Dc motors

Motor Principle
An Electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into
mechanical energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a
current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force whose direction is given by Flemings Left-hand Rule.

Fleming's left-hand rule

Constructionally, there is no basic difference between a d.c. generator and
a d.c. motor. In fact, the same d.c. machine can be used interchangeably
as a generator or as a motor.
The force on the current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field depends
upon:
(a) The flux density of the field B (teslas).
(b) The strength of the current, I (Amperes).
(c) The length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field, l
(meters).
(d) The direction of the field and current (angle).
When the magnetic field, the current and the conductor are mutually at
right angles then

When the conductor and the field are at an angle ( ) to each other then
Principle of Operation of a Simple D.C Motor
A rectangular coil which is free to rotate about a fixed axis shown placed
inside a magnetic field produced by permanent magnets in fig. below. A
direct current is fed into the coil via carbon brushes bearing on a
commutator, which consists of a metal ring split into two halves separated
by insulation.

When current flows in the coil a magnetic field is set up around the coil
which interacts with the magnetic field produced by the magnets. This
causes a force (F) to be exerted on the current-carrying conductor which
by Fleming's left-hand rule, is down wards between point (A) and (B), up
ward between (C) and (D) for the current direction shown. This causes a
torque and the coil rotates anticlockwise.
When the coil has turned through (90o ) from the position shown in
figure, the brushes connected to the positive and negative terminals of
supply make contact with different halves of the commutator ring, thus
reversing the direction of the current flow in the conductor. If the
current is not reversed and the coil rotates past this position the forces
acting on it change direction and it rotates in the opposite direction thus
never making more than half a revolution. The current direction is
reversed every time the coil swing through the vertical position and thus
the coil rotates anti-clockwise for as long as the current flows. This is the
principle of operation of a D.C motor which is thus a device that takes in
electrical energy and converts it into mechanical energy.
Significance of the Back e.m.f.
When the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotate and hence
cut the flux. In accordance with the laws of electromagnetic induction,
e,m.f. is induced in them whose direction, as found by Fleming's Right-
hand Rule, is in opposition to supplied voltage. Because of its opposing
direction, it is referred to as counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f. (Eb). It will be
seen that

Where ( R a ) is the resistance of the armature circuit. As pointed out above

R R

Back e.m.f. depends, among other factors, upon the armature speed. If
speed is high, Eb is large, hence armature current (Ia), as seen from the
above equation, is small. If the speed is less, then (Eb) is less, hence more
current flows which develops more torque.
So, we find that (Eb) acts like a governor
i.e. it makes a motor self-regulating so that it
draws as much current as is just necessary.
Voltage Equation of a Motor
The voltage V applied across the motor
armature has to
(i) overcome the back e.m.f. Eb and
(ii) supply the armature ohmic drop IaRa.
V = Eb + Ia Ra
This is known as voltage equation of a motor. Now, multiplying both
sides by Ia, we get
V Ia = EbIa + Ia2 Ra
As shown in Fig.
V Ia = Electrical input to the armature
EbIa = Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in the
armature
Ia2 Ra = Cu loss in the armature
Hence, out of the armature input, some is wasted in I2R loss and the rest
is converted into mechanical power within the armature.
Condition for Maximum Power
The gross mechanical power developed by a motor is Pm = V Ia Ia2 Ra.
Differentiating both sides with respect to Ia and equating the result to
zero, we get
dPm/dIa = V 2Ia Ra = 0
Ia Ra = V/2
As V = Eb + Ia Ra and Ia Ra = V/2
Eb = V/2
Thus gross mechanical power developed by a motor is maximum when
back e.m.f. is equal to half the applied voltage. This condition is,
however, not realized in practice, because in that case current would be
much beyond the normal current of the motor. Moreover, half the input
would be wasted in the form of heat and taking other losses (mechanical
and magnetic) into consideration, the motor efficiency will be well below
50 percent
Torque
By the term torque is meant the turning or twisting moment of a force
about an axis. It is measured by the product of the
force and the radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius r meter acted upon by a
circumferential force of F Newton which causes it to
rotate at N r.p.m.
Then torque T = F r Newton-meter (N - m)
Work done by this force in one revolution
= Force distance = F 2r Joule
Power developed = work /time
F 2r N/60 Joule/second or Watt
= (F r) (2 N/60) Watt
Now
2N/60 = Angular velocity in radian/second and Fr = Torque T
Power developed = T watt or P = T Watt
P T
Armature Torque of a Motor
Let Ta be the torque developed by the armature of a motor running at N
r.p.m. If Ta is in N/M, then
Power developed = Ta 2 N/60 watt ... (i)
We also know that electrical power converted into mechanical power in
the armature
= EbIa watt ........ (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii), we get Ta 2N/60 = EbIa ... ( iii)
Since Eb = ZN (P/60 A) volt, .. (iv)
We have

(60)()
= (V)
2(/60)

( )

= = 0.159( ) (vi)
2
Note. From the above equation for the torque, we find that Ta Ia.
(a) In the case of a series motor, is directly proportional to Ia (before
saturation) because field windings carry full armature current Ta Ia2
(b) For shunt motors, is practically constant, hence Ta Ia.
Shaft Torque (Tsh)
The whole of the armature torque, as calculated above, is not available for
doing useful work, because a certain percentage of it is required for
supplying iron and friction losses in the motor.
The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as shaft
torque Tsh. It is so called because it is available at the shaft. The motor
output is given by
Output power = Tsh 2N/60 Watt provided Tsh is in N-m and N in r.p.m.
Tsh = Output power / 2N/60

= 9.55 ( ) .

The difference (Ta Tsh) is known as lost torque and is due to iron and
friction losses of the motor.
Note. The value of back e.m.f. Eb can be found from
(i) The equation, Eb = V Ia Ra
(ii) The formula Eb = ZN (P/A) volt
Example A d.c. motor takes an armature current of 110 A at 480 V. The
armature circuit resistance is 0.2 . The machine has 6-poles and the
armature is lap-connected with 864 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.05
Wb. Calculate (i), the speed and (ii) the gross torque developed by the
armature.

Example Determine developed torque and shaft torque of 220-V, 4-pole

series motor with 800 conductors wave-connected supplying a load of 8.2
kW by taking 45 A from the mains. The flux per pole is 25 mWb and its
armature circuit resistance is 0.6 .

Example: A 220-V d.c. shunt motor runs at 500 r.p.m. when the armature
current is 50 A. Calculate the speed if the torque is doubled. Given that
Ra = 0.2 .

Example: A 4-pole, 220-V shunt motor has 540 lap-wound conductors. It

takes 32 A from the supply mains and develops output power of 5.595
kW. The field winding takes 1 A. The armature resistance is 0.09 and
the flux per pole is 30 mWb. Calculate (i) the speed and (ii) the torque
developed in Newton-meter.
EXAMPLE:-
A series dc motor: A dc motor with its rotor and field coils connected in
series has an internal resistance of 2.00 . When running at full load on a
120-V line, it draws a current of 4.00 A.
a) What is the emf in the rotor? b) What is the power delivered to the
motor? c) What is the rate of dissipation of energy in the resistance of the
motor? d) What is the mechanical power developed? e) What is the
efficiency of the motor? f) What happens if the machine that the motor is
driving jams and the rotor suddenly stops turning?
SOLUTION
V = b+ Ia Ra,
120 V = + (4.0 A)(2.0 ),
b = 112V.
b) The power input P from the source is
P = V I = (120 V)(4.0 A) = 480 W.
c) The power P dissipated in the resistance Ra is
P = Ia2Ra = (4.0 A)2- (2.0 ) = 32 W
d) The mechanical power output is the electrical power input minus the
rate of dissipation of energy in the motors resistance (assuming that there
are no other power losses):
p = 480W 32 W = 448 W
e) The efficiency is the ratio of mechanical power output to electrical
power input:
= 480W/480W = 0.93 = 93%.
f) With the rotor stalled, the back emf b (which is proportional to rotor
speed) goes to zero the current becomes
I = V/Ra = 120V/2.0 = 60A
and the power dissipation P in the resistance Ra becomes
P =I2Ra =(60A)2(2 ) =7200W
A dc motor with its rotor and field coils connected in series has an
internal resistance of 3.2.. When the motor is running at full load on a
120-V line, the emf in the rotor is 105 V.
(a) What is the current drawn by the motor from the line?
(b) What is the power delivered to the motor?
(c) What is the mechanical power developed by the motor

D.C. Motor Characteristics

The performance of a d.c. motor can be judged from its characteristic
curves known as motor characteristics, following are the three important
characteristics of a d.c. motor:
(i) Torque and Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)
It is the curve between armature torque Ta and armature current Ia of a
d.c. motor. It is also known as electrical characteristic of the motor.
(ii) Speed and armature current characteristic (N/ia)

It is the curve between speed N and armature current Ia of a d.c. motor. It

is very important characteristic as it is often the deciding factor in the
selection of the motor for a particular application.

(iii) Speed and torque characteristic (N/Ta)

It is the curve between speed N and armature torque Ta of a d.c. motor. It

is also known as mechanical characteristic.

Characteristics of Shunt Motors

The field current Ish is constant since the field winding is directly
connected to the supply voltage V which is assumed to be constant.
Hence, the flux in a shunt motor is approximately constant.
(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic
Since the motor is operating from a constant supply voltage, flux is
constant (neglecting armature reaction).
Ta Ia
Hence Ta/Ia characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin.
The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than Ta and is shown by a dotted line. It is
clear from the curve that a very large current is required to start a heavy
load. Therefore, a shunt motor should not be started on heavy load.
(ii) N/Ia Characteristic. The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by;

The flux and back e.m.f. Eb in a shunt motor are almost constant under
normal conditions. Therefore, speed of a shunt motor will remain
constant as the armature current varies (dotted line AB in Fig.). When
load is increased, Eb (= V- IaRa) and f decrease due to the armature
resistance drop and armature reaction respectively. However, Eb
decreases slightly more than so that the speed of the motor decreases
slightly with load (line AC).
(iii) N/Ta Characteristic. The curve is obtained by plotting the values of
N and Ta for various armature currents. It may be seen that speed falls
somewhat as the load torque increases.

Characteristics of Series Motors

 Note that current passing through the field winding is the same as that in
the armature. If the mechanical load on the motor increases, the armature
current also increases. Hence, the flux in a series motor increases with the
increase in armature current and vice-versa.
(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic. We know that: Ta Ia
Up to magnetic saturation, Ia so that Ta Ia2
After magnetic saturation, f is constant so that Ta Ia
Thus up to magnetic saturation, the armature torque is directly
proportional to the square of armature current. If Ia is doubled, Ta is
almost quadrupled.
Therefore, Ta/Ia curve up to magnetic saturation is a parabola (portion
OA
of the curve in Fig.). However, after magnetic saturation, torque is
directly proportional to the armature current. Therefore, Ta/Ia curve after
magnetic saturation is a straight line (portion AB of the curve).
(ii) N/Ia Characteristic. The speed N of a series motor is given by;

When the armature current increases, the back e.m.f. Eb decreases due to
Ia(Ra + Rse) drop while the flux f increases. However, Ia(Ra + Rse) drop
is quite small under normal conditions and may be neglected.

Thus, upto magnetic saturation, the N/Ia curve follows the hyperbolic
path. After saturation, the flux becomes constant and so does the speed.
(iii) N/Ta Characteristic. It is clear that series motor develops high
torque at low speed and vice-versa. It is because an increase in torque
requires an increase in armature current, which is also the field current.
The result is that flux is strengthened and hence the speed drops. Reverse
happens should the torque be low.
Compound Motors
A compound motor has both series field and shunt field. The shunt field
is always stronger than the series field. Compound motors are of two
types:
(i) Cumulative-compound motors in which series field aids the shunt
field.
(ii) Differential-compound motors in which series field opposes the
shunt field.
Differential compound motors are rarely used due to their poor torque
characteristics at heavy loads.
Characteristics of Cumulative Compound Motors
Each pole carries a series as well as shunt field winding; the series field
aiding the shunt field.

Ta/Ia Characteristic. As the load increases, the series field increases but
shunt field strength remains constant. Consequently, total flux is
increased and hence the armature torque ( Ta Ia). It may be
noted that torque of a cumulative-compound motor is greater than that of
shunt motor for a given armature current due to series field.
N/Ia Characteristic. As explained above, as the load increases, the flux
per pole also increases. Consequently, the speed (N 1/ ) of the motor
tails as the load increases (See Fig. It may be noted that as the load is
added, the increased amount of flux causes the speed to decrease more
than does the speed of a shunt motor. Thus the speed regulation of a
cumulative compound motor is poorer than that of a shunt motor.
N/Ta Characteristic.
For a given armature current, the torque of a cumulative compound
motor is more than that of a shunt motor but less than that of a series
motor.

Comparison of Three Types of Motors

(i) The speed regulation of a shunt motor is better than that of a series
motor. However, speed regulation of a cumulative compound motor lies
between shunt and series motors.
(ii) For a given armature current, the starting torque of a series motor is
more than that of a shunt motor. However, the starting torque of a
cumulative compound motor lies between series and shunt motors
(iii) Both shunt and cumulative compound motors have definite no-load
speed. However, a series motor has dangerously high speed at no-load.