Efficient Design, Operation, Maintenance of Cold Storage

e Journal of Biological Sciences Volume: 1, Issue 1 (December 2009)
ISSN: 2076-9946, EISSN: 2076-9954 All rights reserved.
EFFICIENT DESIGN, OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND

MANAGEMENT OF COLD STORAGE
DR. MANOJ KUMAR CHOURASIA, READER
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia - 741 252 (W.B)
Phone: 09434217901; e-mail: mkchourasia3@rediffmail.com
And
PROF. TRIDIB KUMAR GOSWAMI
Professor, Department of Agricultural and Food Engineerong
IIT Kharagpur - 721302
ABSTRACT
Many agricultural commodities, potato in particular, are being kept in commercial cold storages. Since the design
parameters are not well defined and the problems associated with these cold storages are also not duly addressed I n
any form. For this reason, as of now most of the cold storage manufacturers are still using so called old and
traditional technologies without any or minor changes. This paper deals with different aspects of design of cold
storage and its improvement over the existing ones. Cold air flow being one of the key components in establishing
the performance of a cold storage, a CFD analysis has been done and the results have been discussed in this paper.
The problems generally encountered in running a cold storage have also been high lighted and their probable
solutions have also been suggested in this paper. In fact, both design and operational aspects of a cold storage are the
main two objectives of this paper.
A. Electrical Energy Consumption in Cold Storage
The cold storage is 40 fold energy efficient than a home freezer, still it needs through analysis for finding
the energy conservation opportunities. This is due to the fact that energy crisis and resulting increase in operating
cost are of national concern. It has a direct face out on the survival of cold storage industry. The development in
industrial refrigeration has always been with the important objective of reducing electrical power consumption. The
developments which have direct relation to energy consumption, are development in designing the components and
their operations, improvement in the design and operation of the cold storage, improvements in storing operations,
etc. The important factors influencing the power consumption in potato cold storage along with possible
improvements to reduce the same have been discussed below.
Design and operation of components
The salient components of vapor compression refrigeration system used in Indian cold storage system are:
evaporator, compressor, condenser and manually operated expansion valve. Since the refrigeration system is the
major consumer of electrical energy in potato cold storage, an improvement in design and operation of the
components leads to proportionate saving in energy. A typical schematic diagram of the refrigeration system is
shown below:
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COMPRESSOR CONDENSOR
EVAPORATOR EXPANSION VALVE

Evaporator: This is one of the major components of the refrigeration plant. Improper design and selection leads to
low suction pressure and resultant high energy consumption, higher temperature of air coming out of bunker coils
which in turn results in high cool-down time. It was observed that most of the cold storage employed an evaporator
designed on the basis of comparatively higher temperature difference between the evaporation and storage air
temperature. This resulted in low suction pressure and higher pressure ratio. The fins attached in the presently
installed bunker coils are also not of optimized design. The improper attachment of fins on the bare tube resulted in
low fin efficiency. There is an immediate need to optimize the design parameters of fin with respect to Indian cold
storage system.
Compressor: The heart of the vapor compression refrigeration system in cold storage is compressor. It raises the
pressure of the ammonia gas to the necessary condensing pressure corresponding to condenser temperature. It was
found from the survey of different cold storage that water used to cool the compressor is not of standard quality.
This water is hard in nature, containing many dissolved salts. These salts deposit on the surface of the cooling jacket
around the compressor causes poor heat extraction from the compressor cylinder. The resultant insufficient cooling
of the compressor results in high discharge temperature of the ammonia gas, which ultimately increases electrical
power consumption and adversely affects the quality of lubricating oil. Therefore, it is recommended that soft water
should be used to cool the compressor.
Condenser: Liquefaction of the refrigerant gas sucked out of the evaporator by the compressor is done in condenser.
In the Indian cold storage industry, atmospheric type of condenser is used, wherein a spray system divides the water
flow over a number of horizontal tubes in which refrigerant condenses. The cooling effect in this system totally
depends upon the atmospheric temperature and relative humidity. However, the evaporative condensers are
considered to be advantageous over atmospheric one because in a hot and humid weather, it is possible to give the
lowest condenser pressure and therefore lower power consumption. The wetting of evaporative condenser requires 1
% of the total power consumption and reduces the energy consumption by 30 % as compared to air-cooled
condenser.
The formulae by which the different components of the total refrigeration load are calculated is described
as follows:
(i) Structural heat leakage load: The cooling load due to the structural heat leakage was determined from
heat transferred through the walls, roof and floor. The Transfer Function Method was preferred over the well known
Fouriers method to calculate the cooling load due to this component as because more accurate cooling load values
result from use of the former method (Stephenson and Mitalas, 1971). The space heat gain through roof or walls
exposed to solar radiation is given as (ASHRAE, 1989):-
6 6 6
(qe, i )
qe, A bi (Te, i ) di Ti ci (1)
i 0 i 1 A i 0
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The values of bi, ci and di, i.e., the Conduction Transfer Function Coefficients and overall heat transfer
coefficients (Uref) there of for 42 different representative roof assemblies and 41 different wall assemblies having
widely varying components, insulating values and masses are available in the literature (ASHRAE, 1989).
The actual overall heat transfer coefficient (Uact) of a roof or a wall is given as (Holman, 1992),
1 1 n xj 1
(2)
U ho j 1 kj hi
If the actual overall heat transfer coefficient, obtained from equation (2), of the roof or the wall under
consideration does not match with those given for the selected roof or wall group number under reference, values of
coefficients bi and ci, should be multiplied by the ratio Uact and Uref.
The cooling load due to conduction or space heat gain through cold storage building structure is given as
(Stephenson and Mitalas, 1967):-
Q = ( v0 q + v1 q - ) w1 Q - (3)
The average daily structural heat load can be calculated from-
24
Q
1
Qs (4)
24
(ii) Product Load: The product load consists of sensible heat to reduce the temperature of product from the
initial value to storage temperature and heat of respiration of the product, less heat required to evaporate the
moisture from the potatoes. The product load on a particular day can be estimated by-
c pp T ml (heva )Tp
Qp mp (qres )Tp (5)
86400 86400
(iii) Infiltration heat gain: The walls, roof and floor of the cold store were considered to be airtight. Outside
air infiltration was only limited to opening and closing of the doors during loading period. The infiltration heat load
can be calculated from (Stoecker, 1998):
1/ 2 3/ 2
i o 2 o i
Qinf Cinf Ad H 1/ 3
Ho Hi (6)
i 1 i / o
2
(iv) Load due to condensation and freezing of moisture on cooling coil: The moisture that is lost from
potatoes and that entered with infiltrated air reaches the evaporator coil, condenses and freezes thereon. It can be
assumed that half of the condensed moisture is converted into ice. This load can be obtained from-
Qf = mv [cpv (Ti Td) + (hcond )Td + cpw (Td Tf) + 0.5 {hfr + cpf (Tf Tc)}] (7)
(v) Load due to fans, lights and human beings: The heat load due to lights and human beings occurred only
during the loading time in a day. However, the fans liberate the heat throughout the day due to their continuous
operation.
The cooling load from lights, fans and human beings were calculated from the relation given in ASHRAE
(1989) as:-
Qm = Fsa Wl, + Fhe Wf, + (Wsh + Wlh) Nh, (8)
The total refrigeration load due to all components can be computed from the summation of all the
individual components as given by equations (4) to (8).
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Constructional features of the cold storage
The design of cold storage includes the drawing up of specifications, sketching of a site plan and a general
plan, the setting of the dimensions of the cold rooms (which depends on stacking arrangement), the calculation of
heat balances and refrigeration capacity and the insulation thickness, selection of refrigeration system components,
their installation and testing and finally performance evaluation. Any deviation from this procedure results in
defective cold storage construction, increasing in cost of storage of the product due to increased operational and
maintenance cost.
Storage building: The building ideally should have a floor perimeter in the shape of a square. A rectangular
configuration has more wall area per unit volume of the cold storage, resulting in higher construction cost and higher
heat in-leak compared to square shape. The orientation of walls should be such that they receive minimum solar
radiation. Solar exposure of walls and roof can dramatically increase the effective outside temperature of a wall,
increasing heat in-leak and power consumption. A dark, flat roof can be 42 oC warmer than that of the outside air
temperature. Painting a south facing wall with a light color can reduce the effective wall temperature by 11 oC
compared with a dark colored wall.
Insulation material: Thermal insulation of a cold storage is necessary for proper control of storage conditions. A
lower capital investment with an inferior quality and thinner insulation leads to a larger heat in-leak. A larger
compressor with more power consumption is required to make good for the additional cooling load. Therefore,
quality and quantity of insulation material has a direct relation with the power consumption. The optimum insulation
quality and its thickness, of course, is a function of the energy cost and hence a function of the instant of time. It is
therefore obvious that when the energy cost has already increased and set to increase further, the quality and
thickness of insulation has to improve further with passage of time. It is however not so in practice and reality. The
cold storage must be insulated in such a way that heat in-leak should not increase beyond 6 8 W/m2.
Vapor barrier: It plays a big role in determining the insulation quality with passage of time that ultimately affects
the electrical energy consumption in cold storage. In the absence of vapor barrier, the insulation material may absorb
the water vapor and after condensation therein, the energy consumption increases dramatically as the thermal
conductivity of wet insulation increases by about 32 times. The cooling load on the refrigeration system and frosting
on the cooling coil further increases due to the leakage of moisture through the damaged vapor barrier.
Quality of the product
The quality of potatoes at the time of storage and during the long-term storage also has direct bearing on
the electrical power consumption. The maturity, initial temperature, damage to the skin of potatoes, degree of
sprouting, etc. are the quality attributes of the product which affect the metabolic heat of respiration as well as
moisture loss and resulted in increased power consumption. The quality attributes can be maintained by harvesting
the potatoes at optimum maturity, handling carefully, and enforcing good sanitation conditions.
Maturity: The potato is a living agricultural product and hence, generates heat by respiration. Degree of maturity has
a marked effect upon their rate of respiration and consequently heat production. The immature potatoes generate
heat almost 2 to 2.5 times more than the mature ones. The immature potatoes add not only the heat but also release
more moisture in cold storage, which in turn adds the cooling load in the form of latent heat.
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Damage to the skin and sprouting: Potatoes that are carefully handled to avoid any damage during harvest and
storage produce heat at a lower rate than potatoes that are handled carefully. When the potato tubers have about 1 %
of its own weight of sprout, metabolic heat production increases by 50 %.
Miscellaneous
Storing operations: The prescribed practice to store the potatoes in a cold storage is to cure them for few weeks
after the harvest. The tubers should be first kept for 24 hours in a specially constructed room known as curing yard
at about 22 oC. This is done with a view to acclimatize the potatoes for further lower temperature that exists in the
cold storage chamber itself. It was, however, experienced that the general practice is to load the sealed potato bags
directly in the cold storage chambers without keeping them in curing yard. This practice increases the sensible
cooling load and hence power consumption. The potatoes loaded at 35 oC would incur about 0.25 % additional
moisture loss in 10 days than that loaded at 25 oC. Also, the potato loaded at 35 oC will evolve about 45 % more heat
in comparison to that loaded at 25 oC.
Storage practices: cold storage was developed primarily for storing seed potatoes at 2 4 oC. However, cold storage
has been used for storing both seed and table potatoes. The storage temperature for potato destined for table or
processing purposes should be maintained at 10 12 oC. This could save about 40 % electricity.
Use of over-sized refrigeration system: One of the major causes of high-energy consumption in potato cold storage
is use of over-sized equipment, which again can be considered as an unavoidable result of common cooling load
calculation practice, i.e., adding largest anticipated heat gain from all the factors contributing to cooling load during
a whole day and dividing this total heat by the operating time of the compressor per day. Thus the calculated heat
load is always higher than the actual load by 50 to 200 %.
B. Types and Causes of Storage Losses in Cold Storage
Potato loss in cold storage is a problem confronting all the potato producing industry including India. In
India, the storage losses in potato cold storages account for 3 10 % of the stored product in the form of rotting,
cold injury, weight loss, sprouting, etc. However, the losses may increase up to 38 45 % due to defective cold
storage and poor management. These losses may be attributed mainly to the poor air circulation and resultant wide
variation in spatial distribution of temperature and humidity. The other factors include: stacking arrangement,
loading density, free area available for heat transfer, ventilation, condition of tuber at the time of storage, etc.
Storage losses are mainly caused by the following reasons:
Losses due to high temperature
Rotting: The product located at interior in upper part of the stacks is frequently subjected to rotting, where high
temperature develops due to slow potato cooling and accumulation of heat owing to upward movement of hot air.
Maintaining proper vertical gap to augment the air circulation at upper part of the stack could be beneficial in this
situation. Time elapsed between the harvesting and storage has a lot of influence on the rottage of tuber as can be
seen in Table 1.
Blackheart: Another form of storage losses due to high temperature is blackheart. The high temperature, which
causes blackheart, may develop due to above-mentioned reasons. Blackheart occurs as a result of sub-oxidation.
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Potatoes begin to respire strongly at a temperature of 30 oC or higher, the tuber requires a great deal of oxygen and
develops a large amount of carbon dioxide. At a certain temperature, respiration may become so intensive that the
cells deep inside the tuber can no longer obtain sufficient oxygen and the carbon dioxide formed can not be released.
The cells then die giving rise to blackheart. Under adequate supply of air, this disorder does not occur, unless
temperatures are 32 oC or higher. An air removal of 10 m 3 / ton / 24 h is sufficient to avoid the occurrence of
blackheart at cold storage temperature. The internal symptoms of blackheart are dark grey to purplish or black
discoloration near the center.
Losses due to extremely low temperature
Cold injury: When the potatoes are exposed to very low non-freezing temperature (below 3 oC) for a long time, it
causes cold injury. The potatoes located near the cooling coils and exposed to high air velocity at low temperature
(in the top floor of downward air flowing
Table 1: Rottage of potato when stored at varying intervals between harvest and cold storage
Interval between harvest and Percentage loss at
storage, days
o o
7 C 4.4 C
1 28.3 2.0
3 17.3 1.4
7 8.5 0.7
14 2.7 0.6
21 1.5 0.3
passage) are more susceptible to this damage. The cold injured potatoes become weakened because they are unable
to carry on normal metabolic processes. Often, potatoes that are chilled look sound , when removed from low
temperatures. However, symptoms of chilling become evident in a few days at warmer temperatures.
Mahogany browning: In mahogany browning, internal discoloration may occur in irregular patches anywhere in the
tubers. Affected tubers have normal firmness and consistency but are unfit for processing. This defect develops
when tubers are stored near 0 oC for 20 weeks or longer. Mahogany browning may be avoided by storing potatoes at
3.3 oC or above.
Losses due to diseases
Invasion of microorganisms into the tubers may cause considerable losses due to diseases. The diseases,
which may develop during storage are late blight, early blight, dry rot, pink rot, gangrene, skin spot, black dot, silver
scurf, charcoal rot, soft rot, etc. High temperature and high relative are important factors responsible for disease
development during cold storage. Normally infection takes place in field and in most of the occasions injuries of the
tubers become the entry points to the microorganisms. Infection by some microorganisms may, under favorable
storage conditions, cause rapid rotting of potatoes. Although, the losses may be negligible or low (below 5%) in cold
storages, even entire material may be lost under conditions of high temperature developed accidentally due to
defective operation and poor management of the cold storage. When adjacent healthy tubers are affected, there will
be occurrence of so-called clusters. Once these clusters occur, the rotting can not be prevented any longer. The
rotten tubers stick to each other, due to which ventilation of the tuber on the top is no longer possible. As apparently,
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the affected tubers also produce extra heat, temperature rises very rapidly and within a few days, the entire potato
stack may have become rotten. To counteract the spread of diseases in the cold storage, care must first be taken at
the beginning of storage period. Also, the potatoes must be maintained at desired low temperatures and kept dry
throughout the storage period.
Weight loss of the potatoes
Potatoes shrink or lose weight during cold storage. Potato tuber, being a living organism, undergoes
metabolic changes as a result of vital functions. The most important means of weight loss are evaporation,
respiration and sprouting. The agents, which influence the extent of weight loss are: stage of the maturity at the time
of harvest; quality of potato skin as well as injury during harvesting and storing; storage temperature and relative
humidity during a short time after harvesting; temperature, humidity and amount of ventilation during storage and;
length of storage as well as subsequent sprouting. Potatoes harvested at immature stage lost more weight than the
mature ones (Table 2). Potatoes handled carefully during harvesting and storage lost less weight than those
harvested in normal manner. Potatoes cured for 8 12 days immediately after harvest under warm moist storage
conditions incur less weight than those not cured. Water evaporates through the skin, wounds and sprouts in the ratio
of 1:300:100. Therefore, it is important to stimulate suberization and wound healing in the tubers right at the
beginning of storage season by keeping the potatoes at a temperature of 15 to 20 oC and a relative humidity of 90 %
or more. The loss in weight is directly proportional to the temperature and period of storage.
Table 2: Cold storage losses at 1.3 oC

Period of storage, months Percentage loss
Mature potatoes Immature potatoes
1 1.09 2.50
3 2.91 3.36
5 3.78 4.57
7 5.11 5.86
Evaporation: In evaporation, water is lost from the potatoes, so that the weight of the product remaining for sale is
smaller. This water loss in thus principally an economic loss and the original food value of the potato remains
virtually unaffected. Potatoes immediately after harvest lose water three times faster than they do after one month of
storage. Such a great difference is due to the fact that potato skin, after harvest, is thin and loosely bound with flesh.
After a preliminary period of storage, the skin is covered with a cork layer, which retards water evaporation.
Respiration: Respiration is a central process that occurs in all living cells including the potato. In this process, the
starch converts into carbon dioxide, water and energy. The respiration is minimum at a temperature of about 3 oC.
The temperature dependency is shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Heat of respiration, Watt / ton

o Immature potatoes Mature potatoes Cured & Mature potatoes
Temperature, C
5 34.9 19.0 17.7
10 51.9 24.7 20.0
15 66.7 27.3 25.0
20 93.8 33.4 31.3
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Sprouting: The physiological condition of the potato, diseases, and storage conditions greatly affect sprout growth
during cold storage. The length of dormancy period and sprouting behavior depend on the cultivar and on the
previous history of the tubers. Storage conditions such as temperature, humidity, light, oxygen concentration, carbon
dioxide concentration, and the possible presence of volatile matters from the potatoes also affect the length of
dormancy period and sprouting. Temperature strongly influences the duration of dormancy period and subsequent
sprouting as given in Table 4. There is a direct relation between the storage temperature and time taken for
sprouting. Reducing the temperature of potatoes from 10 oC to 3 oC increases the dormancy period by 150 %. It is
also important for the temperature not to vary too much, as this generally reduces the dormancy period.
Losses due to defects
Mechanical damage: This is one of the most common defects. The damage often becomes visible only after several
days or weeks. A typical form is hard, dry grey-white mass of starch from the damaged cells, evident on cutting.
Tuber damage gives rise to an increase in respiration rate and in evaporation losses. Again these damaged areas
frequently constitute a point of entry for microorganisms.
Blue discoloration or black spot: Tubers with this defect display local blue-grey discoloration of potato tissue on
cutting. This discoloration is almost always to be found just blow the skin around the vascular bundle tissue. The
discoloration occurs principally at the stem end. The discoloration of potato tissue is caused by oxidation of certain
phenols by enzyme, phenol oxidase. The susceptibility of potato to blue discoloration increases during cold storage.
This may be due to the loss of moisture and tissue tension due to evaporation. The tubers at the bottom of the cold
store are more susceptible to blue discoloration.
Table 4: Average time taken for sprout initiation at varying storage temperatures
o Time taken for sprout initiation, weeks
Storage temperature, C
5 30
10 15
15 8
20 5
Bruising or pressure spots: The flattened and indented surfaces of the potatoes are due to bruising or pressure spots.
They resulted from the pressure exerted by the potatoes on each other. The flesh under a bruise is softer and can be
cut rather less easily. Discoloration under the bruise is rarely observed immediately after the store is emptied. The
smallest bruises disappear almost entirely after a few days and the deeper indentions partially so. Depending on the
severity of the defect, the tissue under a bruise is more or less badly deformed and damaged. In very bad cases, the
starch grains are cemented together. When the pressure is removed on emptying the store, the tissue partially spring
back, giving rise to small cavities in the tissue in case of severe bruises. The fact that discoloration can be seen under
a bruise very rarely, when the store is emptied, is probably attributable to expulsion of all air, and hence also
oxygen, from the tissue by the pressure. When the pressure is relieved and if cavities form, air can return and the
discoloration can occur. It was established that not only pressure but also weight loss can play a very important part
towards this defect.
One approach to reduce prevention of this condition would be to reduce the stacking height, but this is not
practicable. It is better to start with well-hardened tubers on harvesting. Humidification of the ventilation air has a
favorable effect, greatly reducing the proportion of tubers with severe bruises.
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Greening: Exposure of potatoes to natural or artificial light during post-harvest handling and in storage may cause
greening of the skin and cortex. The green tissue is usually accompanied by formation of solanine, an alkaloid that
may be poisonous, if consumed in sufficient amounts. Such potatoes have a bitter taste and when processed may
also result in a less attractive product because of the green color. To avoid greening in cold storage, lights should not
be left on any longer than is necessary.
C. Airflow, Temperature, Relative Humidity and Moisture Loss Relationship in Cold Storage
In order to reduce post harvest deterioration, potatoes are kept in cold stores for long-term storage. The
stored potatoes are subject to heat and mass transfer during the extensive storage period of about 8 months. Uniform
cooling in bulk of potatoes within commercial cold stores is difficult to attain, owing to existence of an uneven
distribution of the airflow which results in considerable temperature and humidity differences within the stored
product. The variability of the cooling rate and resultant spatial variation in temperature of the product inside a cold
store causes the product quality to deteriorate through either increased respiration at higher temperature or by
chilling injury at lower temperature. The poor airflow distribution through stacks of bagged potatoes could also
result in non uniform humidity which might lead to condensation of moisture where relative humidity reaches
saturation or excessive dehydration where the relative humidity remains below 80 %. The prevailing conditions in
potato cold stores lead to storage losses up to 10 %, against the prescribed maximum limit of 5 % during the storage
period of 8 months. Therefore, one of the main aims in designing a storage system is to ensure a uniform targeted
temperature and humidity in the bulk of stored product.
The airflow, heat transfer and moisture loss was investigated in a potato cold store of commercial scale
under holding condition using the advanced technique. The main deficiencies of the airflow pattern which resulted
in wide variations in temperature and moisture loss within the stored commodity can be investigated. The model
located the probable zones of hot and cold spots, excessive product dehydration and moisture condensation within
the storage facility, which might lead to qualitative and quantitative deterioration in stored product. This advance
technique could very well be applied to incorporate necessary design improvements with a view to improve the
airflow distribution and heat transfer in order to limit the storage losses within the permissible limit. Some of the
results are presented in the following sections:
Air velocity pattern
The velocity patterns in the cold store are shown in Fig. 1. The airflow pattern in the whole cold store was
very complex in nature and was difficult to generalize. It can be seen that the air circulation due to ceiling fans was
limited to the top floor only and that too near to the fan and cooling coils assembly due to the formation of
recirculation loops. The air flows downward mainly through right-middle air passage and rises upwards through rest
of the three air passages. However, some localized recirculation loops were formed in the air passages through
which the air was rising. The direction of airflow in the individual stack was very specific and strongly depended on
the exposure of side surface of the stack to a particular air passage. In general, for the stacks exposed to
comparatively higher air velocity with downward airflow, the air entered through exposed side surface, moved
through the stack and escaped from opposite side as well as through the top surface of the stack. This allowed deep
penetration of cold air into the stacks and was beneficial for heat transfer. However, in those stacks where both the
side surfaces were exposed to upward air movement, i.e. the left column of the stacks, the cold air did not penetrate
deeply into the stack and airflow was mainly parallel in upward direction, which was harmful for dispelling heat. In
the lower stacks, the air mainly entered through the bottom of the stacks, rose upward and escaped from the top
surface.
There was wide variation in air velocity of storage air and within the stacks. It was observed that the high
velocity zones were concentrated between the cooling coils and ceiling fan assembly. A minimum air velocity of 0.1
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m s-1 was predicted throughout the top floor. In the stacks, a maximum velocity of up to 0.1 m s -1 was predicted near
the coil facing side surface of the top most stacks. As the distance of stacks from the ceiling fan increased, the air
velocity in the stacks was predicted to decrease except those in the lower most stacks where slightly higher velocity
was predicted near the bottom surface of the stacks.
Temperature distribution
It can be seen in Fig. 2 that the storage air temperature in air passage 1, 2, and 4 increased from the bottom
to the top, while it decreased from top to the bottom in air passage 3. This temperature distribution could be
attributed to the airflow pattern through the air passages as shown in Fig. 1. The minimum air temperature was
predicted to be around the fan and cooling coils situated near the left sidewall of the cold store. This was due to the
formation of recirculation loops of cold air between the fan and cooling coils. These recirculation loops reduced the
downward movement of cold air through air passage 1, which resulted in comparatively higher temperatures
measured in air passage 1. The left sidewall of the cold store under investigation was also exposed to direct solar
radiation and gained comparatively more conduction heat in comparison to right wall, which might be another
reason for the comparatively high air temperatures measured in air passage 1.
Figure 2 also shows the distribution of the temperature in the stack of potatoes corresponding to the
conditions of the storage air obtained through experiments. It is obvious that product temperature would be strongly
dependent on the storage air temperature. This indicates that the distribution of temperature and other dependent
parameters would be different if conditions of storage air are changed as input in the model. However, the present
modeling procedure can be used to predict the product temperature and moisture loss under any conditions of
storage air. Temperature distribution was found to be more widely scattered on the stack surfaces facing the
downward movement of the storage air due to better penetration of cold air into the stack entering through side
surfaces exposed to higher air velocities. On the other hand, steep temperature gradients were predicted at the stack
surfaces facing the upward movement of the storage air. Large differences in product temperatures in the whole cold
store were predicted.
It can be noticed that the minimum temperature of the product was in the top most stacks and very close to
their surrounding storage air temperature both due to the exposure to higher air velocity as well as the proximity of
the cooling coil. The product in these stacks would be susceptible to cold injury if the surrounding storage air
temperature remains below the critical temperature for cold injury for the stipulated duration of time. Therefore, the
cooling coil temperature should not be kept very low for a prolonged period of time, as in vogue, in order to handle
peak load demand persisted for about 20 days or so. The maximum temperature difference between the product in
the stack and surrounding storage air was found to be about 2.5 oC. The locations of higher product temperature in
the stacks were the places where the deterioration of the product would be maximum when the storage air
temperature could not be brought down to the desired storage temperature within the stipulated time.
Relative humidity distribution

Figure 3 shows the distribution of relative humidity (RH) in the stacks for a constant storage air relative
humidity of 90 %. Along the width of the stack, it was found that the RH was higher at the stack surface and was
found to decrease towards the interior. However, along the height of the stack, the RH was found to decrease from
the bottom to the top of the stack. The gradient of moisture concentration was found to be more at the stack surfaces,
those exposed to air passage, having upward movement of the storage air, as was the case with the product
temperature. Minimum RH was found to be as low as 83 % in the stacks.
It is interesting to note that at some specific locations in the stacks, the RH was found to be higher than that
of the storage air. A maximum of 93 % relative humidity was found at a few such spots. These pockets of high RH
were located just below the top surface of the stack and could be attributed to the mixing of cold and dry storage air
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with that of the humid and hot air from within the stack. Such pockets of high RH could be the probable locations
wherein the condensation might first appear if the conditions favor, however, in the present study no moisture
condensation was found to occur.
Moisture loss
Distribution of the rate of moisture loss in the stacks is shown in Fig. 4. The overall maximum moisture
loss was found to occur in the left column of the stacks followed by the right and middle ones. The stacks of
potatoes, located at the top floor of the chamber experienced low moisture loss in comparison to those on the other
three floors due to the low product temperature and high RH owing to the presence of cooling coils and ceiling fans
at the top floor. It can be seen that, in the same storage chamber, moisture loss from the potatoes was dependent
upon stack location with respect to the cooling coil and ceiling fan assembly. The stacks situated away from the
cooling coils would lose as much as double the moisture than those stacks in the vicinity of the cooling coils i.e. in
top floor. Also, within the same stack, minimum and maximum variations in moisture loss were 40 % and 122 %,
respectively.
Fig. 1. Airflow pattern in the storage chamber
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Fig. 2. Isotherm patterns in the storage chamber.
81
Fig. 3. Relative humidity distribution in the stacks.
82
Fig. 4. Contour plots representing the spatial variation of rate of moisture in different stacks.
83
D. Advanced Technique and its Applications in Improving the Design, Operation and Management of
Cold Storage
In order to reduce the post harvest deterioration, potatoes are kept in cold store for long-term storage. The
stored potatoes are subjected to heat and mass transfer during the extensive storage period of about 8 months.
Uniform cooling in bulk of potatoes within commercial cold store is difficult to attain, owing to existence of an
uneven distribution of the airflow, which results in considerable temperature and humidity difference within the
stored product. The variability of the cooling rate and resultant spatial variation in temperature of the product inside
a cold store causes the product quality to deteriorate through either increased respiration at higher temperature or by
chilling injury at lower temperature. The poor airflow distribution through stacks of bagged potatoes could also
result in non-uniform humidity, which might lead to condensation of moisture wherein relative humidity reaches at
saturation or excessive dehydration wherein the relative humidity remains very low. The prevailing situations in the
potato cold store lead to storage losses even up to 10 % against the prescribed maximum limit of 5% during the
storage period of 8 months. Therefore, one of the main aims in designing storage system is to ensure a uniform
targeted temperature and humidity in the bulk of stored product.
Main problems of cold storage industry
In the Indian potato cold store industry the two most important problems are higher energy consumption,
and storage losses beyond the permissible limits. In India, the storage losses in potato cold stores account for 3
10% of the stored product in the form of rotting, cold injury, weight loss, sprouting, nutritive value degradation, etc.
However, the potato losses may increase up to 38 45 % due to poor storage management and operations. The
parameters governing the energy consumption and storage losses are interrelated by means of coupled heat and mass
transfer phenomena in the cold store. The heat and mass transfer within the stacked bags of potato depend on many
products, operating and geometric parameters. Some parameters can be controlled in principle and the others are
intrinsic characteristics of the agricultural produce. Most important of these include, the rate of metabolic heat
generation, porosity of the bulk medium, resistance of the products skin in preventing moisture loss, temperature as
well as RH of the outside (storage) air which is used as the cooling medium, stack size as well as stacking
arrangement, location of cooling coils and ceiling fans, etc. The humidity and temperature of the storage air also
exerts an influence on the performance of the cooling coils, The higher the humidity difference for a given
temperature, the greater will be rate of frost formation on the cooling coils and the higher will be the energy
consumption caused by frosting.
Possible causes behind higher energy consumption and storage losses beyond permissible limit:
There are many factors affecting the energy consumption and storage losses in a potato cold store. Some
important of them are listed below-
1. Irregular loading pattern.
2. Lack of control over the relative humidity and temperature of the storage air during the loading period
which resulted in slow potato cooling as well as high moisture loss from the potato.
3. Overloading of the storage chamber.
4. Lacunas in the design and operation of the refrigeration system of cold storage.
5. Poor airflow distribution in the storage chamber and within the stack mass.
6. Prevalent stack size and stacking arrangement.
7. Over looking or completely elimination of curing process before loading the potatoes in cold storage
chamber.
84
Scientific approaches to overcome the problems:

The problems of higher energy consumption and storage losses in the potato cold storage industry have
been known since decades and efforts were also made by the cold storage owners, operators and other concerned
personals to overcome these lacunas. However, the outcome is not satisfactory and still there exists a room for
possible improvements. The following are the main hurdles which should be ease out in order to achieve the desired
positive changes in the cold storage design and operation:
(a) Unavailability of technical data with respect to product and storage air conditions during the cooling and
subsequent period.
(b) Lack of technical know how among the persons involved in operation and management of the cold store.
(c) Selection of refrigeration system based on average cooling load demand.
(d) Poor quality of the product destined for long-term storage.
Following are the steps in order to reduce the energy consumption and storage losses in a scientific manner:
1. Data collection on airflow, temperature and moisture loss in the cold storage chamber: To guarantee a top
quality product, storage conditions must be well controlled, which require a knowledge of heat transfer as
well as moisture loss and their dependency on the airflow within the storage chamber. The unscientific
approaches to reduce the energy consumption generally result in increased storage losses and vise versa, as
because the parameters governing the energy consumption and storage loses are interrelated. Therefore,
understanding of these problems is the first step towards possible improvements. To get an insight view of the
problems of energy consumption and storage losses, a thorough knowledge of airflow, temperature and
relative humidity distribution in the cold storage chamber is necessary. The required knowledge can be
obtained either through experimentation or mathematical simulation. However, the experimental study to
investigate the effects of large number of variables involved in cold store would be prohibitively expensive
and time consuming. Also, the results of the experimental study obtained for a particular cold storage could
not be applied confidently for another cold storage having different storage conditions and constructional
details. On the other hand, the mathematical simulation offers a feasible choice for evaluating the
performance of cold stores, having various design parameters, in terms of storage losses and energy
consumption, under different prevailing storage conditions. Due to the availability of faster computers at
reasonable prices, the detailed information on airflow, temperature distribution and moisture loss in the cold
storage chamber could be obtained economically in short time thorough mathematical analysis.
2. Analysis of collected data to identify the lacunas in the existing cold storage: Once an insight view of cold
storage in terms of temperature, relative humidity and airflow distribution is available, the probable zones
such as hot and cold spots, dead area, moisture condensation, etc., wherein the adverse conditions leading to
quality deterioration exist, could easily be located. Generally, the high and low (near freezing point) product
temperature for prolonged period of time results in rotting phenomena and cold injury, respectively. The
product in the stack would suffer severe moisture loss, if the relative humidity in the stack dropped below
80% and moisture might also condensed on cold surfaces of the potatoes when the relative humidity in the
surrounding air approaches near 100%. Also, the pictorial view of velocity distribution can be used to locate
the probable stagnation zones wherein the air velocity is extremely low due to the formation of recirculation
loops.
85
3. Determination of optimum storage conditions and design parameters: The presence of any undesirable zone
within the storage chamber indicates the lacunas in the design and operation of cold storage, which needs
immediate improvement. The mathematical simulation can now be used confidently to eliminate such
probable zones wherein the product quality may deteriorate in due course of time. For this, the air flow,
temperature and relative humidity distribution should be obtained under the different operating and geometric
conditions of storage. The mathematical simulation should be continued until desired airflow, temperature
and relative humidity distribution is obtained in the storage chamber.
Tool for mathematical analysis:
There are three commonly used methods for numerical heat and mass transfer modeling, viz., finite
difference, finite element and finite volume/Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Among three commonly used
methods, the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technique based on finite volume approach, seems to be more
versatile over the first two methods, offers a powerful design and analysis tool to analyze the airflow, heat transfer
and moisture loss under complex situations such as those prevailing in cold storage. The refrigeration industries
across the world have already accepted the CFD as an engineering tool. However, in India, it has not gain
popularity, may mainly be due to the ignorance about the capabilities of the CFD in cold storage applications. The
results from a CFD study can assist in understanding the dynamics and the underlying physics of a cooling operation
and thus aid in the optimization and design of existing and new cold storage. Currently, the benefits of CFD
technique are overshadowed by the investment required to adopt this tool. CFD is an expensive tool, requiring
considerable investment in engaging the expert personal to handle the CFD software, high cost of commercial CFD
code and high speed computational resources, such that, in current economic environment, most industries involved
in cooling operations cannot afford to invest in CFD technology. To assist in this dilemma, concerned cold storage
owners could consider trusting a suitable research organization or educational institution, which utilizes CFD
software as well as possess experts in the relevant field. The cold storage industry should exploit the opportunity of
using the CFD tool in order to modify the design, operation and storage practices. The CFD technique would not
only benefit them to improve the performance of the existing cold stores but also will be helpful in innovating the
new design to store their produce economically without any significant expenditure on construction of trial units.
Salient features of the advance technique with respect to potato cold storage
There are unlimited capabilities of this technique in the processing industries. The following are some of the
areas wherein this technique could be used for the improvement of performance of the cold storage with respect to
energy consumption and storage losses.
1. To identify the loop holes in the design and operation of an existing cold storage and making the
subsequent cost effective improvements.
2. To investigate the effect of air velocity, storage air temperature and relative humidity and hence
optimization of storage air conditions.
3. How the initial quality of potatoes, like maturity, damaged tubers, variety, size, shape, etc. affects the
storage ability of the tuber.
4. To study the effect of stack dimensions, stacking arrangement and gaps between the stacks.
5. Determination of the gaseous composition of storage environment and hence, the required frequency for
charging the fresh air into the cold storage chamber.
6. Regulation of the rate of loading of potatoes in the chamber compatible with the cooling capacity of the
existing refrigeration system in order to avoid the fluctuations in storage air temperature and relative
humidity.
7. Modifications in the arrangement of cooling coils and ceiling fans to improve the air circulation.
86
8. Regulation of reducing sugar in the tubers during the long-term storage as required for potato processing
industries.
9. Identification of the probable conditions of storage air leading to quality deterioration in the stack of
bagged potatoes.
10. To design a new cold storage.
E. Troubleshooting Cold Storage Problems
There are hundreds of refrigerated storage in India used for short or long-term storage of fruits and
vegetables. Storages are used as a marketing tool to smooth out peaks and valleys in production, allow a more
continuous supply to customers, and help maintain the quality of produce. Storages come in a vast array of sizes,
layouts and construction methods, all of which are critical to their proper function.
This fact sheet lists some of the most common problems found in potato as well as multipurpose cold
storages, with possible causes and solutions.
Problem: Some product is freezing
Possible Cause(s)
o Heavy freezing air from evaporator coils is dropping on product

o Poor airflow or container stacking arrangement, causing freezing, dead air spots
o Product is touching, or is close to freezing walls
o Product stacked too high near coils
Possible Solution(s)
o Adjust coils to run at higher temperature; install baffles under coils to deflect cold air and allow it
to warm up before hitting product.
o Use smoke generator to find dead air spots; relocate coils or increase their fan capacity; install air
tubes and/or extra circulation fans; layout containers to promote good air distribution.
o Re-insulate, especially on concrete foundations; keep product away from cold walls.
o Stack product lower, especially in direct airflow of evaporator coil fans.
Problem: Some product is shriveling (shrinking)
Possible Cause(s)
o Storage relative humidity too low

o Vapor pressure differential too high; warm, moist product versus cold, dry air
o Wooden containers and storage structure itself is drawing moisture out of the air and product
o Install more coils so they can operate at a lower temperature difference between "cold" air leaving
the coils and air that the product "feels"; this reduces air dehumidification; install humidification
equipment that can supply ultra-fine or atomized mist; it's hard to put water back into desiccated
product.
87
o Remove field heat more rapidly and promptly after harvest so there is less vapour pressure
difference between product and storage air, thus less incentive for moisture to leave the product,
causing desiccation.
o Wet the wooden containers before putting in long term storage; tests show that wooden materials
can increase 10 % in weight by absorbing moisture; wet plywood walls and floor as well.
o See possible solutions under freezing; pome fruit that has been slightly frozen does not shrivel
from moisture loss and will lose wrinkles when thawed.
Problem: Some product is sweating or has free water on it
Possible Cause(s)
o Warm, moist air from recently placed product is hitting cold product
o Outside air is hitting cold product after removal from storage
o Defrost water from evaporator coils is dripping on produce
o Humidification system droplets are too large
o Keep "cold" product being stored for longer periods in separate room from "hot" product being
cooled; install more refrigeration to reduce dramatic air temperature increases.
o Allow product to warm up gradually; condensation is unavoidable if product is put directly into a
warm, moist atmosphere.
o Drain condensate away onto floor if possible to help humidify the storage.
o Install humidification equipment that can supply ultra-fine or atomized mist.
Problem: Product is displaying premature ripening, discoloring, loss of leaves (plants)
Possible Cause(s)
o Ethylene gas may be present

o Storage temperature may be too high
o Remove high ethylene producing fruits in storage area such as; apples, pears, peaches, apricots,
muskmelons and tomatoes; avoid using equipments that emit ethylene in the exhaust; thoroughly
ventilate storage rooms before use.
o Lower storage temperature.
Problem: Product has odors or off-flavors
Possible Cause
o Products nearby that readily transfer odors and/or off-flavors
Possible Solution
88
o Remove crops such as cabbage, rutabagas, celery, potatoes, onions, lettuce, or garlic.
Problem: Product is rotting
Possible Cause(s)
o Product is too warm and is respiring and aging rapidly

o Product damaged, overripe, or of poor quality before storage
o Provide quick and uniform rapid cooling after harvest; maintain recommended temperature during
the storage period.
o Increase culling rates before storage; do not expect the storage to turn poor quality product into a
top quality product with a long shelf life.
Problem: Walls and/or ceiling are condensating
Possible Cause
o Interior surfaces are colder than the room air hitting it
Possible Solution
o Install more insulation to warm up wall surfaces above the room air's dew point; tighten up
building; provide better airflow in these areas.
Problem: Walls and/or ceiling are moldy
Possible Cause
o Surface temperatures and moisture level are ideal for mould growth
Possible Solution
o Install more insulation to warm up wall surfaces above the room air's dew point, tighten up
building; provide better airflow in these areas; dry out room and clean and disinfect the cladding.
Problem: Walls and/or ceiling are rotting
Possible Cause(s)
o Moisture migrating into wood cladding/structure

o Improper installation of, or missing vapor barrier
89
o Before reconstruction, determine why and how to prevent moisture from migrating in again.
o Re-insulate if needed, possibly with different insulation; vapor barrier may not be advisable
depending on use.
Problem: Ceiling is dripping
Possible Cause(s)
o Poor attic ventilation allowing a build up of hot, moist air in attic

o Insufficient attic insulation causing condensation which drips through the cracks
o Improper installation of, or missing vapor barrier
o Provide 1 m of unrestricted eave inlet area per 600 m of ceiling, with same unrestricted peak
area, or mechanically ventilate @1 air change/2 minutes.
o Add insulation to prevent the warm, attic side of the insulation from approaching the cold
temperature of the storage below.
o Vapor barrier location depends on vapor pressure drive direction; a vapor barrier may not be
advisable depending on building use.
Problem: Floor is drying out even if floor is sprayed with water
Possible Cause(s)
o Storage relative humidity is too low

o Floors have cracks for water to escape
o Install more coils so they can operate at a lower temperature difference between "cold" air leaving
the coils and air that the product "feels"; this reduces air dehumidification; install humidification
equipment that can supply ultra-fine or atomized mist; it is hard to put water back into desiccated
product.
o Flood floors to see if water runs away, especially along concrete foundation; seal if necessary.
Problem: Inside air temperature fluctuates during storage period
Possible Cause(s)
o Thermostat not located properly and does not sense average room temperature
o Airflow not uniform throughout storage
o Evaporator coils have too large a temperature difference across them
o Poor quality or insensitive thermostats
90
o Install thermostats in average room airflow, usually in the return airflow to evaporator coils;
relocate thermostats away from warm/cold walls, doors, lights, cold air leaving the coils, or hot
product.
o Use smoke generator to determine location of dead air spots; relocate evaporator coils or increase
the capacity of their fans (if possible); install air tubes and/or extra fans; rearrange storage
containers to allow more uniform airflow.
o Lower the temperature difference across the evaporator coils; recognizing that this will result in a
lower potential heat removal capacity.
o Use good equipment since uniform temperature control is vital for maintaining product quality.
Problem: Inside air temperature is warmer than desired during storage period
Possible Cause(s)
o Inadequate refrigeration
o Insufficient insulation for summer use
o Poor attic ventilation
o Hot sunny days with dark, roof surface
o Airflow not uniform or of insufficient capacity in storage
o Poor thermostat location that senses cold temperatures
o Install more refrigeration cooling capacity.

o Install minimum R-20 in walls, R-24 in attic, R-12 on foundation
o Provide 1 m of unrestricted eave inlet area per 600 m of ceiling, with same unrestricted peak
area, or mechanically ventilate at 1 air change/2 minutes.
o Paint roof chalk-white and provide adequate attic ventilation, since attic temperatures can reach 60
C if the roof is a dark colour.
o Use smoke generators to determine location of dead air spots; relocate evaporator coils or increase
o Install thermostats in average room airflow, usually in return airflow to evaporator coils; avoid
locating thermostats on outside cold walls, near doors, or near the cold air leaving evaporator
coils.
Problem: Inside air temperature is colder than desired during the storage period
Possible Cause(s)
o Thermostat poorly located and senses warmer temperatures

o Insufficient insulation for winter use
91
o Install thermostats in average room airflow, usually in return airflow to evaporator coils; avoid
location thermostats on outside warm walls, or near doors or lights.
o Install minimum R-20 in walls, R-24 in attic, R-12 on foundation; floors are seldom insulated in
Ontario, but for year-round use, the cost can be justified.
Problem: Inside air temperature is not uniform
Possible Cause(s)
o Airflow not uniform or of insufficient capacity in storage

o Short-circuiting of air directly back to the evaporator coils because of poor storage container
arrangement
o Use smoke generators to determine location of dead air spots; relocate evaporator coils or increase
o Avoid alleys/openings that allow air to simply by-pass product or storage containers; air will
always take the easiest path and air must be forced to travel a meandering path to maximize
cooling potential; use a smoke generator to inspect for short-circuiting.
Problem: The storage air smells bad or is difficult to breathe
Possible Cause
o Gases such as carbon dioxide or ethylene may be present in excessive quantities as a result of
decay or respiration
Possible Solution
o Look for and dispose of decaying product; install a small exhaust fan that provides ventilation of 1
or 2 air changes/day; some newer storages (not built as Controlled Atmosphere storages) are very
tight so there is no natural air-change ventilation.
Problem: Evaporator coils are icing up and run a lot of condensate
Possible Cause(s)
o Coils running at too low a temperature
o Defrost system not running properly
o Storage relative humidity is high
92
o Increase coil temperature; this may require larger capacity evaporator coils
o Repair defrost system or install a more effective one.
o Install more effective defrost method, since the relative humidity should be high for most crops a.
a. Some crops such as onions, garlic, or squash require lower humidities.
Problem: Electrical consumption is rising
Possible Cause(s)
Insulation is wet or missing

Higher volume of product being cooled than before
Product is entering storage hotter than in previous seasons
Building less tight or doors open more often
Malfunctioning refrigeration equipment
Correct moisture problem and re-insulate with an insulation that is more suitable for cold storages.
Install more refrigeration as crop production rises; one rarely has 'too much refrigeration capacity', but the
system should be properly sized to reduce costs.
Earlier varieties and variable weather might mean harvested product is warmer, requiring more
refrigeration capacity than before.
Re-tighten the building since they do become less tight over time; install flaps over access doors.
Get equipment serviced by a qualified refrigeration contractor familiar with the needs of farm produce.
Bibliography:
(1) Arora, C. P. (2003). Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. 9th reprint, Tata McGrawHill Publishing
Company, New Delhi.
(2) Chourasia, M. K., Bandyopadhyay, A., Bhadra, A. and Goswami, T. K. (2004). Estimation of transient
refrigeration load in potato cold storage. In: Proceedings of international conference on emerging
technologies in agricultural and food engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, p.
156-164.
(3) Cooper, W. B. (1987). Commercial, Industrial and Institutional Refrigeration: design, installation and
trouble shooting. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey.
(4) Holman, J. P. (2002). Heat Transfer. 4th reprint, Tata McGrawHill Publishing Company, New Delhi.
(5) Stoecker, W. F. (1998). Industrial Refrigeration Handbook. McGrawHill Companies, Inc., New York.
93

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Efficient Design, Operation, Maintenance of Cold Storage

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e Journal of Biological Sciences Volume: 1, Issue 1 (December 2009)

ISSN: 2076-9946, EISSN: 2076-9954 All rights reserved.

EFFICIENT DESIGN, OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND

A. Electrical Energy Consumption in Cold Storage

Design and operation of components

EVAPORATOR EXPANSION VALVE

Constructional features of the cold storage

Quality of the product

B. Types and Causes of Storage Losses in Cold Storage

Losses due to high temperature

Losses due to extremely low temperature

Losses due to diseases

Weight loss of the potatoes

Table 2: Cold storage losses at 1.3 oC

Table 3: Heat of respiration, Watt / ton

Losses due to defects

Air velocity pattern

Relative humidity distribution

Fig. 1. Airflow pattern in the storage chamber

Fig. 2. Isotherm patterns in the storage chamber.

Fig. 3. Relative humidity distribution in the stacks.

Main problems of cold storage industry

Scientific approaches to overcome the problems:

Tool for mathematical analysis:

E. Troubleshooting Cold Storage Problems

Problem: Some product is freezing

o Heavy freezing air from evaporator coils is dropping on product

Problem: Some product is shriveling (shrinking)

o Storage relative humidity too low

Problem: Some product is sweating or has free water on it

Problem: Product is displaying premature ripening, discoloring, loss of leaves (plants)

o Ethylene gas may be present

Problem: Product has odors or off-flavors

o Products nearby that readily transfer odors and/or off-flavors

Problem: Product is rotting

o Product is too warm and is respiring and aging rapidly

Problem: Walls and/or ceiling are condensating

o Interior surfaces are colder than the room air hitting it

Problem: Walls and/or ceiling are moldy

Problem: Walls and/or ceiling are rotting

o Moisture migrating into wood cladding/structure

Problem: Ceiling is dripping

o Poor attic ventilation allowing a build up of hot, moist air in attic

Problem: Floor is drying out even if floor is sprayed with water

o Storage relative humidity is too low

Problem: Inside air temperature fluctuates during storage period

o Install more refrigeration cooling capacity.

o Thermostat poorly located and senses warmer temperatures

Problem: Inside air temperature is not uniform

o Airflow not uniform or of insufficient capacity in storage

Problem: The storage air smells bad or is difficult to breathe

Problem: Evaporator coils are icing up and run a lot of condensate

a. Some crops such as onions, garlic, or squash require lower humidities.

Problem: Electrical consumption is rising

Insulation is wet or missing

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