Metrology Uniit I

UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments
UNIT I - STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS & PRINCIPLES OF

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
1.1 DEFINTION OF METROLOGY

Metrology is the science of pure measurement. But for
engineering purposes, it is restricted to measurements of length and
angles and other quantities which are expressed in linear or angular
terms.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY

The basic of a measurement is to provide the required
accuracy at a minimum cost. Metrology has further objectives as
1. To standardize the measuring methods.
2. To maintain the accuracy in measurement.
3. To prepare designs and special inspection fixtures
4. Complete evaluation of newly developed products.
5. Minimising the cost of inspection.
6. Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through application
of Statistical Quality Control Techniques.
7. Determination of the process capabilities and ensure that
these are better than the relevant component tolerances.
1.3 ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENTS

There are three important elements of measurements,
a. Measurand
b. Reference
c. Comparator
Measurand
It is the physical quantity of property like length, angle
diameter, thickness etc., to be measured.
Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-1

Reference
It is the physical quantity of property to which the
quantitative comparisons are made.
Comparator
It is the means of comparing measurand with some
reference.
For instance, suppose, a fitter has to measure the length of
a surface table. For this, first he lays steel rule along side the table.
Then, he carefully aligns the zero end of steel rule with one end of
the table and finally compares the length of the table (measurand)
with the graduations on rule (reference) by his eyes (comparator).
Here, the length of the table - Measurand
Steel rule - Reference
Eye - Comparator.
1.4 PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Precision : Precision is the term associated with the measuring
process. Precision is defined as the repeatability of a measuring
process. The term precision is relative to the specific measurement
being made, with regard to the degree of exactness required.
Precision refers to the group of measurement for the same
characteristics taken under identical conditions.
Precision indicates to what extent the identically performed
measurement agree with each other. Precision gives the reports to
the dispersement of results. It is being assumed that the scale used
for measurement is standard and accepted one.
If the instrument is not precise means, it will give great
difference in results for same dimension measured again and again.
The set of observations are dispersed about the mean. The
scatter of this measurement is designated by () the standard
deviation. It is used as index of precision. If the value of is less

then the instrument is said to be precise.
Precision provides fineness for the range of sizes allowable
for one part or many parts. There are many degree of precision
dependent on application and design requirements. For a machinist,
any measurement made to be a degree finer than one-half millimeter
can be considered as precision measurement and must be made
with the appropriate precision measuring instruments.
Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the
quality characteristic agrees with the true value.
A satisfactory component must have its important surfaces
true with respect to form, relationship and dimensions. Trueness to
form means that cylinder will be round, parallel and straight.
Trueness implies that the surfaces which should be perpendicular
will be within a close approach to 90 0. The degree to which the
perfection of accuracy is attained will be depend on the following
factors:
a) The grade of the product
b) The classification of the product
c) Function of the surface concerned
Accuracy can be found by the following formula:
Accuracy (repeatability)2 ( systematic error) 2
Error is the difference between the true value and

measured value. It is practically difficult to measure the true value
exactly and therefore a set of observation is made whose mean is
taken as the true value of the quantity measured.
It is known fact that the poor repeatability instrument results
poor accuracy. In addition to that high accurate instrument
possesses greater sensitivity, consistency and constant initial error.

The constant initial error can be achieved by frequency calibration of
measuring instrument.
It is very obvious that higher accuracy can also be achieved
by incorporating the magnifying devices in the measuring
instruments. The following diagrams shows the distinction between
accuracy and precision by measuring a component several times
and plotting the reading by three instruments.
Fig 1.1
Accurate measuring instruments should fulfill the following

requirements.
It should possess the requisite and constant accuracy
The error should be eliminated or constant by setting the
instrument
The sources of inaccuracy should be eliminated

When the error cannot be eliminated then it should be reduced
or instrument should be calibrated according to error.
Difference between Precision and Accuracy
S. Precision Accuracy
No
1 Precision is nothing but the Accuracy is the degree to which
repeatability of the process. the measured value agrees with
the true value of the measured
quantity.
2 Precision is the fineness of the Accuracy is the relation
instrument for the dispersion of between the observed value
the repeated readings. and true values. It is also the
desirability of the observed
readings from the true values.
3 The precision never designates Accuracy may designate
accuracy. precision.
4 Precision is defined as the close Accuracy is defined as the
relationship of the observed relationship between the
readings with the average value. observed value and true value.
5 Standard deviation is the index of The difference between the
precision for the less value of measured value and the true
(Standard deviation), more value is the error of the
precise is the instrument. measurement.
If the error is less, then the
accuracy is more.
FREQUENCY

1.5 STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS

These days only two standard systems of linear
measurement, English (yard) and Metric(metre)are in general use
throughout the world. The metric system was originated in France
and is now being used in many countries in the world. The British
system of linear measurement is based on one arbitrarily unit known
as yard.
For linear measurements the various standards known are:
1. Line standard
2. End standard
3. Wave length standard
LINE AND END MEASUREMENTS

A length may be measured as the distance between two
lines or the distance between two parallel faces. So, the instruments
for direct measurement of linear dimensions fall into two categories.
Line standards.
End standards
LINE STANDARDS
When the length is measured as the distance between
centres of two engraved lines, it is called line standard. Both the
standards yard and metre are line standards. The most common
example of line measurements is the rule with divisions shown as
lines marked on it.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE STANDARDS

1. Scales can be accurately engraved but the engraved lines
themselves possess thickness and it is not possible to take
measurements with high accuracy.

2. A scale is a quick and easy to use over a wide range.

3. The scale markings are not subjected to wear. However, the
leading ends are subjected to wear and this may lead to
undersize measurements.
4. A scale does not possess a "built in" datum. Therefore it is not
possible to align the scale with the axis of measurement.
5. Scales are subjected to parallax error.
6. Also, the assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is
required if sufficient accuracy is to be achieved.
END STANDARDS:
When length is expressed as the distance between two flat
parallel faces, it is known as end standard.
Examples: Measurement by slip gauges, end bars, ends of
micrometer anvils, Vernier calipers etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF END STANDARDS

1. These standards are highly accurate and used for
measurement of close tolerances in precision engineering as
well as in standard laboratories, tool rooms and inspection
departments etc.
2. They require more time for measurements and
measure only one dimension at a time.
3. They are subjected to wear on their measuring
faces.
4. Group of slips can be "wrung" together to build up
given size, faulty wringing and careless use may lead to
inaccurate results.
5. End standards have built in datum since their
measuring faces are flat and parallel and can be positively
locked on datum surface.
6. There are not subjected to parallax error as their
use depends on feel. The accuracy of both these standards is
affected by temperature change and both are originally
calibrated at
20 C. It is also necessary to take utmost case in their

manufacture to ensure that the change of shape with time,

secular change is reduced to negligible.
WAVELENGTH STANDARD
In 1829, Jacques Babinet, a French philosopher, suggested
that wavelengths of monochromatic light might be used as natural
and invariable units of length. It was nearly a century later that the
Seventh General Conference of Weights and Measures in Paris
approved the definition of a standard of length relative to the metre
in terms of the wave length of the red radiations of cadmium.
Although this was not the establishment of a new legal standard of
length, it set the seal on work which kept on going for a number of
years.
Material standards are liable to destruction and their
dimensions changes slightly with time. But with the
monochromatic light we have the advantage of constant
wavelength and since the wavelength is not a physical one, it
reproduction. This is reproducible standard of length, and the
error of reproduction can be of the order of 1 part in 100 millions.
It is because of this reason that International standard the metre
in terms of wavelength of krypton 86 (Kr 86 ).
Light wavelength standard, for sometime, had to be objected
because of the impossibility of producing pure monochromatic
light as wavelength depends upon the amount of isotope
impurity in the elements. But now with the rapid development in
atomic energy industry, pure isotopes of natural elements have
been produced. Krypton 95, Mercury 198 and Cadmium 114 are
possible sources of radiation of wavelength suitable as natural
standard of length.
Advantages of wavelength standards:

1. It is not influenced by effects of variation of
environmental temperature, pressure, humidity and ageing
because it is not a material standard.

2. There is no need to store it under security and thus

there is no fear of its being destroyed as in the case yard
and metre.
3. It is easily available to all standardizing houses,
laboratories and industries.
4. It can be easily transferred to other standards.
5. This standard can be used for making comparative
statement of a much higher accuracy.
6. It is easily reproducible.
Comparison between Line Standards and End Standards:

Sl. Characteristics Line Standard End Standard
No.
1. Principle Length is expressed as the Length is expressed
distance between two lines as the distance
between two flat
parallel faces
2. Accuracy Limited to 0.2 mm for high Highly accurate for
accuracy, scales have to be measurement of close
used in conjunction with tolerances up to
magnifying glass of microscope. 0.001 mm.
3. Ease and time of Measurement is quick and easy. Use of end standard
measurement requires skill and is
time consuming .
4. Effect of wear Scale markings are not subjects These are subjected
to wear. However, significant to wear on their
wear may occur on leading measuring surfaces.
ends. Thus it may be difficult to
assume zero of scale as datum.
5. Alignment Cannot be easily aligned with Can be easily aligned
the axis of measurement. with the axis of
measurement.

6. Manufacture and Simple to manufacture at low Manufacturing
cost cost. process is complex
and cost is high.
7. Parallax effect They are subjected to parallax They are not
error. subjected to parallax
error.
8. Examples Scale (yard, metre etc.) Slip gauges, end
bars, vernier. caliper,
micrometers etc.
1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS

In order to maintain accuracy and interchangeability in the
items manufactured by various industries in the country, it is
essential that the standards of units and measurements followed by
them must be traceable to a single source, i.e. the National
standards of the country. Further, the National Standards must also
be linked with International Standard to maintain accuracy and
interchangeability in the items manufactured by the various
countries.
The national laboratories of well-developed countries
maintain close tolerance with International Bureau of Weights and
Measures, there is assurance that the items manufactured to
identical dimensions in different countries will be compatible.`

CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS OF LENGTH
1. Primary Length standards: Primary standard are used for

reference and calibration. They are known as master or
international standards. They are mostly used in research
laboratories and product development centers.
2. Secondary length standards: These are close copies of

primary standards as regards to design, material, and
length. They are kept at a number of places, so as to be
easily available to the general population, and are available
as standards for the general public under the supervision of
government authorities. They are mostly used in industries
and quality control.
3. Tertiary length standards: These standards are used in

laboratories, training centers and small industries where
specification of standards is not crucial.
Primary Length Standards Based on Human Body Parts

The earliest standards of length were established in terms of
parts of the human body, (Figure 1.2) which were readily available
and certain parts of the body, e.g., the length of the forearm show a
surprising degree of consistency.
Fig 1.2
Primary Length Standards Based on Material
Two standards of length have evolved over a period of time.

1. Line standard: This is based on an engraved scale in which
the unit of length is defined as being the distance between
suitably engraved lines. Examples of line standards are the
metre, yard and wavelength standards.
2. End standard: In which the unit of length is defined as
being the distance between the end faces of the standard.
These standards take the form of either slip gauges of end
bars. Examples of end standards are rectangular blocks,
circular bars, balls, and rollers.
Imperial standard yard
620F)

Fig 1.3
The imperial standard yard, shown in Figure1.3 is a bronze

(82% copper, 13% tin,5%zinc) bar of 1 in. x 1 in. square section and
38 inches long. A round recess, one inch away from the two ends is
cut at both ends upto the central plane of the bar. A gold plug
1/10 inch diameter having three lines engraved transversely, and two
lines longitudinally, is inserted into these holes so that the lines are
in neutral plane. Yard is then defined as the distance between the
two central transverse lines of the plug at 62 0 F. The purpose of
keeping the gold plug lines at neutral axis has the following
advantages.
Due to bending of beam the neutral axis remains
unaffected.
The plug being in a well is protected from accidental
damage.
Though imperial standard yard was widely adopted, yet it is
interesting to note that the American standard yard was defined at a
temperature at 680F and very slightly longer than the imperial
standard yard.
The imperial standard yard being made of simple bronze
alloy was not stable and continuously shrunk at the rate of one
millionth of an inch for the past 50 years. This was sufficient to
seriously affect fine measurement and also the conversion factor for
metric working.
An attempt was made in 1922 to overcome this shrinkage by
measuring the yard/metre relationship in that year and specifying it
as a legal size.
1 yard =0.91439841 metre.

International prototype metre

The length of the metre is defined as the straight line
distance, at 00 between the centre portions of pure platinum-iridium
alloy (10% irridium) of 102 cm. total length and having a cross-
section shown in Fig1.4. (a) and details shown in Fig1.4(b).
The graduation are on the upper surface of the web which
coincides with the neutral axis of the section. This shape has two
distinct advantages.
The section being uniform, with graduated surface on the
neutral axis, allows of1its whole(AT
METRE being
00C)graduated.
The sectional shape gives greater rigidity for the amount of
metal involved and is, therefore, economic in the use of an
expensive metal.
(a)

(b)
Fig 1.4
Primary Length Standards Based on the Wavelength of

Monochromatic Light
There is a possibility of using the wavelength of
monochromatic light as natural and invariable units of length.
International Angstrom (A)unit as being such that 6438.4696 A
equals one wavelength of cadmium red in standard air conditions
(i.e., dry air at 15 C under standard atmospheric pressure 760 mm
of Hg, 0.03% by volume of carbon dioxide), see Fig1.5. This unit has
subsequently been used for all spectroscopic measurement of
wavelengths.
Cadmium red 1(10x10-10) m = 6438.4696A
1 = 0.000 6438 4696 mm
Fig 1.5
Radiation from pure isotopes of cadmium 114, krypton 86,

mercury 198, are used as standards of length. In recent years, the
use of light waves as standards of measurement has increased, as
pure isotopes of mercury and krypton are available for the emission
of suitable monochromatic light. The wavelength standards are only
absolute when the inference observations are carried out under
controlled conditions, i.e., at a temperature of 20 0 C, a pressure of
760 mm of mercury, a vapor pressure of 10 mm, and 58% humidity.
Wavelength standards are used for inspection of line standards
because of their high accuracy and for the inspection of surfaces.

1.7 ERROR - Definition
Error is the difference between the indicated(true) and

actual(measured) values of the measurand.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
In all measurements, there will be inaccuracy to some
extent. This error could be expressed either as an absolute error or a
relative scale, most commonly as a percentage of full scale.
It is of significant importance that, where ever possible the
sources of measuring error should be determined and due
allowance made for them in the measured size of the component.
Such errors fall broadly into two categories:
1. Controllable errors.
2. Random errors.
1. Controllable errors: These errors are also known as systematic
and are controllable in both their magnitude and stress. These can
be determined and reduced, if attempts are made to analyse them.
These can be due to:
i) Calibration errors: The actual length of standards such as
slip gauges and engraved scales will vary from nominal value by
small amount. Sometimes the instrument inertia and hysteresis
effects do not let the instrument translate with complete with
complete fidelity. Often signal transmission errors such as a drop in
voltage along the wires between the transducer and the electric
meter occur. For high order accuracy these variations have positive
significance and to minimize such variations calibration curves must
be used.
ii) Ambient conditions: The variations in the ambient
conditions from internationally agreed standard value of 20C,
barometric pressure 760mm of mercury, and 10mm of mercury

vapour pressure, can give rise to errors in the measured size of the
component. Temperature is by far the most significant of these
ambient conditions and due correction is needed to obtain results
free from error.
iii) Stylus pressure: Error induced due to stylus pressure is
also appreciable. Whenever any component is measured under a
definite stylus pressure both the deformation of the work piece
surface and deflection of the workpiece shape will occur.
iv) Avoided errors: These errors include the errors due to
parallax and the effect of misalignment of the workpiece centres.
Instrument location errors such as placing a thermometer in sunlight
when attempting to measure air temperature also to this category of
errors.
2. Random errors: The random errors occur randomly and specific
causes of such errors cannot be determined. The likely sources of
this type of error are:
Small variations in the position of setting standards
and workpiece.
Slight displacement of level joints in the measuring
instrument.
Transition fluctuation in the friction in measuring
instrument.
Operator errors in the reading scale and pointer type
displays or in reading engraved scale positions.
From above it may be concluded that controllable errors

are those which are repeated consistently with repetition of the
experiment, whereas random errors are those which are accidental
and whose magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from the
knowledge of measuring system and conditions of measurement.
These two types of errors are evaluated and studied by statistical

procedures which make it possible to state from a limited group of

data the probable value of a quantity, the probable uncertainity of a
single observation, and the probable limits of uncertainity of the best
value that can be derived from the data.
Errors likely to creep in precision measurements:
Errors due to vibration.
Errors due to deflection.
Errors due to looseness.
Errors due to wear in gauges.
Errors due to impression of measuring stylus.
The effect of environment temperature
Effect of supports.
Effect of alignment.
Metallurgical effects.
Contact point penetration.
The parallax effect.
Gauging setup to be square.
1.8 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

For mechanical and production, the metrology is limited to
measurements of length, angles, surface flatness and other
quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms.
Length measuring instruments

a. Rule
b. Vernier Caliper
c. Micrometer
d. Depth gauge
e. Vernier height gauge
f. Dial gauge
g. Slip and block gauges
h. Limiting gauges
i. Comparator
Angle measuring instruments
a. Spirit level

b. Vernier Bevel protractor

c. Sine bar
d. Angle gauges
e. Dividing head
f. Clinometer
g. Auto-Collimator
Plane surface measurement
a. Spirit level
b. Surface gauge
c. Optical flat
d. Profilometer
All purpose special measurement:
a. Pneumatic
b. Electric
c. Electronics
d. lasers
1.9 MEASUREMENT METHODS

Depending upon the accuracy required and the amount of
permissible error, it is classified as
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3. Absolute or Fundamental method
4. Comparative method
5. Transposition method
6. Coincidence method
7. Deflection method
8. Complementary method
9. Method of measurement by substitution
10. Method of null measurement
11. Contact method
12. Contact less method
1. Direct Method
It is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of
the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any
calculations. This method is not very accurate because it depends
on human insensitiveness in making judgment.
Example: Measurement by using scales, vernier calipers,
micrometers, bevel protractor etc;
2. Indirect Method
It is a method of measurement, in which the value of the
quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring other quantities
which are functionally required to the required value.
Example: Angle measurement by sine bar, measurement of screw
pitch diameter by three wire method etc.
3. Absolute Method
It is based on the measurement of the base quantities by
which the quantity to be used is defined.
Example: Measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the
definition of that quantity (or) Measuring a quantity indirectly by
direct measurement of the quantities linked with the definition o the
quantity to be measured.
4. Comparative Method
In this method, the value of the quantity to be measured is
compared with known value of the same quantity or other quantity or
other quantity practically related to it. So, only the deviations from a
master gauge are determined.
Example: Measurement by dial indicators, or other comparators.
5. Transposition Method
It is a method of measurement by direct comparison in
which the value of the quantity measured is first balanced by an
initial known value A of the same quantity, then the value of the
quantity measured is put in place of this known value. Then, it is
balanced again by another known value B. If the position of the
element indicating equilibrium is the same in both cases, the value
of the quantity to be measured is . AB

Example: Measurement of a mass by means of a balance and

known weights, using the Gauss double weighing method.
6. Coincidence Method
It is a differential method of measurement, in which a very
small difference between the value of the quantity to be measured
and the reference is determined by the observation of the
coincidence of certain lines or signals.
Example: Measurement by Vernier caliper and Micrometer.
7. Deflection Method
directly indicated by a deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
8. Complementary Method
combined with a known value of the same quantity. The combination
is adjusted, such that the sum of these two values is equal to
predetermined comparison value.
Example: Determination of the volume of a solid by liquid
displacement.
9. Method of Measurement by substitution

It is a method of comparison in which a quantity to be
measured is replaced by a known value of the same quantity, so
selected that the effect produced in the indicating device by these
two values are the same.
10. Method of Null Measurement
It is a method of differential measurement, in which the
difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the
known value of the same quantity with which it is compared is
brought to zero.
11. Contact Method
In this method, the sensor or measuring tip of the instrument
actually touches the surface to be measured. In such cases,

arrangement for constant contact pressure should be provided to

prevent errors due to excessive contact pressure.
12. Contactless Method
In this method, there is no direct contact with the surface to
be measured.
Example: Measurement by optical instrument, such as tool maker's
microscope, Projector Comparator etc;
1.10 SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS
The selection of instruments has to be done since they are
able to measure the variables over their probable ranges with
appropriate accuracy. There is sometimes an association between
these quantities. Accuracy may be poor at the lower end of a scale,
so that it may be advisable to employ more than one instrument to
cover the range of one variable, avoiding say, the lower quarter of
the scale in each case. Often there will be other factors to be
considered, such as frequency response, liability to interference with
the system, and so on. Among these factors importance will often be
attached to the sensitivity of the instrument, the relation between the
movement of its and the corresponding change in measured quantity
or its discrimination, or resolution.
1.11 PRINCIPLES OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

Measuring devices: These are the means of measurement by
which the measured value is indicated on a measuring head.
Sometimes it is possible to register the readings on a recording
device.
The measuring devices can be classified according to the
type of the measuring head used.
i) Mechanical measuring devices: In these devices the
magnification of the reading is done by pure mechanical means such
as levers and gears.
Examples: dial indicators, micrometer and grapho test.

ii) Optical measuring devices: in these devices optical

means are used in measuring process. This can be an optical
enlargement just for reading the standards (Microscope or
projector) or it can be an optical magnification of the measured
value. Usually a combination of these is used.
iii) Electrical measuring devices: these are devices in which
electrical Energy is used in the measuring process. The
measurement is generally done by mechanical means (tracer, stylus,
or plunger) and the movement is then converted to electric current,
voltage or impulse. These can be amplified, magnified and then
indicated or recorded or converted to signals or movements for the
purpose of control. These electrical measuring devices compared
with mechanical and the optical devices have the advantage that the
results of the measurements can be indicated or registered in a
place far away from that where measurements is carried out. This
facilitates the control of the testing and the production machines.
Examples: Perthometer tester and Electrical comparator.
iv) Pneumatic measuring devices: In these devices
pneumatic means are used in the measuring process. Examples:
Solex pneumatic comparator.
Combination of two or more of the above mentioned
principles is also possible. Other measuring devices in which X-rays
or Y-rays (radioactive elements) or Ultrasonic waves are used.
Example: Exatest.
Measuring Machines: The measuring machines are employed for

universal use in the field of metallurgy. They have a compact
construction (column or bed) and contain own standards of
measurement in the form of scales, micrometers or other
instruments.
Examples of measuring machines are:

Matrix machine
Universal measuring microscope
Zeiss universal length measuring machine
1.12 PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

When we take a direct observation against a graduated
scale it is not possible to take readings with accuracy higher than
0.25 mm. Furthermore if graduations are of large width of the
accuracy obtained will be of lower degree. Parallax error will also
affect the reading if the observing eye is not made normal to the
graduation to be read. The error can be reduced, for a certain
observation angle by reducing the thickness of the thickness of the
graduated scale. Subsequently the graduated scales must be either
bevelled off along the graduation edge or made as thin as possible.
For increasing the accuracy of direct observation methods,
the following mechanical means of magnification should be adopted.
1. lever method
2. vernier method
3. Screw and screw nut method.
Lever Method
The principle of a simple magnifying lever
(consisting of a multiplying lever and a scale) is shown in the
figure1.6. The lever is supported on a knife edge support.
When a distance l is measured by the indicator, the
magnification ratio is given by:
a Re ading on the scale a.

b b sin b sin
where = angle of displacement corresponding to the measured

distance l.
Fig 1.6
It may be observed that the magnification ratio

increases by increasing the displacement angle . Thus for equal
distances l, there will be unequal displacement angle , so that
scales will have unequal divisions. To eliminate this, the angular
measuring range of the system must be made relatively small. In this
method the magnification is practically limited to 10:1 because of
greater and bearings and making use of knife edges.
Vernier Method
In vernier method, a vernier is used. It is an
additional scale which is used in place of a pointer or indication
line on the movable member and it enables the main fixed scale
to be read to a smaller value.
Refer fig.1.7 if the graduations of the main scale
are in cm and each is divided into 10 mm, the readings taken by
such a scale will be accurate within one mm. If a sliding vernier
is provided, whose scale length equals 9 mm but is divided into
10 equal divisions, the difference between the scale division of
the vernier and that of the main scale will be (1.0-9/10)= 0.1 mm.
If the vernier scale is set so that its zero coincides with the zero
line of the main scale, the first line on the vernier scale will be
0.1 mm shorter than the corresponding line on the main scale.
Therefore, a scale value of 0.1 mm can be achieved by using a
vernier.
Fig 1.7
When the scale is to be read, the reading of the main scale
is first taken upto the zero mark of the vernier then the
reading of the vernier scale graduation that coincides with
the division on the main scale is noted, which gives the
fraction of the main scale graduation according to the scale
value of the vernier.
The vernier principle can also be applied for increasing the
accuracy of angular measurements.
Screw and screw-nut Method

The screw and nut consists of the following:
Fixed frame: It has two contact members or anvils. One anvil is
fixed and the other is movable.
Movable anvil: It is provided with a threaded part and can be
advanced by means of a barrel nut.
Barrel nut: The periphery of the barrel nut is graduated and its
reading can be taken opposite to a fixed pointer.
Scale: The number of complete turns of the nut is indicated by
means of a scale engraved on the part.
Fig 1.8
The scale should read zero when the anvils (fixed and
movable) are in contact. The readings of the scale give the distance
between the end faces of the anvils.
If p is the pitch of the screw thread and N is the total number
of equal divisions on the barrel nut then the corresponding axial shift
per movement of one division on the barrel nut is given as the
scale value of the instrument by :
p

N
Normally, when the pitch p=0.5 mm, the barrel will be

divided to 50 divisions. It that case, each division will read 0.5/50
=0.01 mm. In this case the main scale must be graduated in 0.5 mm,
which is equal to the pitch of the screw thread.
When the pitch p=1 mm, the barrel will be divided to 100
divisions such that can division reads 0.01 mm. The scale can be
divided in millimetres.
When a vernier scale is employed to read the barrel division,
the accuracy can be increased 10 times so that it is possible to
obtain a reading to the nearest 0.001 mm.
1.13 OPTICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS PRINCIPLES

Reflection: Let us consider reflection at a plane surface. Figure1.9
shows how the angle between a reflected ray and the normal to the
surface is equal to the angle of the incident ray, both rays and the
normal being in the same plane. A beam of light is made up of an

infinite number of rays which may be treated collectively in a similar

way.
Fig 1.9
Now, let the reflection surface be tilted through an angle
as in fig.1.10, it will be seen that the normal turns through this angle
while the incident ray remains stationary. The angle of incidence
therefore, changes by the same amount relative to the normal, and
so does the angle of reflection. The resultant angle between the
incident and reflected rays therefore changes by 2 .
The use of a tilting mirror to magnify small angular
movements is therefore greatly favoured in a number of applications,
both in metallurgy and other branches of technology.
Fig 1.10
The effect of reflection from a black-silvered mirror is shown
in figure1.11. Here there are two reflections, one from the silvered
back and a another one from the front surface. It is because of this
secondary reflection that front surface-aluminised mirrors are often
used on projectors and similar instruments.
Fig 1.11
Refraction: It is an established fact that light bends as it passes

from one transparent medium to another. For example, a stick partly
submerged in water appears to be bent when it meets the water.
Figure 1.12 represents a ray of light entering a block of
glass with a plane surface. The ray is bent towards the normal
through the surface so sin l that sines of the angles of

incident and refraction sin r are always in constant
ratio, known as the refractive index for the material. Mathematically,
where I = angle of incidence

r = angle of refraction
= refractive index
Fig 1.12
Figure1.13 shows a ray of

white light passing through
a prism and getting
reflected. It is separated
into its coloured
Fig 1.13
constituents, the violet
light being refracted through a greater angle than the red.

These two colours lie at the extremes of the visible spectrum. This
phenomenon indicates that the refractive index is not the same for
each wave length of light.
Lens
A lens may be regarded as an infinite number of prismatic
units of constantly changing angles which decrease from the
edges the centre.
A convex lens is thicker at the centre converges a parallel
beam of light passing through as the principle focus. A real image is
formed.
Fig 1.14
A concave lens is thinner at the centre than at the edges

and diverges parallel light which then appears to come from a focal
point behind the lens. A virtual image is formed on a screen in this
type of lens.
Fig 1.15

Interference: The wave theory of light is transmitted by

electromagnetic vibrations.
Light may be regarded as a form of energy consisting of

transverse electromagnetic waves of very short amplitude and its
colour depends upon the frequency of the light waves.
Figure illustrates the principles of optical interference.
Fig. 1.16 (a)
Figure1.16(a) represents two waves of light which are 1800

out of phase.
Figure 1.16(b) shows these waves assumed to be travelling
in the same line. It will be seen that for every point on one wave
there is an equal and opposite point on the other wave. These
two will therefore cancel out, and a wave of double magnitude.
The wave length of visible light is of the order of 0.00005 cm.
Fig. 1.16 (b)

In the figure 1.16(c) are shown two sources of light P exactly

in phase. So that all relative components of these two sources
shall exactly in phase, it is essential for both of them to be
produced from a single initial source by some method of splitting
it up, possible by partial reflection and partial transmission at a
glass surface. At a point R on a screen, equidistant from both A
and B, the waves from each source will have travelled equal
distances and will be in phase. At a point S, where the difference
in path length is half a wave length, the two waves will be out of
phase and will cancel out, causing darkness. At still further
points, such as T on the other side of R, the paths differ by a
whole wavelength and the waves are in phase again. Thus, on
the screen, a series of light and dark positions are seen.
Fig 1.16 (c)
Depending upon the optical set up, these interference bands (as
they are called) can appear as parallel bands or as concentric
circles. These interference phenomena can be used to make
measurements of high precision by utilising the fact that the path
difference between two dark bands or two light bands is one wave
length. For such work it is essential to have light of single wave
length, and, for this purpose, the light emitted by certain elements,

such as mercury, sodium and cadmium is suitable. In metrology this

light is usually obtained from on electrical discharge lamp.
Optical Prism
Optical prisms consist of solid of highly transparent
homogeneous glass with three or more polished plane faces.
The optical prisms are widely used in:
i Construction of optical measuring instrument for
rectifying images which would otherwise be inverted.
ii Bending rays of light into new directions.
Optical Projectors
Optical methods of measurement can be divided into
following two general classes:
1. Those in which the object being measured is viewed or
magnified by a projector or microscope.
All instruments in this class consist of projector or
microscopes.
2. Those in which the application of optics is indirect.
This class includes instruments such as optical dividing
heads and comparators, where lens systems are used
to give the necessary magnification for reading of a
scale, or to provide magnification of a mechanical
movement by means of optical levers.
Basic optical system of projector :

The basic optical arrangement of all projectors is shown on
the figure.
The four essential elements in a projection system are:
1. Source of light
2. Collimating or condensing lens
3. Projection lens

4. Screen
Fig 1.17
The illumination required for practically all engineering

projectors is a parallel beam, and therefore the source of light must
be as nearly as possible a point source, placed at the principle focus
of the collimating lens. The name condenser is often used for this
lens. Collimator is a much more accurate term since it implies that
the beam from it is rendered parallel.
The projection lens is always a combination of lenses, and

forms on the screen a real image of an object placed between it and
the collimator. The screen may be translucent, in which case the
images is viewed from the opposite side of the screen.
A projector may be arranged for the projection of the image

in a direct line of the screen, usually horizontal, or the optical path
between the lens and screen may be folded up by reflection at
mirrors or prisms. For a given lens system and magnification the
length of throw, as it is called is fixed.
Advantages :
a. The projected image may be measured or compared with a
prepared diagram.

b. Generally, viewing of the screen is not limited to one

observer.
c. The method reduces eye strain and fatigue.
Disadvantages : It occupies large space especially when it is being

operated.
Uses of optical projectors : The optical projectors may be used for

checking manufactured component having special formed surfaces,
for checking form tools, form gauge, hobs, screws, gears and other
details having regular and irregular profiles.
1.14 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
It is possible to measure mechanical parameters by
electrical means. This is based on the fact that the electrical
parameters are physically related to mechanical parameters of
length, mass and time.
The following are the two main electrical principles

according to which the measurement of mechanical parameters is
done :
a. Transformation of energy
b. Variation of an electric parameter.
Transformation of Energy
It is possible to transform any form of energy into electrical
energy which can be measured by electrical measuring instruments.
Transducers (Transducer is a device which converts the
energy from one form to another) can be classified as follows :

1. Mechanical-electrical transducers : These can transform

a small part of the mechanical energy directly into electrical
energy.
2. Energy transducers : These are energised by an external
source of energy. The energy transformation can be
regulated by the mechanical parameter being measured.
Example : Photo electric, thermal-electric or pure electric
transducers can be controlled mechanically.
Electromagnetic energy transducers : The mechanical-electrical

and electrical-electrical energy transducers make use of the principle
of magnetic induction.
The principle of magnetic induction states that the
magnitude emf.(e) induced in a coil is proportional to the rate of
change of the flux passing through it.
d
i.e., -
dt
The change of flux, with a constant magnetic field, can be
achieved by two ways:
i By a relative movement between the coil and the constant
magnetic field.
ii By changing the magnetic resistance. To achieve mechanical
work has to be supplied.
Relative movement between the coil and constant magnetic

field:
Figure1.18 shows rotating induction transducers. The magnetic field
can be obtained form a permanent magnet or a direct current (D.C.)
coil. The relative movement can be achieved by ; (i) moving the coil
with respect to a stationary field fig (A) or (ii) moving the field with
respect to the stationary coil fig (B).
Fig 1.18
This method can be applied for measuring speeds because

the dimensions of the coil and the intensity of magnetic field are kept
constant and subsequently e.m.f. induced is proportional to the
relative speed between the coil and field.
Constant magnetic field and a stationary coil :
In this case the magnetic resistance is changed. Here the
magnetic flux passing through the coil is changed and an induced
e.m.f.is to be measured which is proportional to the rate of change of
the magnetic flux.
Thus this method can be used for measuring rotational
speed or the acceleration.
Electrical-electrical energy transducers: By the use of

mechanical means, the transformation of electric energy can be
regulated and controlled. This transformation is based on induction
principle. The induced e.m.f. in a coil can be changed by :
Varying the voltage of the primary coil.
Changing the position of the secondary coil relative to the
primary.
Changing the frequency of the primary voltage.

Electro-kinetic energy transducers (streaming potential): When

a polar liquid, say water or methane, is forced through a porous disc
this effect occurs. Due to flow of liquid a potential difference between
the faces of the disc is introduced. The generated voltage is in phase
and directly proportional to the difference in pressure across the
faces.
The use of this effect can be made to measure small
dynamic displacements, pressure and acceleration.
Piezo-electric energy transducers : The piezo-electric transducers

work on the principle of mechanical-elecrical energy transformation.
Piezo-electric transducers can be used for measuring forces
or small displacements. Their use is primarily limited to dynamic
measurements as the potential developed diminishes under static
measuring conditions. These can be used as surface finish testers,
vibration pick-ups and as accelero-meters.
Thermo-electric energy transducers
A thermocouple is an energy transformer by which the heat
energy is converted to electrical energy. This transformation can be
regulated or controlled by the mechanical parameter being
measured.
By heating the junction of two different metals, a potential
difference at the cold end can be measured, which depends upon
the metals used and upon the temperature difference between the
hot and cold junctions. This principle is used for measuring
temperature.
Between two parts of the same metal, where one part is
elastically strained and the other is unstrained, a potential difference
will arise, whose value depends upon the temperature difference the
two parts as well as the elastic strain applied. This is known as the
thermoplastic effect. It is therefore, possible to measure the elastic

strain, which is proportional to the force, by measuring the potential

difference.
Photo-electric energy transducers:

In a photo-cell or tube light energy can be transformed to
electric energy. The transformation can be mechanically controlled
by :
a. Changing the size of the illuminated area
b. Changing the intensity of light.
The various types of the photo-electric transducers are :

1. Photo-emissive tube
Vacuum photo-tubes.
Gas-filled photo-tubes.
Multiplier photo-tubes.
2. Photo-voltaic cells
Variating of Electrical Parameters
Several physical parameters are related to the electric
parameters. While using such relationship for measurements it
should be ensured that they are simple, constant and not influenced
by external phenomenon, especially when the effect of the
phenomena is accidental and cannot be predetermined.
The following relationship should be mentioned:
1. Direct relationship between the capacitance
parameters being measured and one of the electrical
parameters.
Example : Dimensions and the capacitance of the condenser.
2. The mechanical parameter being measured
is applied to change of physical parameter, which in turn varies
an electrical parameter.

Example : The relationship between the strain and resistance

being measured. Such instruments by which an indirect
relationship can be established between a mechanical and an
electricl parameter by means of the mechanical regulation of
electrical circuits, are called measuring transducers.
1.15 PRINCIPLES OF PNEUMATIC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

In pneumatic measuring instruments the general principle
used is to apply a jets of air to the surface being measured and
utilizing a controlled air pressure as an amplifying medium.
The jet orifice is placed very close to but not in actual
contact with the surface of the test piece. The variations of the
dimensions of the work piece will affect the aperture of escape of the
air and the corresponding variation in the back pressure can be
taken as a measure of the dimensional variation required.
The intermediate pressure p2 depends upon the main
pressure p1 and the pressure drop across orifices (1) and (2). The
actual size of the orifice (2), depends on the distance a. If a
increases, p2 will increase in a proportionality so that p 2 can
represent the variation of the dimension a.
Fig 1.19
The characteristics of a double orifice, as found experimentally,

follow the relationship.
2
a2 p p
1 2
a1 p2 p1
where a1 = area of orifice (1),

a2= area of orifice (2),
p1= mains pressure, and
p2= intermediate pressure.
p2
When the ratio varies between 0.4 and 0.9, the relationship
p1
corresponds to a straight line and is given as below :
p2 a
1.1 - 2
p1 2a 1
1.16 REVIEW QUESTIONS
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Explain the term Accuracy

2. What are the objectives of engineering metrology?
3. Explain the term Precision
4. What are precision linear measuring instruments?
5. What is a line standard?
6. Define end standard.
7. What are the sources of errors?
8. Define metrology
9. What is the necessity and importance of metrology.
10. -------- means the science of pure measurement [ans. Metrology]

11. What is meant by an error?

12. Give the difference between line and end standards
13. Give any one difference between accuracy and precision
3 MARK QUESTIONS
1. Discuss metrology as a means to achieve quality control.

2. Enumerate the objectives of metrology.
3. Explain briefly line standard.
4. Discuss about end standard.
5. Explain briefly about accuracy.
6. What are the classifications of standards? Explain.
7. Give the characteristics of line standards.
8. Give the characteristics of end standards.
9. What is the difference between accuracy and precision?
10. Compare line and end standards.
11. Describe the various sources of errors.
12. Explain about the selection of instruments.
13. Give the classification of measuring instruments.
14. Explain briefly the wavelength standard.
10 MARK QUESTIONS
1. Explain briefly the various standards of measurements.

2. What are the characteristics of line and end standards.
3. Describe the important types of errors in measurement.
4. Explain the mechanical principles of measuring instruments.
5. Write in brief about electrical principles of measuring instruments.
6. With neat sketches explain about the optical principles of
measuring instruments.

7. Write short notes on pneumatic measuring principles.

8. Describe in brief about the various methods of measurements.
9. Explain the controllable and random errors.
10. What are the sources of errors? Explain them briefly.
11. Explain the measuring of external angle of a component using any
one type of precision measuring device with suitable sketch.
12. Describe the following types of errors and state how they can be
taken care of
(i) Environmental error (ii ) Parallax error

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UNIT I Standards of measurements & Principles of measuring instruments

UNIT I - STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS & PRINCIPLES OF

1.1 DEFINTION OF METROLOGY

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY

1.3 ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENTS

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-1

1.4 PRECISION AND ACCURACY

deviation. It is used as index of precision. If the value of is less

Accuracy can be found by the following formula:

Accuracy (repeatability)2 ( systematic error) 2

Error is the difference between the true value and

possesses greater sensitivity, consistency and constant initial error.

Accurate measuring instruments should fulfill the following

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-4

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-5

1.5 STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS

LINE AND END MEASUREMENTS

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE STANDARDS

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-6

2. A scale is a quick and easy to use over a wide range.

CHARACTERISTICS OF END STANDARDS

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-7

manufacture to ensure that the change of shape with time,

Advantages of wavelength standards:

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-8

2. There is no need to store it under security and thus

Comparison between Line Standards and End Standards:

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-9

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-10

CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS OF LENGTH

1. Primary Length standards: Primary standard are used for

2. Secondary length standards: These are close copies of

3. Tertiary length standards: These standards are used in

Primary Length Standards Based on Human Body Parts

Two standards of length have evolved over a period of time.

Imperial standard yard

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-12

The imperial standard yard, shown in Figure1.3 is a bronze

1 yard =0.91439841 metre.

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-13

International prototype metre

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-14

Primary Length Standards Based on the Wavelength of

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-15

Radiation from pure isotopes of cadmium 114, krypton 86,

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-16

1.7 ERROR - Definition

Error is the difference between the indicated(true) and

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-17

From above it may be concluded that controllable errors

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-18

procedures which make it possible to state from a limited group of

1.8 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Length measuring instruments

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-19

b. Vernier Bevel protractor

1.9 MEASUREMENT METHODS

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-21

Example: Measurement of a mass by means of a balance and

9. Method of Measurement by substitution

Metrology, Machine tool maintenance and testing I-22

arrangement for constant contact pressure should be provided to

1.11 PRINCIPLES OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: