity for all finite values of n. z = z0 is called a branch point of the function
/(z) if /(zo + pe^) is not periodic in tp with period 2ir, where p is chosen so that Zo + p***
is in the region of analyticity of for all <p./
The nature and location of the singularities of a function /(z) lead to the following
classification:
1. By Liouville's theorem if /(z) has no singularities, it is a constant.
2. If /(z) has only an isolated singularity at infinity, it is called an entire (or integral)
function. If the singularity is a pole of order n, then the entire function becomes a
polynomial of order n.
3. If /(z) has only poles in a finite region, then it is called a mcromorphic function
of z in that region. If /(z) has only poles in the finite z plane and either is analytic or
has an isolated singularity at infinity, then it is called mcromorphic.
4. If f(z) has a branch point it is a multivalued function.
2.26 Residues. At an isolated singular point a function f(z) may be represented
by the Laurent's series
/(*) =
) a,(z
zo)" + y b,(z
z0)~
The expression > bn(z

z0)~" is called the principal part of f(z). The coefficient b\
n = l
is defined as the residue of the function f(z) at the point Zo. The formula for b, is given
from the Laurent's expansion by
where C is a simple closed curve enclosing zo.

The fundamental theorem of the calculus of residues follows:
Residue Theorem. Let f(z) be analytic except for a finite number n of isolated
singular points within and on the closed curve C; then
=2W Rt
fcf(z)dz
where R,, . . . , Rn are the residues at the n singular points.
When f(z) has a simple pole at z0 and has the form
where g(zo) 0, h(z0) = 0, and ft'(zo) ^ 0, the residue of /(z) at So is
gfo)
h'(z)
2.26 Conformal Mapping. Let w = f(z) denote a mapping or transformation

from the z plane to the to plane. If the transformation preserves the magnitude of
angles but not necessarily the sense, it is called isogonal. If in a mapping both the
magnitude and sense are preserved between every pair of curves through a point zo,
then the mapping is called conformal.
If a function is analytic at a point z0, then either f'(z) = 0 or the mapping w = /(z)
is conformed at z0. A critical point z0 of a mapping is a point at which /'(zo) = 0.
One of the most important results of a conformal mapping is that a harmonic function,
that is, a function K(x,y) which satisfies Laplace's equation (d'K/dx1) + (d*K/dy*) = 0,
remains harmonic under the change of variables that arises from the conformal map
ping to = u + iv -
/(z); that (d*K/du*) + UVK/dv') = 0. Furthermore,
is,
a
boundary condition of the type K(x,y) = or of the type dK/dn = where dK/dn
0,
C
the normal derivative, transforms into a boundary condition of the same type.
is
Therefore by using analytic functions possible to find in many cases function

it
is
a
that harmonic in given region and satisfies boundary conditions of the above type.
is
The transformations w = (az + f))/(az + S), where aS 07 ^ called linear
0,
fractional transformations, are conformal. In particular they map circles, which
include straight lines, since the lines are circles with infinite radius, into circles.
Other important properties of linear fractional transformations may be found in the
references.
The transformation
W = Ci/(Z - X,)-*'(Z - 2,)"*' - Zn-O-'-'dz + ="/()

(Z
C2
where Ci and C2 are arbitrary constants and the integral an indefinite integral,
is
is
called a Schwarz-Christoffel transformation. This mapping takes the x or real axis
in the plane into a polygon of n sides in the w plane. The points Wi = /(x,), where
z
= n and x , are the vertices of the polygon. The exterior angles

1,
2,
. . .
i
at the vertices u>< n are given by fcix. The exterior angle at

2,
. .
1,
1)
(
tr is given by
fcT 2 (*i + kt
+
fc-i)ir
2.27 Analytic Continuation. Riemann Surfaces. The identity theorem listed

under analytic functions leads to the important concept of analytic continuation.
Let /i(z) be an analytic function in region Du and let fi(z) be an analytic function
a
in a region D2. Furthermore, let the regions Dt and D2 have subregion in common
a
in which the functions f\(z) and /2(z) coincide completely (or even on a curve in the
subregion). The functions /,(z) and /2(z) then define the same analytic function
F(z). f,(z) and ft(z) are called analytic continuations of each other. Furthermore,
fi<z) and /2(z) are called elements of (or partial representatives of) the function F(z),
which analytic over the composite region formed by Di and Z)2.
is
It is often possible to start with a given element, such as Taylor's series at a given
a
point and by using power (or Taylor's) series at other points extend the domain of
existence of the function by analytic continuation. the process of analytic con
If
tinuation carried out as far as possible, the resulting function called the complete
is
is
analytic function. complete analytic function called single-valued when its value
A
is
and behavior at every point za are always the same, independent of any path by which
it may be reached by analytic continuation. multiple-valued function function
A
is
a
that is not single-valued.

In considering multiple-value functions convenient to introduce the geometric
is
it
concept of a Ilicmann surface. Kiemann surface generalization of the plane

A
is
a
consisting of a surface of more than one sheet arranged vertically. On each point
of this surface the multiple-valued function has one and only one value, and the func
tion is therefore single-valued on the surface.
2.3 Special Functions
Since over a thousand special functions have been investigated, it is possible to

consider here only a few of the more important functions of mathematical and reactor
physics.
2.31 Gamma Functions. Factorial, Polygamma, Beta. Definitions. 1. The
gamma function r(z) is an analytic meromorphic function of z with simple poles at
z = n, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . and with corresponding residues ( l)n/n\. The
following conditions then determine T(z) uniquely:
a. T(z + 1) = zT(z).
b. If T(z) is real and positive, then (z) is real and positive.
r(i) l.
-
c. =
d. [(dt/dzt)r(z)]T(z) (dT/dz)1 > 0 when z is real and positive.
2. Weierstrass Definition:
n =1
where y, the Euler-Mascheroni constant, is defined by
J
y = - In = 0.577215665
Jim (^
3. Euler's Formula:
"-into
n-
+a'0 +r] 1
exists except for z = n, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
4. Euler's Integral:
T(z) = f" e-H'~l dt
holds for the real part of z greater than zero (Re z > 0).
F unctional Equations:
r(z + l) = zriz)
r(z)r(i - z) = -A
sin
jrZ
r(z)r (z + r + r + = C-ir)<"'1,/J"^"'r(')
^ (* 1) (z ~ir~0
For n - 2 this becomes F(z)r(z + Vi) = (2jr)^^2^-,T(2z).
Special Values:
r(n + 1) = n! =
n(n - - 2) 2 1
(n = 0, 1, 2, . . .)
r(i) = o! = l r(2) = i
r(Ji) =
T'(l) = 7, the Euler constant
Derivatives:
r(z) dz
** y- {fn-i(z)], n = 2, 3,
dz
... is called a poly gamma function,
*.(*) =
(-D"n! y i
l (j + *)"
+ 1) - - [(-l)*n!]z-
Sterling's Formula or Asymptotic Formula for Large \z\:
In r(z) - - (z In * - * + H In 2*- + ft(z)

JV-l
where ft(z) = V (-1)--' ~^r. + *()
Zrf 2n(2n 1)
n=1
where |arg z| <
and where \Rn(z)\ < !*!>L - re4*)

- l)|z|'v-' ' (z
2N(2N (cos|y'V
The numbers B2 are the Bernoulli numbers and are defined by Bo = 1, Bi = Hi

Bi+i = 0, and
B - 2(2n)!
In particular, n! = n"e~" Vîrn (1 + r(x)], where
0 < r(i) < H

12x 288z'
TAe Beta Function. This is defined by
B(m,n) = <"-Hl - 0""' 0 and Re n > 0.

Alternative definitions are
B(m,n) - J0f
B(m,n) =
/"ir/2
Jo
sin'-"-' *> cos2"'"
+[-)m+ndt
. r(m)r()
=
...

- = H(n,m),
B(m,n) -
T(m + n)
2.32 Hypergeometric Functions. Ordinary, General, Confluent. Ordinary Hyper-

geometric Function. The hypergeometric differential equation
z(l - ^ + - z(a +
) [c 6 + 1)]
~ - abw = 0
dz* dz
has at the origin the general solution
u>(z)
= AF{a,b;c;z) + Bzl~<F(a + 1 - c, b + 1 - c; - c; z)
2
The notation "Re" means "the reftl part of."

3-HS MATHEMATICS [Sec. 3
where A and B are arbitrary constants and a, b, and c are parameters. The
***** - f Mfi-r
Zrf (c). n!
where (a) - E^+A> (a + n _ 1;(a + _ 2)

-
(a + 1) (a), - 0
r(o)
in railed the hypergeometric function or series. The circle of convergence for this series
is the unit circle =
]z|
1.
The hypergeometric equation can also be written in the form
- - z(e + a)(0 + =
1)
[0(0 b))w
0
e
where the operator s z(d/dz). The singularities (regular) of the equation occur at
0
and o . Because of these singularities solutions of the hypergeometric equations
0,
1,
are also often written in terms of the arguments l/z,

1/(1 z), z/(\ z), and
z,
1
(1 z)/z. Rummer's 24 solutions and various relationships among them involve
these arguments and may be found in the references.
The six functions F(a 0; y; z), F(a, y; z), and F(a, 0; y are
1;
1;
z)
1,

0
called contiguous functions to the functions (a,$\y;z). Gauss's 15 recursion formulas
F
relate the contiguous functions by expressing one function in terms of two others.
These formulas may also be found in the references.
In the references are found various integral representations, both real and contour,
for the hypergeometric function. The best known integral representation follows:
- IM_
- - -
f'
F(a,b;c;z) < - - tz)~' dt tz)~' dt

T(6)r(c JO
'
b)
Re > He > \z\ <

0
0
b
1
c
When - and lie -

0,
+ <
(a
c)
1
b
z
r(c)r(e - -
- a)T(c -
6)
a
f(o,6;c;l)
T(c
6)
Generalized Hypergeometric Functions. The generalized hypergeometric differential

equation
p
- -

-
a,)]
+bj
+
l\
\\
to
(0
(0
I)
0
z
[0
y-i i-i
of tho order max (p, It has singularities at and # and at
+
+
0, is
if
1).
0
1
g
q
and 00 + The solution regular at =

1.
if
is
1,
0
z
q
TO
- '
~
'
A(a. =
Y
ap;6, ,F,(a;b;z)
64;z)
ffi=
(bi)n
(b,) n!
n^n
=0
v
and called the generalized hypergeometric series. It assumed that the 6s are not
is
is
negative integers. In general this series converges for all finite q, converges
<
if
p
1. z
for = + and diverges for all >

<
if
+
|z|
if
1,
5*
0
p
1
p
q
Contiguous relations, integral representations, and relations among various argu

ments for the generalized function may be found in the references.
Con fluent Hypergeometric Functions. The confluent hypergeometric function, or
Hummer fit net ion
,
satisfies the Rummer's differential equation
z
dho .
+
,,
(b
, dw
z) aw = n
0
dz1 dz
Hummer's first formula is
iFi(a;b;z) = e',F,(6 - a; 6; -z)
Kummer's second formula is
,f,(o;2a;2z) = eVi(a + H; l4z*)

The three independent recursion formulas or contiguous relations are
F(a;b;z) - F(a - 1; b; z) + Z-F(a;

o
b + 1; z)
(a + z)F(a;ft;z) = af> + 1 ; 6; z) + z
7? ^(: b + 1; *)
- -
o
(a b + l)F(a;b;z) - af'(a + 1; 6; z) + (1
- b)F(a; b 1; )
An integral representation when Re 6 > Re a > 0 is given by
Most of the functions of mathematical physics can be expressed in terms of general

ized hypergeometric series. Examples of functions that can be expressed as special

cases of a jFi or a if\ appear in some of the following articles.
2.33 The Cylindrical or Bessel Functions. The cylindrical, or Bessel, functions
are solutions of the Bessel differential equation
z
,dlw
+ z
dw
. ,
+ (' - *s)u>
= n
0
dz' dz
This equation has a regular singularity at z = 0 and an irregular singularity at z = oo.

The functions
t-0
- it - /_,(z)]
N,(z) = Y,(z) = (./(z) cos

sin
-
vir
V(z) = y,(z) + ;r,(z) //,<() =
are all of the Bessel differential equation.

solutions J,(z) is called a Bessel function
of the first kind.The subscript v is the order of the function. V, (or Nr) is called a
Seumann function or a Bessel function of the second kind. HSl) and H (J) are called
Jirst and second Hankel functions or Bessel functions of the third kind. It may be noted
that J,(z) and F(z) are real if v is real and z is positive.
If v is not an integer, it is customary to choose J,(z) and J-,(z) as the two linearly
independent solutions of Bessel's equation. When v = n, where n is a positive integer,
it is necessary to use Jn(z) and J'(z) = lim V(z) for the two independent solutions,
once
J..(z) = (-l)"./(z)
that the Bessel function of the first kind of integer order,
is,
The Bessel coefficients,

occur in the following expansion:
exp [Hz(t - )] = J(z)<-

The Bessel differential equation has the form, when z is replaced by is,
z* - + z - (z1 + v*)w = 0
dz1 dz
The functions
to
IM = r*-J**) =
I
it 0

and K,(z) -2
which are solutions of this equation, are called, respectively, modified Bessel functions
of the first and second kind. Again if v is not an integer, l,(z) and /_,(z) arc taken as
the two independent solutions, and if v is an integer, I,(z) and K ,(z) are taken as the
two solutions. /(z) and ZC,(z) are real when v is real and z is positive.
Some of the more useful relations involving Bessel functions follow. Z, is used els
an abbreviation for CiJ,(z) + cjK,(z), where Ci and ct denote arbitrary constants.
Functional Equations:
+ Z,+\ = z,
z
J pj-p+l + J p-lJ -p
2 sin
2
2
rz
2 sin nr
1,1 ,~\
Derivatives:
'
\Zv-\
Zmi] + ^f-i = - Zv Z,+\
2 z z
[z',(az)]' = oz'Z,_i(az)
J?'o iTi i = Zq - Z\
z
J' J., - J'.,J, -

J pjfp JY y p
2
irz
i
.
pi p i
.
pi p _
2 sin mr
TZ
1' pKp K' pi p " 1
t
Integral Representations.
Jn(z) -1 /fr cos (z sin

n^>) dV
Representation as a Hypergeometric Function:

General Differential Equation:
zho" + azw' + (bzm + c)z = 0

if m ?* 0 and b ft 0,
w = z i-TLf z,
2
(i
\m
V6 *")/
where r =
m
\/(l
a)* 4c
Special Cases:
(K*)>*
2.34 Legendre Functions. The Legendre functions arc solutions of Legendre's
-*
differential equation
+
[* + -<r?y-
are arbitrary parameters. The functions
where and m
and
^W T2 '2
2,+1 r( + ^) 2,+(.+i \2 2M 2* 2*/
are linearly independent solutions of Legendre's equation. Ps(z) and Qs(z) are
known respectively as Legendre functions of the first and second kind. Since Legendre's
equation is not changed when z is replaced by z, n by p, and v by { + 1), it
follows that
P,**(z) P-,-^(z) Q,*(z) Q_,_,=^()
are also solutions of the equation.

The most common Legendre functions occur when u = 0. The superscript 0 is
dropped in this case, and the Legendre functions are written as P,(z) and Q,(z). In
case it ^ 0, the functions are often called associated Legendre functions. The following
simple relationships exist:
P,*(Z) = (*' - 1)" ^^ ft?*

dz"
and Q,*(z) = (*' - l)^^l fc = 1, 2, . . .
When v is a nonnegative integer n, the functions P(2) become polynomials called

the Legendre polynomials. In hypergeometric function notation
2(n!)
and
3~92 MATHEMATICS [Sec. 3
A convenient formula for the Legendre polynomial is
known as Rodrigues' formula. These polynomials form an orthogonal system on the

interval [ 1,1] and have all their roots real and simple and between 1 and I. The
Legendre polynomials occur in the following expansion:
- 2zi + =
(1

71= 0
P(z)<"
Some useful relations i fol

follow:
Functional Equation:
(n + 1)P+, = z(2n + 1)P -
Derivatives:
= P'.+ 1 - P'.-i
(2n + 1)P.
-
nP = z/J'
(n + 1)P = P'+. - zP'
Laplace's Integral:
P.(z) = - /
*
[(z8
- 1) cos . + z]
Special Cases and Values:

-
= x = cos *>
Po(x) = P(x) = H(3i* 1) = W(3 cos 29
1
-Px(x) - -
+ 1)
P|(x)
Pi(z) - ^(5x>
Hiî*
3x)
- >g(5 cos 3^ + 3 cos >)
30* + 3) -
^4(35 cos 4? + 20 cos 2V + 9)
P(l) = 1 P(-D = (-D" P+.(0) = 0 P,(0) = (-1)- JHgL

4 Sunt Formula:
1-0
Orthogonality Relations:
jl_x
P(z)P(z) <iz = n ^ to P(z)s dz =

J'
0
2.36 Orthogonal Polynomials. Tschebyscheff Polynomials:
Tn(z) = cos (n arc cos tr,,(z) = sin arc cos

(n
z)
z)
r. = -n; Lp)
(n,
i;
P
/l

r(z)7-(z)
vi -
az =
y-i m re
if
0
,
/
z1
- m = n
if
= ir m = n =
if
The Tschebyscheff polynomials of the first and second kind, Tn(z) and U(z)t
linearly independent solutions of
- - zw' +nht> -
(1
za)u>"
Hermite Polynomials:
Hn(z) - (-1)V'"^(-'V1)
dz"
H M _ (-D"(2n)! / l.z'\
_ (-l)"(2n + !)!_/ a.i'N
/:. e-''"Hn(z)H(z) dz = m ^ n
if
0
= (27r)^n! m -n
if
ff" - zff' nff =
0
Laguerre Polynomials:
L.""W ^"
^
= = (a+,1)' F.C-n; a +
1;
z)
(e-'*"+)
n az" n
!
!
e-'zaL('"Ln(a)(z) dz = m ^ n
if
0
/.
0
|AL-
(SL r(l + a) m =
if
n
n!
satisfies + + - z)w' + nw = 0.
(a
<o)(z) zm>"
1
Jacobi Polynomials:
P.*>W - (-l)'(l -)-"(! +^[(1.t)<^,(1 +f)M

2"n! dz"
P .* (z) satisfies
- t*)y" + - a - z(c + + 2)]i/' n(n + a + + 1) =

(1
0
[0
Gegenbauer Polynomials:
2.36 Dirac Delta Function. In many problems of physios and engineering

is
it
expedient to introduce a quantity S(x) called the Dirac delta function (or just func
J
not a proper function in the sense of having a definite value for each
is
tion). 6(x)
value of the independent variable. Formally a Dirac. delta function i(x) defined
is
to be icro except at =
is,
that
0,
x
i(x) = i#0
0
but such that

is
t(x) dx =
/:
This formal definition does not give a clear picture. It may, however, be inferred
that the function very large near x = but zero outside very small interval
is
is
0
S
about x = 0. It not important in applications to know the precise variation of

is
i(x) with x. For example, the function may be defined by

5
i(x) = lim *a(x)

A-.0
where
0
x<-\
-|<*
The following formal formulas may be used with caution:
" _
/_".
/_". dl = r(a)
/frw*) dx
a)
/(x)(x - = /(a)a(x -
a)
a)
xi(x) =0 (-x) = 8(x)
- x)(x - dx = 8(a -
J'
i(a
b)
b)
- a') = - + >
+
o)
8(x a)]
0
[8(x
a
8(x
2a
Laplace Transform:
*
S(x)e~" dx =
1
[
8(x) =
e" dx
A-<-
/
27ri
Fourier Transform:
S{x)eu'dx =
J'
(*>
/_".*"*"*
Derivative Step Function. Let
of
S(x) - - <e < x <

0
0
= x <
<
0
1
8(x) = S'(x)
2.37 Other Functions. Incomplete Gamma Functions:
7(a,x) = f'e-'t'-^dt = - ,F,(a; + a; -x)

1
T(o,x) = dt = r(a) - 7(a,x)

Error Functions:
Erf x =
fje-'dl = ^70$,**) = x*Fi(H;J*; -x)
"'' * = Hr(^,x) - Erf

j*
Erfc = = HM
x
x
Exponential and Logarithmic Integrals:
,(x) = e-T'(i< = r(0,x)

^"
<(-x)
Sine and Cosine Integrals:
si(x) =
J"
(Z*^dt
= llE,(ix)
2i
- ft(-w)]
t
Ci(x) - [Xc-^di=\ lEt(ix) + Eii-ix)]

Fresnel Integrals:
r
/"*
C(x) = (2)-M cos rff
f
S(i) = (2r)-M t-Haintdt
[X
Elliptic Integrals:
First kind: W) - __*_,,

Second kind: (\,fc) =
_ dx
1
f
/
Third kind: (X,K,fc) =

'* dx
__
- *')(! - fc*x')]H
f
+ **)[(!
(1
Complete Elliptic Integrals:

rf(H,;i^*)
F(l,*) = =
J?(l,*) - K(k)
(*) = \i*F{-HM ;l;fc)
SERIES AND EXPANSIONS OF FUNCTIONS

3
3.1 Infinite Series

Let o, *i, st, ... be an infinite sequence of numbers, where s0 =ao, i = ao + Oi,
and generally
an = o0

ai
+
a
+
then the sequence |sj has some convergence property, the infinite series
if
a.- ai +
+
ao
J
said to have that convergence property. The numbers arc called the partial
is
sn
If the infinite series convergent, the limit of the sequence ||

is
sums. a
is
>
n-0
called the sum or value of the series. If all the terms a are such that a, > then
0,
a, called series with positive terms. series whose terms are alternately posi-
is
A
>
n=
0
tivc and negative called an alternating series.

is
An infinite series a, called absolutely convergent the series of absolute values

is
>
if
n=
0
convergent. If an infinite series convergent but not absolutely con-

is
is
>
|o|
n-o
vergent, it is called conditionally convergent. The following results deal primarily with
DC
convergence properties. The summation symbol 2 by itself will imply V .
n =0
3.11 Fundamental Theorem. A necessary and sufficient condition that the series
2a is convergent is that for any c > 0 there exists a number N = N(t) such that for
every n > N and every integer m > 1,
|s+m
- s|
= |o+i + a+i + + an+Jt| < <
3.12 Comparison Test. Let 2c and 2d be two series with positive terms, and
furthermore, let Ze converge and 2ri diverge. If a < c for all n greater than some
N, then 2a converges. If a > dn for all n greater than some N, then 2a diverges.
Root Test. If the series with positive terms 2a is such that for all n > N,
y/a* < a < 1
then the series is convergent. However, if for all n > Ar,
> 1
then the series diverges.
3.13 Ratio Test. If for all n > N, n > 0, and
?S! <a < 1

the series 2an is convergent. However, if for all n > A^,
a*
the series 2a is divergent.
3.14 Alternating Series. An alternating series Sa is convergent if |a| < |o_i|
and if lim a = 0. The error made in taking the sum of the first n terms of the
n* oo
alternating series 2o as an approximation to the sum of the series is less than the
absolute value of the (n + l)st term.
3.15 Rearrangement Theorem. The sum of an absolutely convergent series
remains the same whatever change is made in the order of the terms of the series. In
a conditionally convergent series it is possible to rearrange the order of the terms so

that the new series converges to any desired value.
3.16 Cauchy's Products. If two series 2c, and 2r4 are absolutely convergent
i
with respective sums C and D, then the Cauchy's product V r*rf,_t = 2c,-2:dt is
^
also absolutely convergent and has the sum CD.
3.17 Geometric Series. The geometric series V r" is convergent if <

|r|
1,
n~0
with sum 1/(1 r), and divergent >
if
|r|
1.
is
DO
3.18 Harmonic Series. The harmonic series (1/n) divergent.

is
^
71
=
1
on
3.19 Hyperharmonic Series. The hyperharmonic series (l/l) convergent

is
^
n=l
when ivnd divergent when <
>
is
1.
k
k
3.2 Infinite Products and Continued Fractions
3.21 Infinite Products. An infinite product
W d,
= djj,
an
i-l
is a symbol representing the sequence of partial products
p = didtdt dn
An infinite product J| d, is said to have a convergence property if for every j greater

i-l
J
mm
than some ./ no factor d, vanishes and the sequence of partial products beginning at
has the convergence property. It follows that a convergent infinite product has the
value zero
if,
if,
and only one of its factors zero. Since the sequence of factors in
d,
is
a convergent infinite product tends to customary to write the product as
it
is
1, ae
(1 + <>i) instead of It common to write in place of

is
ir .
PJ
|^
rf/.
y-i i-i i-i
|
[
Theproduct (1 called absolutely convergent the product x(l + |a,|) con

+
if
is
O/)
It can be shown that the product ir(l
if,
verges. absolutely convergent and
+
is
ay)
only if, Say converges absolutely.
More generally also can be shown that 2a,-2 converges absolutely, then Za and
if
it
t(1 + a,) converge and diverge together.

The value of an infinite product t(1 4- a) unaltered by any rearrangement of its
is
factors
if,
and only
if,
the product converges absolutely.

It may be observed that formally
t(1 a,) = elD l(>+"/)l = e2'<1+/'
+
3.22 Continued Fractions

:
F = />,. = oo b.//),
+
Dm = a, + />,/>,
D.-i. = a_i + 6/a

where a0, Oi, . . a, bi, . b are given. The evaluation can be made by
.
.
.
,
beginning with D,_i, and working back. The result F called a continued fraction.
is
there are infinitely many a> and bi, and every an infinite sequence F0, Fi,
...
If
^
if
bi
0,
Ft, defined that may or may not have limit F. In case limit, this
is
has
it
a
limit will be called the value of the infinite continued fraction, which then said to
is
converge and which can be represented
= a0 + bi/oi o/oi +
F
The slant line and bar may be understood here as a special sign of aggregation signify
ing division by everything that follows.
finite continued fraction Fn function of 2n variables a0, . . .
...
a,
A
+
is
a
ft* bn. By the ordinary rules of algebra one can express

,
Fn = A/B
where A* and /? are polynomials in these 2n + variables. It easily verified that

is
\
and in general, it can be shown inductively that
At =
Bt - diAi-i + biAi-z
aA., + b,B._2
As functions of the variables a and b, the Ai and Bi are called continuants. If one
represents
Ai = K ( b" 'b' )
\o0|a,, . . . ,<tij
thus exhibiting the variables, then
K
K(\aha2, ,b<
,o,/)
Bi =
. . .
Two important properties of continuants are expressed by the identities
K / bh . . . ,b( \ _ R / bit ... ,6: \

Va0,ai, . . . ,a</ \ai,<ii_i, . . . ,a0/
and K (c^c* ,e-icb\ _ . . . cJf /\ao,ai,

b . . . ,6. \
\ a0,f iai,C2ai, . . . ,ca / . . . ,aJ
for any ci, . . . , c. In particular it is always possible to choose the rs so that every
oi at ** 1 or so that every bi = bi = =1, provided only that no
b,-
a< 0 in the one case and no = in the other.

0
If every = then said to be periodic or recurring in case for some positive

F
bi
is
1,
integers n and v true that Oi+ = a* whenever > n. The value of any periodic
it
is
i
Bty/C, where A, and
B,
continued fraction can be expressed in the form (A
C
F
are polynomials the variables an, a, and conversely. ...
in
If the ai or the or both are functions of a variable x, then the continued fraction
b,
defines function F(x) wherever converges. For questions of convergence the

it
a
following identity often useful:

is
- Fn-t = (-l)"-*6,65 b./(B.B._,)

Fn
The following are some useful continued fractions:
tan - x/1 - x'fi - x'/b - -

(1)

tanh x - xfl
x
x*/7_

x'/S + x*/5 +_x*/7
+
(2)
+ +
tan-' x - x/l
_
3V/7 +
(3)
xfl - li/3 - 2siJ/5_- 3!i'/7 -
+
li>/3
+
2*x'/B
tanh"1 i
exp i - l/i - xfl + x/2 - z/3 x/4 - i/5

m (4)
_

+ (5)
+
3.3 Power Series

The series

ajcn
V
=
ai, + + axn
+
a\X
+
a^x1
where x a variable and the numbers a, called coefficients, do not depend upon x,
is
is
called a power series in x. For power series the primary question for what values of
is
does the resulting series of constants have various convergence properties. The
x
following theorem applies to power series that converge for some value of x and
diverge for other values.
S.31 Fundamental Power Series Theorem. There exists positive number r such
a
that ~ai" converges absolutely for every but diverges for ever}' > r. If
|x|
<
|x|
real variable, the interval (r,r) called the interval of convergence and is
is
is
i
a
called the radius of convergence. If the real variable x replaced by a complex

is
variable z, the number r is again called the radius of convergence and the circle =
\i\
r
called the circle
of
convergence.
is
V
The series a(x called power series in x Letting x' = x xo,
is
xo)" x0.
a
n=0
this series converges by the above theorem when = |x'| < r. The quantity
|x
x0|
it, is called the center the series.
of
Some of the properties of power series in complex variable are discussed in the
a
article on complex variables. Some operations for power series follow
:
In the common interval of convergence for two power series Sax" and 2bx",
V
ox" 6x =

(a 6)x"

(6)

= n= n=0 =
>
o
Let x, a, and be in the interval of convergence; then
0
=
V
d_
naÊ"-1 (8)
dx axn^
(9)
Table presents some of the common power series.

Table Power Series

6.
Sfaelaurin Series /or /(x):

r.
0,x-
1.
B=
0
.
where a,
/t">(0)

n!
Tii/Iot Srriet for f(z):
2. V a.(x - n)"
=0
.
where an
/(xo)
nl
- - "'" ~ ~
-V
2)
3. <* + ) *- +
+
< x
+
n-^=Jl
When n a positive integer, the series terminates at yn
is
- n(" ~ ~
2)
x + x<l

4. (1 x). nx +

When n integer, at x"

in
positive the series terminate!)

a
Ezpnnmtial and Logarithmic:
5. r: ^+ " - IV -
^;
+ Um
+
+
>
2.718281828
+
1
n/
(
1!
2! 3! n->V
-.#._i .+ S|+...
+
+
|!
, *. -
r In a +
(xlna)'
+
(xlna) _
+,
+,
7.
1
8. In x
9. In x -[:-Ti+iCTi),+iC-^),+-] >
Table 6. Power Series. (Continued)

10. In (1 + x) - x - Hz* + Mi> - ytx' + x> < 1
11. ln(o + x) = In a + 2 [
L2o + j
+ 1 ( +
8\2a
r/V + o (
- *
V2a +
V+
x/

J1
a > 0, -a < x <
TrtffonoBw/rif and Inverse Trigonometric:

j--'
3! 5! -l
7!
+
r , j< ' .
14. cos X = 1 + +
2! 4!
15. tan x x 4 4- H H + x' <

:< IS 315 2,835 4
x<,.
l8.e-j+- +
_+s-Ti+

17. x.l - -+ _+ + +
,.<-
18. cot x - 1 - :3 - ; - ^ - -sL - x. < x.
x 45 945 4.725
3 5x'
19. sin'' x - x +
x1
+
3x>
2 4 5
4-
2 4 0 7
+
xJ < 1
2-3
20. ten-' i - -2 - Ix + 3x> 5x
!_+ zt>\
tan"1 x - x - Hx' + 'Si'
- Mx' +
x' < 1
21.
22. sec 1 x - _I__L

x 0x>
2
3
2 4 ox'
3 5
2 4 6 7*'
x> < 1
23. cos-1 x - sin^1 x, cot-1 x - tan"1 x. cscM x - sec"1 x

2 2 2
Hyperbolic
24. sinh
,.,
and Inverse Hyperbolic:
+
|! + j + f!+...
25. noah
x.l+|! +
|| + |!4....
20. tanh X-X-- + - + X*
3
XS
15
17X7
315
x> < -
T1
4
-x- L* +
+ x < 1
27. ainh". x
2 3 2 4 5 2-4- 0-7
28. ainh-' x - loK 2x H ?
2 2x> 2 4 4x<
4
2 4 ti x
+ x > 1
29. cosh-1 X 2x - - - ' x > 1

Ior 2 2x 2 4 4x< 2 4 0 6x'
30. tanh-' t -x+ + + +

3 5 7
x' < 1
31. In sin x - In x
Xs
0
X* X*
2,835
xa < ir>
180
x' ,
t'
.
32. In cos x- x>
2
x
12 45
17x'
2,520
,
x <
4
. _ t'
,
33. In tan x - . , x' , 7x , 02x ,
In x + +
90 2,835
+ x <
4
3
, x' 3x< 8x> 3x' 50x' ,
34. <'"'= 14-x4 61 7!
h
21 4! 51
/. - x , 4x<
+
31x ,
+
\
35. = f
^1 -J
3.4 Orthogonal Functions
3.41 Sturm-Liouville Series and Other Expansions. Two vectors a and b in

n-dimensional coordinates; that
is,
space may be represented by rectangular
= (at, at, . . ,o.)
N
and = (bi,bi, . . . ,b). The square the length of the vector given by If
of
is
b
>
a,-1.
a
n
i-l
aj* = the vector is unit vector and said to be normed or normalized. The
is
1,
a
}
i-\
cosine of the angle between the two vectors and given by
is
b
a
n
~~.- >->
(10)
[(2")(2")r
y-i y=i
<>
The quantity afij, denoted by (a,b), called the inner product (or scalar product)
is
>
=
j
l
of the two vectors. The quantity = (a,a) called the norm of a. The vectors
is
>
a,-*
and are orthogonal (or perpendicular) (a,b) =0. set of vectors |o,) called
if
is is
b
a
(a,,at) = 6,-t, where 8,* Kro-

0 is,
orthonormal, that orthogonal and normalized,

if
necker's which or according to whether = or '^ An arbitrary vector

k.
is
5,
j
1
in n-dimensional space can be expressed as a linear combination of a set of ortho-

%
is,
normal vectors lay); that

n
n
= =
y
(g.ay)a,- Cj&j (11)

g
j-1 i-l
Most of the notations used for n-dimensional space can be extended not only to
countably infinite spaces but also to certain spaces of functions. An example of a
countably infinite space the special Hilbert space consisting of all points
is
= (ai.as, . . . ,ay, . .
a
.)
such that a? = (a,a) <

>
In dealing with a function f(x) customary to speak of f(x) as a point or vector

is
it
the function space. Let the real functions f(x) and g(x) be defined on the finite
in
interval a < x < then the inner product of the two functions given by
b;
is
bf(x)g(x)dx = (f,g) (12)

I
the inner product zero, that (f,g) = the two functions are said to be orthogo
is,
0,
If
is
nal. The norm of the function /(i) given by

is
6
[/(*)] dx = (J,f) (13)

/.
A set of functions |//(x) ) is said to be orthonormal on the interval a < x < b if
= (/,-,/*) -,
/:'bfi(z)Mx)dx (14)
The concept of orthogonality for functions of a single variable can be generalized in

two particular important ways. If f(x) and g(x) are complex functions of a real
variable x on the interval a < x < b, then /
and g arc said to be orthogonal in the
Hermilian sense if
b
i: f(x)g~(x~) dx = (f,g) =0 (15)
where g(x) is the conjugate of g(x). Often there is associated with a set of real func
tions /,(i) a function w(x) > 0, on the interval a < x < b, such that
w(x)fi(x)Mx) dx = ;,' (16)

/.
In this case the set is called orthonormal on [a,b] with respect to the weight function w(x).
The orthogonality concept can also be extended to infinite intervals and to functions
of more than one variable.
The functions fi(x),fi(x), , fn(x) are called linearly independent on the interval
n
a < x c/fj(x) = 0 for all x
i-1
of the interval are the constants ci = o2 = = c = 0. A set of orthogonal
functions is likewise a set of linearly independent functions. An orthogonal set
I //Of) j is called complete in a given function space if the only element of the space that
is orthogonal to every /,(x) is the zero function; that (/,/,) =
is,
for all implies
0,
- 0.
j,
/
Let \<Pj(x)\,(j = 1,2, be a countable orthonormal set of real functions on the

.),
.
.
interval a < x < and consider the possibility of representing function /(i) on that
b,
interval by
/Or) =
Y
cm(x)
y-l
Formally multiply both sides of this equation by <pk(.x), and integrate both sides over
the interval, the integration being carried out term by term on the right-hand side.
This leads to the formal result
(/,**) -
y
y=i
The numbers
= (/,*>/) = dx =
2,
.
1,
j
Ci
l*f(x)v,(x) (17)
.
.
are called the Fourier constants or coefficients of f(x) corresponding to the orthonormal
system \(pj(x)}. The series
(J,Vi)
<;,
where = (18)
\
Ci<Pi(z)
y-i
called generalized Fourier series or expansion corresponding to /Or).
is
a
Given a finite orthonormal set j*>,(x) 10 = 1,2,..., 71), the best approximation
in the mean, or in the sense of least squares, to the function f(x) on the interval
a < x be the Fourier coefficients
^
/-I
/(x)y>,(x) dx; that is,
n
is minimized when a,- = c,.

The relation
n n
^
(/>/)* =
T c, <
fablf(x))*dx
= (/,/) (19)
istrue for any n and is known as Bessel's inequality. If |*>;(x) ) is a complete ortho-
normal set, then Parseval's theorem
oo 00
J (/,)* =
c, =
JflfteWdx
(20)
holds.
3.42 Sturm-Liouville Series. Systems of the following types:
W(x)]' + (\p + g)y = 0

aiy(a) + a,y'(a) + a,y(b) + aty'(b) 0 - (21)
PiV(a) + P,y'(a) + ff,y(b) + Pty'(b) = 0
where the prime (') denotes differentiation with respect to x, are known as Sturm-
Liouville systems. The coefficients r(x) > 0, g(x), and p(x) are taken to be continuous
functions of x in the interval a < x < b, and X is an arbitrary parameter. The great
interest in S-L (Sturm-Liouville) theory arises largely from the fact that many
boundary-value problems in physics and engineering lead to questions that can be
answered by using S-L theory.
Consider the general second-order linear differential equation
Mx)v" +MxW + [/.(*) + Xgo(x)\y = 0 (22)
where X is a parameter and where /2 > 0, fx, /o, and go are continuous functions of x.
The general homogeneous boundary conditions
a,y(a) + a2y'(a) + aty(b) + a,y'(b) = 0

0.0(a) + 0iV'(a) + P,y(b) + pty'(b) 0 -
are taken to be linearly independent. Upon dividing the general differential equation
by /2(x) and then multiplying the result by r = exp [{(Ji/fi) dx], the S-L equation
W(x)\ + [Xp + g\y - 0 (23)
where p = (ffo//j)r and g (}o/Ji)r, is obtained. It follows that the S-L system is
quite general.
The differential equation of an S-L is self-adjoint. An S-L system is called sclf-
adjoint when
(a,0, -
0,ajV(b) = (a,0, ari/9.)r(a)
-
The most common type of self-adjoint S-L system has two additional conditions.
First p(x) is assumed not to vanish for o < x < 6. In this case both r(x) and p(x)
can be assumed greater thai: zero. The second condition is that the boundary condi
is,
tions are of Sturmian type; that
a,y(a) + <*iy'(a) = and 0,y(b) + 0,y'(b) =

(24)
0 0
0
where |a,| + |a,| > and |02| >
0
The following three theorems summarize the primary results of S-L theory:
Oscillation Theorem. The system of the Sturm-Liouville differential equation with
Sturmian boundary conditions and positive p(x) and r(x) has an infinite number of
real characteristic numbers that may be arranged in a monotone increasing sequence
Xo < Xi < Xj <
that tends to Corresponding to each simple eigenvalue
+
00 .
X, there exists an eigenfunction <p(x), unique except for a multiplicative constant.
Each ipn(x) has exactly n zeros in the interval a < x <
6.
Expansion Theorem. Given an arbitrary continuous and piece-wise differentiablc
function f(x) that vanishes at the end points of the interval when (po(x) vanishes; then
the series
JC
6
c<p(x) where c. p(x)f(x)<p(x) dx = (/,*>) (25)
2^
J
71=
0
converges uniformly and absolutely and has the sum /(x).

The eigenfunctions fulfill the orthonormality conditions
p{x)Pk(x)
(,) dx = tik
j*
= (26)
where p(x) the weight function. The normality can easily be attained by letting
is
W
Vi(x) = Vi(vi,Vi)~H =
Vi [^'pWfi'W
Equi-convergence Theorem. Given that /(x) integrable over the interval (a,b)
is
:
then the S-L expansion behaves as regards convergence in the same way as an ordinary
Fourier series.
The transformation
Y(z) = (pr)Wt/
where - and -
I
dx ax
//
f*
(e)
.
takes the S-L equation into the Liouville normal form
- g(z)]Y(z) = (27)
+
[**
0
dz'
where fc = J'\ and q(z) -

(pr)-M(i,/<fe,)(pr)M J\q/p). -
If the interval under consideration infinite, or vanishes at either or both ends
is
if
r
of the interval, the S-L system called singular. Results for singular S-L systems may
is
be found in the references. In certain problems, such as those occurring in reactor

theory, necessary to consider generalized S-L systems that have discontinuous
it
is
coefficients or solutions. This arises because the problem multiregion and has
is
interface conditions. The results of ordinary S-L theory can often be extended to
these cases.
The trigonometric neries
JC
T
nx sin nx)
+
Hao ( cos (28)

+
n=l
is railed a Fourier series corresponding to/(x) in the interval ( x,t) if its coefficients
are given by
a. = -1 /f' and &"-/

1 f* sin nt dt
~r fit)
cos nt dt
T J r J * fit)
= fix), a =
is,
When /(x) is an odd function, that /( and the corresponding
x)
0
series known as the Fourier sine series. If fix) an even function, that
is
is
is
/(-I) -/(*)
= and he corresponding series called Fourier cmine series. More generally
6.
is
0
a
t
the Fourier series corresponding to fix) in the interval < x <
is
b
a
_L_
J" m dt+r2-l J" m
*'*^
f
dt
cos
f
a a
(29)
t^ a
b
o
b
n
l
The exponential form for a Fourier series
is
i- _
number of theorems giving conditions under which a Fourier series corresponding
A
to function converges in some manner to that function are given in the references.
a
The following an example of a Fourier theorem.

is
Fourier Theorem. If fix) sectionally continuous on the interval ( *,) and

is
periodic with period 2r, then the Fourier series corresponding to fix) in the interval
(-t,t) converges to the value j-[/(x+) /(x-)] at every point where the right-hand
+
and left-hand derivatives exist.

The set [1/\/2t, cos nx/y/r, sin nx/\/r|
forms a complete orthonormal set for
the space of all functions that are sectionally continuous, are assigned the value
at the points of discontinuity and the value \ilfi r+)
+ fix')] /(*")] at
+
Ui*+)
H
the end of the intervals, and

possess right-hand and left-hand derivatives at every
point of the interval ( ,*).
Fourier series not only are special cases of S-L series but indeed arc the simplest
cases of S-L series, being associated with the differential equation y" \y =
+
0.
tegendre Series. The Legendre expansion or series for function /(x) in the interval
a
(-1,1) given by
is
no
a.P.ix) where a = ~^ f^fiQP.it) dt (31)

2
and where PJx) the Legendre polynomial of degree n. The legendre series
is
is
a
special case of an S-L series. Legendre's equation
- x')
d
l)y(i) =
^]
+ nin +
(1
(32)
0
Ax
[
seen to be an S-L equation where r(x) =1 **, pix) = gix) = and

0,
1,
is
= n{n +
I)
X
The set {in + }-i)l''Pix), = .)] forms an orthonormal set; i.e.,

2,
0,
in
.
1,
=
(n
+
^)->
J^Pit)Pmit)dt
Fourier-Bessel Expansion. The Bessel function J*(\x) satisfies the Bessel equation
('g)+(--f)"-
For each n this is seen to be an S-L equation where r = x, p = x, and g = nl/x.
= be the roots of the equation J(\a) =
(j
X,-
Let and let
2,
. .
1,
0
.)
The set. of functions
J.(X,x)\
I
forms an orthonormal set in the interval (0,a) with respect to the weight function x;
is,
that
1
WW) dt = i,-,-
Bessel expansion or series for function f(x) in the interval (0,o) given by
A
is
a
ao as
c,
<ft
where =
W0/(0 and a, = fc/.(X,0/(0
*
^-
^
^
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
4
4.1 Introduction
differential equation an equation that involves differential or a derivative.

is
A
The equation may contain algebraic and transcendental functions of a differential

or a derivative. It assumed that a differential equation not an identity.
is
is
It difficult to make simple yet complete classification of differential equations

is
because not only the number of classes and subclasses needed immense but also any
is
Nevertheless
particular differential equation likely to appear in many classes.

is
certain broad classifications are commonly adhered to and have proved useful. The
primary division of differential equations results from the number of independent
variables that are present. An ordinary differential equation an equation containing
is
one independent variable, one or more dependent variables, and at least one derivative
of dependent variable with respect to the independent variable. By contrast, a
a
partial differential equation contains two or more independent variables, one or more
dependent variables, and at least one partial derivative of a dependent variable with
respect to an independent variable.
differential equation also categorized by giving its order and degree. The
A
is
order of an equation the order of the highest derivative found in the equation. (The
is
word differential omitted in front of equation no confusion results.) The degree

if
is
of an equation the power to which the highest derivative raised. To this defini
is
is
tion should be added the requirement that in stating the degree of an equation
implied that the equation polynomial in all the derivatives.
is
is
it
If the dependent variables and their derivative occur only to the first power or
degree, and not as products, an equation called linear. For linear equation, the
is
coefficients of the dependent variables and their derivatives are therefore functions
only of the independent variables. An equation that not linear called nonlinear.
is
is
By a solution of differential equation meant a set of functions of the independent

is
a
variables,one function identified with each dependent variable, that when sub
stituted in the equation results in an identity in the independent variables. It is
implied that the solution functions have at least as high derivatives as are needed in
the differential equation.
The general solution of an ordinary differential equation of nth order and one
dependent variable contains n, and only n, arbitrary constants. A particular solution
of an ordinary differential equation of nth order and one dependent variable is obtained
when the n arbitrary constants are given special values. Not all solutions of an
ordinary differential equation need to be particular cases of the general solution. A
solution that is not such a particular case is generally called a singular solution.
The general solution of a partial differential equation of nth order, m independent
variables, and one dependent variable is a solution containing n arbitrary functions
of m 1 variables. The question of the existence and the uniqueness of the solu
tions is not considered here, and the references should be consulted.
4.2 Ordinary Differential Equations
1.21 Differential Equations of the First Order. The general differential equation
of the first order has the form
F(y',y,x) = 0
where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to x. This is the implicit form
for the first-order equation. The equation
- f(y,x)
p m y'
is theexplicit form for the first-order equation. There exist a number of special
types of implicit and explicit equations whose solutions can be obtained by elementary
methods. The following list presents the more common types and their solutions.
f
Variables Separable:
P-f(x)g(y) =
[Zf(x)dx (35)
Ja g(y) Ja
Homogeneous Equation:
p=fO>)
\X/
y-xv log?-/'/e-*L-
a J a/a f(v) v
(36)
Now the equation P(x,y) dx + Q(x,y) dy = 0, where P(tx,ly) = t"P(x,y) and

1.
Q(tz,ty)= t"Q(x,y), has this homogeneous form.
2. An equation p f[(ax + by + c)/(ax + &y + t)] may be brought into the above
homogeneous form, when afi ab ^ 0, by the linear transformation x = u + d,
y + e, where u and v are new variables and d and e are constants. If a/3 ab = 0,
the equation can be put in the variables separable form by either substitution
v ax + by + c
or substitution v = ax + fiy + y.
Linear Equation:
V +/(*)</ = (?(*) V
= - h =
j'fdx (37)
( ^Vffdx)
Bernoulli's Equation:
p + f(x)y = g(x)r (38)
becomes the linear equation p + (1 n)f(x)y = (1 n)g(x) under the substitution
Dependent or Independent Variable Missing:
1. p = /(//) and p = g(x) are equations of the variables separable type.
-f(p);x -c = f[f(p)/p]dp.
2. y
i. x = f(p); y - t
=
Spf'(p) dp.
Clairaut Equation:
y - px + f(p) either y = ex + f(c) or x + f'(p) = 0 (39)
a singular solution.
Exact Equation:
P(x,y) dx + Q(x,v) rfu = 0 is an exact equation if (40)

ay dx
J Pdx J (q - f Mdx\dy
+
dy
= c
is the solution.
Integrating Factor:
A function H(x,y) is called an integrating factor or Euler multiplier if

HP(x,y) dx + HQix,y) dy = 0
is an exact equation.
There exist certain other well-known first-order equations whose solution cannot be
obtained by elementary methods. The following types may be listed, and for further
information concerning them the references should be consulted.
Generalized Riccati Equation:
dx
Special Riccati Equation:
^ + aj/ = bx"
dx
Abel's Equation of the First Kind:
*- I *
i-0
Abel's Equations of the Second Kind:
3
\di(x)y + g(x)]y =
} Mx)]/*
i-0
Binomial Equation:
"-'
4.22 Linear Differential Equations. The general linear differential equation of
the nth order has the form
n
i-0
It is generally assumed that the coefficients /,(x) and g(x) either are continuous and
one-valued or are meromorphic functions of x throughout some region. Furthermore,
it is usually assumed that/o(x) has at most isolated zeros in this region. If g(x) = 0,
Eq. (41) is called homogeneous.
The expression
-0
is called the linear differential operator of order n. The following properties are com
mon to all nth-order linear differential equations:
1. If
y = yi is a solution of the homogeneous equation L(y) = 0, then y = cy\ is
also a solution of the equation, where c is any arbitrary constant.
2. If Vi, J/., . . . , yp are p solutions of L(y) = 0, then
y = cij/i + ctyi +
+ cyp
is also a solution of the equation, where Ci, Ct, . . . , c, are arbitrary constants.
3. If i/o is any solution of L(y) = g and yi is any solution of L{y) = 0, then
11 = Vo + Vi
is a solution of L(y) = g.
4. The complete primitive of L(y) = 0 has the form
= cij/i + cti/t +
Y(x) + cyn
...,!/
where Ci, Ci, . . . , c are n arbitrary constants and j/i, are n linearly
independent functions that are solutions of L(y) = 0. The general solution of
Y,
L(y) = g{x) has the form y = yt
is,
where j/o a particular integral, that any
-\-
is
solution of L(y) = g(x) containing no arbitrary constant, and where the com
Y
is
plementary function or complete primitive of L(y) = 0.
Certain other concepts are useful in the discussion of linear differential equations.
The determinant
y*
Vt

y'i y'i y'n
,<-
.
known as the Wronskian of the functions y%, y% . . . yn. The vanishing of the
is
Wronskian of j/i, . . yn at any point of the region being considered means that the
functions are linearly dependent. Conversely the Wronskian does not vanish, the
if
functions are linearly independent. set of n linearly independent solutions of

A
the nth-order equation L(y) = called fundamental set or fundamental system.

is
0
The adjoint equation to the equation
i-0
the equation
is
=
0
i'
The operator L* called the formal adjoint operator to the operator L. If ^ L*,
is
then the operator and the equation L(y) = are called self-adjoint. The relation
L
vL(y) - yh*{v) = [P(y,v)\

/
(42)
dx
where P is a linear function of y and v and their first n 1 derivatives, can be verified
easily, and is known as the Lagrange identity.
The equation
71
A(y) = = 0
a._.g
=0
(43)
where the a_,- are constants, is a homogeneous linear equation with constant coefficients.
This special linear equation not only is one of the most important and common in
applications but historically is the first equation of a general type to be completely
solved. The substitution y = eml in this equation leads to the characteristic or
auxiliary equation
n
Y a^m* = 0
t =0
If this auxiliary equation has n distinct roots, ru r2, . . . , r, then the general solution
of A(y) = 0 is
y = rie'>* + r.e'"x + 4- cer-*
where the cs are arbitrary constants. If m of the roots of the auxiliary equation are
equal to some value s, then the portion of the general solution corresponding to s is

(ci + cix + csx* + + cmx"~l)e'x
The equation
I
i =0
.-<*' ^
dxx
-/<*) (44)
where the a_,- are constants, is known as Euler's differential equation. The substitu
tion x e* transforms Euler's equation into a linear equation with constant coeffi
cients. This follows from the relation
"8-1(1-0 (!-+>)'
4.23 Linear Second-order Differential Equations. The second-order linear equa
tion is a particularly important and common equation in physics and engineering.
The general equation of this type has the form
f(x)y" + g(x)y' + h(x)y = r(x) (45)

The differential expression
L(y) = fy" + gy' + hy
has the adjoint expression
L*(v) m fv" + (2/' - g)v' + (/" - g' + h)v
if/' = g, then L{w) = L*(w) and L(w) is self-adjoint. Although L(y) is not self-
adjoint, the expression
-e^Liy) where F(x) = fX?dx

f J f
is self-adjoint. Since any second-order linear homogeneous eqviation can therefore
be made self-adjoint by the multiplication of a suitable factor, there is no loss of
generality in considering only the self-adjoint case.
/(i) = (h/f) -
The normal form for the homogeneous equation L(y) = 0 is u" + lu =0, where
Viig/f)1 -
Hig/f)'. The left-hand side of the normal equation is
obtained by letting y = u exp I - / ,dx\ in the expression L(y). 7(x) is called
the invariant function of the equation.

The method of variation of constants (or parameters) and the solution of equations
by the use of series are both applicable to nth-order linear differential equations. For
illustrative purposes these techniques are considered for the second-order case.
If the complete primitive cij/i(x) + ciyt(x), that
is,
the general solution of the
equation y" gy' + hy = known, then the solution of the equation
0,
+
is
y" + hy =
+
gy'
r
can be obtained by the method of variation of constants. Assume solution of the
a
nonhomogeneous equation of the form = Ci(x)j/i(x) ci(x)yi(x), where c\ and c2
+
y
are functions of x that are to be determined. If c'ij/i c'tyt set equal to zero, then
is
= cij/'i + cty'%. Furthermore, y" = C\y"\ + Ciy"2 + c'ty'i + c'tv't, and therefore
y'
substitution in the nonhomogeneous equation gives c\y'\ + c'ty'i r. This last

equation and the equation c'ij/i + c'ty* = can be solved for c\ and c't. Direct
0
integration then gives
ci(x)
=A_f rJÛt cj(a:) mB +
rifnÛt
f
where W = i/ii/'i yiy'\ the Wronskian function and and are constants. The
B
A
is
solution of y" + gy' + hy = given by

is
r
= v*(z) - !/,(*)
,J'dt + A^{x) B^(x)
+
y
di
f
f
The method of solving differential equation by the use of power series consists
a
00
of assuming a solution of the form substituting formally into the differ-

it
>
anx"+'>,
ential equation, collecting terms in like powers, and setting the resulting coefficients of
each power equal to zero. The objective of this process to determine the and the
is
a's and thus a solution. An elementary illustration follows. Consider y" + =
0,
y
oo
and assume = ax"*i>, aa ^ 0. Direct substitution gives

>
y
n=0
00 x
+ p)(" -
Y
=
("
+
Y
az"+"
p
l)ax"+<>-8
0
n=0 n-0
00 00
The shifting of indices gives = a,,_2X'+',~,. The collecting of like

\
>
axn+i>
n=0 n=2
terms results in
- + Dpa.x"-' -
Y
(p Daox"-' + p)(n + l)a a_2]x+"-' =

(p
+
[(n
0
p
=
2
n
The coefficients of the powers are zero when p(p l)p"i =

(p

+
0,
0,
1)
p)(n + - l)a a-2 =

+
(n
0
p
2). The indicial equation p(p = satisfied = or = First

>
(n
if
1.
is
is 1)
p
0
let = 0. In this case + l)pat == also satisfied for arbitrary at, for example,
(p
0
p
<ii = 0. The remaining equation becomes

- l)(n - 2)(n - ,..._

_ -a-i +C-4 (_iw,?!
nn - 1
=
n(n 3) n!
for n even and a = 0 for n odd. Consequently
30
1)" -;=
xim
y = a0 ) (

a0 cos x
Li (2m) !
m-0
This solution is easily obtained or verified by using the properties of the cos x. If
p = 1, it is easy to obtain a series solution, which is a0 sin x.
4.3 Partial Differential Equations

4.31 First-order Equations. Let X\, is, . . . , x be n independent variables, let
v = v(xi,x%, . . . ,x) be the dependent variables, and let
Pi =
dv
P2 =

dv

Pn =

dv
OX\ OX J dXn
The general partial differential equation of the first order has the form
F(php2, . . . ,p,v,xh . . . ,x) = 0 (46)

When n = 2, it is customary to put x\ = x, xt = y, p = dv/dr, and q = dv/dy, so that

the equation has the form
F(p,q,v,x,y) = 0 (47)
First-order equations arc called "linear" if the equation is of the first degree in the
partial derivatives. Furthermore, they are called nonlinear if at least one partial
derivative is present to some degree other than one.
The linear equation for two independent variables has the form
P(x,y,v)p + Q(x,y,v)q = R{x,y,v) (48)

and is called Lagrange's linear equatwn. The simultaneous ordinary differential
equations
^ ^ ^
= = (49)
V
P Q R
are called the subsidiary equations for Lagrange's equation. If f(x,y,v) = Ci and
g(x,y,v) = c2, where ri and ct are arbitrary constants, are two independent solutions
of the subsidiary equations, then any arbitrary functional relation >p(f,g) = 0 satisfies
Lagrange's equation. (p(f,g) = 0 is called the general solution or integral of the
equation. For example, the equation ap + bq = 1 has the subsidiary equation
dx/a = dy/b = dv/1. The subsidiary equation has the two integrals
x av m f ci and y bv m g c>
and the general integral is

ip(x av, y bv) =0
Subsidiary equations and the general integral are similarly obtained for the linear
equation with n independent variables.
Consider the nonlinear equation F(p,q,v,x,y) = 0. A complete integral of this equa
tion is any solution that contains two arbitrary constants or parameters a and 0. The
complete integral may be denoted by f(i,y,v,a,ff) = 0 and may be interpreted geo
metrically as a two-parameter family of surfaces. A particular integral is obtained
from a complete integral by assigning a and 0 particular or definite values. If a and (3
are eliminated from the three relations
/ = 0 *-0
da
^
dP
= 0
then the eliminant >f>(x,y,v) = 0, if it satisfies the original equation, is called a singular
integral of the equation. A singular integral, if one exists, may also be found by
eliminating p and q from the relations
dp dq
Next let 0 = ipW so that f[x,y,v,a,(p(a)] = 0 represents a one-parameter family of

surfaces. The totality of solutions of the equation F = 0, which are derived from the
equations
flx,y,v,a,,pM] =0 |
da
-0
upon eliminating a for all possible choices of <f, is known as the general integral. For
each choice of <p and a the equations /
= 0 and Of /da = 0 represent a space curve
called a characteristic
curve.
Charpit's method may be used for solving nonlinear equations of first order. This
method is based upon determining a second equation of the type G(p,q,v,x,y) = 0 that,
along with F = 0, can be solved for p and q in terms of x, y, and v. The p and q thus
obtained can be inserted in
p dx + q dy = dv
and an integxable expression for dv may result. It can be shown that any solution
w(p,q,i>,x,y) = a containing p or q or both, of the system
dp
"_ dq
_
=
<fo
- qF, =
<fa _
f,
,5Q.
+ pf. + -pF, -F -F,
where Fz signifies dF /dx, can be used for G; that = u> = 0. This method
is,
G
can be generalized to problems involving more than two independent variables.

4.3J Second-order Equations. The general second-order equation has the form
,vtiLi, . ,wI,x,fx . . . ,vx.,v,xi, . . . ,x) = (51)

0
P(vMlXuvM
.
.
where ,,,,. signifies d*v/(dxi dxj). Almost all second-order equations of interest are
the class of quasilinear equations. The equation
in
Ai,vXlIi =
B
(52)
where the An and are functions of the x xn, called

B
is
t>*,
v,
vtl
,
quasilinear. Although most of the following concepts apply to quasilinear equations,

easier to consider the linear equation
is
it
n n
y
D =
V
A{fl., + Bivx,
+
cv (53)
0
ij'-l t'-l
where the Aij, B and D are functions of xi, x%, . . . x.
C,
In order to classify second-order linear equations customary to deal with the

it
is
coordinate transformations
"'I
n
i-1
where the matrix o = (a) is nonsingular with real elements. It is possible to find
such transformations so that the above linear equation takes the canonical form
A4,X.j + = 0 (54)

w'-l
where /li,* = +1 if i = j < m < n and Aij* - 0 if t ^ j or if i = j > m at a given
point . . . ,x").
With the use of this canonical form it is possible to classify a linear equation at a
given point (xi, . . . ,z) as follows: If at the point
1. All the An* ^ 0 and have the same sign, then the equation is called elliptic at
the point.
2. All the An* 0 and if all but one An* have the same sign, the equation is called
hyperbolic at the point.
3. All the An* ^ 0 and if there exist more than one positive An* and more than one
negative An*, the equation is called ultrahyperbolic at the point.
4. Some An* = 0, the equation is called parabolic in the broad sense at the point.
5. Only one An* = 0, the other An* all have the same sign, and the coefficient of
dv/dzi corresponding to the zero An* is not zero, then the equation is called parabolic
at the point.
A linear equation is called elliptic, hyperbolic, etc., in a region if it has that character
at every point in the region.
Next consider the equation
Ar + 2Bs + Ct + D(x,y,v,p,q) = 0 (55)
where r = dh>/dx2, s = dh)/(ds dt), and I = dhi/df1 and where the coefficients A, B, and
C are functions of x and y that are twice continuously diffcrentiable. This equation
is called elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic according to whether the determinant
AB
A = _ = AC B* is greater than zero, equal to zero, or less than zero. The
BC
associated first-order ordinary differential equation
2B^ + C
dx
has for solutions two one-parameter families of curves in the xy plane,
fi(x,y) = a and fi(x,y) = 0
In the hyperbolic case when A < 0, these two curves, called characteristics, are real.
In the elliptic case, A > 0, the characteristics are complex. Finally for the parabolic
case, A = 0, the curves coincide.
The characteristics can be used to obtain the following normal forms:
Hyperbolic:
= F(a,p,v,va,vp)
or V[(
- !>
vafi
= F(r,Ti,v,v(,vv) a=f+ ij f> = t
V
Elliptic:
vet + tf = F(r,v,v,v{,vv) a = f + J7) 0 = f - in
Parabolic:
V = F(f,i),r,Pf,Pf) a = 0 = {
ij arbitrary function of x and y.

Cauchy Problem. The Cauchy problem consists of finding a solution of the system
= G<
[t,Xl XK,vh . . . ,vM, .... -1^FJ .
j
M;
(i,
< n; kQ kt + fc < n.,)
+
2,
. .

1,
j
ko
.
,
which satisfies the
= //,t(xi, 0,1, ... n;_i)
(k
. ,X)
,
at*
should be noted that the number of equations equal to the number of unknowns;
It
is
the independent variable time in physical problems, singled out; the order
if
is
is
n*
I,
the highest derivatives of tu that are present, then d*>u/dtH< must also be present;
of
and the functions Hm are all given in the same region in the (ii.xi, . . . ,x) space.
The simplest example of Cauchy problem that of finding solution of
is
a
a
= F(t,v) where = v0
^
v(t0)
at
For partial differential equations simple example given by the vibrating-string
is
a
equation
dhi
_ dhi
dt* dx*
where v(U,x) = H\(x) the initial displacement and where v,(tu,x) = H2(x) the
is
is
initial velocity.
The Cauchy-Kowalewski theorem states that all the Gi arc analytic in a neighbor
if
hood for all their arguments, and the Hn are analytic in the corresponding neighbor
if
hood of the point (xi, . . ,x), then the Cauchy problem has unique analytic
a
.
solution in the neighborhood of (<,xi, . . . ,x).

4.33 Elliptic Equations. The simplest representative of the class of elliptic equa
tions Laplace's equation in two dimensions and rectangular coordinates, namely,
is

dhi
+
dhi
= or !' Vyy =
+
0
Ox1 dy'
This equation often describes steady states, such as the steady temperatures in a
homogeneous body or the equilibrium form of a membrane stretched over a curve.
A
function called harmonic or a potential function in region D has continuous

i>
is
it
if
a
derivatives of the first two orders and satisfies vIZ + vn = at every point of D.
0
Consider an elliptic partial differential equation L(v) = in finite region D with a

0
boundary r. The boundary-value problems for elliptic equations are classified as

follows
:
IHrichlet's Problem, or the First Boundary-value Problem. Find function that

a
satisfies L(v) = in the region D and equal to prescribed continuous function

is
0
on the boundary r. The term equal to a function on means that the limit
r
v
approached by as the boundary approached by points interior to D

is
is
r
/.
v
Xeumann'8 Problem, or the Second Boundary-value Problem. Find function that

a
satisfies L{v) = in the region D and whose outward normal derivative dv/dn at every
0
point on the boundary equal to a prescribed function/.

is
r
Mixed Problem, or the Third Boundary-value Problem. Find a function that

v
satisfies L(v) = in the region D and, a prescribed function on the boundary

r,
if
is
0
ar -f b(dv/dn) = on the boundary r. If s or a = then the mixed problem

0,
0
6
/
reduces to Dirichlet's problem or Neumann's problem.

few of the important results associated with elliptic equations follow:
A
The ifinimum- Maximum Properly. If harmonic function in bounded

is
a
a
v
region D and continuous on the boundary then the values of in D cannot exceed
r,
is
its maximum on or be less than its minimum on r.

r
Poisson's Integral. The solution of Dirichlet's problem for the circle of radius R,
where
_,
V2v =
ft 1 itv

, 1ft 0
Or1 r Or r* d6*
and v = f(0) when r = /J, is given by

_
-fl *
" 1 2irfi
f'-'K fit r2
"(r'9) /(8) (56)
%rR io ft> + r'-2flrcos[(s/r)
Mean Value Properly. If u is a harmonic function in the region D, then v has the
mean value property in D. The function v is said to have the mean value property in
D if at. every point P in D v(P) equals the average of v either over the circumference or
over the area of every circle contained in I) with center at P.
Harnack's Theorem. If Vt(x,y) (k = 1, 2, . . .) are a sequence of functions har
monic in a finite region D, and if this sequence converges uniformly in D, then the
limit function v(x,y) is harmonic in D.
Requirement for Neumann's Problem. In order that there exist a solution of the
second boundary-value problem it is necessary that the integral of /over the boundary
r vanish; i.e.,
/r(2)*-/r'*-
4.34 Hyperbolic Equations. The equation of a vibrating string
ft _~ ft
Of dx1
is the simplest example of hyperbolic equations. The Cauchy problem for this equa
tion with the initial conditions
v(0,x)
f(x) and v,(0,x) = g(x)
has the solution, called d'Alembert's formula,
=
M\J(x + +f(x - * (57)
t)]
v(t,x)
+
Yi
t)
formal solution of the wave equation

A
Vu = VI(ri
^
with the initial conditions
v(0,xh . . . ,x) =
f(xi xn) and u,(0,ii, . . . ,x) = g(xh . . . ,x)
given by
is
* "
alS
('2 dr
&nh)i
"
fo
- '")<"-,/*W*)r) *

+
('S (58)
/o
0T3a)i
where
-y Hx, + ...,*,

Qh(.x,r)
0r) dV'
+
(Sir,
f
I
ai,
/
,
- p!)
<p(xi 4- xn

)
+
. .
2
=
,
Fr--' p<r'
y
(r>
where K = -
r(n/2)
and p* = nti* + + s is the mean value of the function h in the n + 1 dimen
sional space. In three dimensions (n = 3) this formula is called Kirchhoff's formula,
and in two dimensions the formula is often called the l'oisson formula.
Methods for solving hyperbolic equations are discussed in connection with bound
ary-value problems.
4.36 Parabolic Equations. The simplest parabolic equation \ the one-dimensional
heat-conduction or diffusion equation
dv
_
~
dh)
at ax1
This equation with the initial condition
v(0,x) = f(x)
and the boundary conditions
v(t,Q) - gi(t) and v(t,L) - g,(t)

is the first boundary-value problem for the heat equation.
4.4 Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics

dx1 dy1 dz*

in Cartesian coordinates.
4.41 Laplace Equation :
W = 0
1. Gravitational potential in a region free of mass

2. Steady temperature, i.e., temperature in a body that depends on position but
not on time
3. Velocity potential of the irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid
4. Magnetic potential
5. Electrostatic potential in a region free of charges
4.42 Poisson Equation :
W p(x,y,z)
1. Electrostatic potential in a region containing charges

2. Steady temperature with internal sources
4.43 Helmholtz Equation :
W + fcV = 0
k1 may be a constant (or parameter) or a function of position.
4.44 Heat-conduction or Diffusion Equation :
1 3*>
K i)t
4.46 Wave Equation :
W =
c1 at*
4.46 Telegraph Equation :
ai1 at
4.47 Maxwell's Equations :
V B = 0 curl H = - + i 4tJ D=E

c dt c
V D = irrp curl E -
1 r)H
B = a*H
c dt
where E is the electric field vector, H is the magnetic field vector, c is the velocity of
light, J
is current density, p is the density of the charge, p is permeability, and is the
dielectric constant.
4.48 Equation for the Transverse Motion of a Plate or Bar :
0.AAv, + = o
4.49 Equation of Continuity :

dt
+ V (pv) = 0
where p is the density and v is the velocity vector.
4.410 Navier-Stokes Equation :
p
^ = F - Vp + V2v + V(V
v)
at .i
where p is the pressure, m is the coefficient of viscosity, and F is the external force.
4.6 Boundary-value Problems
Although the term boundary-value problem can be used in connection with ordinary
differential equations, difference equations, integral equations, and variational prob
lems, the term generally denotes a partial differential equation and a set of auxiliary
conditions. Some authors separate such problems into initial-condition or boundary-
value problems according to whether the conditions are specified at some initial time
or all the conditions depend upon the space coordinates but not upon an initial state.
The following two comments should be noted when dealing with boundary -value
problems. First, the number of boundary conditions is usually equal to the sum
of the orders of the highest derivative with respect to each independent variable. For
example, in Problem 1 of Art. 4.51, the number of boundary conditions is four while
in Problem 2 the number of boundary conditions is three.

The second and most important comment is that, whenever possible, the problem
should be broken into simpler problems that can be dealt with separately. In par
ticular, if nonhomogeneities occur in more than one of the equations, it is often
possible to consider a sot of simpler problems each with one nonhomogeneity. For
example, consider the problem
V + V = .4(1,,/)
with the boundary conditions
V(0,y) = Mv) V(a,y) =

Mv) 0 < y < b
V(x,0) -Mx) V(x,b) =/,(*)
This problem can be broken into five simpler problems.
Let V = Ui + Ui + Ui + f/ + W, where U\, Ut, Ui, and Ut satisfy the equation
E/* + U = 0 and where W,x + Wyy = A. Furthermore,
W(fl,y) = W(a,y) = W(x,0) --= W(x,b) = 0

Ut(0,y) -Mv) Ui(a,y) -
UAx,0) = Ui(x,b) = 0
U,(a,y) = My) U,(0,y) = UAx,0) = Ut(x,b) = 0
U,(x,0) = Mx) UA0,y) = Vm(o,v) U,(.x,b) = 0 -
U,(x,b) = Mx) ut(0,y) = Uda,y) = f'(x,0) = 0
The two most common methods of solving boundary-value problems are the method
of separation of variables and the method of transforms, particularly the Laplace
transform. The techniques of conformal mapping, integral equations, and calculus
of variations can also be used for solving boundary-value problems. Two examples
of both the method of separation of variables and the use of the Laplace transform
follow.
4.51 Separation of Variables. Problem 1. Solve the two-dimensional Laplace
equation
aw a*v _ 0
di dy*
with the rectangular boundary conditions
V(0,y) = 0 V(a,y) =0 0 < y < b

V(jc,0) = fix) Vix.b) =0 0 < i
< a
Formal Solution. Let V(x,y) = Xix)Yiy), and substitute into the Laplace equa
tion. This gives
or upon dividing by X Y,
d'X/dx' d'Y/dy'
X
Since the left-hand side of this equation is a function only of x and the right-hand side
is a function only of y, both sides must be independent of x and y and therefore equal
to some constant X. The term separation of variables is seen to be derived from having
separated all the functions in an equation that depend only upon a certain variable
from the other functions that depend upon the other variables. The constant X is
called the separation constant or parameter.
The use of the separation constant results in the two equations
*5
dx*
= XX and ^-
dy*
-Xy
If X = <**, the general solutions of these two equations can be written, when a ^ 0,
as
X = A sin ax + B cos ax and Y = E sinh ay + F cosh ay
and when a = 0, as X Ax + B and Y

= Ey + F. =
At this point it is necessary to apply the boundary conditions. First consider
V(0,y) -
XiO)Yiy) = 0. This implies that B = 0 for all a. Next consider
Via,y) = X(o)K(y) -0
In order that A 0 and therefore X j*- 0, it follows that sin aa = 0 or a = 7r/a,
where n is an integer. The conditions Vix,b) = Xix)Yib) = 0 imply that
E sinh afc + F cosh aft = 0
This will be satisfied if E = D cosh ab and F = D sinh ab. Hence
F = D sinh a(b -
)/)
The quantity
C sin x sinh
y)
(b
a a
for any integer n, seen to satisfy the Laplace equation and the boundary conditions
is
along the sides x = x = a, and

0,
b.
y
In order to satisfy the remaining nonhomogeneous conditions V'(x,0) = fix), it is
usually necessary to consider the expression
/ Cn sin x sinh (6
y)
i-i a a
where the C' are constants. It was noted that each term and indeed the sum of
any finite number of terms of this series satisfy all the conditions, except perhaps
V(x,0) = f(x). The question now is when = C, can be chosen so that
if,
0,
y
Cn sinh sin x = /(i)
b
/
i-i a a
This seen to be a Fourier scries, and known that C sinh (nx/a)b = c are the
is
is
it
if
Fourier coefficients,
fa
= 2 /(<) sin dt
JO
a
then indeed the series converges to/(z), where /(z) nearly an arbitrary function.
is
The solution of the boundary-value problem therefore given by
is
nir sinh (nir/a)(b
y)
x
. . . sinh n-rb/a
n=
1
Problem Solve the heat equation for one-dimensional flow

2.
-

k
dt 3xs
K0,<) = (ir,0 =0 >

- /(i)
0
0
I
p(x,0) < x < w

0
Formal Solution. Let v(x,t) = X(x)T(t), and substitute into the heat equation.
This gives
_ dT . d*X _ 7" A'"
Xlu"k~d7T
or
rr
=
X
Therefore, since in this last equation the function on the left a function only of and
is
the function on the right a function only of x, the equations

is
X" = XA" and 7" - XkT
are obtained, where the separation constant. easily seen that the quantities
It
is
is
X
Ce-"1*' sin (nx)
where an integer, satisfy these equations and the homogeneous boundary condi
is
n
tions. Again consider a series of such terms
C.e-*'*1 sin (nx)

2^
n-l
When t = 0, this reduces to the Fourier series
/ c sin (nx)
n= \
and to/(x), provided the e are chosen as the Fourier coefficients,
c = - I /(*) sin (ns) ds

V J"
The solution of the problem is given by
v(X)l) = - / f(s) sin (ns) da sin (nx) e^"1*'

2
4.52 Laplace Transform. Problem 3. Solve the heat equation
dU _ d*U
oi ax1

[7(0,0 = *X0 I'm t/(f,<) =0 / > 0
l/(x,0) = 0 0 < x < 1
Formal Solution. Let u(x,) -L|f/(x,<)l - / e "U(x,l) dt. The application of

the Laplace transform to the above problem results in the equations
8U(X,d) -k
u(0,) = /(), lim u(x,s) = 0, where /(s) is the transform of F(l). The solution of
this transformed problem is
u(x,s) = exp I -x f- j
/(.<) j
Since
^ [-*(*)"]- Ml ^-* *(-)}

the use of the convolution gives
- r) exp (-
|)
f* r-*F{t
U(x,t) = (x*)-H dr
|
If F(0 = A, a constant, then
- erfc
4
l/(x,<)
()"*]
[|
Problem 4. Solve the vibrating-string equation
Ytt - a'F
K(x,0) = /(x) F(x,0) =0 <

<
x
0
K(0,J = Y(i,t) =0 >

<
0
0
The transformed problem becomes
s*u(x,s) - s/(x) = alyxx

y(0,s) = 0 .v(l,s) = 0
where ;/(x,s) = L[Y(x,t)]. The solution of this transformed problem can be obtained
either by the use of variation of parameters or by transforming with respect to x. In
either case the solution becomes
, *, <f(x,s)
o sinh s/a
where
= sinh
/(z) sinh dz + sinh / sinh dz
/ Jx f(z)
<p(x,s)
a J" a a a
In order to invert the transform and obtain Y(x,t), it is necessary to use an inversion
The terms in the inversion series correspond to zeros of sinh s/a, that
is,
series. the
poles of y(x,s). The sum of the two residues of euy(x,s) at = s, where = inrra
s
=
.),
given by
2,
is
(n
.
1,
J.c sin (rnrx) [exp (in-ral) + exp ( in-rat))

where r =2 I f(z) sin (nrz) dz
The formal solution therefore becomes

Y(x,t) = c sin (nrx) cos (nrat)

p
n=
l
When = this seen to reduce to the Fourier series for/(i).

0,
is
t
4.6 Numerical Solution of Differential Equations
Since relatively few differential equations can be solved (or integrated) in finite
terms, generally necessary to consider numerical methods in order to obtain
it
is
approximate solutions. Even when the solution of a differential equation can be

obtained in infinite terms, the solution usually difficult to evaluate and hence often
is
of limited practical value. The advent of high-speed digital computers has made
it
relatively easy to obtain the-numerical solution of difficult equations, such as multi-
group reactor equations. large number of useful techniques for solving differential
A
equations may be found in the references. Some simple techniques follow.

4.61 Ordinary Differential Equation. Modified Euler Melhod. Although this
method as well as the following Runge-Kutta method can be used for a system of
equations, easier to consider a single first -order equation in order to indicate the
is
it
method of solution. Consider the differential equation

= f(x,y)
V'
with the initial condition y(xo) = i/o. An approximation for y(xo Ar) = y(.xi) m yt
+
easily seen to be given by

is
Ax
+
i 2/o !/'o
where y'o shorthand notation for/(x0,!/o). In like fashion

is
y'n Ax n =
+
2,
. . .
1,
J/-.+1 yn
This, the oldest, simplest, and crudest technique, was devised by Euler. modified
A
Euler method lets

yi* ~ yo + y'o Ax
and y. . VJ*M1 a,
+
where (yi*)' = /(ii,j/t*). Although this modified Euler method is slow and of
limitedaccuracy, it is very simple and easily used.
Runge-Kutta Method. Again consider y' = f(x,y) subject to t/(xo) = J/o. This
method consists of computing in sequence fci, k2, k,, kt and then the desired 3/1, where
ki = f(xo,y0) Ax
(x0
k, =
y,
^)
+
+
y0
kt = /do Ax, 1/0 + k,) Ax
+
H(.ki + Mi 2k, + k,)
+
l/i Ve
order to obtain y+i = necessary only to replace the x0 and yo
.),
2,
In
(n
is
. .
it
1,
on the right-hand side of the above relations by the previously obtained x and y.
This technique one of the most commonly used and of sufficient accuracy for most
is
is
applications.
4.62Partial Differential Equations. Elliptic Equations. For illustrative pur
consider the Laplace equation vxx = with Dirichlet conditions on a
+
poses
0
v
v(0,y) = f,(y), v(a,y) = My), v(x,0) = f,(x), v(x,a) = f,(x).
is,
square boundary; that

Let the square of side o be divided into a network or lattice of squares of side where
h,
an integer multiple of This can be accomplished by drawing two families of
h.
is
a
lines parallel to the sides of the original square and spaced at integer multiples of
h.
The intersections of these families of lines are called lattice points. The numerical
technique consists of solving a set of associated difference equations for a function that
takes on values only at the lattice points and using as an approximation to the
it
funrtion <pat the lattice points.

The differential equation v can be associated with the difference
+
vty
0
equation
h,y)- 2v(x,y) + v(x - - 2v(x,y) - _

y)
v(x, v(x,
h,
+
h)
h)
+
+
v(x
y
or v(x,y) -
H\v(x - This associa
y)
y)
+ v(x, v(x,
+
+
h)
v(x
h,
h,
h)].
y
y
tion results from approximating a first derivative dw/dx by [w(x + w(x,y)]/h

h, y)
h,
second derivative dhv/dx* by [w(x + 2w(x,y) y)]/h*. The

y)
h,
and w(x
+
a
last equation for v(x,y) indicates that the value at an interior lattice point the arith
is
metic mean of the values at the four nearest points. With the notation v(ih,jh) =
= N, and nh = a, the difference equation becomes

2,
where . . .
0,
1,
j
i,
-
,
"a = H(Vi+i.i + Bi-ui + vt.j+i + Vi.j-i) = ... N

1,
2,
i,
j
1
,
Whenever the subscripts or equal or X, the corresponding va set equal to the

is
j
appropriate boundary value; for example, voj = fi(jh). The problem now consists of
solving a system of linear equations.
There are two general methods, relaxation and iteration, that can be used to obtain
an approximate solution to this linear system. The relaxation method deals with the
-
quantities
Rtj - Vi+l,j + "<./-!
+
Vi-ui <./+!
= N
In
this method a set of chosen and the ft,-/ are com

(t,
. .
1)
is
1,
2,
j
puted. The Kij are called the residuals, and the object of the relaxation process to
is
try to alter (or relax) the v,,0 so that the residuals all reduce, as nearly as possible, to
zero. Since the relaxation process not systematic and may proceed in any fashion
is is
order to reduce the residuals, hand method and not a machine method.
in
it
Iterative methods of solving linear equations are discussed in Art. 4.1 of Sec. 3-1.
The Gauss-Seidel method a commonly used iterative technique. Consider the
is
(/ - H[vi'\+Ui
formula
+ c-)<>J+1 + <"-
+
<+,_,.,
where the superscript n denotes the nth iteration. Again a set is chosen for the i\,
interior points. New values t><,(,) are obtained from the formula by starting at the
lower left-hand corner and proceeding to the right and then upward. are
similarly obtained from the t\/">. The process is continued until the t>,-/"+1> are
sufficiently close to the </
More generally, when difference equations replace any elliptic equation and its
boundary conditions, a system of linear equations results. The numerical method in
such cases is called implicit.
Parabolic Equations. The numerical solution of parabolic and hyperbolic equations
can be calculated with step-by-step processes. In contrast to implicit methods, these
step-by-step processes are called explicit methods.
Consider the heat equation Ui = aUn with the boundary conditions U(x,0) = f(x),
U(0,t) = ffi(<), U(L,t) = gt(t). Let the strip t > 0, 0 < x < L be covered with a net
-
of equal rectangles with sides Ax h and At = k, where L is an integer multiple of h.
If U, is replaced by [U(x, I + k) U(x,t)]/k and t/ is replaced by [U(x + h, i) -
2U(x,t) + U(x h, t)]/h* the heat equation is expressed by
U(x, t + k) = rU(x + h, t) + (1
- 2r)U(x,t) + rU(x - h, t)
where r = ka/h*. With this formula it is possible to calculate the values of U on the
t + k line if the values of U are known on the I line. Now the values of V on the line
t = 0 are given by U(x,0) f(x), and therefore it is possible to calculate the values
It of course, not necessary to calculate the values U(0,k) and l!(L,k) or,
is,
U(x,k).
indeed, any U(0,t) and U(L,l), since they are specified by the boundary conditions.
Having obtained U(x,k), the values U(x,2k) can be obtained, and so on, step by step
to U(x,nk), where nk the time interval to be covered.

is
/
One precaution must be followed in using this explicit method. The value of must
r
satisfy < < otherwise the numerical solution obtained may have little con
0
nection with the actual solution. This fact, rioted by Courant, Friedrichs, and Lewy,
states, roughly, that the space mesh length fixed, the time mesh length cannot
if
is
k
h
be too large.
Consider the wave equation Ua = a'Uit with the boundary
Hyperbolic Equations.
conditions U(x,0) = /,(*), Ut(x,0) -
/,(*), U(0,l) = g&), U(L,l) gM. Again -
cover the strip < x < with rectangles having sides Ax = and At =
k,
>
0,
h
0
I
where an integer multiple of H. Let the quantity U(x,t) be denoted by Ua when

L
is
x = ih and = jk, where N and = If the second

0,
2,
. . .
0,
1,
1,
j
2
t
I
derivatives are replaced by second differences, the wave equation becomes
- 2Lfo - 2r.,
Ui.i+i + t/,.,-1 =
^ Ui+Ui + f',-,
,

Jfc1 A'
or Ui.j+i = rt/,+1 2(r - -

W/ + rf7._,., t7y_,, where = k'a*/h*. -
The initial
r
conditions t7(x,0) /i(ar) and t7i(x,0) = /-(i) or, with forward differences,
U(x,k) - f/0,0) - kf,(x)
and therefore U(x,k) = A/2(x) f,(x) supply the information needed in order to start
+
the step-by-step process.

Note that when ka = the equation reduces to C/<,/+i = f7<+i.y + f/.,,_i.
t/
U k,
i t.y
It easily verified that =
f(x g(x + at), where and g(z) are any two
+
is
at) /(z)
functions of with second derivatives, a solution of both the wave equation and this
is
z
last difference equation. Therefore any solution of either the wave equation or the
difference equation a solution of the other, since = f(x at) + g(x a
is
at)
+
U
is
general solution.
More generally necessary when dealing with hyperbolic equations to make sure
is
it
that the numerical process makes sense; for example, high-frequency component of a
wave motion will always be distorted. Here = fc!a2//is must be restricted by
r
< in order to ensure convergence of the numerical method.

1
r
5 OTHER TOPICS
6.1 Vector Analysis
A discussionof vectors appears in Art. 1 of Sec. 3-1. The primary objective here is
to present some of the more common and useful formulas and results of vector analysis.
6.11 Scalar and Vector Products. The scalar (or inner or dot) product of two
vectors a and b is denoted by a b or (a,b). The magnitude or length of a vector a
is denoted by |a|. The vector (or cross) product of two vectors is denoted by a X b.
It is customary to express a vector in 3-space in terms of three unit vectors i, j, k along
the positive x, y, and z axes. In Sec. 3-1 the unit vectors are denoted by e2, and
e3. ta denotes a unit vector in the positive a direction. The two vectors a and b,
therefore, can be written as a = aii + a2j + ask and b = bii + bjj + 6jk; the follow
ing elementary relations may be noted:
= a - a = a,s + a2 + b2>
|a|>
a b = b a = Oi6t + u.62 + a3bj = |a||b| cos (a,b) (59)
* b = 0 means a = 0 or b = 0 or a is perpendicular to b (60)
=i-i j- j=
k- k = l i-j=j-k=k-i=0 (61)
a X b = b X a = i(aj>3 a3o2) + j(a3(i biat) + k(aib2 6iaj)
iXi=jXj=kXk=0 (62)
iXj=k jXk=i kXi-j (63)
Triple Scalar Product. Volume of parallelepiped with edges a, b, and c:

- di Oj Oi
(abc) = a (b X c) = (a X b) c b (c X a) = bi bt 6a (64)
Ci Cj C|
Triple Vector Products:
X - -
- b)

a (b X c) b(a c) c(a (65)
X
-

X d) = (a c)(b d)

(a b) (c (a d)(b c) (66)
(a X b) X (c X
d) = [a (b X d)]c [a

(b X c)]d = [a

(c X d))b
-[b-(cXd)]a (67)
The Differential Operator V. Rectangular Coordinates:
dx dy dz
Vv = grad v = l J |-k
h (68)
dx dy dz
The gradient is a measure of the rate of change of the scalar field v at the point
few).
v-.F=divF=^+^+^
dx dy dz
F = F,i+ Fvj + FJc (69)
v X F = curl F - rot F - i \ dy
- MI
dz
+ j
\ dz
- dx / +k
\dx
- ^)/
dy
(70)
VH
V / ^
(Vti) =
J 1 1
del squared =
9*V . d2V
1
, d'V
1 (71)
dx' dy' dz'
Differentiation Formulas
V(uv) uVv + vVu (72)

F
V
(rF l = (Vv) + i>V F (73)
V X (fF) =
(Vv) X F + W X F
V- (F X Gi G (V X F) -
F {Y X G)
(74)
(75)
r(F- F VG + G VF + F X (V X G) + G X (V X F)
-
=
V X (F X G)
G)
= G YF -
F VG + F(V G) G(V F)
(70)
(77)
-
V (V X F)
V X (V X F)
0
V(V F) VF -
V X (Vv) = 0 (78)
(79)
Cylindrical Coordinates:
x = r cos 8 y = r sin 8 z = z
ds* = dr! + rs d9 + dz2 (80)

, dv , \ dv , dV ,.,
grad D = er + e
- + e, (81)
dr r d$ dz
divF -IA(Pfr) (82)
- I
curl F = er (
\r de dz /I + e
\ dz dr I Ir dr
Mo)
r 90 J (83)
Vti = 1 (r
\
\ 4- - + '841
( *
r dr dr) r* d8* 3z
Spherical Coordinates:
x r cos <psin 9 y = r sin <psin 9 2 = r cos 8
ds* - dr2 + r2 sin2 9 fV + r2 d92 (85)
grad p - e, -dr + er
r sin 8 3ys
+ ee
-
r 08
(80)
div F - 1 1 (rVr) + ? + I 1
r sin 9 39
(sin Of,) (87)
r sin 9 d>
r* dr
F - ^ "
* ^ If ~
Lai
CUrl +
C'
rlin-9 llr
\
J
Lsin dip dr
8
J
r
. = .
dv\ d*v . aA
/
a

1
1
rs sin
(
H,
V*o (89)
9
dr/
I
I
VI
VI
r! 3r sin2 39 39/
r2
Bin*
r*
d<p2
9
Integral Theorems, n a unit outward normal vector to surface .4, dA an
is
is
element of surface, and dV an element of volume.

is
= x\ + zk
yj
+
r
Stokes' Theorem:
n dA = dr
X
F)
(90)
F
JJa(V
|c
The double integral taken over the area bounded by the closed curve C.
is
Divergence or Gauss' Theorem:
ffJyV-rdV- Jfj-ndA (91)
The triple integral taken over the volume inside the closed surface A.
is
Green's Theorem:
-
jjy
lis Jja
(V

Aid) dV =
(Vto)
n dA W*w dV (92)
IIjv
''V,W ~ U>V!"^ dV ~
ffv
= ' n dA
^'VW WV"^ ^93)
(i
/
The triple integrals are taken over the volume inside the closed surface A.
5.2 Integral Transforms Operational Mathematics
The integral transform f(s) of a function F(t) is defined by the integral equation
/() = K(s,t)F(t) dt = T.[F\

J* (94)
The function K(s,t), called the kernel of the transform, is taken to be a known function.
It is apparent from the definition that
cf(s) = jb K{s,t)cF(t) dt = T.[cF\

and
/.(*) +Ms) = fb K(s,l)[Fi(t) +Ft(t)]dt = T.\Fl +F2\ = T.\F,\ + T.\Ft\
These two relations indicate that the transformation between the functions F(t) and
linear. The defining transformation above then, a linear integral transform,
is,
fit) is
although customary to leave out the word linear.
it
is
The use of integral transforms particularly useful technique for solving bound
is
a
ary-value problems. In essence, this technique can be described as follows: First,

apply an integral transform to differential equation and its boundary conditions.
a
This, in effect, reduces the number of independent variables by one and introduces
a
parameter. The resulting, or transform, problem then to be solved for the trans
is
It then necessary to invert this solu

form of the dependent, or wanted, variable.

is
tion, that is, undo the result of the transform, in order to obtain the solution of the
given problem. An example of this process appears in the article concerned with
boundary-value problems.
Each type of integral transform particularly appropriate to the solution of certain
is
kinds of linear boundary-value problems. The Laplace transform has proved to be

especially useful for solving transient problems of the type arising in the conduction
heat in solids and in vibration theory. In contrast to he Laplace transform, where
of
the transformed variable usually the time, the Fourier transforms are generally
is
taken with respect to space variable over an infinite or semi-infinite interval. The
a
Hankel transform applicable when the problem has symmetry about an axis and a
is
radial variable from to w present. The Mellin transform similar to the Fourier
is
is
0
transform in its application.

should be noted that the transform of the product of two arbitrary or unknown
It
functions cannot be obtained usefully in terms of the transforms of the individual

functions. Consequently, the integral transform method successful only when the
is
coefficients involved in a boundary-value problem are either independent of or ele

mentary functions of the transform variable.
6.21 Laplace Transform. The Laplace transform f(s) of a function F(l) defined
is
by
f"
f(s) = e-"F(D dt ~L\F\ (95)
The Laplace transform of F(t) exists F(t) sectionally continuous in every finite
is
if
interval in > and of exponential order, that is, there exist constants and
C
it
is
if
0
I
such that
M
lim e~"\F(t)\ < M

00
>
l
The inverse Laplace transform denoted by L-1| /()). This indicates that
is
L\F(t)\ -/() and F(t) = L~l\f()]

The inverse transform not always easily obtained. The use of tables of trans
is
forms the most convenient method of obtaining the inverse transform. The general
is
Table 6. Laplace Transforms
No. F(0 = I."1 !/()!

/(.) - L|F(D)
- F(0+)
!
2
F'(f) /(s)
"/() - "-'F(0+) - "-F'(0+) - - F-(0+)
ft
3
) qF(x) dz -X)
4
fofoFMixdx<
-
>
5
flQF,(t r)Fi(f) oV /(()
= convolution
6 <"A'(() (-1) "/(>()
"
7 y ax) 0,
_
13
1 3 5
(2n - 1)
( i, 2, )
14 C-'e-'
(r(V*>o)
is a)*
t
15 cob a(
s1 + a'
a
10 sin a(
< + o
a
17 sinh at
' - a'
18 cosh a/
19 1 cos at
* + a'
s= o> -
(s' + o')i
2as
20 t sin af
( + a')'
2"a n!"
21 f" sin at
( + a')-+>
22 coa 2 ~>V/.
23 (wt)-54 sin 2 Vtf .-'-*/<
24 /o(2 Vfa) !.-*/.
25 /o(al) (.' + o>)-W
26 ^(o() (Re > -1) 0-'|r,i + aj)W _ ,](,, ol)-M
27 t'J,(<*) (Re * > - H) r-lM + H)(2o) V
+
+ <.=)-'-Ji
28 e-*V ,t > o)
-
29 erfc
(jrW) - e

(* > 0)
30 M--p(-g >0)
inversion procedures, however, involve inversion theorems and most often inversion
integrals or series. The references contain tables of transforms as well as more
information concerning the following transforms.
The inversion integral for a function f(s) is given by
+
LrM/WI -;r-. lim fy '0e"f(z)dz (96)
where the integration is along a line parallel to the imaginary axis in the complex z
plane. The following theorem, essentially the same as the one found in Churchill's
"Modern Operational Mathematics in Engineering," relates the inversion integral
and inverse transform:
Inversion Theorem. If /(s) is an analytic function of s and is of order 0(s-t) in some
half plane R * > c, where k and c are real constants and k > 1, then the inversion
integral L,~H/(s) \ along any line Re z = y, where y > c, converges to a function F(l)
that is independent of y and whose Laplace transform is/(); that
is,
F(f) -LrM/) and ITOI -/()
Fit) continuous for each > of order 0(1") for all > and such that
0,
0,
is
is
is
/
I
F(0) =
0.
often possible (see references) to express the inversion integral in terms of an

is
It
infiniteseries or an equivalent infinite integral.

6.22 Fourier Transforms. The Fourier transform f(y) of a function F(x)
is
defined by
"<o
fr
/(!/) = (2t)- e'F(t) dt (97)
The function /(;/) ailed the

also called spectral function for F(x). The Fourier integral
is
formally states that

>t
theorem
-i
- F(<)e'
\"
f"
F(x) =
2jr -" dy dt (98)
J
J
This leads to Fourier's inversion formula
F(x) = (2)- f~Kf(y)e-'ydV (99)

For real Fix) the right-hand side of the Fourier integral theorem has the form
- -
J~
dt
dy
J"x F(t) cos 2iry((
z)
(100)
If fix) scctionally continuous in every finite interval, and dx con

is
\fix)\
if
/
verges, then at every point where fix) has right- and left-hand derivatives
[F(x+) F(x-)\ = -
"
dy
*
F(t) cos 2*y(.t - x) dt
+
(101)
Jf
TT J
2
If fix) an odd function, the Fourier sine transform

is
'
(2J
/(?/) =
J('
Fit) sin j/<di (102)
with the inversion formula
fiy)
(2)
Jo"
Fix) = sin xy dy (103)

Table 7. Fourier Transforms
No. F(x) - (2i)"

^ /()-'
rf /(V) = (2r) Wy* b
ax
/(x)e'>
^
2 F(x) f/0/>
s -'/()
ax
e'F(x) /(?/ a)
+
4
5 F(x + xo) -"o/(j/)
j"
H 1 (y)
7 (2ir) -M
_ F)0(z -I)^ /()()
8 (2x)-|x|-W l|-w
9 W<.
ll>a
0
sin ax1
->-.( +
:)
10
11 cos ax3
p < x < 9
12 i(2r)
0 x < p, x > g where p < q
g-e+iw x > 0
13 0 x < 0 + + )"'
i(2x) -4(><>
J_
1_
M
kl ll/l
- -
j.
IE |x| 0 < Re s < 1
(;)M|I'-T(1 )sin
16 c-" Re > 0 (2)-*VV<

17 [(a3 + )** + alW(a> + y>)'M
1
18 x + o
- H H
(5)
\a\
(a x) kl < '<)
19 0 kl >o
V-
20 (*> + <.') (-) K.(a |y|)
pk) kl 1
obtained. f(x) an even function, the Fourier cosine transform

If
is
is
(-)
f(y) = cos,<tt C104)

/0"f)
with the inversion formula
(105)
obtained.
j)
is
5.23 Hankel Transforms. The Hankel transform of order of function. F"(

y
f(>j)
a
defined by
is
("
f(y) = xJ,{xy)F(x) dx
(106)
The inversion formula given by

is
= yJ,(xy)f(y) dy
(107)
J0"
Sec. 3-2]
analysis 3-131
5.24 Mellin Transform. The Mellin transform fiy) of a function Fix) is defined by
fiy) =
[J x>~lF(x) dx (108)
The inversion formula is given by
-i-.
Fix) fC+" f(y)x-'dy (109)
6.26 Finite Fourier Transforms. The finite sine transform f,(n) and finite cosine
transform d n) of a function F(x) are defined, respectively, by
f
= ('f(x) sinnxdx n =
2,
f.(n) . (110)
1,
.
and /.(n) = F(x) cos nx dx n - (Ill)
0,
2,
. . .
f"
1,
The inversion formulas for these transformations are given, respectively, by
-- /.(") sin nx < x <

Y
F(x) (112)
n-l 0
-
and F(x) = - /,(n) cos nx < x < *

+
fc(0) 0 (113)
)
n *
1
6.3 Linear Integral Equations

The following four types of linear integral equations are commonly noted:
Volterra equation of the first kind
:
K(x,s)y(s)d -fix)
J*
(114)
Volterra equation of the second kind

:
-
K(x,s)y(s)
[*
y(x) ds = /(*) (115)
Fredholm equation of the first kind:
K(x,s)y(s) ds = f(x)
f*
(116)
Fredholm equation of the second kind:
yix) - Kix,s)yis) ds = fix) 17)

J*
(1
The problem for these linear integral equations to determine the unknown function
is
y(x) that satisfies the equation in the desired interval. It assumed that the func
is
tions Kix,s), f(x) and the limits o and are known. K(x,s) called the kernel of the
is
b
equation. These equations are called integral equations, since the unknown function
appears in the integrand. Similarly the equations are called linear, since the unknown
function y(x) occurs- linearly.
Although some theory related to nonlinear integral equations, most of the existing
is
theory deals with linear equations.

'
y(x) + K(x,s) sin [;/()] ds = /(x)

Jb
is an example of a nonlinear equation, since the unknown function appears nonlinearly
through a sine function. Some theory has also been developed for systems of linear
integral equations and linear integral equations in more than one independent variable.
This article, however, deals only with linear integral equations in one independent
variable.
An integral equation is called singular if either one or both of the limits of integration
become infinite or if the kernel becomes infinite at one or more points of its domain.
e~"y(s) ds -
f(x)
and
[x - 1
y(s) ds =
f /(x)
J" Vi s
are examples of singular equations.

There are t wo common methods of relating linear differential equations and Vollerra
integral equations. Consider the linear differential equation
/<
;/(x) + Ai(x)y<"- = *>(*)

i=1
If one lets z(x) = then
Jj - -
!/<"-"(z) = z() ds + a_, i/("-2,(-r)

J* (i )*() ds + a_,x + a_s
and finally
y{x) - JOL tHrr z(s) * + a-' , + + a

(n

1)! (n im
1)!
Direct substitution in the differential equation leads then to the integral equation
j* - s)A,
[a,
A]
*(*) + +
+ *() <fc = /(x)
(x
+
The other method consists of repeated integration of the differential equation. It is

not difficult to verify using the formula
/;*4j/w*
r
r

/*
that the differential equation will then become
;/(x) + K(x,s)y(s) ds = /(*) (118)

b-
l
where K(x,s) = t,(s)(x

V
s)', the A\(s) being functions of Ai(s).

=
0
i
Most developments of linear integral equations deal with Fredholm equations, since
Volterra equation can be considered as special case of Fredholm equation with a
a
a
a
kernel K(x,s) which defined for a < < x < and zero for a < x < < b.
is
is
s
s
Often either a parameter appears naturally or convenient to introduce such a

is
it
X
parameter in the discussion of a integral equation. The equation
-
j*
y(x) K(x,s)y{s) ds =/(x) (119)

X
exhibits the customary location of a parameter.

There are three general methods leading to the solution of Fredholm equations of the
second kind with a parameter. The first method is called the method of successive,
substitution. In this method the unknown function is obtained as a power series in
x with the coefficients being functions of the independent variable as. This series is
usually called a Neumann series and converges for certain values of X. Method two
is due to Fredholm and will be called the Fredholm method. The unknown function in
this technique is obtained first as the ratio of two power series in X. The power series
in the numerator has coefficients that are functions of x, while the denominator power
series has coefficients that are independent of x. This method considers the integral
equation as the limit of a set of n linear algebraic equations in n unknowns when n
tends to infinity. The Hilbert-Schmidt theory provides the third method for obtaining
a solution. In this theory the unknown function is obtained in the form of a series of
fundamental or characteristic functions. These characteristic functions, or eigen-
funrlions, are solutions of the homogeneotis integral equation and are associated with
particular values of the parameters called characteristic numbers or eigenvalues.
Before indicating some of the results obtained by these three methods, it is worth
while to consider the special case where the kernel has the form
,) -t Ai(x)Rds)
where -4,(jr) and B<(y) are continuous and linearly independent. For a Fredholm
n
V
equation of the first kind it is necessary that f(x) = C,-.4i(j) in order that the
I i
equation have a solution. The general solution of this equation can then be written
in the form
n
y(x) = o.fl.Cr) + h(x)

1
h(x) is any function orthogonal h(s)Bi(s) ds =

is,
where to all the B<(as); that
0.
J
For Fredholm equations of the second kind with the above type of kernel a solution
of the form .
,
n
y(x) -/(x) + aAdx)

i-
1
assumed. necessary and sufficient condition that there exist unique solution
A
is
and set of r, that a certain determinant not equal to zero. This determinant
is
A
is
defined by
is
-
dsj
= det
jb
Bi(s)Ai(s)
A
where ,-, is the Kroneoker delta and n. This solution can be

1,
j
i,
written as
=
/(*) + L{x,s)f{s) ds
J*
y
AAx) A.(x)
0
where L(x,s)
If A = 0, solutions may also exist. This situation parallels the linear algebraic case
and corresponding results hold.
6.31 Successive Substitution. The method of successive substitution describes
in its name the process used to obtain a solution. Successive substitution for yix)
gives
- fix)
y(x) = f{x) + X
K(x,s)y(s) d
+ K(x,s) + Kb.sJyM dst

J* J* J
X X
[/(*)
f Kf + \* f
K.f
= =
f(x) + X Kf+

+
x
i+i
where the integration indicated symbolically. If, then,
is
lim X"JA $K = lim (\fK)"y -
0
y
n n+M
*
then formally
w
vix) - fix) + y a-)"/

(x
Theorem gives the essential result for this method. f

1
Theorem If the kernel K(x,) real and continuous in its domain < x <
b,
1.
(a
is
a < < b), A(x,s)| < M in this domain, fix) continuous, and the parameter
if
if
is
if
a
satisfies < l/[A/(b a)], then the equation

|X|
yix) - Kix,s)yis) d = fix)

J*
X
has a unique continuous solution that given by

is
'fix)
V
yix) + (120)
A')"/
(x
f
The series involved in this solution converges absolutes and uniformly.

Tn the case of the Volterra equation
yix) - Kix,s)yis) ds = fix)

J'
X
the theorem holds without the restriction on the size of |X|.

5.32 Fredholm Method. The Fredholm method evolved from considering a
system of linear equation that replaces the integral equation. Divide the range of
integration into n equal parts of length and consider the unknown function and the
h,
kernel at corresponding values of the independent variable. The system of n

n
equations in the n unknowns yiii)
yiii) - hKixi,Si)yisj) = /() =

1,
2,
X

2
corresponds to the integral equation
V(x)
- j* K(x,s)y(s)
X ds = f(x)
The solution of these linear equations, providing A ^ 0, is given by
iKxv) =
A
where A 1 det (i,, X/iA,,), A;, = K(xi,Sj), and A,, is the first minor of the element
in the ith row and jth column. The determinant A can be expanded in the form
A,
(-**)
+
n!
A,.
The limit as n tends to infinity leads formally to
lim A a )(X) <ixv

j Ad,,.?,) A'(x,-,i)
/xi xA
where
A(xi,,) A(x,,s,)
In a corresponding fashion
- D(*,*;X) - V / '
/K
*')
lim
% X
(***
Vx, dxt </xi
Li k\ '
Xk/
h
n>m
* ,
=
0
*
The solution given above for y(xi) can lx> rewritten in the form
a'
=

i
where the prime indicates that ft Hy starting with this solution, by taking the
j,
i
limit as n tends to infinity, and by noting that x,- can be any point of a < x <
is
it
b,
possible to obtain the formal result
t/(x) =/(x) + L(x,s,\)f(s) ds
T, D(x,s,X)
where
The two primary results of the Fredholm theory can be expressed in Theorems
2
and 3.
Theorem If the kernel A(x,s) continuous in its domain, /(x) continuous,
2.
is
is
if
and D(\) then the equation

if
0,
y{x) ~x K(x,s)y(s) ds = f(x)

ja
has the unique continuous solution
y{z) = /(x) + j* L(x,8;\)f(s) ds (121)
where, as obtained formally before,
j. .
=
D(x,s,X)
L(x's'x)
~WT
The power series D(\) converges absolutely for all X, and the power series D(x,s,\)
converges uniformly with respect to x and s in its domain and converges absolutely
for all X.
Theorem 3. There exists at most a denumerable number of values of X, called char
acteristic values or eigenvalues, for which D(\) = 0. In general no solution will exist
for X0 such that )(X0) =
is,
for the nonhomogeneous integral equation, that f(x)
0.
0,
f(x) =
is,
On the other hand the homogeneous integral equation, that has no non-
0,
trivial solution except for those Xo where Z)(X0) = 0. These theorems and other
existing results or theorems are analogous to theorems for systems of linear algebraic
equation.
5.33 Hilbert-Schmidt Theory. The Hilbert-Schmidt theory developed with
is
the same conditions on the kernel K(x,s) and the function f(x) that are used for the
Fredholm theory. In addition assumed the kernel symmetric. symmetric
A
is
is
it
kernel satisfies the condition

K(x,s) = K(s,x)
Before some of the results of Hilbert-Schmidt theory are indicated, the types of com
mon kernel may be noted. Hermitian kernel satisfies the condition
A
K(x,s) K(s,x)
where the bar indicates the complex conjugate. skerv-Hermitian kernel satisfies
A
A'(x,s) = K(s,x)
polar kernel has the form
A
p(s)K(x,s)
where A'(x,s) symmetric kernel. Any equation that has a polar kernel may be
is
a
transformed into an equation with symmetric kernel. kernel A"(x,s) called

A
is
a
positive definite
if
dsdt >
jb
Jbf(t)K(l,s)f(s)
for any continuous bounded fix). If the inequality reversed, the kernel called
is
is
negative definite. If the equality also permitted, the kernel called semidefiniie.
is
is
The following concepts appear in the results of Hilbert-Schmidt theory. A function

z(x) normalized
is
if
z{x)z(x)dx = =
jb
jb
z(x)*dx
1
As usual the bar indicates the complex conjugate. Two functions 21(2) and Zj(x) are
said to be orthogonal
if
'b
z,(x)z,(x) dx =
,
set of functions |z,(x) said to be orthonormal

A
if
is
)
r6
z,(x)z*(x) dx = Sit
whore S,t is the Kroneckcr delta. A set of functions Zi(x) defined on the interval
a < x < b is called complete if the only function of the type being considered that is
orthogonal to every z,(x) is the zero function. A value X0 such that the homogeneous
equation
y(x) = \0 K(.x,s)y(s) ds
Jb
has a nontrivial solution is called a characteristic value or eigenvalue. A correspond
ing function is called a characteristic function or eigenfunction.
Some of the more important results of Hilbert-Schmidt can be summarized as
follows. Given a real, symmetric, continuous, nonzero kernel, the following properties
hold:
1. There exists at least one eigenvalue X0.
2. All the eigenvalues are real, and the eigenfunction can be assumed real.
3. There exists a complete orthonormal set of eigenfunctions {yi(x)\.
4. A continuous function f(x) can be expressed in the form
where
The scries if infinite is uniformly convergent on a < x < b.
5.4 Calculus of Variation

The methods of calculus of variation are generally separated into direct and indirect
methods. In the direct method a suitable approximate variational problem is formu
lated in which a finite set of n constants or parameters is to be determined. It then
may be possible to let n tend to infinity in the solution of the approximate problem
and thus lead to the solution of the original problem. In the indirect method a
related differential equation, often called the Euler equation, is usually obtained.
Some solution of the differential equation can then be shown to solve the variational
problem. Only some elementary results of the indirect method follow.
6.41 Euler Equations. The simplest general problem of the calculus of variation
consists of obtaining a function ;/ = y(x) that gives a minimum (or maximum) value
to the integral
I - (x,y,
dx = f(x,y,y') dx
Jxi
f
\
where the values X\, x2, y(xi), and y(x?) are given. The given function taken to bo
is
/
twice continuously differentiable with respect to its arguments. Furthermore, the

sought function y(x) assumed to be twice differentiable.
is
Let y{x) denote the minimizing function for the integral and let tj(z) be function
/,
ij
a
de6ned for xi < x < that possesses a continuous second derivative and such that
is
liii) = = 77(22) but otherwise arbitrary. Consider then the set of comparison
is
0
functions Y(x) defined by
Y(x) = y(x) + enix) = y(x) ty(x)

+
where tis a parameter. Since ij(x) vanishes at the end points X\ and xj, Y(x\) = y(x\)
and Y(ii) = y(x). The set of functions Y(x) have two important properties. First,
and i;(x)
by
proper choice of possible to represent any suitably differentiable

is
it
t
function satisfying the end conditions. Second, no matter what jj(x) chosen, y(x)
is
member of the set for = The quantity Sy = ti){x) called the variation
of
0.
is
s
a
thefunction y(x).
Consider next the integral
/() = [X'f(x,Y,Y')dx
Since letting < = 0 is seen to be equivalent to replacing Y and dY/dX and y and
dy/dx, the integral /() is a minimum with respect to e when < = 0. It follows that
a necessary condition for a minimum is given by
4
d
/() I
= /'(0) = 0
| = 0
Now
and therefore
-/:(if'+'')*-
The integration by parts of this last integral gives
which is valid for any of the chosen r/(x).

The basic or fundamental lemma of the calculus of variation states the following:
If the equation
v(x)H(x) dx -0 (122)
/.:
with H (x) a continuous function, valid for all functions ir(x) that vanish at the end
is
point and are twice continuously different iable, then H(x) = identically in Xi <
0
< Xi. Proof of this lemma may be found in the references.
x
The use of this lemma with the above equation I'(0) = leads to the Eider (or
0
Euler-Lagrange) differential equation
-(&)-*-*- (,23>
or in detail, -
l/"/V + + -
ft
v7' /'
0
This seen to be second-order differential equation for the unknown function y(x).
is
The two constants of integration can be evaluated from the end-point conditions.
The condition /'(0) = which leads to the Euler equation, not sufficient condi
0,
is
tion for minimum of /(). This condition /'(0) = indeed may imply a minimum,
a
a maximum, or a stationary value (or inflection point) for I(t).

The term extremum to the value of /() applied to all three cases. The Euler
is
differential equation a necessary condition for the existence of an extremum.

is
Every solution of the Euler equation called an extremal (or extremizing function).
is
The sufficient conditions for the minimum (or maximum) of 1(e) are quite involved
and may be found in the references. Often the physical situation indicates the type
of extremum obtained.
The expression
- -I/,,.] iydx +//
J"
[/,
SI = /'(0) =
8;/]"
even ej = 4// does not vanish at the end points, called the variation (or first
if
is
variation) of the integral

/.
The problem discussed above may be generalized in number of ways. Con.sider

a
first the integral
/> l,Xl, . . ,Xn,Xu . ,i) dt

.
.
.
where the superior dot denotes differentiation with respect to the independent variable
(. Proceeding in a fashion similar to the above problem, the Euler equations becomo
M()-'~-5'-
Ox,

For the integral
I =
\ J\x,y,y',v", ,y]dx
the Euler equation becomes
h - t-/,<
d
+ T-J>"
d*
-
+
d"
(-V"t-J,W = 0
dx ax' dx"
Finally consider the double integral
I = 1 1 f(x,y,v,vTv) dx dy
where D is the region of integration and v takes on prescribed values on the boundary
of D. The Euler differential equation becomes
dx dy
or in detail
f,,*,Vxz + 2/,,vx + /,,,, + fvt>, + /,,, + /, + /,, - /, = 0
6.42 Lagrange's and Hamilton's Equations. In classical dynamics, when a system

is conservative, a variational principle, called Hamilton's principle, can be used to
determine the equations of motion. For a system with n degrees of freedom it is
possible to choose n independent quantities gi, . . . , qn that specify the configuration
of the system. The corresponding velocities are given by <Ji, . . . , q where dq/dt = $.
The kinetic energy T is given by a quadratic function in the #s; that
is,
2
Wi9i
where the a,,s may be functionsof the qs. For conservative systems the external
force given by the gradient of scalar potential function or energy V. The kinetic
is
is a
=
V,
potential or Lagrange function defined by the difference between the

L
kinetic and potential energy. Hamilton's principle states that
dt =
s:L
(124)
0
The Euler equations that result from this principle are
(gO - - -
^
(125)
1,
2
0
These equations are customarily called Lagrange's equations motion.

of
For a conservative system, the total energy E, which equal to the sum of the kinetic
is
and potential energy, constant throughout the motion of the system. When the
is
a
total energy expressed in terms of the coordinates and the momenta p, called
is
it
is
q
the Hamillonian function H. The momentum p< for the ?'th coordinate given by
is
n
The variational principle now gives
f' Ldl - - H)
f''
* = S (T V) dl = f''(2T
5
Without giving the details, the resulting Euler equations, called Hamilton's canonical
equations, become
aH
aH _
,
qi = p,- = =
.
and n
2,
. .
1,
i
.
,
dpi dqt
Auxiliary Conditions. In many problems a function sought that renders one
is
integral an extremum and that causes one or more other integrals to take on pre
scribed values. Variational problems that involve such auxiliary integral conditions
are often called isoperimetric problems. Consider, for example, minimizing the integral
"
'
f(x,y,y') dx
I
/
subject to the integral
K = g(x,y,y') dx
/
having a given prescribed value. If function /* defined by

is
a
r =
^
+
/
where the constant (-ailed an undetermined or Lagrange multiplier, the Euler

is
X
equation becomes
dy dx \dy'J
The three constants, the two integration constants, and can be evaluated from the
X
end conditions and by giving K its prescribed value.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Some references for various sections follow:
Art. Refs. 11, 16

1.
Art 10, 15, 17. 22, 25, 27, 36, 37

6,
Refs.
6, 1, 2, 2,
2.
Art. 3. Refs. 4. 21, 25, 34
Art. 4. Refs. 12, 13. 19, 28, 30, 32, 38
3,
4,
8,
9,
7,
Art. 5. Refs. 12, 14, 15, 18, 23, 24, 31, 33, 35, 39
General: 12, 20, 26, 29, 40
Batcman, H.: "Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics," Cambridge
1.
Pniversity Press, New York, 1932.

2. Carslaw, II. S.: "Theory of Fourier Series and Integrals," The Macmillan Company,
New York, 1930.
3. Carslaw, II. S., and J. C. Jaeger: "Conduction of Heat in Solids," Oxford University
Press, New York, 1947.
4. Churchill, R. V.:
" Fourier Series and Boundary Value Problems,"
McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1941.
5. Churchill, R. V'.: "Introduction to Complex Variables and Applications," McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1948.
6. Churchill, R. V.: "Modern Operational Mathematics in Engineering," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1944.
7. Coddin^ton. K. A., and N. Levinson: "Theory of Ordinary Differential Equations,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1955.
8. Collatz, L. : "Numerische Behandlung von Differentialgleichungen," Springer-Verlag
OHG, Berlin, 1951.
9. Collatz, L.: " Eigenwertaufgaben mit tcchnischen Anwendungcn," Mathematik und
ihre Anwendungen in Physik und Technik, Keihe A, Bd. 19, Akademische Verlags-
gesellschaft, Leipzig, xvii + 466 pp., 1949.
10. Copson, E. T.: "Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable," Oxford University
11. Courant, R.: "Differential and Integral Calculus," vols. 1 and 2, Interscience Pub
Inc., New York, 1946 reprint.
lishers,
12. Courant, R., and D. Hilbert: "Methoden der Mathematischen Physik," vols. 1 and 2,
Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1937. (Vol. 2 reprint Interscience Publishers, Inc.,
1943.)
13. Courant. R., K. Friedrichs, and H. Lewy: tlber die particllen Differenzengleichungen
der mathematischen Physik. Math. Ann., 100: 32 (1928).
14. Doetsch, G.: "Theorie und Anwendung der Laplace-Transformation," Springer-Verlag
OHG, Berlin, 1937, reprinted Dover Publications, New York, 1943.
15. Erd61yi, A. (Bateraan Project): "Higher Transcendental Functions," 3 vols., "Tables
of Integral Transforms," 2 vols., McGraw-Hill Book Company. Inc., New York, 1953.
16. Goursat, E. : "Cours d'analyse mathematique," vols. 2 and 3, Gauthicr-Villars et Cie,
Paris, 1915.
1". Hobson, E. W.: "The Theory of Functions of a Real Variable," Cambridge University
Press, London, 1907.
18. Householder, A. S. : "Principles of Numerical Analysis," McGraw-Hill Book Com
pany, Inc., New York, 1953.
19. Ince. E. L.: "Ordinary Differential Equations," Longmans, Green & Co., Inc., New
York, 1927, reprint Dover Publications, New York, 1945.
20. Jeffreys, H. J., and B. S. Jeffreys: "Methods of Mathematical Physics," Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1946.
21. Koopp, K.: "Theory and Application of Infinite Series," Blackie & Son, Ltd., Glasgow,
first issued 1928, reprinted 1944, 1946.
22. Knopp, K.: "Theory of Functions," vol. 1, 1945, vol. 2, 1947, Dover Publications,
New York.
23. Lass, H.: "Vector and Tensor Analysis," New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., 1950.
24. Lovitt, W. V.: "Linear Integral Equations," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1924, reprint Dover Publications, New York, 1950.
<fe
25. MacRobert, T. M.: "Spherical Harmonics," Methuen Co., Ltd., London, 1927,
reprint Dover Publications, New York, 1948.
26. Madelung, E.: "Mathematischen Hilfsmittel des Physikers," Springer-Verlag OHG,
Berlin, 1936, reprint Dover Publications, New York, 1943.
27. Magnus, W., and F. Oberhettinger: "Special Functions of Mathematical Physics,"
Springer-Verlag OHG, Berlin, 1943, reprint, Chelsea, New York. 1949.
28. Milne, William Edmund: "Numerical Solution of Differential Equations," John Wiley
Sons, Inc., New York, 1953.

&
-*9. Morse, Philip M., and Herman Feshbach: "Methods of Theoretical Physics," Parts
1
and McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953.

2,
30. Moulton, F. R.: "Differential Equations," pp. 179 -231, The Macmillan Company,
New York. 1930.
31. Phillips, H. B.: "Vector Analysis," John Wiley Sons, Inc., New York, 1933.
&
32. Scarborough, J. B.: "Numerical Mathematical Analysis," 2d ed., Johns Hopkins

Press, Baltimore, 1950.
33. Sneddon. N.: "Fourier Transforms," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
I.
York, 1951.
34. Szego, G.: "Orthogonal Polynomials," American Mathematical Society, New York,
1939.
35. Titchmarsh, E. C: "Introduction to the Theory of Fourier Integrals," Oxford Uni
versity Press, New York, 1937.
38. Titchmarsh, E. C:
"Theory of Functions," Oxford University Press, New York, 1939.
i". Watson, G. N.: "Treatise on the Theory of Bessel Functions," Cambridge University
3S. Webster, A. G.: "Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics," Stechert-
Hafner, Inc., New York, 1933.
v:<. Weinstock, R.: "Calculus of Variations," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1952.
E. T., and G. N. Watson: "A Course in Modern Analysis," chaps. to
9,
40. Whittaker,
1
Cambridge University Press, New York. 1940.

3-3 PRINCIPLES OF HIGH-SPEED COMPUTING MACHINERY
BY
Ward Conrad Sangren and Alston S. Householder
It is apparent that many of the practical problems of science and engineering are
essentially computational. The last decade has seen the viewpoint toward computa
tions change radically because of the advent of high-speed machines. This should be
expected in any field where an improvement of high order, say 10* or more, has
suddenly taken place. The improvment here is in the length of time required to carry
out certain mathematical operations.
1 DIGITAL COMPUTING MACHINERY

The abacus and the desk calculator are well-known examples of digital computers.
The abacus is a computer in a limited sense only. By an arrangement of beads on
wires it can represent numbers in the decimal base, and additions and subtractions
are performed by manipulating the beads in accordance with certain simple rules.
Rules for multiplication and division are somewhat more complicated. Desk calcu
lators perform one or more of the arithmetic operations automatically. Thus, for
addition, one enters the commands by pressing keys, and then one presses the appro
priate operation button at which the machine adds and exhibits the result on a dial.
It is explained elsewhere that transcendental functions, square roots, etc., can be
represented approximately by means of interpolation polynominals, truncated power
series, continued fractions, and the like. Given such a representation, one can
evaluate the function approximately by carrying out a finite number of arithmetic
operations. Techniques have also been developed in some cases for obtaining these
approximate representations; e.g., when the function is known to satisfy a given
differential equation, these techniques themselves require the performance of arith
metic operations, finite in number (numerical solution of differential and other equa
tions). One uses a digital computer to "solve" a mathematical problem in the sense
that the arithmetic operations can be carried out on the computer. The result, is
generally an approximation only to the theoretically correct result, but in most

physical problems an approximation, if sufficiently close, is quite as satisfactory as the
theoretically correct result.
Operands must be entered manually into the desk calculator, and results copied
manually on paper. Punchcd-card machines, however, can read the operands from
cards by sensing the location of holes punched in the cards. They can also punch the
results out on cards. These results can, in turn, be printed by a printer that reads
the cards itself, or if the results are intermediate and not final, they can be returned
to the calculating machine as operands for subsequent steps in the calculation. In
some punched-card machines the cards contain not only the operands but also the
coded designation of the operation to be performed. Thus the machine reads the
card to determine both operands and operations. Operating speeds are of the order of
magnitude of seconds or possibly tenths of a second.
The electronic digital computer is almost completely automatic. Division, the
slowest operation, requires on some machines only a fraction of a millisecond and on
some under construction only a few microseconds. Typically, such a machine con
sists of a memory or More, an arithmetic unit, a control, and various input and output
units. In terms of function, the elementary constituents, besides the connecting
wires, are of two classes (realized electronically, however, in many different ways,
3-142
Sec. 3-3] high-speed computing machinery 3-143
sometimes within the same machine). Elements of the first class are bistable, or
on-off, often called toggles or flipflops. Those of the second class are gates and
inverters. The on-off elements may be thought of as emitting or not emitt ing a signal.
An inverter converts a signal to no signal or vice versa. A gate that has t wo or more
inputs is one of two types. An "and" gate transmits only when all inputs carry
signals; an "or" gate transmits when any input carries a signal. Clock signals super
imposed upon the entire system maintain the synchrony of operation of the system.
Typically the store consists of one or a few thousand sets of flipflops. A set may
include 16 (as in the Whirlwind at MIT) but more often contains about 40 flipflops.
In the Princeton-type machines, such as the Oracle at Oak Ridge, it is exactly 40. An
ordered set of 40 bistable elements is capable of representing 240 distinct "messages"
(since each of the 40 elements can be either off or on). Any one of these messages is
known as a word, and a word can, in turn, stand for a number or for an instruction or
combination of instructions for the machine. Thus, when a computation is started,
the dates and the instructions, all properly coded and properly organized, are read into
the store. Each instruction must specify an operation and the location(s) in the store
of the necessary operand (s). Some machines go sequentially through the store until
the sequence is interrupted by a special jump (or transfer) command. Most com
monly, machines are "one-address" or "three-address," although "two-address" and
"four-address" machines exist. In a three-address machine, the typical command
is made up of the code symbols for the operation, the locat ions of two operands, and
the location to which the result is to be sent in the store. In the one-address machine
only one location is associated with an operation, and addition, for example, must be
broken into three steps: bringing the augend from the store to the appropriate register
it,
in the arithmetic unit, adding the addend to and returning the result from the
arithmetic unit to the specified location in the store. The last step unnecessary
is
when the sum not needed for itself but only as an operand in the operation next
is
to be performed.
Many computations (and these are the ones for which the machine most effective)
is
consist mainly of cycles of operations, each performed many times, though, of course,
on different operands. Thus, in applying an iterative scheme (such as Newton's
method) for solving an equation, one obtains consecutive terms of a sequence Xo, Xi,
X% ... by a formula
Xi+i = <f(Xi)
As soon as Xi has been evaluated from one evaluates A',+t from Xi by the same
formula, and the process continues until some convergence criterion satisfied.
is A
is
particular location in the memory will be selected for storing each A", until
it
replaced by Xi+\. The machine will be given the sequence of instructions needed for
evaluating the <pof the X found in that location. Next, there will be instructions for
comparing the result Xi+i with X, to see the convergence criterion satisfied. If
if
is
not, the new Xi+i will be stored and jump command will start the cycle over again.
a
But satisfied, one wants the machine to continue to the next step (or steps).
is
if
it
Hence, conditional jumps are required that take place only certain condition
is
if
a
fulfilled. Different machines utilize different conditions, but a common one that
is
the number in a particular register be positive (or negative).

sequence of operation prescribed for machine called a routine; the coded
is
A
instructions together with numerical data, as read into the store, arc a code; the plan and
organization of a machine computation arc called a program. code consisting of
A
only a few hundred words might easily call forth many thousands of distinct operations
by the machine as result of the cycles illustrated above, and, indeed, there would be
a
no advantage in using computer of this type on problem unless cycles occur. The
a
a
ratio of machine operations per word of coding one crude measure of the utility of
is
programed computer for given problem. However, other factors affect the choice
a
automatic vs. hand computation. One the availability of subroutines.

of
is
Certain functions, such as the elementary transcendent als, roots, and Bessel func
tions, occur with considerable frequency in computing work. Consequently, a routine
for computing one of these might be used many times in many different computations.
These routines should be coded once for all and in such way that they are easily
a
incorporated in any program that requires them. The larger the library of such pre-
coded routines, the less the labor of coding a new problem, in general, and the more
feasible it is to use the machine for any given problem.
For all machines, addition, subtraction, and multiplication are built-in operations.
For some, it is necessary to program division, although this is built in for most. But.
also certain logical operations are necessary, the jump operations being the most
important. Machines differ considerably in their logical operations. They also
differ in t heir representation of numbers. Most computers built for scientific purposes
use the base 2, but others, like the Univac (built by Remington Rand), are decimal.
Binary representation permits a very simple arithmetic unit but requires initial con
version of the data into binary form and a final conversion of the results into decimal
form. Both of these conversions can be coded for the machine.
A decimal machine will use four flipflops to represent each decimal digit. Of the
16 possible states of the set of four binary elements, only 10 are utilized, the other 6
being meaningless. This, together with the more complicated arithmetic, necessitates
more circuitry.
A further difference among machines is that some (like the Univac and the Prince
ton-type machines) are fixed-point and some (like the NORC, Navy, Dahlgren,
Virginia) are floating-point. In a floating-point machine, one set of flipflops is used
to designate the location of the decimal or binary point. This represents an integral
exponent of the base, whether 2 or 10.
In fixed-point machines, it is presumed that all numbers handled by the machine
lie in a limited range generally but not always (e.g., the SEAC, National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D.C.) between 1 and +1. This requires that all quantities
be scaled so as to fall in range, and the programer must take care not to call for an
operation that would yield a result outside this range. Some machines have an
"overflow" device of some sort that detects the occurrence of such an illegitimate
operation. It is always possible to program floating-point operations (at considerable
expense in terms of speed of operation).
For some problems the number of digits representable by a Bingle word does not
provide sufficient precision. Thus the Oracle's 40-digit word provides 1 binary digit
for the sign and 39 for the magnitude. This is equivalent to about 11 decimal digits.
For rare problems the rounding errors build up to such an extent that higher precision
is required. For such it is possible to program "double-precision" operations by
means of which two words can be used to represent each number. As with floating
point operations, however, the speed is greatly reduced.
As already mentioned, the advantage of the binary representation lies in the fact
that the arithmetic is simpler and that all states of the flipflops, instead of only 'P-ê
of them, are meaningful. To illustrate, consider the following binary multiplication:

= 2"1 + 2-3 + 2~ = lHa
-
0.1011
= 2-' + 2"2 + 2~
0J101 Ji6
1011
1011
1011
0.10001111 = 2~' + 2~' + 2~ + 2"' + 2-" = 14;,-2'5r,
As a further illustration of the system itself, consider the binary representation of sonic
simple fractions:
2-' - 0.10000
3-1 = 2 2(1 - . . .
2-')-' = 2-'(l + 2 ' + 2-" +

-
0.01010101 . . .
)
4-' = 0.010000 . . .
5-1 = 2-2(1 + 25)1 = 2-H1 - 2- + 2" - 2" )
-
0.001 1001 10011 . . .
+
6-' = 2-'0 3"1
- 2-)"1 - 2-'(l
= 0.001010101 . . .

7-1 = 2-(l + 2- + 2- + +
- 0.001001001
2~ )
. . .
Sec. 3-3] HIGH-SPEED COMPUTING MACHINERY 3-145
further difference among binary machines lies in the treatment of negative
A still
numbers and subtraction. In some, the number is represented as a magnitude and a
sign. In others (e.g., those of the Princeton type) a complement representative is
used, as in the common practice of representing a negative logarithm by a positive
mantissa and negative characteristic. Thus, in these machines all numbers are of
(his form:
a = -co + a.0.2-1 + 20.2-! -f- + a.,0.2-"
with each a either 0 or +1. Thus +1 cannot be represented, although to represent

a = -1, one takes ao 1, on = a * =0. What appears in the machine as
0 U0O ... is 2"1 +2- = %, but. what appears in the machine as 1.1100 . . .
is - 1 4- 2~l + 2~5 = Y\. The representation of % would be obtained by
writing
-i/x m _1 + (1 _ 4) - -l + yx = _l + 0.0100 . . .
and this appears in the machine as 1.0100 ....

A simple rule for obtaining the
representation of a is the following: Replace every at by 1 a, (that by and
is,
0
1
0), and thus add 2" to the result. Thus, suppose a were equal to and take
by
4,
1
o - - 0.1100
%
To obtain a write
-o = 1.0011 +0.0001 = 1.0100
Again, taking
a = -%i = 1.1100
write
-a = 0.0011 0.0001
+
= 0.0100
Thus, subtraction reduced to complementation and addition, since to perform

is
the subtraction a one can, instead, obtain first 6 by the above rule and thus
b
obtain + 6).
a
For paper work the binary system has the disadvantage of requiring many char
ters. In computing laboratories that use binary machine customary to group
is
it
a
the binary digits either triads (octal system) or in tetrads (base 10). When group
in
ing
into tetrads, six additional symbols are required, and for this, the letters to
A
F
ire convenient. Thus, one has the following representation:
0000 1000
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0001 1001
.1 9
0010 1010
0011
F E DC B
1011
0100 1100
0101 1101
0110 1110
0111 mi
7
The recommendation was once made that a computing job required less han two
if
rein-years byhand, one should not consider trying to use major machine. This
is
a
^ttt far from

being good advice now. Even a two-day hand job might better be put,
'
machine the program can be made up mostly of existing subroutines and hence
if
s
semblcd quickly and provided, also, the machine close at hand. Nevertheless,
is
'y-mze of the job certainly the first consideration, and the size to be measured in
is
is
aW that increase with the remoteness of the most available machine. The units
-
however, with increased adequacy of the subroutine library for that machine
with increased repetition in the computation or the number of runs of the same
wMem (as in parameter studies). Naturally, short nonrepetitive problem,
if
a
"'teafced many times, becomes long repetitive problem, even the repetitions are
if
a
'dtly spaced. It hard to define precise criterion, especially since this changes
is
a
constantly because of the rapid increase in the availability of machines and in the
number of tested programs.
The on-off elements, as physically realized in the store, are always different from
those in the rest of the machine. Some machines (e.g., the Princeton type) use a
rectangular or square array of spots on the face of a cathode-ray tube. All possible
charge distributions within any spot are separated into two classes. Any distribution
of the one class is taken to represent "on," and any other "off." Magnetized spots
on a rotating drum are used in others; acoustic signals in a mercury tank or nickel bar
in others. The drum is the favored device in the less expensive and slower machines.
The mercury tank is used in the Univacs, and nickel in the Elliott machines in England.
These are intermediate in speed. Newer machines are utilizing magnetized cores of
iron oxides somewhat faster than the cathode-ray tube and transistors, which to date
are slower.
Most of the high-speed digital computers are truly general-purpose computers. In
theory these machines are capable of finding approximate solutions to any mathe
matical problem requiring a quantitative answer. In addition, they arc capable of
solving most business, military, and governmental problems that involve either
logical decisions or data processing.
The mathematics carried out by digital computers is largely that associated with
the field of numerical analysis. Since the customary engineering or science major is
not trained in numerical analysis, it is usually necessary to have a group of people
especially trained who work only with the digital computer.
2 ANALOGUE COMPUTING MACHINERY

The common distinction between digital and analogue computing machines is that
digital machines deal with discrete quantities represented, for example, by counters
or toggles while analogue machines deal with continuous quantities, represented, for
example, by voltages or shaft rotat ions. The slide rule is an example of an elementary
analogue machine.
The cost of an analogue machine is closely related to the accuracy desired from the
machine. Accuracy of 1 per cent is relatively cheap and easy. However, all analogue
machines, primarily because they depend upon continuous measurements, have been
limited in accuracy to less than 0.01 per cent.
Analogue computers can be characterized according to whether the primary com
ponents are mechanical, electromechanical, or electronic. Because of the ease of
operation and maintenance and the relative cheapness, electronic, or d-c, analogue
computers are by far the most numerous. The following remarks therefore concern
d-c analogue computers.
A d-c analogue computer uses d-c voltages, which vary with time, to represent vari
ables. The independent variable of a system of ordinary differential equations is
generally associated with the independent variable, physical time, of the computer.
The solution of a system of differential equations by a d-c computer consists, therefore,
of preparing the computer so that the circuit equations or equations of motions are
similar to or analogous to the given system. Analogue computers that are able to
solve ordinary differential equations are commonly called differential analyzers.
Before indicating in more detail how an electronic differential analyzer is used to solve
ordinary differential equations, it is desirable to consider the representation of mathe
matical quantities in and the computing elements needed for such a computer.
As already indicated, a set of mathematical variables x, y, . . . , z is represented
in a computer by corresponding d-c voltages or machine variables X, Y, . . . , Z.
The machine variables are generally taken as simply proportional, the proportionality
factors being scale factors to the mathematical variables. A problem requires that
certain relations among the machine variables be set up in the computer. For
example, if y is a function of x, then the voltage Y must be set up as a corresponding
function of the voltage X. Physical time r serves as an input to certain computing
devices, such as circuits containing capacitors, in order to produce voltages that
depend upon time. The independent variable I of the mathematical problem is
Sec. 3-3] HIGH-SPEED COMPUTING MACHINERY 3-147
generally taken proportional to the physical time t; that is, t = at, where a is a scale
factor.
In most commercial electronic analogue computers, complicated relations among
(he machine variables and therefore mathematical variables are obtained by combining
a limited number of simple relations or operations. It can be shown that a wide class
of problem can be solved by using computing elements that carry out the following
operations:
1. Multiply a machine variable by a positive or negative constant.
2. Add two or more machine variables.
3. Integrate or differentiate a machine variable.
4. Obtain the product of two or more machine variables.
5. Obtain a desired function of a machine variable.
A potentiometer or voltage divider is used to multiply a voltage by a positive
constant c;0 ScSl. For convenience, potentiometer dials are usually adjusted by
hand and then locked in position.
Direct-current amplifiers with feedback, called operational amplifiers, are used for
four purposes: amplifying, inverting, summing, and integrating. In an operational
amplifier it is possible to multiply a d-c voltage by constants larger than 1. Cus
tomarily the factor of amplification is chosen to be 1, 4, or 10, whichever is desired.
Since the sign of the output voltage is opposite that of the input voltage, the amplifier
acts as an inverter. The use of potentiometers and operational amplifiers thus allows
a machine variable to be multiplied by any real constant.
It is possible to apply several different input voltages to an operational amplifier and
with the appropriate circuit arrangement obtain the sum of the voltages as the output.
It is also possible to connect the same input voltage to two or more input terminals.
The second operation of adding machine variables is thus accounted for by using
operational amplifiers.
Arrangements can usually be made so that integrators are used in place of differen
tiators on a differential analyzer. The use of a capacitor with a d-c amplifier gives an
electronic circuit that integrates quite accurately. The integration of d-c voltages is
generally carried out with respect to the physical t ime t.
The product of two machine variables and the generation of nonlinear functions of a
machine variable are more difficult to obtain than the above linear operations. The
most common types of multiplication and function generation devices are servo-
is,
mechanisms, that devices consisting of an amplifier or relay and an electric motor

that positions potentiometer shaft in the manner desired. Although such devices
a
are convenient and accurate for slow variations in voltages, they do not handle
variables having large frequency range. Purely electronic devices for multiplication
and function generation rely on the nonlinear characteristics of circuit elements, and
consequently, the device economical, has to date lacked precision.
if
is
it
The computing elements of an electronic analogue computer consists in general of

operational amplifiers, potentiometers, servomechanisms, and the associated circuitry.
addition, a computer contains control circuits, recording devices, and power
In
supplies.
The first step in setting up a problem on an analogue computer to establish the
is
transformation relating the mathematical variables x, y, . . and the machine

z,
I
.
is ,
variables X, given by X = aiX,

Y,
Z,
. . . t. Ordinarily the transformation

,
= any, . . . = aiZ, t = at, where the as are scale factors. Two conflicting
Z
Y
f-onsiderations determine the choice of scale factors. First, the machine variables
are generally restricted to the range + 100 volts in order to guarantee linearity of the
linear circuitry. Second, the larger the machine variables, the better the accuracy;
is
that is, stray voltages cause a smaller percentage error. The choice of a scale factor
for time also complicated by the fact that short computing times usually minimize
is
the errors associated with the operational amplifiers but may increase the errors asso
ciated with the computer servos.
The machine equations are derived from the mathematical equations by using the
transformation relating the mathematical and machine variables. In order to arrange
the computer elements to represent the machine equations, block diagram usually
is
a
constructed on paper. A block diagram consists of various symbols that represent
computing elements and the connections between the elements. Such block diagrams
serve both as visual aids for the computer setups and as records of the setups.
The following are representative of symbolisms that, are customarily employed:
POTENTIOMETER Xo- -- -oY Y=CX,0C=l
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
(INVERTER) -OY Y=(X0+4X2)
X,o-
INTEGRATING AMPLIFIER Xc -oY Y=-JXdr
Fio. 1. Representative analogue-computer symbolisms.
For illustrative purposes consider the differential equation
d*Y = _ " dY
CZY
dr1 dr
where 0 C, C, 1, F(0) = 0, and dY/dr = 0.
The following block diagram presents a solution for this problem:

RECORDER
Fio. 2. Solution for a differential equation.
An analogue computer can be used as a computer, a control instrument, or a simu

lator. Analogue computers are usually considered special-purpose machines because,
although they can solve other problems, they are used primarily to obtain the solution
of systems of ordinary differential equations.

As a control instrument the output of an analogue computer can be used to turn
switches off or on in accordance with computed results. Consequently, it is possible
to stop or start motors at prescribed intervals and, in fact, carry out most control
operations with analogue computers.
When an analogue computer is operated on a 1-to-l time scale, it may be used as a
simulator. Two noteworthy fields for such simulation are aircraft flight and the
kinetic behavior of nuclear reactors. When used as a simulator, an analogue com
puter can be used as a training device without the expenses and dangers inherent in the
simulated situation.
It is relatively easy to train an engineer or science major to use an electronic
analogue computer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Hartree, Douglas R.: "Calculating Instruments and Machines," University of Illinois
Press, Urbana, III., 1949.
2. Wilkes, M. V., D. J. Wheeler, and S. Gill: "Preparation of Programs for an Electronic
Digital Computer," Addison-Wcsley Publishing Company, Heading, Mass., 1951.
SECTION 4
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
BY
FRANK C. HOYT, Ph.D., Manager, Nuclear and General Physics Division, Lockheed
Aircraft Corporation, formerly Alternate Division Leader, Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory.
CONTENTS
PAGE PAGE
1 Elements of Atomic Theory 42 4 Nuclear Reactions 4 0.">
2 Elements of Nuclear Theory 4-33 5 Neutron Physics 4-90
3 Basic Particles and Their Interaction References 4-102

with Matter 4-54
4-1
4 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
BY
F. C. Hoyt
1 ELEMENTS OF ATOMIC THEORY

The structure of the atom, as distinguished from that of its central constituent the
nucleus, has been established since the first decade of the present century. The physi
cal principles governing the behavior of atoms and radiation (quantum mechanics)
were gradually developed between 1900 and 1930. The validity of these principles
and the adequacy of the model in the field of atomic physics cannot be seriously
questioned. Although apparently insurmountable computational difficulties prevent
an exact calculation of physical properties from first principles in all but the simplest
cases, it has nevertheless been possible to find suitable approximations that lead to a
reasonably quantitative understanding of a very wide variety of phenomena. In the
field of nuclear physics there is as yet no convincing reason to doubt the validity of
the principles of quantum mechanics, although the range of their successful quanti
tative application is more limited than in atomic theory and they can in many instances
serve only as a guide to the interpretation of experimental information.
1.1 Electromagnetic Radiation and Relativity

is,
The earliest indications of the inadequacy of classical (that Newtonian) mechanics

at the atomic level came to light in the study of the properties of radiation. It
is
therefore appropriate to begin with a brief account of some of the important features
of the theory of radiation.
1.11 The Classical Wave Theory of Radiation.f An electromagnetic field
is
described by two field vectors, the electric field strength and the magnetic field
E
strength H. Through the partial differential equations of Maxwell, these field vectors
are determined when any charges and
currents that are present are specified as
functions of position and time.
In atomic theory the most important
electromagnetic fields are the oscillatory
ones resulting from the periodic motion of
charges. Such wave fields constitute the
classical description of the light (or X or
rays) emitted by an atom or a nucleus.
7
At great distance from its source, the

a
Fio. The field vectors and H and the field will have approximately the form of
1.
wave number vector in a plane polarized an infinite plane polarized wave, as shown
k
electromagnetic wave. in Fig. or at least may be analyzed into

1,
such. In an electromagnetic wave of this

simplest type (solution of the Maxwell equations in free space) the electric and
magnetic vectors oscillate harmonically in phase in a plane perpendicular to the direc-
Sec Rcf. 25 for a relatively elementary account and Rcf. 45 (or an advanced treatment, (The,
t
references are identified at the end of lie section.)

t
4-2
Art. 1] ELEMENTS OF ATOMIC THEORY 4-3
tion to the (point) source and have the same amplitude, t The magnitudes of these
vectors may be written as the real parts! of
E = H = A exp 2 -
Q
rf)
distance perpendicular to the plane of the vectors, the wavelength, and
is
where
is
X
z
the frequency. The wave progressive, and the speed of propagation X,
is
is
c
i
the velocity of light. It customary also to write the expression for the
is
where
is
c
wave in terms of the wave number = 2*-/X and the angular frequency u = In
k
terms of position vector from an arbitrary origin and using wave number vector
k
a
a
r
having the magnitude = 2ir/X and direction normal to the plane of and H, the
E
a
k
wave may be alternatively written
= H =
i(k - oil)
E
A
exp (1)
r
The frequency of the wave will coincide with that of the charge oscillations consti
its source; the polarization of the wave, that is, the orientation of or H in
E
tuting
their plane, will depend on the detailed directional properties of the source.
The intensity of plane electromagnetic wave (the energy passing per second and
a
per square centimeter through surface perpendicular to its direction of propagation)

a
given by (c/i*)E* = (c/4r)T*.

U
Next in simplicity to the infinite plane wave the spherical wave in which the
is
amplitudes of and H, at a sufficient distance from a point source, diminish inversely

E
as the distance from the source and have a variation with angle over the surface of any
sphere which depends on the details of the charge motion.
Classical electrodynamics provides the mathematical apparatus for the calculation
all details of the radiation field from given charge and current distribution. The
of
situation of greatest importance in atomic and nuclear theory that of the radiation
is
from such distribution oscillating harmoni

a
cally with the time. If the frequency

is
v,
the wavelength emitted = c./v, and
is
if
X
the distribution of charge density and

p
velocity confined to region of dimen

X, is
a
v
sions the field at distances very large

R
compared with depends in rather com

R
plex way on the space derivatives of the

electromagnetic potential
A(P) = pve*- dV
i
(2)
J
As illustrated in Fig. the distance from

2,
is
r
the source to a point P the field,

in
is
a
s
vector giving the position of volume ele

a
ment dV in the source distribution, and

k
the wave vector of magnitude = 2r/X

in is
Illustrating
k
Fio. 2. the geometry for

the direction from the source to the point calculation of an electromagnetic
P. In calculating the intensity of the potential.
emitted radiation the symmetry of the
source distribution of first importance, and this best displayed through the use
is
is
of the so-called multipoU expansion,^ which has turned out to be part icularly significant
the treatment of radiation from a nucleus. The procedure to expand the expo-
is
in
The unit for B the electrostatic unit (eau), and that for // the uauss. These are the so-called
is
is
t
Gaussian units."
-
-
It will be recalled that eia cos a + sin a, so that the real part of the above expression
is
{
eos 2*[(z/M f).

8,
See Ref. 19. chap. or Ref. chap. 13.

5.
(
NUCLEAR PHYSICS [Sec. 4
nential in the integral of Eq. (2) in the form
exp (ik s) 1 + iks cos 9 %(ks cos 0)2 +
where 6 is the angle between s and k. The integral then becomes a sum of terms of
the form
J>(fcr)< cos' 6dV
and each term is roughly of the order of magnitude (kit)1 = (2irR/\)', since the inte
gration is confined to a region of radius R. The field corresponding to a term with
index I is called a multipole of order 21 (I = 1, dipole; 1 = 2, quadrupole). In general
R/\ is an exceedingly small quantity, so that only the first nonvanishing term is of
importance, the total intensity of the radiation falling off roughly as (R/X)u.
The case which occurs most frequently in radiation from an atom is that in which
the first nonvanishing term is that with I = 1, i.e., dipole radiation. The field then
turns out to depend only on the quantity
D = /ps cos B dV (3)
which is called the dipole moment. The total intensity of the radiation Q (energy
emitted per second) is then given by
Q = tLD> (4)
In radiation from nuclei the dipole moment is ordinarily zero, and the properties of
the radiation will depend on quadrupole or higher moments, which are integrals over
the distribution of a more complicated kind than in Eq. (3) above.
The radiation from a moving point charge may be treated as the limit of that from
I
a continuous distribution or by direct
WAVELENGTH X IN CM methods and is given byt

2 e'
5
V
\
(5)
5 3c
I T" 2000* K
k
r>
where Q is the total energy emitted per
\
second and w is the acceleration of the
point charge. Thus a uniformly moving
point charge does not emit energy an
acceleration is required.
V T- 1500' K 1.12 Thermal Radiation. This term
is applied to the electromagnetic radiation

emitted by matter at a given tempera
ture. The simplest case is that in which
T- 1000* K the radiation is in equilibrium (established
by a balancing of emission and absorp
i 2 3 tion) with matter. Such an equilibrium
FREQUENCY J/xlO-" IN SEC-1 will be set up inside an enclosure with
Fig. 3. The energy distribution in the completely absorbing (that is, "black")
black-body spectrum for three different walls maintained at a constant tempera
temperatures. ture, and the radiation is for this reason
commonly called black-body radiation.
From general thermodynamic reasoning it can be shown that all properties of black-
body radiation, including the spectral distribution of its energy, depend only on the
temperature of the matter with which it is in equilibrium. To account theoretically
for the experimentally observed distribution of energy in the black-body spectrum
(see Fig. 3) is thus a fundamental problem for theoretical physics.
The quantum theory had its origin in the complete failure of attempts by Wien,
Planck, and Rayleigh (1895-1901) to account theoretically for the observed black-
t For an plementary derivation see Ref. 50, Appendix I.
ART. 1] ELEMENTS OF ATOMIC THEORY 4-5
body spectrum on the basis of general principles of statistical mechanics and electro
dynamics. In fact,
these general principles lead rather directly to a unique distribu
tion lawf which is clearly incorrecj. The procedure in deriving such a distribution
law is as follows: It is legitimate to assume that the radiation is emitted by an assembly
of linear harmonic oscillators, each having a definite frequency v, which are in tempera
ture equilibrium with each other and with the radiation in the enclosure. The average
energy E, of the oscillators of frequency v can be shown to determine the energy density
u,t per unit frequency range of radiation of that frequency by the relation
, = E, (6)
c3
Use of the standard procedure of statistical mechanics (average over all energies,
weighted by the Boltzmann factor c~E/iT) gives Ev = kT in accord with the principle
of equipartition of energy. The temperature dependence of the energy density in the
radiation field is then given by inserting E, in Eq. (6), resulting in the distribution law
u,(T) = ~kT
c'
(7)
which known as the Rayleigh-Jeans law and is wholly at variance with experiment
is
except at low frequencies. This complete breakdown of classical theory led Planck
to propose an ad hoc assumption; namely, the oscillator energy is "quantized" to the
discrete values E = hv, E = 2 hv, . . . with h a new universal constant . A statis
tical average over these energy values gives the so-called Planck distribution
_ 8jt;'2 hv ,Q.
for the black -body spectrum. With proper choice of the constant h the observed
spectrum is accurately reproduced. It remained for Bohr to extend Planck's assump
tion of discrete energy values to t he general concept of stationary states (see Art. 1 .22).
An integration of Eq. (8) over all frequency gives
Jo"
u, dv = aT* = 7.652 X 10"'5 crg/(ems)(deg4)

a
for the total energy per cubic centimeter in the black-body spectrum (Stefan-Boltz-
mann law).
1.13 Wave-particle Dualism. The hypothesis of Planck and its generalization
by Bohr imply that the emission of monochromatic light of frequency v occurs indis
crete amounts of energy = hv. There now exists convincing experimental evidence
E
that, as first suggested by Einstein in 1905, this energy localized in space in the
is
electromagnetic field, that is, that radiation has corpuscular structure.

a
The earliest evidence for the existence of light corpuscles, or photons, came from
the photoelectric effect. The energies of the photoclectrons ejected from an atom
||
light of frequency may be directly measured, and

by
found that the maximum

is
it
v
nergy hv and independent of the intensity of the incident light. This imme
is
is
is
'
diately understandable assumed that the light consists of a stream of particles

is
it
if
of energy hv and that the ejection of an electron due to an individual collision

is
lx-tween photon and an atom quite inconsistent with the picture of the light as
is
it
a
For a more detailed account of the classical and quantum theories of the black-body radiation see
t
Itef. 50. chap. 4.

The energy referred to that of the electromagnetic field, which (Ei + //s>/8t ergs^cm'. It
is
is
is
t
related to the intensity in erics per square centimeter per second, of the rudintiun from a small opening
/,
in the wall by the equation = lacu.

/
The dimensions of are those of the dynamical quantity called action, that is. energy X time. The
h
I
approximate value is 6.62 X 10~17erg sec.

See Ref . 50. chap. 3.
f
4-6 NUCLEAR PHYSICS [Sec. 4
a wave motion with a continuous flow of energy. Any hypothesis requiring accumu
lation of energy up to an amount hv is ruled out by the long time that would be
required when the light is extremely weak. An, immediate ejection of the photo-
electron is what is observed.
Closely related to the photoelectric effect is the more recently (1923) discovered
Cornplon effect.] In the scattering of X rays by atoms there is observed a small
increase in the wavelength of the scattered light which is dependent on the angle 6
between the directions of the incident and scattered beams, the shift in wavelength
at a given angle being given by AX = (h/mc)(l cos 8), where m is the mass of the
electron and c the velocity of light. Again the process is directly understandable if
it is pictured as due to a collision between a photon and a free electron. The assump
tion of conservation of energy and momentum, J with the photon having a momentum
hv/c as well as an energy hv, leads directly to the above expression for the wavelength
shift in its dependence on angle. The decrease in frequency of the scattered radiation
is attributable to the loss of energy of the photon in the encounter. Arguments similar
to those for the photoelectric effect show that the existence of the Compton effect
is irreconcilable with any reasonable picture of radiation as a continuous wave
phenomenon.
The picture of a monochromatic beam of light as a stream of particles (photons)
moving with velocity c and having energy hv and momentum hv/c is thus one which
is supported by direct experimental evidence. On the other hand the picture of light
as a form of wave motion is equally well established experimentally, primarily through
the phenomena of interference, which requires for its direct interpretation a picture of
light as some form of continuous wave motion. In fact, vacillation between a picture
of light as waves and a picture of it as particles can be traced through nearly three
hundred years of the development of physical thought. It is now believed, however,
that a decision is impossible and that a complete description requires the compli
mentary use of both pictures and, indeed, that such a paradoxial dualism is a necessary
element in any theory of matter as well as of radiation (see Art. 1.31).
1.14 The Special Theory of Relativity. Electrodynamics and the Lorentz Trans
formation. The origins of the theory of relativity are to be found in the difficulties
and paradoxes encountered in the problem of determining the frame of reference in
which the Maxwell equations are valid, for these equations, which govern all optical
and electromagnetic phenomena, do not have the same form in two coordinate systems
that are moving relative to each other with a uniform velocity. Consequently, a
coordinate system in which they have their usual form (and with respect to which light
will therefore be propagated with velocity c = 3 X 1010 cm/sec) will be singled out
as a unique frame of reference in the sense that the velocity of any other frame of
reference moving relative to it could be determined by optical experiments in the

moving system. The simplest of such experiments would be the measurement of the
velocity of light in the second system, which should differ from the velocity c in the
first system.
It was originally thought that such an absolute frame of reference existed in the
form of a physical medium called the ether and that the motion of the earth through
the ether could he determined by optical and electrical measurements. A long series
of experiments, i| however, failed completely to detect any of the consequences to be
expected from the orbital motion of the earth around the sun. On the other hand,
the conclusion that the earth itself is an absolute frame of reference (or in terms of the
ether hypothesis that the earth is at rest in the ether) is in direct conflict with astro
nomical observations on the apparent motions of the fixed stars (stellar aberration).
t See Ref. 50, p. 380. for a more complete account.

X In electromagnetic theory a radiation field of energy density u lias a momentum of u/c per cubic
centimeter, which suggests hv/c for a photon of energy hv. This assignment of momentum was shown
by Einstein to be a consequence of the theory of relativity.
\ Elementary accounts are to be found in Ref. 14 and Ref. 50, chap. 2. For a more advanced treat
ment see Ref. 3.
II The most notable of these was the Michelson-Morely experiment (1880). In essence it consisted
of a measurement of the difference in the velocity of light along, and perpendicular to, the direction of
motion of tlio earth. See Ref. 50. p. 50, for a description of the experiment.
The dilemma was resolved by Einstein in 1905. The failure to detect the motion
of the earth by purely terrestrial experiments he proposed to interpret as indicating that
there exists no absolute frame of reference, or ether, in which this motion has a sig
nificance and to require that the laws of electrodynamics, like those of mechanics, have
the same form in all reference systems, differing only in their relative velocity. Failure
to detect the motion of a reference system (like the earth) by measurements within it
can then be attributed to the fact that the equations governing the phenomena are
unaffected by the motion of the reference system a situation already well known and
understood in ordinary mechanics. Since the Maxwell equations are not independent
of the motion of the reference system, it would seem that the above requirement could
be satisfied only by an alteration in these equations. However, Einstein was able to
show that the form of these equations may be retained and that the "invariance" can
be achieved by a modification of the previously accepted way in which the quantities
entering into them are related to the reference systems involved.
In order to understand something of the nature of the radical solution proposed by
Einstein and embodied in the special theory of relativity, it is necessary to look a little
more closely at the formal aspects of transformations between moving reference sys
tems. A set of equations like the Maxwell equations is said to be invariant if it is
unaltered in form when the quantities entering into it are transformed from one refer
ence system (usually a set of rectangular coordinate axes) to another moving with uni
form velocity with respect to the first. Among the quantities to be transformed are
the coordinates themselves, say x', y', z' in the "moving" system and x, y, z in the
original system. It seems kincmatically obvious that the coordinate transformation
should be simply x' x Vt, y' = y, z' z when the relative motion is along the
common x axis with velocity V . The Newtonian equations of motion, for example,
are invariant in form under this transformation, which is known as the Galilean
transformation.
The required equivalence of moving reference systems as regards the laws of electro
dynamics implies that the Maxwell equations should be relativist ically invariant.
This can be achieved by a formal modification of the Galilean transformation, provided
the field vectors E and H are at the same time suitably transformed. The modified
coordinate transformation has the form
x' y(x - Vt) -

V'
(9)
V
where
known as the Lorenlz transformation. It reduces to the Galilean transformation

and is
as V/c * 0 and so is equivalent to it unless the systems involved have relative veloci
ties comparable to that of light. It differs from the Galilean transformation, however,
in that time, as well as the space coordinates, has different values in the two reference
systems. While the mathematical properties of the Lorentz transformation were
already known, it was Einstein who first gave it physical reality by showing that its
apparently paradoxical consequences are philosophically acceptable. In particular,
the assignment of different times in the two reference systems for a single event is
physically understandable as soon as time is recognized as a measured quantity and
not an abstraction.
Among the kinematical consequences of the Lorentz transformation is the shortening
of distances in the direction of motion known as the Lorenlz contraction: A body at
rest in a given reference system and having an extension I in the x direction will have
an extension I y/ 1 {V/c)1 as measured in a reference system moving with velocity V

in the x direction.
Relatirislic Mechanics. With the establishment of the relalivistic invariance of the
is,
Maxwell equations (that invariance for the Lorentz transformation) all problems
concerning the effect of motion on optical and elect rodynamic phenomena are satis
factorily solved. However, new questions are raised in mechanics, since the New
tonian equations of motion are invariant only for the Galilean transformation and
not for the Lorentz transformation. This situation led Einstein to propose a modifi
cation of the Newtonian equations which gives them the required property of rela
tivistic invariance. Such relativistic equations of motion must, of course, be equiva
lent to the ordinary ones except at very high velocities, and this requirement, together
with that of invariance, is practically sufficient to single out the following reformu
lation of mechanics, the validity of which has been amply demonstrated in experi
mentation with high-speed electrons and other elementary particles.
In place of the Newtonian equation of motion (rf/d/)(m0v) = F for a particle of
mass too and velocity v acted on by a force F, the relativistic formulation requires
dl\ -p
ii_^!!l_=F (10)
where fl = v/c. For velocities small compared with that of light (0 1) the deviation
from the Newtonian equation is of order p; for speeds comparable to that of light the
result may be interpreted as an increase in mass of the particle according to the
equation
.
m = mo .
(11)
since with this definition of a variable mass Eq. (10) has precisely the Newtonian form
(d/dt)(mv) = F. This variable mass increases indefinitely as v c, and the velocity
of light is accordingly a limit that cannot be exceeded.
As in ordinary mechanics the equation of motion leads to an expression for the rate
F v at which work is done on the particle and hence to a definition of energy. In

place of (d/dt){\imtjv2) = F v Jhe new mechanics gives
- p -Fv
d
* a/1
(12)
The appropriate modification of the definition of the energy E of the particle is thus
E _
Vi -p
(13)
For velocities small compared with that of light use of the expansion
(f(
1)
- p)-H = %p
. . .
+
(1
+
l
with neglect of terms higher than p gives

E
(13a)
+
wc2 J^mon1
which the Newtonian expression for the kinetic energy with the significant exception
is
that corresponding to the ''rest mass" m0 there a "rest energy" mac*.

is
Another important consequence of the relativistic formulation of the equations of

motion the existence of an "invariant" combination of momentum and energy.
+
a is
that quantity which has the same numerical value in all Lorentz frames of refer
is,
ence. From Eq. (10) the appropriate definition of momentum clearly

is
p
In the mathemntica! formulation of relativistic mechanics (and electrodynamics) convenient

is
it
t
event "
1
to regard z, y. z, and ict as the components of a four-dimensional vector (4-vector) specifying an

'
in space and time. The Lorentz transformation can then be made to appear as a rotation of the four-
dimensional coordinate system that leaves unchanged the quantity r- + y* z* cH* which can
-f-
regarded as the square of the length of a 4-vector. Quantities like the above which have the same value
regardless of the motion of the reference system are known as rclali>nstic invariant*. The invariance of
x1 + I/1 z3 c1*1 equivalent to the statement that the velocity of litiht will appear the same to all
-f-
is
observers regardless of their motion relative to its source. In the mathematical formalism there appear
other 4-vectorn, one of which has the momentum components px, pv, p.-, and iE/c as its components.
The invariant p1 E*/c* the square of the length of this 4-vector.
is
P = (14)
and it can be shown that the quantity pl E*/c* is an invariant. In a system in

which the particle is at rest ( = 0) it has the value wio'c1, and hence this is also its
value in any system in which the particle has an arbitrary velocity v. Thus,
E*
p1 = TOo'c'
is valid generally and gives

E* = moV + cV (15)
as the relativistic relation between energy and momentum for a free particle. The
kinetic energy T is customarily defined as the excess of E over the rest energy; i.e.,
T = E moc*, and from Eq. (13a) T ^nw* for 0 <K 1. When the kinetic energy
T is small compared with the rest energy,
E* = (T + vioc')* = m0V< (l
\ + Y m.V fl
\ + \
mac*/ wiocV
and substituting this into Eq. (15) gives, to terms in (T/mac1)1,
T -
2-0
(16)
which the nonrelativistic relation between kinetic energy and momentum. When
is
approximation (T <K moc') valid, readily shown that <3C and nonrelativ-
it
this
is
1,
is
wtic mechanics good approximation for the motion.

is
a
Whether or not relativistic mechanics must be used in computing the motion of an

elementary particle thus depends on the ratio of its kinetic energy (say as imparted
an accelerating machine operating at a given voltage) to its rest energy.
in
to
it
The photon fits naturally into the relativity theory as the limiting case of a particle
vanishing rest mass. Its immediate "acceleration" to the limiting velocity
of
is
thus understandable. It has zero rest mass, and Eq. (15) gives for its energy c
- cp
E
(17)
The assumption of Einstein that the photon energy quantized to = hv (see Art.
E
is
113) thus implies, according to the theory of relativity, that has momentum
it
*!
E
= =
e
c
Mas* and Energy. The definition of the energy in relativity theory as given in
Eq. (13) may be written the form
in
= rocJ
E
(18)
m the total mass mo/(l

While this relation actually derived only
is
0')*4.
is
where
that the sum of rest energy phis kinetic energy, was proposed by
E
for the case

it
it is
Einstein to elevate to the status of a universal relation between energy and mass,
valid also when the energy the total internal (kinetic plus potential) energy of any
is
system of particles such as an atom or nucleus. This assumption has been validated
experimentally by measuring the change in mass of an atomic system (by means of
the mass spectrograph) when its energy changed by known amount in a nuclear
is
reaction. The Einstein relation, sometimes interpreted as an equivalence of mass

and energy, has now widespread practical application in nuclear physics, in the
a
fnse that changes in energy may be measured by changes in mass and conversely
'cf. Art. 2.15).
1.2 The Bohr Atomf
By 1905, the importance of a quantum of action in the theory of radiation had

become apparent through the work of Planck on the black-body spectrum and that of
Einstein on the photoelectric effect. It was not until nearly ten years later, however,
that the significance of this same quantum of action in atomic physics was brought
to light by Bohr, who, in 1913, formulated a quantitatively correct theory of the line
spectrum of hydrogen. The genesis and development of the Bohr theory will be
briefly outlined in this section, which is largely historical in content.
1.21 The Rutherford Model of the Atom. The discovery by ThompsonJ. J.
in 1897 that particles of negative electricity can be isolated from atoms in a discharge
tube led shortly thereafter to the first definite picture of the constitution of atoms and
its relation to the sequence of chemical elements. The charge e of these particles,
called electrons, was estimated at a value close to that now accepted, and their mass
was shown to be roughly 2,000 times as small as that of the lightest element, hydrogen. {
It was evident that the emission, absorption, and scattering of light were to be
attributed primarily to electrons as the lightest and hence most mobile constituents
of atoms. In particular, the scattering of X rays by an atom provided a measure of
the number of electrons it contained and gave a clear indication that their number
increases roughly proportionally to the atomic weight.
It was originally assumed by Thompson that the positive electricity which atoms
must contain in addition to electrons was distributed uniformly throughout a sphere
of atomic dimensions, i.e., with a radius of the order of 10~' cm. In such a model an
electron would have a simple harmonic motion with a single definite frequency which
would be identical with a frequency that the atom could emit or absorb. The com
plexity of the line spectra of atoms made it highly improbable that so simple a model
could be adequate, and it was, in fact, shown very clearly by Rutherford in 191 1 that
the positive electricity in atoms, and hence also all but a minute fraction of the atomic
mass, must be concentrated in a central nucleus of radius about a ten-thousandth that
of the atoms. The evidence for such a structure of the atom came from the scattering
of a particles (helium atoms) of very high energy by thin foils. Such scattering must
be attributed to individual encounters between atoms, and deflections through large
angles were found to be much more frequent that could be accounted for in any other
way than by the assumption that an inverse square law of repulsion operates down to
distances of the order of 10-IJ cm and hence that very large forces are involved in close
encounter. (In the Thompson atom with its continuous charge distribution* the force
would diminish toward the center.) Furthermore, the angular distribution of the
deflected a particles was in good agreement with that to be expected from an inverse
square (coulomb) law of force and a quantitative measure could be obtained of the
magnitude of the positive charge of a nucleus. Since the atom as a whole is neutral,
this positive charge is a measure of the number of electrons, and for a variety of ele
ments it could be shown that the number Z of electrons is about equal to the atomic
number, that is, to the ordinal number giving the position of an element in an arrange
ment according to increasing chemical atomic weight. On the basis of such evidence
and similar indications from the scattering of X rays the hypothesis that the number
of electrons in an atom is exactly equal to its atomic number was proposed by Ruther
ford in 1911 and immediately accepted.
In the Rutherford atomic model, then, the lightest element, hydrogen, has one elec
tron; helium, the next in order of atomic weight has two; and in uranium, the heaviest
atom then known, there are Z = 92 electrons. These electrons are acted on by an
t For brief elementary accounts of the Bohr theory see Ref. 3fi, chap. 7, and Ref. 50, chap. 5. For
more detail on spectroscopic applications see Ref. 30.
t The currently accepted values are
Charge of the electron: e --4.802 X lO-" P811
Mass of the electron: nu -9.10G6 X 10 11
Mass of the hydrogen atom: mH 1.6725 X 10""
| For some detail on this "Rutherford scattering" see Ref. 50, p. 144.
inverse square electrostatic force of attraction to a nucleus of charge Ze of radius less
than 10" l* cm and are to be thought of as in motion in orbits about the central nucleus.
1.22 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom. While the Rutherford model
clearly gave the correct picture of the structure of atoms, fundamental difficulties were
at once encountered in any attempt to account for the properties of atoms on the basis
of the dynamics of the "planetary" electrons moving under electrostatic forces.
Even such an elementary fact as that atoms have a well-defined size appears anomalous,
since "orbits" of any dimensions are dynamically possible. Furthermore, no orbital
motions of the electrons would be stable, since an accelerated charge emits energy in
the form of electromagnetic radiation (cf. Art. 1.11), and the motions would be damped
until there was complete collapse of electrons into the nucleus.
An elementary problem in atomic theory, in which difficulties of the above kind
appear sharply, is that of accounting for the observed frequencies of the spectral lines
emitted by the hydrogen atom. If the damping effect of radiation, which is quite
small, is neglected, the single electron in such an atom would move in an ellipse about
the nucleus. The frequencies emitted would be integral multiples of the fundamental
frequency of this periodic motion. Not only is the observed spectrum quite different
in structure from such a set of equally spaced lines, but the very existence of definite
frequencies is unexplained, since nothing in the model determines what this funda
mental frequency should be. It was this dilemma which led Bohr, in 1913, to propose
a basic revision of the laws of atomic dynamics and the radiation process at the atomic
level while at the same time retaining as much as possible of the laws of "classical"
mechanics.
The theory of the hydrogen spectrum proposed by Bohr was based on two postu
lates. The first of these was the assumption that atoms can exist only in stationary
*lates which are selected by "extramechanical

" conditions from among the states of
motion permitted by classical mechanics. Some such hypothesis is clearly called for
by the very existence of definite properties of atoms. The second postulate was that
the emission of radiation can occur only by the instantaneous transition of an atom
from one stationary state to anot her and that the frequency v of the radiation emitted
is given bv the relation
U - E' - E" (19)
where E' and E" are the energies of the two stationary states involved and h is the
quantum of action first introduced by Planck in his theory of the black-body spectrum.
This Bohr frequency condition is clearly a kind of reversal of Einstein's equation for
the photoelectric effect, with the frequency of the light determined by the energy-
available instead of the energy of the photoelectron being determined by the frequency
of the light. The form of Eq. (19) was also suggested by an empirically known rule
in spectroscopy, the combination principle, according to which the frequencies of spec

tral lines can be represented as the differences of a relatively small number of term
values these term values are now to be identified as the energies in the stationary
states divided by h.
These drastic assumptions would probably not have been so readily accepted as they
were had it not been that Bohr was able to show that a quantitative theory of the
hydrogen spectrum could be based on them in the following way: It was known that
the frequencies of the lines of atomic hydrogen are given by the simple formula
, - lie (-L - ) (20)

Vrii2 n-V
where cf is the velocity of light, R is an empirical constant known as the Rydberg
constant, and ni and n2 are positive integers. If Eq. (20) is to be regarded as a conse
quence of the frequency condition of Eq. (19), the energies of the stationary* states of
the hydrogen atom must bet
t The occurrence of c in this formula is due to the fact that in spectroscopic practice R is measured in
reciprocal wavelengths, so that Rc is a frequency.
X The energies of the states are negative because of the convention of taking the potential energy to
be zero when the electron is infinitely far from the nucleus, which corresponds to using V e*/r for
the potential energy. The total energy of an electron bound in an atom must then be less than zero or
it would have enough energy to escape to infinity.
E, = n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (21)
na
"
These are precisely the energies that are obtained if the "extramechanieal condition
fixing a stationary state is taken to be that all orbits are circular and have the angular
momenta nh/2*. With this rule of "quantization" of the angular momentum, which
was a purely ad hoc assumption having only a vague analogy to Planck's quantization
of the energy of an oscillator, it can be readily shown by elementary mechanics that
the energies of the stationary states are
E (22)
kT~n*
which leads to
R =
?4^-4 (23)
h'c
as an expression for the Rydbcrg constant in terms of atomic constants m e, and h.

The agreement with the empirical value of It was limited only by the accuracy with
which the atomic constants were known.
In addition Bohr was able to show that the radii of the circular orbits were
n'h*
a _ (24)
giving for the smallest orbit with n = 1 the radius 0.53 X 10~8 cm, which was of the
correct order of magnitude for atomic dimensions.
A radically new picture of the hydrogen atom and the process of emission and
absorption of radiation was thus proposed by Bohr. Only certain mechanical motions
of the electron, defined by a rule of quantization and labeled by a quantum number,
were assumed to have a real existence, every change in state of the atom consisting
in a transition (assumed instantaneous) between two such stationary states. Among
these states, called also energy levels, there is one of minimum energy (or maximum
binding energy t) called the ground stale or normal state. This is the state with quan
tum number n = 1, and from it the atom may be raised to an excited state of higher
quantum number if energy is communicated to it, as by collision with a particle or by
absorption of light. The process of light emission involves a transition from such an
excited state to one of lower energy. The frequency condition of Eq. (19) was assumed
to hold for absorption as well as for emission; that is, the atom can absorb in a transi
tion from an energy level to one of higher energy only radiation which it can emit in
the reverse transition.
It was soon found that additional details of the hydrogen spectrum could be
accounted for on the basis of the Bohr theory. For example, allowing for the very
small effect of the motion of the nucleus as well as of the electron gives rise to a slight
displacement of the frequencies of the hydrogen lines which is in exact accord with
is,
the observations. Again, the fine structure of the hydrogen lines, that the fact that
with high resolution they appear as groups of closely spaced lines, was shown by
Sommerfeld to be consequence of allowing for the effect on the electron motion of
a
the variation of mass with velocity required by the theory of relativity.

1.23 Further Development of the Bohr Theory. The initial conspicuous success
of the Bohr theory of the hydrogen atom led to decade of development which must
a
be accounted one of the most fruitful epochs in the history of physics. The final state
of development of the Bohr theory need be only very briefly sketched here, as the
interest in mainly historical.
is
it
Rules Quantization. The rule originally proposed by Bohr that angular momenta
of
be quantized to nh/2-r insufficient to fix the energies of stationary states except in

is
The binding enerjry of a particle is the amount of work required to remove to an infinite distance
it
t
from the rest of the atom.

very special cases. Hence, a basic objective of the theory was the formulation of
general rules of quantization. This problem was never satisfactorily solved except
for mechanical systems possessing certain periodic properties, such as those of an
electron in a central field differing from an inverse-square (coulomb) field or an elec
tronic orbit perturbed by an external electric or magnetic field. In such cases, the
energies were fixed by a series of quantum numbers, each associated with an inde
pendent frequency of motion.
The problem of quantization of the ground state for two electrons in a helium atom
was eventually solved, but the result proved to be in disagreement with the measured
ionization potential.
Intensities and Selection Rules. A complete theory should lead to a method for
calculating at least the relative intensities of spectral lines as well as their fre
quencies. This the Bohr theory was never ahle to do satisfactorily, but certain selec
tion rules predicting zero intensity for certain lines could be made highly plausible by
analogy to the classical theory of light emission. These took the form of restrictions
on the occurrence of transitions between certain pairs of stationary states there were
said to be ''allowed" transitions and "forbidden" transitions. Such considerations
also led in some cases to correct predictions of the polarization and relative intensities
of certain groups of lines.
Atoms with Many Electrons and the Periodic System. Very considerable progress
was made within the framework of the Bohr theory in the qualitative understanding
of the electronic structure of atoms and its relation to spectra and the chemical and
physical properties of the elements. In the absence of any method applicable even
in principle to a many-body problem it was assumed that each electron in an atom
could be treated as moving in an approximately spherically symmetrical (central) field
resulting from an average of the forces on it due to all the other electrons and the
nucleus. The stationary states of the electron could then be classified by three quan
tum numbers. One of these, the principal quantum number, determines the energy
to a first approximation, another determines the angular momentum, and a third the
component of the angular momentum vector in a given direction. The corresponding
electron orbits, when the deviation from a coulomb field is small, are ellipses modified
by a precession of the major axis in the plane of the motion.
The stationary states with the same principal quantum number n] have in general
nearly the same energy, given approximately by the formula
(25)
n2 n1
which is the appropriate modification of Eq. (22) when the nuclear charge is Z*e
instead of e as in hydrogen. % The deviation of the "effective atomic number" Z*

from the true Z gives a measure, which can be roughly estimated, of the screening
effect of all the other electrons. It was in this way possible to divide the electronic
orbits into "shells"; those of lowest energy for n = 1 wore said to form the K shell,
those with n 2 the L shell, and so on. The number of possible different orbits in a
is,
given shell, that the number of possible sets of quantum numbers, could be shown
one orbit in the K shell, four in the shell, nine in the M shell, and
is,
to he *, that
L
so on.
On such a picture could be expected that all electrons in an atom would be found
it
in the K shell with n = This

is,
orbits of the lowest possible energy, that

in
1.
is
quite at variance with the character of the spectra which atoms are observed to emit
and with the fact that the size of atoms increases rather than decreases with increasing
Z. In order to obtain any proper coordination between electronic structure and
physical properties was found necessary to introduce a new assumption, the Pauli
it
In the original Bohr rule for quantization of the hydrogen atom determined the angular momen
n
t
tum. The notation waa later changed. That the energy levels in hydrogen could be fixed by the
angular momentum was due to the restriction, later abandoned, that the orbits were circles rather than
ellipses. In general, the angular momentum does not. determine the energy even in a coulomb field.
Equation (25) accurate with Z* = for atoms which have been stripped by ionization of all but
Z
is
X
one electron. It thus gives the energy levels of singly ionized helium or of doubly ionized lithium, etc.
exclusion principle, restricting the number of electrons which can have a given set of
"
quantum numbers and hence the number which can "occupy a given shell. It might
have been expected that the number in a given shell would be n', since this is the
number of different orbits. Instead, it was quite clear that the number must be 2n*,
giving 2 electrons in the K shell, 8 in the L shell, 18 in the M shell, etc., that
is,
two
electrons in each orbit. This double occupancy of the orbits was soon found to be
associated with the existence of an internal rotation of the electron about its axis, the
so-called electron spin which had been postulated by Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck to
account for certain features of the fine structure of spectral lines and the magnetic
properties of atoms. It was found necessary to assign to the electron spin quantized
a
is,
angular momentum of J-j(A/2ir), that one-half of the quantum of angular momentum
for orbital motion. The electron has then a fourth degree of freedom in addition to
t
the three specifying its position in space and a corresponding quantum number which
specifics whether the spin axis (direction of its angular momentum) parallel or anti-
is
parallel to given direction. There are then four quantum numbers required to
a
specify completely a stationary state, three for the orbit and one (having only two
possible values) for the spin orientation with respect to the orbit. The exclusion prin
ciple may then be stated as the rule that no two electrons in an atom can be in the same
stationary state.
table showing the classification and occupancy of the electron orbits according
A
to the exclusion principle to be found in Sec. 10-1.

is
1.24 The Breakdown of the Bohr Theory and the Origins of Quantum Mechanics.
By 1925 had become evident that though highly successful in leading to a qualitative
it
correlation between spectral lines and atomic structure, the Bohr picture was never
theless inadequate as a basis for true theory of atomic dynamics. Its most obvious
a
defects were the lack of any satisfactory method of calculating intensities of spectral
lines, the incorrect result which gave for the energy levels of the two-electron system
it
of the helium atom, and its inability to deal with the details of aperiodic processes
such as the collision of an electron with an atom. In addition there was growing
a
conviction that the idea of applying "classical" mechanics to the electrons and then
introducing quantum conditions only at a later stage was in principle unsatisfactory
and that true atomic dynamics would have to be based on a still more radical depar
a
ture from classical concepts.

The first decisive step toward new theory was taken by Heisenberg in 1925. He
a
emphasized particularly kind of philosophical defect of the theory, namely that
it
a
attempted to calculate the observable frequencies and intensities of spectral lines in

terms of the unobservable orbital motions of the electrons. Starting from the idea
that a fundamental theory should contain only observable quantities, he proposed to
represent an atom symbolically by an array of quantities of the form
zm exp (2*-imf) (26)

each corresponding to a transition from a state n to a state m, with xm an amplitude
giving the intensity of the corresponding spectral line of frequency . The theory
would thus from the beginning deal only with such observable quantities, and he was
able to lay down the rules of a true "quantum mechanics" involving only such arrays.
Very shortly thereafter was shown by Born and Jordan that matrix algebra was the
it
proper mathematical language in which to formulate a theory of the kind proposed

by Heisenberg.
In parallel with the development of a matrix mechanics on the above lines an appar
ently radically different approach was being pursued by Schrodinger, who showed that
all results of the Bohr theory for the hydrogen atom could be obtained by treating the
electron, not as a point, but as a vibrating continuum. This wave mechanics and the
matrix mechanics were, however, very soon shown by Schrodinger to be mathemati
cally equivalent. There followed a period of intensive development of the new theo
ries at the hands of Bohr, Born, Heisenberg, Dirac, Schrodinger, and others which, in
few years, led to the establishment of quantum mechanics in essentially its present
a
form.
For further dctuil on electron spin and magnetism see Art. 1.33ff.
t
ART. 1] ELEMENTS OF ATOMIC THEORY 4-15
1.3 Quantum Mechanics!

The earliest formulations of quantum mechanics (matrix mechanics) were expressed
in abstract mathematical language. Following the experimental discovery of wave
properties for the electron, however, it has become possible to state the fundamentals
of the theory in more physical terms. It is this approach that will be used here, with
no attempt to follow the historical order of development.
1.31 Foundations of the Theory. That radiation has the properties of both waves
and particles has long been recognized (cf. Art. 1.13). It is now believed that such a
wave-particle dualism is fundamental for matter as well, and the basic equations of
quantum mechanics (also known as wave mechanics) are suggested by the necessity
of ascribing certain wave properties to all elementary particles. Their ultimate justi
fication, however, is to be found in the agreement with experiment of deductions from
them.
Wave Properties of Particles. That electrons have wavelike properties is most clearly
shown by the experimental fact that a beam of electrons is diffracted by the regular
arrangement of atoms in a crystal in the same manner as is a beam of X rays. This
was first demonstrated by Davisson and Gcrmer in 1927, verifying earlier theoretical
speculations by de Broglic (1927), who proposed to apply to matter the Einstein equa
tion for radiation, p = hv/c (cf. Art. 1.13). While Einstein used this equation to
determine the momentum p associated with a wave of frequency v and wavelength
X cjv, it was "inverted" by de Broglie to associate a wavelength X with a particle
having a momentum p = tnv. As a formula for this so-called de Broglie wavelength
the Einstein equation may be written
X -- (27)
P
For an electron accelerated by a potential difference V expressed in volts, the momen

tum mv is (nonrelativistically) given by the relation },mv* = eK/300, where e is the
charge of the electron in electrostatic units (the factor 300 converts from Gaussian
units to volts for V). Its de Broglic wavelength is then X = h/y/meV /150, J and the

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Section L Mathematical Data and General Tables

Section 7. Radiation and Radiological Protection

The handbook is divided into fourteen major sections listed on the

Selection of Data and Formulas

GUIDE TABLES FOR SELECTION OF FREQUENTLY

Engineering Conversion Factors 3 1-3

Nuclear Data used in Reactor Neutron Physics 5 1-4

NUCLEAR ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Abbott and Smith National Electrical Code Handbook, 9th ed.

Factory Mutual Engineering Division Handbook of Industrial Loss Prevention

Magill, Holden, and Ackley Air Pollution Handbook

HAROLD ETHERINGTON, Editor

New York Toronto London

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

NUCLEAR ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 57-8000

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, TORE, *A.

-Erco, Division of ACF Industries, Incorporated, formerly Project Engineer,

Laboratory. 6-2. Reactor Calculations.

Kenneth R. Ferguson, A.B., M.S., Associate Physicist, Argonne National

Alston S. Householder, Ph.D., Head of Mathematics Panel, Oak Ridge National

John P. Howe, B.S., Ph.D., Chief, Research, Atomics International, North

Donald J. Hughes, Ph.D., Senior Physicist, Brookhaven National Laboratory.

Herbert S. Isbin, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineer

C. P. Keim, A.B., M.Sc, Ph.D., Director, Technical Information Division,

M. Levenson, B.S., Associate Chemical Engineer, Argonne National Laboratory.

John C. Moise, Ph.D., Assistant Principal Engineer, Liquid Rocket Plant,

Burton J. Mover, Ph.D., Professor of Physics, University of California Berkeley,

H. A. Sailer, B.S., (deceased), formerly Assistant Technical Director, Battelle

Laboratory. Matrix Solutions for Reflected Reactors and Evaluation of

Walter H. Zinn, Ph.D., President, General Nuclear Engineering Corporation,

The "Nuclear Engineering Handbook" has been prepared to satisfy a

comprehensive tables, and methods of calculation make this material

Section 1. Mathematical Data and General Tables 1-1

Section 2. Nuclear Data 2-1

Section 3. Mathematics 3-1

Section 4. Nuclear Physics 4-1

Section 5. Experimental Techniques 5-1

Section 5-2. Experimental Neutron Physics 5-53

Section 6. Reactor Physics 6-1

Section 8. Control of Reactors 8-1

Section 9. Fluid and Heat Flow 9-1

Section 10. Reactor Materials 10-1

Section 10-4. Radiation Damage to Solids 10-83

Section 11. Chemistry and Chemical Engineering . 11-1

Section 12. Nuclear -power -plant Selection 12-1

Section 12-3. Power Generating Equipment 12-114

Section 13. Mechanical Design and Operation of Reactors

Section 14. Isotopes 14-1

NUCLEAR ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

MATHEMATICAL DATA AND GENERAL TABLES

HAROLD ETHERINGTON, ASSOC. ROY. SCH. MINES, B.Sc, Vice President,

FORMULAS AND GUIDE 17 Solution of Equations 1-63

10 Nuclear Radiation Shielding 1-43

1 GUIDE TO HANDBOOK TABULATED DATA

Table 5. Nuclear Data Used in Reactor Neutron Physics

Table 18. The Greek Alphabet

Transcendental constants 1-75 1 Bessel functions:

* For mathematical formulas see Table 2.

Polynomial products 3-5 Art. 1.13