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1
References
2
Chapter 1
Theory Of Operation & Construction
1. Introduction
2. Electromechanical Energy Conversion
3. DC Machines Theory of Operation
4. Construction
5. Classification of DC Machines
6. Armature Voltage and Developed Torque
3
Electric Machine
Motor
Energy Flow v i=T w
Generator
4
Principle of Operation
Faradays law or
flux cutting rule e=Blv e N
e
v v
B
S
B
5
Principle of Operation
i N i
F F
F=Bli B
S
B
6
Induced e.m.f e N e
v v
B
e=Blv
S
B
Right hand rule
Electromagnetic Force i N i
F F
F=Bli B
S
B
Lift hand rule 7
DC Machines theory of operation
N N e N
e e
w
w w
S S S
8
Generated Voltage (EMF)
9
DC Machines
10
Construction
4 Pole DC Machine
11
4 Pole DC Machine
12
2 Pole DC Machine
Shaft
Armature
Commutator
Stator pole
Field
coil
13
DC Machine
14
Construction Of DC Machine
Armature
The armature (rotor) is made up of cylindrical steel
structure. However, it cannot be fabricated from
solid steel, since eddy and hysteresis losses may
reach prohibitive values and damage the armature
windings insulation. Reduction of eddy current
losses can be achieved by fabricating armature core
of insulated laminated silicon steel. Sheets of silicon
steel of 0.35 mm thick are punched to form the
shape of armature slots and teeth, then insulated on
both sides and assembled to form armature core.
Hysteresis loss can be reduced by adjusting the
amount of silicon in the steel such that the
hysteresis loop area of the alloy is kept as low as
possible.
15
The Armature
Slots Teeth
17
Eddy Currents (cont.)
18
Hysteresis Loop
19
Hysteresis Loss
The Commutator
The commutator is made up from a number of
hard drawn copper segments forming a cylinder
rotating with the shaft. For small machines this
is achieved by mounting the segments on a
Bakelite ring fitted on the shaft. The segments
are insulated from each other and fixed on the
Bakelite ring using adhesives. For machines with
high ratings, the commutator is assembled from
commutator segments shaped as shown. The
segments are fitted into two guides as shown in
figure and insulated from each other and from
the guides using mica paper.
21
The Commutator
Commutator 22
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
The Brushes
Brushes are fitted to collect or conduct
current from or into the armature. They
are made of graphite with high hardness
to ensure long life time during service.
Brushes are usually fitted in brush box
(holder) are pressed on commutator
segments by virtue of spring. The brush
holder is fixed in the machine frame and
insulated from it. Details of brush holder
are shown in figure.
1. Brush holder box
2. Brush
3. Pressure spring
4. live pigtail
23
The Brushes
24
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Field System
The magnetic flux in a DC machine is established by
electromagnets shaped in the form of salient poles
attached to a cylindrical yoke. The pole itself is made
from two main parts, shank and shoe. The shank
may be of circular or rectangular cross section while
fabricated from cast steel, wrought iron or cast iron.
There is no need for laminating it since flux flow is
unidirectional. As for the shoe, it keeps field
windings in place and distributes flux lines over
larger area and thus avoids saturation of flux lines in
armature teeth. Pole shoe is essentially laminated to
keep iron loss in it to a minimum. Iron loss in pole
shoe is produced by tooth pulsations. Field windings
are made by concentric number of turns of insulated
copper wire wound on a former. The former is made
of Bakelite and is shaped as shown in figure.
25
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Armature Windings
Armature windings are made of the shape of
pre-wound coils as shown in figure. The
armature is wound in a double layer fashion
to avoid irregular shape of end connections.
Moreover, coil pitch should be as near as
possible to pole pitch to ensure voltage
summation around the coil. On the other
hand, to obtain a reasonable value of
collected voltage, the coils are connected in
series maintaining that their voltages are in
the same sense. This is achieved in two
alternative methods of windings; namely, Lap
and Wave types of windings.
26
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
The turn, coil, and the winding are shown schematically as:
End connection
Conductors
27
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Lap Windings
In this type of windings, the successive coils of the
armature overlap each other as shown in figure.
Successive coils are connected in series with their ends
connected to successive commutator segments. The
pitch of the coil as viewed from commutator end is
termed as the front pitch while that measured from
other end is called the back pitch. These pitches should
not be equal to ensure winding progression.
If an armature is wound with C coils and having 2p
number of poles, then the back pitch should be equal to
the number of coils occupying one pole pitch, i.e.
Back pitch y b= C/2p coils
and hence, Front pitch yf = yb 1 coils
Positive sign is used for winding retrogression while the
negative sign is for winding progression.
Commutator pitch is then given by : yc = 1
Number of Commutator Segments = C
28
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Example
Design a suitable armature winding for an
armature with 12 slots each containing two coil
sides. The winding is double layer and number
of poles is 4.
Solution
C = 12 x 2 / 2 = 12 coils
yb = C/2p = 12/4 = 3 coils
yf = 3 + 1 = 4 for retrogressive winding
or yf = 3 - 1 = 2 for progressive winding
yf is taken equal to 2 to ensure less end
connection length.
29
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
30
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
31
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
In a lap winding, the number of parallel paths (2a) is always equal to
the number of poles and also to the number of brushes.
Bottom coil sides
Commutator 1 2 3
Brush
32
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
33
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Wave Windings
In this type of windings, the coils connected in series
are either progressing or retrogressing all the way. The
figure show schematic representation for a partially
wound armature with wave windings. The distance
between successive coils sides occupying
nearly the same location under similar poles is termed
the resultant pitch y and is equal to;
y = yb + yf
where yb and yf are the back and front pitches of the
winding.
The resultant pitch y occupies double pole pitch,
therefore for a machine with 2p poles;
y.p=C1
On the other hand, commutator pitch in terms of
commutator segments will be then given by;
yc = y
34
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
Example
Design a suitable armature winding for an armature with 14 slots each containing two coil
sides. The winding is double layer and number of poles is 6.
Solution
C = 14 x 2 / 2 = 14 coils
y = C 1 / p = 14 1 / 3 = 5 coils progressive only
yb = 3 & yf = 2
or yb = 2 & yf = 3
35
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
36
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
37
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
In a wave windings, the number of parallel paths (2a) is always two.
N S N S
1 2
Brush
38
Construction Of DC Machine (Cont.)
From the previous example, it is clear that:
a) There is only two parallel circuits whatever the number of poles is.
b) Two brushes arms can only be used for voltage collection ( A & B ). However,
extra brush arms are used to limit the current in each brush arm ( C, D, E & F ).
Therefore number of brush arms = number of poles as in the case of Lap windings.
c) Again brush location is decided relative to position of poles and best location is
such that brushes should be in contact with coil sides in the neutral zone.
D) Number of parallel circuits in this type of windings whatever the number of poles
is always equal to TWO.
i.e. For wave windings 2a = 2
39
Classifications of DC Machines
Field
Armature
Separately excited
Field
Field Armature
Armature
ff A1
fs ff A1 fs
D1 D2 F1 F2 D1 D2
F1 F2
A2 A2
i- Short-shunt ii-Long-shunt
Cumulative Cumulative
ff A1 fs ff A1 fs
D1 D2 F1 F2 D1 D2
F1 F2 A2 A2
Flux / Re v . 2 p
Emf generated in each conductor = 2 pN m / 60
Time / Re v . (60 / N m )
2a 2 .2a
Z .2 p.I a E I
The total torque developed is Te K a I a a a
2 .2a wm
43
Example 1
44
Solution
Ea K afwm
N m 1750rpm
pZ
2p 4 fwm
2 a
f 25mWb pZf nm
2a 2 p 4 60a
Z 728 728 25 103 1750
60
530.83V
45
Example 2
46
Solution
2a 2 p Te K afI a
f 20mWb
2 p.Z
fI a
Z 576 2 .2a
I a 123.5 A 576 20 10 3 123.5
2
226.43Nm
47
Magnetization Curve of a DC Machine
The magnetizing curve is obtained experimentally by rotating the dc-
machine at a given speed and measuring the open-circuit armature terminal
voltage as the current in the field winding is changed.
Ea
E a K a wm
Saturation
Field wm1> wm2
Linear
Ea wm2
If
If Nf If p
Flux-mmf relation in
a dc machine Magnetization curve
49
Armature Reaction
50
Armature Reaction (cont.)
51
Armature Reaction (cont.)
52
Armature Reaction (cont.)
53
Armature Reaction (cont.)
54
Armature Reaction (cont.)
55
Armature Reaction (cont.)
56
Armature Reaction (cont.)
57
Armature Reaction (cont.)
58
Armature Reaction (cont.)
59
Armature Reaction (cont.)
60
Armature Reaction (cont.)
61
Armature Reaction (cont.)
62
Armature Reaction (cont.)
63
Armature Reaction (cont.)
64
L di/dt Voltages
65
L di/dt Voltages (cont.)
66
L di/dt Voltages (cont.)
67
Commutation in DC Machines
68
Commutation in DC Machines (cont.)
69
Methods Of Improving Commutation
70
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
71
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
72
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
73
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
74
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
75
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
76
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
77
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
78
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
79
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
80
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
81
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
82
Methods Of Improving Commutation (cont.)
83
Armature Reaction
It is the effect of armature ampere-turns upon the value and the distribution of
the magnetic flux in the air gap.
Fluxes oppose each other Fluxes added each other
. . ++
N S N ... +
+ S
. +
. + +
If
Fluxes added each other Fluxes oppose each other
At No-Load AT Load
Near one tip of a pole, the net flux density Saturation B (resultant)
increases while it decreases near the other pole effect
Bf
Bf+ Ba
tip, as a result the zero flux density shifts from
Ba
the brush-axis.
If the increased flux density causes magnetic
saturation, the flux per pole decreases. This
magnetizing effect of armature current
increases as the armature current increases. 84
Compensating Winding
The armature mmf distorts the flux density distribution and also produce
demagnetizing effect as a result the zero flux density shifts from the
brush-axis, and this causes poor commutation leading to sparking.
Much of the armature mmf can be neutralized by using a compensating
winding, which is fitted in slots cut on the main pole faces
MMF produced by compensating winding opposes the armature mmf.
The compensating winding is connected in series with the armature
winding so that its mmf is proportional to armature mmf.
Compensating
windings
Field
Armature
85
Commutation
The purpose of the commutator and brushes is to reverse the current in the
conductor when it goes from one pole to the next.
x y Coil undergoing
x y commutation
.
N .. . ++
+ S
N S N
+
.. +
. ++
+
Brush Commutator
segments Brush
Reactance voltage:
the coil undergoing commutation is in the N S
interpolar region. When this coil moves in this
region, a voltage, called reactance voltage, is +Icoil
.. ++
. + S Ia
N . +
. +
.. a
++ Armature
winding
87
Chapter 3
DC Generators
1. Basic Principles
2. Classification of DC Generators
3. Voltage Build Up
4. Generator Characteristics
5. Efficiency
88
Principle of Operation
Faradays law or
flux cutting rule e=Blv e N
e
v v
B
S
B
89
Classification Of DC Generators
Ia IL
+ V f ( R fw R fc ) I f R f I f
ra
+ Vt RL
Ea Vt I a ra
wm Ea
E a K a wm
Rfw
Vt I L RL
Rfc
Ia IL
If + Vf
90
External Characteristic Curve
It is a curve between terminal voltage and load current
at constant field current and constant rotor speed
Vt
60
Terminal characteristic
with armature reaction
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 It
% rated current
External characteristic of a separately excited dc generator
91
2- Self-Excited DC Generators
1- Shunt generator (Voltage build-up)
If IL
Operating point
Ia + Ea
Rfc P
ra
Rfw + RL
Vt
wm Ea
Field resistance line
V f R f I f Vt Ea2 IfRf versus If
Ea1
E a Vt I a ra Ear
(emf due to If
E a K a w m residual flux(
0 If1 If2
Vt I L RL Voltage build-up
Ia IL I f
92
Shunt generator (Cont.)
Critical field circuit resistance
0
If
Effect of field resistance
93
External Characteristic Curve
(without Armature Reaction effect)
The external characteristics of the self excited shunt generator
can be obtained from the magnetization curve and the field
resistance line, as illustrated in the following Figure.
94
2- Series Generator
Ia IL
ra
+
Vt Ea I a (ra Rs )
+
Rs IL Ia I f
Vt RL
Ea Ea K a sw m
Vt External Characteristic
Ea Magnetization Curve
Vt Slope =(Ra+Rs)
Ia(Ra+Rs)
Ia=If =IL IL
95
3- Compound DC Generator
If
If IL
IL
Ia + Ia +
Ra Ra
Rfc Rfc
Rs Rs
+ +
Vt Vt
Ea Ea
Rfw
Rfw
Short Shunt Long Shunt
Vt Ea I a Ra I L Rs Vt Ea I a Ra Rs
Ea K a sh s wm
IL Ia I f IL Ia I f
Ea I a Ra Vt
If If
R fw R fc R fw R fc
Ea K a ( sh s )w m Cumulative Differential
Ea K a ( sh s )wm 96
External Characteristic Curve
Vt
Over compound
Vt(rated)
Flat compound
Under compound
Differential
(Useful as a welding generator)
Ia
Ia(rated)
97
Graphical relationships for shunt generator without armature reaction
98
Graphical relationships for shunt generator with armature reaction
99
Graphical relationships for a series generator
100
Graphical relationships for a cumulative generator
101
Example: A 172-kW, 430-V, 400-A, 1800-rpm compounded dc generator
shown in figure. The magnetization curve is given at 1800-rpm. The
generator has compensating windings which eliminate armature reaction.
102
Solution
(a): RF + Radj = 75-, From the (c): With armature reaction present in
magnetization curve the no-load voltage this case, the equivalent shunt field
is VT = 445-V. ampere is given by:
(b): If the load current IL = 400-A, then
IA ~ 400-A too, and IA(RA + RS) = 24-V.
And the effect of the series field mmf in The load triangle thus has a horizontal
terms of equivalent shunt field amperes length of 0.7-A and a vertical length of
is : 24-V. From figure, the output terminal
voltage will be: VT = 425-V
and the voltage regulation will be:
The load triangle thus has a horizontal
length of 1.2-A and a vertical length of
24-V. From figure, the output terminal
voltage will be: VT = 440-V
and the voltage regulation will be:
103
Solution
104
Example: If the generator in the previous example has compensating
windings and is connected differentially compounded, what will its
voltage be when it is supplying 200-A?
Solution
In this circumstances , the equivalent shunt current due to the series windings
and without armature reaction is:
105
Power Flow and Efficiency
DC Generators
If IL
+
Ia Ra
Rfc
Rs
+
Ea Vt
Rfw
Poutput Poutput
Pinput= Ea I a Va I a Va I L Vt I L Poutput= Pinput Poutput Losses
Pmech = Pelectrical
Vt I L
Pshaft
Vt I L I 2 R RotationalLosses
I a2 Ra I 2f R f I L2 Rs
Rotaional losses Vt I L
Ea I a RotationalLosses
106
Chapter 4
DC Motors
1. Basic Principles
2. Classification of DC Motors
3. Motor Characteristics
4. Efficiency
5. Speed Control
6. Starting
107
Principle of Operation
i N i
F F
F=Bli B
S
B
108
D.C. Motor Characteristics
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Vt Ea I a ra Vt I a ra
wm
Ea K a w m Ka
T Ka I a wm
Vt
Ka
Vt ra ra
Therefore , wm T Slope ( K ) 2
K a ( K a ) 2 a
T
109
Torque-Speed Characteristics
2- Series motors
Ea Vt I a ( Ra Rs )
Ea K af wm
Neglecting saturation f K1 I f K1 I a
Ea K a K1 I awm K s I awm
Vt R Rs
wm a
Ks Ia Ks
But T K af I a K a K1 I a2 K s I a2
Vt Ra Rs
w m
Ks T Ks
110
Torque-Speed Characteristics
2- Compound motors
Cumulative Compound
Differential Compound
ft fshunt fseries
Shunt motor
Vt ra
wm T
K aft ( K aft ) 2
111
Example 3
A 250V shunt motor has an armature
resistance of 0.25W and a field resistance
of 125W. At no-load the motor takes a line
current of 5.0A while running at 1200
rpm. If the line current at full-load is
52.0A, what is the full-load speed?
112
Solution
If It
At no-load: Ia +
It 5 A
Rfc Ra
Rfw +
1200 2 Vt
n 1200 rpm w 125 .66 rad / sec wm
m m 60
Vt 250
If 2 A , I a _ NL I t _ NL I f 5 2 3 A
R f 125
Ea _ NL Vt I a _ NL Ra 250 3 0.25 249.25V
Ea _ NL 249.25
K af 1.984 V.sec/rad
wm _ NL 125.66
113
At full-load:
I L 52 A I a _ FL It _ FL I f 52 2 50 A
115
Example 4
The field and armature resistance of a
220 V series motor are 0.2 and 0.1,
respectively. The motor takes 30 A of
current while running at 700 rpm. If
the rotational losses are 350W,
determine the motor efficiency.
116
Solution Ia IL
+
Pa I a2 Ra 30 2 0.1 90W
Rotational losses 350W
Pout Pin I 2 R Rotational losses
119
SPEED CONTROL (Cont.)
3- Armature resistance control
In this method, the armature terminal
voltage Vt and the field current If are kept
constant at their rated values. The speed
is controlled by changing the resistance in
the armature circuit. Armature resistance
control is simple to implement. However, Shunt Motor.
this method is less efficient because of
losses in the resistance. This method can
be used in all types of d.c. motors.
Armature resistance control can control
the speed of the motor for speeds below
base speed.
Series Motor. 120
SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES
1- Ward-Leonard System (Classical method)
The system uses a motor-generator (M-G) set to control the speed of the DC drive motor.
The motor of the M-G set runs at constant speed. By varying the generator field
current, the generator voltage changes, which in turn changes the speed of the DC
drive motor. The system is operated in two control modes.
Vt Control: the speed is changed from zero to the base speed by keeping If constant at
rated value and changing the terminal voltage. The torque can be maintained constant
during operation in this range of speed.
If Control: The field current control is used to obtain speed above the base speed. In this
mode, Vt remains constant and If is decreased to obtain higher speeds. The armature
current can be kept constant, thereby operating the motor in a constant horsepower
mode.
121
SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES
2- Solid-State Control
In Recent years, solid-state control have been used as a replacement of rotating
(M-G) set. Both armature control and field control can be achieved using
controlled rectifier or choppers.
Controlled Rectifiers
If the supply is ac, controlled rectifiers
can be used to convert it to a variable
voltage dc supply by changing the firing
angle of the rectifier thyristors.
122
SPEED CONTROL TECHNIQUES
Chopper
A chopper converts a fixed-voltage dc supply
into a variable voltage dc supply.
The switch S can be a thyristor , a GTO or a
power transistor.
When the switching device S is on , Vt = V
(supply voltage) and motor current increases.
When S is off Vt = 0 and motor current decays
through the diode.
t on
The average Vt is Vt
V
T
123
Starting
If a d.c. motor is directly connected
to a d.c. power supply, the starting
current will be dangerously high.
V Ea
Ia t at starting w 0 Ea 0
ra
Vt
Ia Starting
ra
Since ra is small, the starting current is
very large.
The starting current can be limited by
the following methods:
1- Use a variable-voltage supply.
2- Insert an external resistance at start,
as shown in the Figure.
124