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CS 31 REVIEWER

CHAPTER 1
Companies use information as a weapon in the battle to increase productivity, deliver quality products,
and services, maintain customer loyalty and make sound decisions.
Information Technology can mean the difference between success and failure.
Information Technology (IT) combination of hardware and software products and services that
companies use to manage, access, communicate and share information.
Three issues that will shape the future of IT and guide the companys strategies
Changes in world lowering trade barriers rise if developing world and emergence of WWW.
Changes in Technology new model of computing was replacing the PC based client/server
approach.
- Connected to internet-computing power, advance analytics and new models (known as
cloud)
Changes in client demand compelled by the new opportunities and competitive demand,
enterprise and institution were sought to innovate-not just in their products and services but also
in business processes, management systems, policies and core business model.
The Impact of Information Technology
Systems Development business information system are developed by people who are
technically qualified, business-oriented and highly motivated. Must be good communicators with
strong analytical and critical thinking skills.
System Analysis and Design step by step process for developing high-quality information
systems.
o System Analyst plan, develop and maintain information systems.
o Information System combines information technology, people and data to support
business requirement. Handle daily business transactions, improve company productivity
and help manager make sound decisions
Who develops Information Systems?
o In-house applications
o Software packages
o Internet-based application services
o Outsourcing
o Custom solutions from IT consultants
o Enterprise-wide software strategies
o How the system will be constructed versus What the system needs to do.
A system is a set of related components that produces specific results.
A Mission-critical system is one that is vital to a companys operation.
Data consists of basic facts that are the systems raw materials.
Information is data that has been transformed into output that is valuable to users.
Information systems have five key components
Hardware - is the physical layer of the information system.
o Moores Law - Processing power doubles every 18 months
Software - refers to the programs that control the hardware and produce the desired information
or results.
o System Software manages the hardware components, controls the flow of data, and
provides data security and managers network operations.
o Application Software - consists of programs that support day-to-day business functions
and provide users with the information they requires.
o Enterprise software include order processing system, payroll system, company
communicators network.
o Horizontal System that can be adopted for use in many different types of companies.
o Vertical System designed to meet the unique requirements of a specific business or
industry.
o Legacy System consider how new system will interface with other system.
Data refers to raw facts. Tables store data. Linked tables work together to supply data.
Processes - describe the tasks and business functions that users, managers, and IT staff members
perform to achieve specific results
People who have interest in an IS called Stakeholders. Management groups, users or end
users, IT staffs.
System Analyst starts with business profile, create a series of business models that represents business
processes and use business process modeling tool t document complex operations.
Business Process Modeling represent company operations and information needs.
Business Profile an overview of companys mission, functions, organizations, constraints and future
direction.
Business Process a specific set of transactions, events and result that can be describe and documented.
Business Process Model graphically display one or more business processes.
Business Modeling Notation standard language as computer-based modeling tools.
New Kinds of Companies
Production-oriented firms manufactured computer, routers or other products.
Service-oriented firm include vendors of software developers and service providers.
Internet-dependent or Dot-com (.com) - primary business is dependent on the internet rather
than traditional channel.
Brick-and-mortar conduct business primarily from physical locations. Refers to traditional
firm.
E-Commerce or I-Commerce buying and selling of good and services via Internet.
B2C (Business-to-Consumer) allows user to do research, compare prices features, check availability,
arrange delivery and choose payment methods.
- A transaction conducted directly between a company and customer who are the end users of
its products or services.
B2B (Business-to-Business) a type of transaction that exist between business; to improve efficiency and
reduce cost.
EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) or data sharing, plan production, adjust inventory levels,
stock-up on raw materials using data from another companys information system.
XML (development of Extensible Markup Language) offer standard protocol, universal
availability and low communication cost.
Supply chain management (SCM) or Supplier relationship management (SRM) buyers,
sellers, distributors, and manufactures can offer products, submit specifications and transact
business.
In the past, IT managers divided systems into categories based on the user group the system served
Office systems
Operational systems
Decision support systems
Executive information systems
Today, identify a system by its functions and features, rather than by its users
Enterprise computing systems - support company-wide operations and data management
requirements.
- The main objective of enterprise computing is to integrate a companys primary functions
(such as production, sales, services, inventory control, and accounting) to improve efficiency,
reduce costs, and help managers make key decisions. Enterprise computing also improves
data security and reliability by imposing a company-wide framework for data access and
storage.
- In many large companies, applications called enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems
provide cost-effective support for users and managers throughout the company.
- Many hardware and software vendors target the enterprise computing market and offer a wide
array of products and services.
Transaction processing systems - process data generated by day-to-day business operations that
are series of task when specific transactions occur.
- Involve large amounts of data and are mission-critical systems because the enterprise cannot
function without them.
- Efficient because they process a set of transaction-related commands as a group rather than
individually.
Business support systems - provide job-related information support to users at all levels of a
company.
- The new systems were called management information systems (MIS) because managers
were the primary users.
- The newest development in data acquisition is called radio frequency identification (RFID)
technology, which uses high-frequency radio waves to track physical objects,
Knowledge management systems - called expert systems because they simulate human
reasoning by combining a knowledge base and inference rules that determine how the knowledge
is applied.
- Many knowledge management systems use a technique called fuzzy logic that allows
inferences to be drawn from imprecise relationships.
User productivity systems - technology that improves productivity.
- Groupware programs run on a company intranet and enable users to share data, collaborate
on projects, and work in teams.
Information systems integration - most large companies require systems that combine transaction
processing, business support, knowledge management, and user productivity features
Systems Development Tools
Modeling produces graphical representation of concept or processes that system developers can
analyze test and modify.
o Business model or Requirements model describes the information that system that
provide.
o Data model - describes data structures and design.
o Object model describes objects which combines data and processes.
o Network model - describes the design and protocols and telecommunications links.
o Process model describe the logic that programmers use to write code modules.
Prototyping - test system concepts and provides an opportunity to examine input, output, and user
interface before final decisions are made.
- Speeds up the development process significantly
- Important decisions might be made too early, before business or IT issues are thoroughly
understood
- Can be an extremely valuable tool
Computer-Aided Systems Engineering (CASE) Tools provide an overall framework for
systems development and support a wide variety of design methodologies.
- Also called computer-aided software engineering
- Can generate program code, which speeds the implementation process
Systems Development Methods
Structured Analysis
o Systems development life cycle (SDLC) usually includes five steps
Systems Planning
Systems planning phase
Systems request begins the process & describes problems or desired
changes
Purpose of this phase is to perform a preliminary investigation
Key part of preliminary investigation is a feasibility study
Deliverables preliminary investigation report
Systems Analysis - Deliverable is the System requirements document

Systems Design - Deliverable is system design specification


Management and user involvement is critical
Systems Implementation - New system is constructed
Systems Support and Security - A well-designed system must be secure, reliable,
maintainable, and scalable
Most information systems need to be updated significantly or replaced after
several years of operation
Object-oriented Analysis
- Combines data & processes that act on the data into things called objects
- Object is a member of a class
- Objects possess properties
- Methods change an objects properties
- A message requests specific behavior or information from another object
- Usually follow a series of analysis and design phases that are similar to the SDLC
- Interactive model phases tend to be more interactive.
Agile Methods
- Are the newest development
- Emphasize continuous feedback
- Iterative development
- Agile community has published the Agile Manifesto
- Spiral model
- Agile process determines the end result
- Other adaptive variations and related methods exist
- Two examples are Scrum and Extreme Programming (XP)
- Analysts should understand the pros and cons of any approach before selecting a
development method
- Allows developer to be much more flexible and responsive.
- Weak documentation, blurred line of accountability and too little emphasis on larger
business picture.
- Long series of interactions might add to project cost and development time.
Other Development Methods
o Joint application development (JAD)
o Rapid application development (RAD)
o Might encounter other systems development techniques
o Rational Unified Process (RUP)
o Microsoft Solutions Framework (MSF)
Systems Development Guidelines
Develop a project plan
Involve users and listen carefully to them
Use project management tools to identify tasks and milestones
Develop accurate cost and benefit information
Remain flexible
The Systems Analyst
Responsibilities - translate business requirements into IT projects
Knowledge, Skills, and Education - needs technical knowledge, strong oral and written
communication skills and analytic ability, an understanding of business operations, and critical
thinking skills
Certification - important credential
Career Opportunities
o Job titles
o Company organization
o Company size
o Corporate culture
o Salary, location, and future growth
Organization structure includes top managers, middle managers and knowledge workers, supervisors
and team leaders
The IT department develops, maintains and operates a companys information systems
Systems analysts need a combination of technical and business knowledge, analytical ability, and
communication skills
Systems analysts need to consider salary, location, and future growth potential when making a career
decision

CHAPTER 2
Strategic planning is the process of identifying long-term organizational goals, strategies, and
resources.
Strategic planning starts with a management review called a SWOT analysis. A SWOT analysis
usually starts with a broad overview.
Business case refers to the reasons, or justification, for a proposal.
The starting point for most projects is called a systems request, which is a formal way of asking for
IT support.
Main Reasons for Systems Projects
Improved service - systems requests often are aimed at improving service to customers or
users within the company.
Support for new products and services - new products and services often require new types
or levels of IT support.
Better performance - the current system might not meet performance requirements.
More information - the system might produce information that is insufficient, incomplete, or
unable to support the companys changing information needs.
Stronger controls - a system must have effective controls to ensure that data is secure and
accurate.
Reduced cost - the current system could be expensive to operate or maintain as a result of
technical problems, design weaknesses, or the changing demands of the business
Factors that Affect Systems Projects
Internal Factors
o Strategic Plan - a companys strategic plan sets the overall direction for the firm and
has an important impact on IT projects.
o Top Managers - directives from top managers are a prime source of large-scale
systems projects.
o User Requests - as users rely more heavily on information systems to perform their
jobs, they are likely to request even more IT services and support.
o Information Technology Department - many systems project requests come from the
IT department.
o Existing Systems And Data - errors or problems in existing systems can trigger
requests for systems projects.
External Factors
o Technology - changing technology is a major force affecting business and society in
general.
o Suppliers - with the growth of electronic data interchange (EDI), relationships with
suppliers are critically important.
o Customers - are vitally important to any business. Information systems that interact
with customers usually receive top priority.
o Competitors - competition drives many information systems decisions.
o The Economy - economic activity has a powerful influence on corporate information
management.
o Government - federal, state, and local government regulations affect the design of
corporate information systems.
System Request Forms must be easy to understand and include clear instructions.
System review Committee whether one person or a committee is responsible, the goal is to
evaluate the request and priorities.
Four Yardstick to measure a proposal
Operational feasibility means that a proposed system will be used effectively after it has
been developed.
Technical feasibility refers to the technical resources needed to develop, purchase, install, or
operate the system.
Economic feasibility means that the projected benefits of the proposed system outweigh the
estimated costs usually considered the total cost of ownership (TCO), which includes ongoing
support and maintenance costs, as well as acquisition costs.
- Tangible benefits are benefits that can be measured in dollars.
- Intangible benefits are advantages that are difficult to measure in dollars but are
important to the company.
Schedule feasibility means that a project can be implemented in an acceptable time frame.
Projects where management has a choice in implementing them are called discretionary projects.
- Creating a new report for a user is an example of a discretionary project;
Projects where no choice exists are called nondiscretionary projects.
- Adding a report required by a new federal law is an example of a nondiscretionary
project.
A systems analyst conducts a preliminary investigation to study the systems request and recommend
specific action.
Steps in Preliminary Investigation
Step 1: Understand the Problem or Opportunity - if the systems request involves a new
information system or a substantial change in an existing system, systems analysts might need
to develop a business profile that describes business processes and functions
- A popular technique for investigating causes and effects is called a fishbone
diagram, or Ishikawa diagram.
- A fishbone diagram is an analysis tool that represents the possible causes of a
problem as a graphical outline.
Step 2: Define the Project Scope and Constraints - determining the project scope means
defining the specific boundaries, or extent, of the project.
- Projects with very general scope definitions are at risk of expanding gradually,
without specific authorization, in a process called project creep.
- A constraint is a requirement or condition that the system must satisfy or an
outcome that the system must achieve.
Step 3: Perform Fact-Finding - the objective of fact-finding is to gather data about project
usability, costs, benefits, and schedules.
- Fact-finding involves various techniques
o Analyze Organization Charts - in many instances, you will not know the
organizational structure of departments involved in the study. You should obtain
organization charts to understand how the department functions and identify
individuals you might want to interview. Organization charts often can be obtained
from the companys human resources department.
o Conduct Interviews - the primary method of obtaining information during the
preliminary investigation is the interview.
o Review Documentation - although interviews are an extremely important method
of obtaining information, you also might want to investigate the current system
documentation.
o Observe Operations - another fact-finding method is to observe the current
system in operation
o Conduct A User Survey - interviews can be time consuming. Sometimes you can
obtain information from a larger group by conducting a user survey.
o Analyze The Data - systems analysts use many techniques to locate the source of
a problem.
Step 4: Analyze Project Usability, Cost, Benefit, and Schedule Data - during fact-finding,
you gathered data about the projects predicted costs, anticipated benefits, and schedule issues
that could affect implementation.
Step 5: Evaluate Feasibility you should consider the four yardsticks to measure the
proposal.
Step 6: Present Results and Recommendations to Management - The report includes an
evaluation of the systems request, an estimate of costs and benefits, and a case for action,
which is a summary of the project request and a specific recommendation.
- A typical report might consist of the following sections:
o Introduction the first section is an overview of the report.
o Systems Request Summary the summary describes the basis of the systems
request.
o Findings the findings section contains the results of your preliminary
investigation, including a description of the projects scope, constraints, and
feasibility.
o Case for Action a summary of the project request and a specific
recommendation. Management will make the final decision, but the IT
departments input is an important factor.
o Project Roles this section lists the people who will participate in the project,
and describes each persons role.
o Time and Cost Estimates this section describes the cost of acquiring and
installing the system, and the total cost of ownership during the systems useful
life.
o Expected Benefits this section includes anticipated tangible and intangible
benefits and a timetable that shows when they are to occur.
o Appendix an appendix is included in the report if you need to attach supporting
information.
A survey is not as flexible as a series of interviews, but it is less expensive, generally takes less time,
and can involve a broad cross-section of people.

CHAPTER 3
Project management for IT professionals includes planning, scheduling, monitoring and controlling,
and reporting on information system development.
A successful project must be completed on time, within budget, and deliver a quality product that
satisfies users and meets requirements.
In a systems project, the project manager, or project leader, usually is a senior systems analyst or
an IT department manager if the project is large.
A project coordinator handles administrative responsibilities for the team and negotiates with users
who might have conflicting requirements or want changes that would require additional time or
expense.
Project managers typically perform four activities, or functions:
Project planning includes identifying all project tasks and estimating the completion time and
cost of each.
Project scheduling involves the creation of a specific timetable, usually in the form of charts
that show tasks, task dependencies, and critical tasks that might delay the project. Scheduling
also involves selecting and staffing the project team and assigning specific tasks to team
members.
Project monitoring requires guiding, supervising, and coordinating the project teams
workload. The project manager must monitor the progress, evaluate the results, and take
corrective action when necessary to control the project and stay on target.
Project reporting includes regular progress reports to management, users, and the project
team itself. Effective reporting requires strong communication skills and a sense of what
others want and need to know about the project.
Three key steps in project planning:
Step 1 - Create a work breakdown structure
o A work breakdown structure (WBS) involves breaking a project down into a series of
smaller tasks.
o A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart that represents a set of tasks.
- Gantt charts were developed almost 100 years ago by Henry L. Gantt, a mechanical
engineer and management consultant.
- His goal was to design a chart that could show planned and actual progress on a
project
- A Gantt chart also can simplify a complex project by combining several activities
into a task group.
o The Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) was developed by the U.S. Navy
to manage very complex projects, such as the construction of nuclear submarines.
o The Critical Path Method (CPM) was developed by private industry to meet similar
project management needs.
o PERT is a bottom-up technique, because it analyzes a large, complex project as a series
of individual tasks.
o A task, or activity, is any work that has a beginning and an end and requires the use of
company resources such as people, time, or money.
o An event, or milestone, is a recognizable reference point that you can use to monitor
progress.
o Listing The Tasks - while this step sounds simple, it can be challenging, because the
tasks might be embedded in a document
o Estimating Task Duration - task duration can be hours, days, or weeks depending
on the project. Because the following example uses days, the units of measurement are
called person-days.
o Factors Affecting Duration
Project size - that information systems have various characteristics that affect their
complexity and cost. In addition to considering those factors, a project manager
must estimate the time required to complete each project phase.
Human resources - companies must invest heavily in cutting-edge technology and
Web-based systems to remain competitive in a connected world.
Experience with similar projects - a project manager can develop time and cost
estimates based on the resources used for similar, previously developed
information systems.
Constraints - That constraint are defined during the preliminary investigation. A
constraint is a condition, restriction, or requirement that the system must satisfy.
Step 2 - Identify task patterns.
o Tasks in a work breakdown structure must be arranged in a logical sequence called a
task pattern.
o Task Boxes to Create a Model
The task name should be brief and descriptive, but it does not have to be unique
in the project
The task ID can be a number or code that provides unique identification.
The duration is the amount of time it will take to complete a task.
The start day/date is the time that a task is scheduled to begin.
The finish day/date is the time that a task is scheduled to be completed.
o Main Types of Task Patterns
Dependent Tasks - one depends on the other
Multiple Successor Tasks
When several tasks can start at the same time, each is called a concurrent
task
Two or more concurrent tasks depend on a single prior task, which is
called a predecessor task.
Each concurrent task is called a successor task.
Multiple Predecessor Tasks - suppose that a task requires two or more prior
tasks to be completed before it can start.
Step 3 - Calculate the critical path.
o A critical path is a series of tasks which, if delayed, would affect the completion date of
the overall project
o Slack time is the amount of time that the task could be late without pushing back the
completion date of the entire project
o A structured walk-through is a review of a project team members work by other
members of the team.
o Structured walk-throughs take place throughout the SDLC and are called design
reviews, code reviews, or testing reviews, depending on the phase in which they occur.

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