Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society

Views: Science Literacy: Public understanding of science is becoming vitally needed in

developing and industrialized countries alike
Author(s): Benjamin S. P. Shen
Source: American Scientist, Vol. 63, No. 3 (May-June 1975), pp. 265-268
Published by: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society
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Benjamin s. p. Shen Science Literacy
ViewsPublic understanding of science is becoming vitally
needed in developing and industrialized countries
alike

Today, science affects almost every Practical science literacy availability of a few pieces of essen
aspect of our lives, and we can ex tial scientific information can mean
its dominance to be even Close to a billion people in the the difference between health and
pect
world today live in deep poverty, life and death. In recent
greater in the future. It is thus in disease,
the interest of everybody, scientist with virtually no access to the kind years, the Green Revolution has
or not, to gain a better under of practical scientific knowledge of improved the grain productivity in
standing of science and its applica health, nutrition, and modern agri a few regions of the world, but its
tions, if only to learn how better to culture that could ease their plight success has depended not only on
utilize its benefits and avoid its pit to some degree. A great deal of an increased availability of fertiliz
falls. Such an understanding might human suffering has resulted from ers, pesticides, and irrigation but
be called "science literacy." a lack of such vitally needed knowl also on an increased level of science
edge; this is the "information gap" literacy among farmers, who must
Science can be many at its worst. Practical science liter know how to make optimum use of
literacy
things, from knowing how to put acy offers a partial antidote, even the new seeds.
together a nutritious meal to know though it can do little to correct the
socioeconomic inequities that usual The need for practical science liter
ing how to enjoy the laws of phys
ics. Skilled popularizers are needed ly are at the root of the problem. acy is by no means confined to de
to make scientific subtleties clear veloping countries. Whether a su
to the layman, and the mass media By practical science literacy, I permarket shopper with only a dol
and the schools can help to bring mean the possession of the type of lar to spend for meals?not a rare
science to the public. scientific and technical know-how occurrence nowadays?should buy
popularized
that can be immediately put to use protein-poor cake or protein-rich
In order to put these varied activi to help improve living standards. cottage cheese is such a vitally im
ties into perspective, I find it Since the most basic human needs portant decision that it should only
help
ful to distinguish three forms of are food, health, and shelter, it is be made with a knowledge of the
science literacy, which differ among no surprise that much of practical principles of nutrition. The United
themselves not only in their objec science literacy has to do with just States has one of the highest infant
tives but often also in their audi those needs. To take one example, mortality rates in the world, and a
ence, content, format, and means of it is becoming fashionable in some recent study showed that a lack of
cities and towns of Africa, Asia, basic health information on the
delivery. The three forms may be
called "practical," "civic," and and Latin America for mothers to part of parents in the poorer com
"cultural" science Of bottle-feed their babies rather than munities is a major cause. In con
literacy.
these, practical science literacy is breast-feed them, despite a wide sumer protection efforts in the in
without a doubt the most urgently spread protein shortage. Unfortu dustrialized nations, practical
needed and frequently the most ne nately, the water used to prepare science literacy can serve as a use
the formula is often contaminated. ful adjunct to legislative safe
glected.
This, combined with the lack of guards.
human antibodies in cow's milk,
,has led to a much higher mortality The delivery of practical science lit
rate among bottle-fed infants than eracy to the vast number of people
Benjamin S. P. Shen is the Reese W. Flower
among breast-fed ones, according to who need it is a complex task re
and Astrophysics,
quiring a concerted effort in mass
Professor of Astronomy recent reports. There is thus an im
Chairman of the Department, and Director
the at the mediate need to change the atti communication. In late 1975, the
of Observatory University of
Pennsylvania. This article is adapted from tude of young parents in those communication satellite ATS-6,
his chapter in Communication of Scientific countries by bringing to them the now in orbit, will be used in an ex
edited by S. B. Day and pub
Information,
message that breast-feeding is safer periment by India to deliver health
lished recently by S. Karger AG, Basel,
4N6 David Ritten
and better for babies. and agricultural information via
Switzerland. Address:
house community television to various
Laboratory El, University of Pennsyl
vania, Philadelphia, PA 19174. Examples like this abound. The rural regions of that country. Simi

1975 May-June 265

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 lar satellite experiments have been be cast aside, superstitions dis might look something like this. In
planned in Latin America. In this pelled, and vested interests over the first stage, the possible risks
country, the Children's Television come. Opportunity to take part and benefits of the proposed action
Workshop (of "Sesame Street" must be provided not just for sci are evaluated, a highly technical
fame) recently inaugurated on pub entists but also for the lay public, process that begins with the collec
lic television a weekly series called including experts in community tion of scientific evidence and ends
"Feeling Good," designed to convey education and mass communica with the derivation, on the basis of
practical health information to the tion. Practical science literacy is the evidence, of a table of risks and
adult American population in an too important to be left to scientists benefits. Then, in the second stage,
entertaining manner. All these are alone. a policy decision on whether or not
pioneering efforts, and their effec to take the action is made on the
tiveness will be watched with inter Civic science literacy basis of the risk-benefit table. Such
est. a policy decision requires no techni
It has been estimated that a little cal training.
over half the legislative bills before
Methods of delivery that call for
Congress now have a scientific or
simple techniques only, such as One difficulty with science-related
technological basis. This is not sur
posters, handbills, lectures, and issues today is that the layman is
prising if we think of the many
community radio, can be equally science-related issues that
often not able to separate the first
effective and should not be ignored. public
confront the citizen today: health, stage from the second. The situa
The success of particular methods tion is not improved when scien
energy, food and agriculture, natu
will depend on local conditions. A tists who make pronouncements on
ral resources, the environment,
classic case of the successful deliv public issues do not always bother
product safety, outer space, com
ery of practical science without ad to point out where science ends and
munication, transportation, and
vanced technology is Dr. Benjamin personal opinions begin; and the
others. Legislators who have to de
Sp?ck 's paperback on baby and layman is even more confused
cide on these matters usually do
child care?the best-selling book in not lack expert advice from con when, instead of a single risk-bene
U.S. publishing history?which in fit table, he finds himself confronted
tending sides; rather they complain
thirty years has reached nearly of not knowing which set of experts
with several contradictory ones, all
every American household and to believe. The citizen contending for attention. Whom
average
many abroad. often does not bother to think very then is he to believe?
much about these science-related
There should be a concerted world issues or to try to form common The scientifically literate layman is
wide effort to advance practical sense opinions about them. He stimulated, rather than confused,
science literacy, especially in the may feel that these matters are be by contradictory scientific opinions.
least developed countries where the He knows that while scientific con
yond his grasp and that the experts
need is the greatest. The first prior will do the worrying. Yet the same clusions are sometimes nothing
ity in development planning should person would not hesitate to apply more than informed and judicious
be to improve the condition of the common sense to such public issues guesses, even such guesses are ex

poorest sector of the world's popu as changes in income tax regula tremely useful in the absence of
lation. It is high time that science tions or in election procedures, even better knowledge. He also knows
and technology made a special ef that scientific like
though these are much more com conclusions,
fort to serve the needs of this sec than the vast majority of other types of conclusions, can be
plex
tor, and practical science literacy science-related public matters. This influenced by personal biases and
should be an essential ingredient in hesitation in the face of scientific special interests. In a word, the sci
such an endeavor.
issues, I believe, stems mainly from entifically literate layman knows
a lack of familiarity with them and how to separate the nontechnical
in science literacy must be with science in general. from the technical, the subjective
Projects
from the objective, and to make full
closely coordinated with projects in
and The aim of civic science literacy is use of scientific expertise without
alphabetic literacy?reading
It is that to enable the citizen to become being overwhelmed by it. This, I
writing. interesting alpha
betic literacy is not a prerequisite more aware of science and science think, ought to be the minimum
for science literacy; the latter can related issues so that he and his objective of civic science literacy.
be achieved through speech and representatives can bring their
pictures without writing. In some common sense to bear upon them In the longer run, I do not see why
cases, I believe, the urgency of and, in this way, participate more civic science literacy should not
practical science literacy will even fully in the democratic processes of also aim at the more ambitious ob
justify its taking momentary prece an increasingly technological soci jective of enabling the layman to go
dence over alphabetic literacy in ety. It is not sufficient to leave all beyond the risk-benefit tables to
development planning. National public decisions to technical ex the scientific evidence itself, from
and international organizations, perts, if for no other reason than which he can then draw his own
both governmental and nongovern that experts are not popularly conclusions. Going back to the evi
mental, should assume major roles elected. dence, after all, is precisely what a
in the design, implementation, and conscientious citizen, legislator, or
evaluation of programs in practical With some oversimplification, the public official is apt to do, con
science literacy. The task will be decision-making process in a typi sciously or unconsciously, when
arduous: harmful traditions need to cal science-related public issue trying to reach decisions on public

266 American Scientist, Volume 63

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issues that are not science-related.
Civic science literacy would merely
for researchers... writers
allow him to do the same in the ... students... librarians
case of science-related issues. The
scientific background of the average an invaluable reference guide
layman a few generations from now CUMULATIVE INDEX TO
will undoubtedly be greater than it
is today, but, even today, I cannot American Scientist
think of a single public issue whose Vols. ?4-61 (1946-1973)
quiry. Some were before their time
technical aspects cannot be readily The years 1946 to 1973 gave
rise to unprecedented . . . others a
by the layman when
understood technologi presented thoughtful
cal advance and rapidly expanding overview or insight into past events.
shorn of all jargon and minutiae and
research in all scientific disciplines. The Cumulative Index provides
when its essence is explained in non And during thisperiod nearly 1,100 a for lo
reference guide essential
technical language by skilled popu important articles and research re these articles. A continua
? cating
larizers of science. The single most ports written by leaders in their tion of the index to the first 33
?
(published in 1945), the
fields were published in Ameri volumes
difficult task for civic science litera
can Scientist. new index is divided into two sec
cy, I suspect, will not be to explain ?
Many of these articles heralded tions authors and title key-words
science to the layman but rather to in the sciences . . . ? and reference.
developments for quick easy
convince him that he has no reason raised controversial issues . . . The result is an indispensable addi
to shy away from it. opened new areas of scientific in tion to your reference collection.

ISBN 0-9144446-01-0 Hardbound 68 pp. $8.50

To achieve a minimum functional American Scientist
level of civic science literacy, at 345 Whitney Avenue, New Haven, Connecticut 065II
least two things need to be done. USE THE Please send me..._. copies of the Cumulative
First, the public must be far more COUPON TO Index to American Scientist Vols. P>4-61 (1946-1973)
ORDER THIS at $8.50 each.
exposed to science than it is today.
HELPFUL check for $-is enclosed. Please bill me.
The reporting of science news over My

the air and in newspapers should be REFERENCE

increased both in quantity and GUIDE
quality. Science teaching in pri TODAY!
mary and secondary schools should
also be made more effective in
order to provide the foundation for
a lifelong familiarity with science
and an awareness of its social im
plications. Second, the complexities
behind specific science-related pub with science propaganda will be tively small number of people. Its
lic issues must be analyzed in plain reach today barely extends beyond
strong, but itmust be resisted.
language for the average citizen on the intellectual community. Every
a continuing basis by specialists in effort should be made to increase
explicating science. They should Cultural science literacy its accessibility so that, ultimately,
also help the layman separate the When a studenttakes a course in everyone who is interested will have
nontechnical policy aspects of an physics-for-nonscientists, when an the opportunity to enjoy science in
issue from its technical aspects.
artist reads a magazine article on his leisure time as readily as he
Here again, the electronic and print or when a lawyer watches a
DNA, might enjoy the arts and letters. To
media are essential for communi television program on the Crab Ne this end, the mass media must be
cating the analyses to the citizen,
bula, they are engaged in improv utilized. Two recent series shown
through special reports of the kind ing their cultural science literacy. on public television represent steps
we now see only at election time,
They do this in the same spirit in in the right direction: Michael Am
during a manned space flight, orwhich a science student might brosino's "Nova" and Jacob Bro
when some crisis intervenes.
study ancient history, an engineer nowski's "Ascent ofMan."
read poetry, or a physician delight
with practical science in classical tragedies. Cultural Another problem relating to cultur
Compared
literacy, the attainment of a func science literacy is motivated by a al science literacy ismore subtle. In
tional level of civic science literacy desire to know something about my recent service as chairman of a
will be a more protracted endeavor. science as a major human achieve committee concerned with the pub
Yet it is a job that sooner or later ment; it is to science what music lic understanding of science, I have
must be done, for science-related appreciation is to music. It solves talked to hundreds of people about
issues can increase in no practical problems directly, but science literacy, and I have come
public only
number and importance in the fut it does help bridge the widening across a small but vocal school of
ure. In trying to advance civic gulf between the scientific and thought which frowns upon the
science literacy, it is essential that humanistic cultures. contents of much of today's cultur
the effort not be allowed to degen al science. This school is of the
erate into a public-relations ploy One of the problems of cultural opinion that it is neither sufficient
for science or for scientists. The science literacy is that it is at pres nor desirable for a layman to know
ent available to only a compara a little about science: cultural
temptation to mix science literacy

1975 May-June 267

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science literacy is a concession to dent portion of this audience with past two centuries (and of the bio
mediocrity. The layman, it is held, out difficulty. Although irrational logical, behavioral, and social sci
should go through a certain amount ism as a philosophical attitude will ences more recently) has been to go
of technical preparation in order to probably forever be refractory to in the opposite direction: from
be able to perceive at least the ele rationalistic arguments, experience vague ordinary language to a tech
gance, say, of a particular mathe has shown that even a small dose of nical and, preferably, symbolic lan
matical formulation of quantum cultural science can exorcise many guage amenable to algorithmic op
mechanics. This is a little like of the pseudoscientific beliefs so erations.

saying that a layman wanting to fashionable among our students

know something about ancient his today. In academic philosophy today,
tory should first learn to appreciate there is a curious coexistence be
the finer technical points of histori tween two types of philosophers:
ography and archaeology. those who use symbolic languages
Ordinary-language
and whose work is totally incompre
science
hensible to the layman, and those
Viewpoints such as this reveal the
Underlying the idea of science liter who use plain English (or whatever
arrogance of science in our century.
acy is the tacit assumption that the other natural language) and whose
The average layman, after all, has
other things to do, and, unless he is
essentials of science can be trans equally serious work can be read by
lated from a technical language anyone. The latter way of philoso
a student, there is no reason why
into the ordinary language of every phizing is disarmingly called "ordi
he should want to gain more than
an acquaintance with the salient day discourse without intolerable nary-language philosophy." Not for
loss of meaning. That this is nearly scientific research, but for science
facts, premises, and conclusions of
science and with the general forms always possible in skilled hands is literacy, we need a planned prolif
demonstrated by the excellent arti eration of good "ordinary-language
of scientific reasoning, all of which
cles, books, radio and television science." Too often scientists look
can be readily put in nontechnical
as the better works of programs, lectures, and films on down upon those who spend time
language, science now available to the lay science to the layman.
science popularization have amply explaining
man. This is so despite the fact This attitude must change, now
demonstrated over the years. We
that going from technical to ordi that science popularization is very
should accept the fact that it is not
nary language is contrary to the much needed not only for intellec
the purpose of cultural science lit
historical trend. The very ideal of tual enjoyment but also as an im
eracy, or of any kind of science lit
the so-called exact sciences over the portant service to society.
eracy, to train science hobbyists or
future scientists. A little knowl
edge, carefully presented and well
understood, can be a very good
thing.

Although on the surface cultural

science literacy seems to be com
pletely devoid of the utilitarian ob
jectives so basic to the other two
forms of science literacy, in at least
two respects it does exert a signifi
cant influence on human affairs.
First, despite its relatively small
audience, the contents of cultural
science preferentially reach the cur
rent and future opinion leaders and
decision makers in many communi
ties. Because of this, cultural
science literacy may in the long run
affect human events very profound
ly indeed. Second, cultural science
literacy can greatly influence what
has been called "the new irrational
ism." In the past few years, a host
of superstitious and occult beliefs,
such as astrology, food faddism,
cosmic catastrophism, and the no
tion that plants have emotional
lives, have found favor among
younger Americans, especially
those of college age, and are often
mistaken by them for serious
science. cultural "With the new, vitamin-enriched
Fortunately, formula, you'll get- an additional five
science literacy can reach the stu miles per feed bag."

268 American Scientist, Volume 63

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