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 Indexed in
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www.cafetinnova.org August 2014, P.P.1251-1258
ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 07, No. 04

Use of Laterite as a Sustainable Building Material in Developing

Countries
A K KASTHURBA1, KRISHNA R REDDY2 AND D VENKAT REDDY3
1
Department of Archictecture, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, Kerala 673 601, India
2
Geotechnical & Geoenvironmental Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil & Materials Engineering,
University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
3
Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology, Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar-575025,
Mangalore, D.K., India
Email: kasthurba@yahoo.com, kreddy@uic.edu, dvr1952@gmail.com

Abstract: Utilisation of local materials is an important step to sustainable construction to reduce transportation cost,
save embodied energy, and protect the environment. This paper advocates the use of local laterite- a soil type rich in
iron and alumina formed under hot and wet tropical conditions- due to its cost effectiveness and energy efficiency
than that of conventional modern materials in tropical developing countries. This paper summarizes the occurrence
and characteristics of laterite and then highlights the need for developing universal database of properties and
standard testing protocols to facilitate evaluation and extensive use laterite in building applications. Understanding
of properties and potential challenges of using this material will benefit for the development of suitable
strategies/techniques for sustainable construction. Overall, this study identifies various factors that should be
considered for efficient utilization and managements of laterite in construction to meet the growing demand of new
housing and infrastructural in different regions of developing tropical world.
Keywords: laterite, building material, geological, geotechnical characters, developing countries

1. Introduction subject of controversy. Often this material faces

Utilisation of local materials is an important step to
sustainable construction by reducing transportation cost,
embodied energy and environmental protection (Baker,
1987). Laterite, a type of soil rich in iron and aluminium
formed in hot and wet tropical conditions, is a popular
building material utilised in tropical and subtropical
regions of the world where it is readily available and
economical compared to other natural stones (Gidigasu,
1976). Despite its long term use in building applications
worldwide, only few countries have scientifically
documented its engineering properties and standards
(Kasthurba and Santhanam, 2005). Non-availability of
standards and lack of scientific data on laterite are the
main issues for its building application in various
countries especially in Burkina Faso, Africa (Lawane
et.al 2011). Indian standards code IS 3620-1979
provides specifications and standards for laterite
masonry construction in India (IS 3620-1979).
Extensive studies on laterite masonry blocks (LMB)
undertaken at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras
(IITM) demonstrated the deficiencies in the IS code
specifications on testing procedures which was
favorably considered for amendments (Kasthurba and
Santhanam, 2010). However, unique material properties
and regional variations have rendered laterite stone as
uncertainties and reluctance to use by engineers for its
building applications due to the ambiguity of behaviour,
local variations and lack of standards. Standardization
and optimal use of laterite is highly essential for its
efficient utilization and for economic, energy and
environmental benefits. Unique issues of laterite need to
be addressed to formulate appropriate procedures for its
evaluation and develop suitable standards for its
building applications with future outlook.
This paper advocates the use of laterite in view of its
cost effectiveness and energy efficiency than that of
conventional modern materials in tropical countries
which happens to be developing in terms of economy.
The main objective of the study is to attempt to develop
a universal database and standards for the use of laterite
in building applications. The engineering characteristics
of laterite from Malabar region western India are
presented based on the doctoral research conducted by
the first author at IITM and several other published
studies in the literature. Understanding of properties and
challenges of this natural resource will be of benefit for
development of suitable techniques for sustainable
construction. This study will form a basis for efficient
utilization and managements of laterite in construction

#02070403 Copyright 2014 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.

 Use of Laterite as a Sustainable Building Material in Developing Countries
1252

to meet their growing demand in housing and

infrastructural needs in different regions of world.
1. Laterite as a Sustainable Building Material
Laterite being a major resource in the tropical, humid
parts of the world by its varied uses contributes to the
general economy (i) as mineral ore - possible source of
aluminum (Africa), iron (Goa and Canara), and nickel
(Indonesia), (ii) as substrate in aquatic structures like
ponds and reservoirs, (iii) as alternative building
material for low cost housing (stabilized brick using (b)School building
laterite soil), (iv) In road construction - as road substrate Fig.1 Laterite construction at Ougadougou, Burkina
stabilized with fly ash and lime, and (v) as a masonry Faso (W. Africa)
material like other stones (Gidigasu, 1976). Building
sector is responsible for more than 50% of CO2
emissions and energy consumption due to production of
building materials and construction operations (Lawane,
2012). The International Conference on Eco-materials
for Construction held at 2iE, Ouagadougou, Burkina
Faso, Africa, discussed the challenges linked with
building construction on the environment impact caused
by the manufactured materials in African countries
(Tsobnang, 2013). The technical discussions at this
conference emphasized the need for using local
Fig.2 Laterite construction- school building at
materials, especially laterite, to achieve sustainable
Ougadougou Burkina Faso (W. Africa)
construction. In Africa, priority has been given to
laterite amongst the locally available masonry materials,
as resource to housing to resolve the economic and
environmental problems, compared to concrete or
cinder block construction (Lawane, 2012). Economic
growth has inevitably led to increasing demands for
housing needs in developing countries and building
materials play a significant role in this. Several
technical organizations across the world have developed
guidelines for assessment of environmental quality (e.g.,
LEED, BREAAM, and HQE) that combine material
characteristics with their evaluation (Kibort, 2013). The
popularity of laterite use in current construction projects
in India and Africa (Burkina Faso) was discussed from (a)Entrance structure to park, Calicut, India
the technical studies presented (Tsobnang 2013).
Therefore, it is highly essential to develop a future
outlook for efficient and optimal utilization of laterite in
building applications for economic and environmental
benefits. The popular utilization of laterite in building
application in different countries is illustrated in Figures
1-3.

(b)Residence at Kannur, India

Fig.3 Laterite Construction in Malabar (W. India)

(a)Residential construction

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 1253 A K K ASTHURBA, KRISHNA R REDDY AND D VENKAT R EDDY

2. World-wide Occurrence and Formation of Krusteneisensteine Germany

Laterite Mantle rock Ghana
Laterite and associated soils are widely distributed in Moco de hierro Venezuela
the tropics and subtropics of Africa, Australia, India, Murram East Africa
South-East Asia, and South America. The first global Picarra Brazil
synthesis of the distribution of laterite prepared by Ferricrete South Africa
Prescott and Pendleton in 1952 is presented in Figure 4 Pisolite Australia
(Pearson, 1970). One of the major difficulties to develop Plinthite USA
an integrated database of worldwide laterite research is Lateritic soils are highly weathered and altered residual
lack of consistent terminology and information material formed by the in-situ weathering and
exchange. Laterite is known with different names in decomposition of rocks in tropical regions of all over
different countries and even in different parts of the the world having heavily rainfall. They are formed by
same country. So to be more informative, it is better to intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying
know the names used to describe it in various places. parent rock due to leaching of silica over a long period
The names of laterite in different countries are listed in of time leaving a soil rich in iron oxides, hydroxides and
Table 1 in alphabetical order (Aleva, 1994). alumina. When such lateritic soils are exposed to
Table 1. Different names of laterite in different atmosphere, the iron hydroxides lose the moisture
countries quickly to form iron oxides, which develop a good bond
with other particles in soil to form the concretionary
Name Given Country laterite. Lateritic soils are rich in sesquioxides (Fe2O3,
Laterite/Brick stone India Al2O3 or both) and low in bases and primary silicates
Ittica kallu/vettu kallu India (Kerala) but may contain appreciable amounts of quartz and
Cabook Ceylon kaolinite. Due to the presence of iron oxides, lateritic
Canga Brazil soils are red in color ranging from light through bright
Carapace France to brown shades. They are composed essentially of
Eisenkruste Germany hydrated aluminum and iron oxides and they can be
Iron clay India used as a good building material (Varghese and
Ironstone Nigeria Byju.1993).

Fig.4 World-wide distribution of laterite (Pearson, 1970)

3. Issues with Laterite as a Building Material though various research studies have been carried out on
laterite, there is no compiled literature so far for its use
Scientists and engineers in various fields such as
as a building material. Numerous conflicting viewpoints
agriculture, geology, mining, and engineering have
brought out by various research studies necessitate
published scientific data on laterite based on several
understanding of acceptable international terminology,
research studies and applications. Engineers studied
and standard methods for identification and evaluation
laterite as a building stone and also as a soil group. Even

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

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 Use of Laterite as a Sustainable Building Material in Developing Countries
1254

of laterite. It is essential to define guidelines and makes it suitable as a building material (Kamasew et al,
standardized procedures for selection of laterite for 2013).
building applications. Utilisation of laterite in
5. Quarrying of Laterite Masonry Blocks
construction is marginalized due lack of standardization,
inherent variations and difficult testing procedures. The The methods of quarrying, dressing and construction all
local resource of laterite can be utilized efficiently if are entirely different from other stone masonry
classified and managed based on its potential materials. Laterite blocks are soft for easy quarrying and
characteristics in housing. Classification of laterite shaping, but they become hard when exposed to
based on its performance like brick and hollow blocks atmospheric oxygen. The ease of cutting and shaping
can result in utilisation of the same in buildings for a laterite and hardening with age due atmospheric
wide range of functions. In many applications, exposure makes its use different and versatile in
building applications. Manual quarrying and dressing
especially in public buildings, a number of problems
was adopted in the past was more laborious and time
due to low strength values and also incorrect estimation consuming. Machine quarrying of laterite was invented
of index properties have led to a decrease in the and used for the first time in Kerala, India using mobile
confidence with this material. As a result, architects rotary saw machine that was introduced for the first
hesitate to specify laterite in masonry applications. time and popularised since 1993. It consists of
Laterite, being heterogeneous in nature, due to its following steps: (i) Removal of top soil and levelling
geographic and geological variations, needs a proper the surface, (ii) Marking lines on levelled horizontal bed
understanding for classification and selection for of laterite, (iii) Moving cutters through these lines up to
building purposes. A scientific understanding of laterite desired depth of stone, and (iv) Dis-lodging stones
as building material is highly relevant for its sustainable manually using bars and hauling to construction site.
utilization worldwide. Typical processes of machine quarrying are depicted in
Fig.5.
4. Geological and Geotechnical Characteristics of
Laterite
The word laterite has been derived from the Latin
word later meaning brick (Gidigasu, 1974). Laterite is
an unusual soil which is rich in iron and alumina.
Laterite occurs in tropical humid regions within 300N
and 300S of equator and these regions belong to less
developed areas in economic and scientific terms.
Laterite and laterite soils have been efficiently utilized
in civil engineering applications like road base and low
cost housing (Madhu, 1977). Laterite cannot be placed
in the triplet family of rocks, namely igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic. It is considered as
metasomatic rock (Kasthurba and Santhanam, 2007).
Metasomatism is a metamorphic process by which the
chemical composition of a rock or rock portion is
altered in a pervasive manner which involves the
introduction and/or removal of chemical components as
a result of the interaction of the rock with aqueous fluids
(solutions). During metasomatism, the rock remains in a
solid state. They are usually found in heavily rainfall
regions formed by intensive and long-lasting
weathering. Silica in the clay is usually leached out over
a long period of time leaving the residual soil rich in
iron oxides, hydroxides and alumina. When lateritic Fig. 5 Machine quarrying of laterite masonry blocks (a)
soils are exposed to atmosphere, the iron hydroxides Quarrying of laterite using mobile rotary saw machine;
lose the moisture quickly to form iron oxides, which (b) Laterite blocks detached from the bed
develop a good bond with other particles in soil to form
the laterite blocks. This process of irreversible surface 6. Laterite Profile from Malabar region, W. India-
hardening known as induration is due to oxidation as a Characteristics
result of exposure to atmosphere. The progressive The Malabar region consists of northern part of Kerala
strengthening was due to mineral transformation from State, located in west coast of India between 7430 E to
goethite to hematite which is a more stabilized form 77E longitudes and 10N to 1230N latitude. The

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

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 1255 A K K ASTHURBA, KRISHNA R REDDY AND D VENKAT R EDDY

region is defined in its broadest geological and

geographic meaning as the land confined between
mountain ranges of the Western Ghats (rising to a
height between 600 m and 1800 m) and Arabian Sea.
The midland portion of Malabar, which comprises of
undulating terrain with hills and valleys, drained by
several rivers, is known for extensive occurrence of
laterite. Kerala is known as type locality of laterite;
prolonged rainfall, intermittent dry seasons and sloping
terrain are conducive to laterite formation
(Narayanaswamy, 2001). More than 60% of the state is
covered by laterite blanket over various crystalline
rocks that occupy the midland region of the state, as
shown in the geological map of Kerala, presented in
Fig.6. There can be a wide variation in the properties
and appearance (texture & structure) of laterite with
depth. A typical quarry profile to a total depth of 5.2 m
based on a bore log study is shown in Fig.7a. Fig. 7b
shows the field photograph of this profile showing the
colour and textural variations of compositional units of
a laterite profile.

Fig.7a and 7b Laterite profile -showing the depth wise

variations in soil characteristics
7. Engineering Properties of Laterite Masonry
Blocks
Experimental investigation of laterite from four active
quarries of Malabar region of Kerala, SW India were
undertaken at IITMs to determine compressive strength,
water absorption, and specific gravity. Standard size
laterite of 390 x 190 x190 mm were obtained from the
quarry. Table 2 shows the typical physical properties of
Fig. 6 Geological map of Kerala
laterite, while Fig.8 shows the variations in compressive
(Map Adapted from Laterisation Process, 1981)
strength of laterite under different conditions tested. The
results of research studies on Malabar laterite reported
from other locations of Malabar region are summarized

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

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 Use of Laterite as a Sustainable Building Material in Developing Countries
1256

in Table3. The variation in strength values of laterite (Sutapa)

from different regions are illustrated in Fig.9. Mangalore (NIT- NIT 1.81- 4.83
Table 2. Typical physical properties of laterite from K) Karnataka
Malabar Region, Kerala, W. India (Sujatha e
al, 2011)
Density Dry 1.80- 2.78 Areecode (NIT- NIT 4.62- 10.0
Saturated 2.36-3.04 C) Calicut
Specific gravity 2.84-3.58 (Kasthurb
Porosity % 20-40 a, 2010)
Water absorption % 10- 18 Perinkulam (PM) IIT 2.16-3.19
Compressive Perpendicular to Wet 1.29- Muchukunnu Madras 1.32- 1.79
strength bedding plane 4.54 (MU) (Kasthurb
(MPa) Dry 4.41- Ulikkal (UL) a, 2006) 0.98 -1.45
8.29 Panayathampara 0.93- 1.58
Parallel to Wet 2.03- mba (PTA)
bedding plane 4.92
Dry 5.02-
9.60
Flexural Strength Wet 1.29- 2.96
(MPa) Dry 2.85- -3.21
Modulus of Wet 2.09-4.66
Elasticity Dry 4.41-5.96
(Flexure) (MPa)

10.0 9.6
Parallel Dry
9.0
Parallel wet 8.3
8.0 Perpendicular dry
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Perpendicular wet
7.0

6.0
6.0 5.7
5.4
5.2
5.0
5.0
4.4
5.0
4.5
Fig.9 Compressive strength of laterite from various
4.0 region of Malabar, W India
3.0 2.7
2.4
(Laterite designations and their locations shown in
2.0
2.0
1.3
2.0 1.9
Table 3)
1.0

0.0
8. Challenges and Future Outlook for Laterite
UL PTA MU PM

The strength testing of laterite as per Indian standards

Fig. 8. Variation in compressive strength of laterite for laterite stone masonry IS 3620-1979 suggests testing
tested under different conditions of cubes of varying sizes. The difficulty in specimen
preparations and variations in the strength due to
Table 3 Compressive strength of laterite from Malabar specimen geometry suggests the need for changing the
region, W India testing specifications. In light of the previous studies, it
Quarry Location Researche Compressi was recommended to use standard size blocks instead of
rs/ ve cubes for strength evaluation of laterite blocks similar to
Publicatio Strength ( that followed for other masonry materials such as case
n MPa) of bricks or concrete hollow blocks. The value of
(Saturated modulus of elasticity of laterite determined from the
Condition) studies should be incorporated in IS codes as additional
Kannur (GEC-K) GEC 0.55- 3.35 data.
Kannur Large variation in strength of Malabar laterite suggests
(Santhosh the need for development of a suitable classification for
and its building application similar to that adopted in case of
Beena, bricks such as class A, B and C based on the strength
2012) requirements.
Goan laterite IIT 3.54- 5.06
(GA) Madras The strength of laterite, except those obtained from two
quarries, falls below the minimum specified value of 3.5

International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 07, No. 04, August, 2014, pp. 1251-1258
 1257 A K K ASTHURBA, KRISHNA R REDDY AND D VENKAT R EDDY

MPa (as per IS 3620-1979). However, considering the purposes, Journal of Institution of Engineers
specific use of laterite for residential applications, this (India), Architecture Division, vol. 86, pp. 1-6.
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and suitable modification should be made in future and (2011) Characterisation of laterite stone as building
incorporated into the standards. material in Burkina Faso, JourneScientific 2IE, 6
April 2011.
There can be considerable reduction in strength of
[5] IS 3620-1979 (Reaffirmed 1998). Indian Standard
laterite due to saturation (45-70%), which suggests
Specification for Laterite Stone Block for
protection of material from dampness by plastering or
Masonry, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
other damp proofing methods.
Delhi, India.
This study suggests that a classification system for [6] Kasthurba A.K. and Santhanam M. (2010).
laterite based on its applications for different functions Technical report Modification to IS code on
should be developed for better management and specification of laterite stone blocks for masonry
utilization of material. by sectional committee of Bureau of Indian
Standards -accepted for revision of (IS 3620: 1979)
In India, the difficulty to handle standard size for laterite
BIS meeting- BIS-CED6 held at CDOS, Jaipur on
blocks as per IS code 390 x190 x190 mm was reported,
10th January 2012 pp
and there was tendency to cut small sizes for ease in
[7] .Lawane, A. Pantet, Vinai, T. (2012), Local
handling. In Burkina Faso, Africa, as there is no
materials for building houses: laterite valorization
standard, they adapt different size, but mostly brick size
in Africa, in: ICAMMS, journal of housing,
was adapted for laterite masonry blocks, and hence
http://www.scientific.net.
handling was relatively easy, resulting in optimization
[8] Tsobnang Francis 2013 Sustainable Building
of the natural resource. Moreover while using laterite
Materials for Construction in Proceedings of 2iE
for non-loadbearing walls, reduction in standard size
International conference on Eco- materials- A Pillar
shall be considered for optimizing the natural resources.
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9. Conclusions Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, West Africa
www.2iE-edu.org.
Laterite is a weak stone, but can be used for masonry
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Interdisciplinary Laterite Reference Collection
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geotechnical and engineering properties of some
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