Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Experimental Psychology
VOL. 70, No. 1 JULY 1965
(2) last night, (3) this morning, (4) upon weakest approach and assign it a value of 1.
reaching the airfield, (5) waiting to board the Having defined the range of their responses,
aircraft, (6) getting strapped, (7) boarding they were told to rate each of the other points
the aircraft, (8) during ascent in the plane, in a relative manner. They were instructed
(9) at the "ready" signal, (10) stepping out- to use the same number more than once to
side onto the step above the wheel of the designate points of equal intensity. Following
plane, (11) waiting for the signal to jump, ratings of approach, ratings of avoidance were
(12) freefalling, (13) after the chute has made in a corresponding manner. It should
opened, (14) immediately after landing. Ap- be noted that the procedure for rating that
proach was defined as "looking forward to the was employed provides information only on
jump, wanting to go ahead, being thrilled the relative strength of approach or avoidance
at the prospect of jumping"; avoidance as at the different points in time, and provides
"wanting to turn back and call the jump off, no basis for inferring absolute magnitude.
questioning why you ever let yourself get into
jumping, fear."
The 5s were told to try to keep their rat- RESULTS
ings of approach and avoidance as independ- Novice Parachutists
ent from each other as possible. To this end
it was pointed out that they could feel both In Fig. 1 it can be seen that self-
frightened and intrigued with jumping at the
same time, and that it was important in ratings of approach and avoidance are,
rating approach to consider only the attri- to a large extent, inverted replicas of
butes of approach, and to do the same for each other. Apparently, it was not
avoidance.
Following this, 5s were instructed to select possible for 5s to keep the two ratings
the point of strongest approach and assign it independent. Self-ratings of approach
a value of 10, and then to select the point of are relatively high at Point 1, 1 wk.
INEXPERIENCED PARACHUTISTS
MAXIMAL
AVOIDANCE
GOAL ..
ACT
JUMP SEQUENCE
FIG. 1. Mean self-ratings of approach and avoidance for inexperienced parachutists
as a function of a sequence of events leading to and following a jump.
HUMAN APPROACH AND AVOIDANCE GRADIENTS
before the jump, and fall off until Figure 2 presents curves for self-
shortly before the jump, after which rated avoidance and for self-rated
they again rise. The converse holds approach, the latter with the scale
for self-rated avoidance.3 It is par- reversed, and referred to as "inverse
ticularly noteworthy that the point approach." An F value of 41.39,
of maximum avoidance corresponds to significant at the .001 level, is obtained
the ready signal at Point 9 and not to for the differences among the means
the goal act at Point 12, which is the of the pooled ratings of avoidance and
moment of greatest danger, immedi- inverse approach as a function of the
ately preceding the opening of the time dimension (see Table 1). The
chute. failure of the 5s X T interaction to
An analysis of variance of the data reach significance indicates that the
represented in Fig. 1 would result in a curve form is consistent among indi-
spuriously high interaction between viduals except for deviations within
the time dimension and the approach chance expectancy. Of the 33 novice
and avoidance ratings, because the jumpers who took part in the experi-
curves are largely equivalent but ment, 30 rate approach as greater a
opposite forms of each other. An week before the jump than during the
analysis of variance of each curve free fall, and corresponding results are
separately, on the other hand, would obtained for self-ratings of avoidance.
reduce reliability by eliminating half Examination of the curves of avoid-
the data. A solution is provided by ance and inverse approach in Fig. 2
reversing one of the scales. Not only reveals that they differ from each
does this permit both sets of ratings to other in a systematic manner. From
be pooled, but it allows for a determi-
nation of whether there is an inter- pooled across 5s, are almost perfectly in-
action between the two scales and the versely related.
time dimension. If such is the case, It is important to keep in mind when
evaluating the results of the analyses of
it establishes a degree of independence variance that it is the pooled gradients of
between the two kinds of ratings.4 avoidance and inverse approach rather than
the difference between them, i.e., the inter-
3
The observation that self-ratings of action, that is of primary interest. This
avoidance are greater than of approach at the is because self-ratings of approach and
time of the jump may appear to present a avoidance do not yield independent gradients
problem, as the parachutist, after all, does of approach and avoidance, but are, by and
jump. The problem is more apparent than large, two ways of reporting the same feeling,
real. It will be recalled that the scales of which, as will be seen later, can be viewed as
approach and avoidance yielded relative a single net effect derived from independent
ratings on a 10-point scale within each hypothetical gradients of approach and
dimension, thereby requiring as many ratings avoidance. The major conclusions of the
of approach to be higher than avoidance as study would not be altered if only one of the
the reverse. Furthermore, as has been sets of self-ratings were retained. This is not
pointed out, the two kinds of ratings repre- to say that differences between the curves of
sent, for the most part, two ways of stating self-rated avoidance and inverse approach are
the same information. Accordingly, absolute of no importance, but to caution the reader
differences between the two sets of ratings against assuming that they are the major
cannot be taken at face value. source of inference about the relative steep-
4
If some degree of independence is found, ness of the hypothetical gradients. Such an
it does not, of course, invalidate the assump- error would be an easy one to make, as the
tion that self-ratings of approach and avoid- forms of the curves of avoidance and inverse
ance represent, to a predominant degree, a approach in Fig. 2 are similar in appearance
single feeling state. Inspection of Fig. 1 and 2 to goal gradients of approach and avoidance
makes it apparent that the two dimensions, as represented by Miller (1959).
SEYMOUR EPSTEIN AND WALTER D. FENZ
INEXPERIENCED PARACHUTISTS
MAXIMAL
AVOIDANCE
INVERSE APPROACH
5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14
JUMP SEQUENCE
FIG. 2. Mean self-ratings of avoidance and inverse approach for inexperienced parachutists
as a function of a sequence of events leading to and following a jump.
1 wk. before the jump (Point 1) to approach. From the ready signal on,
the ready signal (Point 9), the the decrease in self-rated avoidance is
increase in self-rated avoidance is greater than the decrease in inverse
greater than the increase in inverse approach. The avoidance ratings,
thus, tend to vary more sharply as a
TABLE 1 function of the time dimension than
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR INEXPERIENCED the approach ratings. This con-
PARACHUTISTS ON SELF-RATINGS OF clusion is supported by a significant
AVOIDANCE AND INVERSE
APPROACH A X T interaction in Table 1.
Separate analyses of variance for
Source df MS F the ascending and descending por-
tions of the curve in Fig. 2 indicate
Between 5s 32 14.56 3.40***
Total within 5s 891 that in both cases the pooled gradients
Avoidance vs. inverse of avoidance and inverse approach are
approach (A) 1 23.71 1.85 significantly related to the time di-
5s X A 32 12.84" 3.13***
Time sequence (T) 13 252.04 41.39*** mension at the .01 level. While
5s XT 416 6.09> 1.49 inspection reveals that avoidance
AXT 13 7.23 1.77*
5s X A X T 416 4.07 tends to be steeper than approach for
both portions of the curve, the inter-
Error term for MSs above it up to the next error
term. The J?s X A X T Interaction was used to
action between kind of rating and
evaluate all other error terms.
*p <.OS.
time dimension is significant only for
***p <.001. the ascending portion.
HUMAN APPROACH AND AVOIDANCE GRADIENTS
EXPERIENCED PARACHUTISTS
CO
rr
I
u_
-I
UJ
CO
5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14
JUMP SEQUENCE
FIG. 3. Mean self-ratings of approach and avoidance for experienced parachutists
as a function of a sequence of events leading to and following a jump.
SEYMOUR EPSTEIN AND WALTER D. FENZ
EXPERIENCED PARACHUTISTS
MAXIMAL GOAL
AVOIDANCE ACT
7 8 9 10 13 14
SEQUENCE
FIG. 4. Mean self-ratings of avoidance and inverse approach for experienced parachutists
as a function of a sequence of events leading to and following a jump.
that the hypothetical gradient of avoid- gradients develop, one based upon the
ance is steeper than that of approach. generalization of conditioned anxiety,
Thirdly, the first explanation is of no use and the other upon learned inhibition of
in accounting for the finding that the anxiety, the latter with steeper slope (see
peak of self-ratings of avoidance for Epstein, 1962, for a more detailed pres-
inexperienced jumpers precedes rather entation of the theory). In order to
than coincides with the goal point, while apply the theory to the present data, it
the alternate theory is able to do so, is only necessary to substitute a time
using the same set of assumptions that dimension for a cue dimension and rat-
account for the yet earlier peaking of the ings of fear and avoidance for a physio-
self-ratings of avoidance for experienced logical measure. The finding that the
jumpers. Finally, the second theory has peak of self-rated avoidance for novice
greater integrating power than the first parachutists precedes the goal act by
in accounting for findings reported by a small amount can be explained by
others. considering that the novices have had
The considerably earlier peak of self- some experience, in training, in identify-
rated avoidance for the experienced than ing with other jumpers, and in having
the inexperienced parachutists is con- made one to five jumps. Thus, the same
sistent with findings in an earlier study process which produces a marked effect
of parachutists (Epstein, 1962; Epstein in the experienced jumpers, is presumed
& Fenz, 1962) which used superficially to produce a limited effect in the novices.
different techniques, but of conceptual It should be noted that the theoretical
relevance to those in the present formulation as presented above does not
study. In the earlier work, GSR and follow Hull's (1943) or Miller's (1959)
reaction time were investigated as a views on conflict. One of the major
function of a cue dimension of words differences is that we are postulating two
related to parachuting embedded in a levels of inhibition, one consisting of a
word-association test. On a control day, hypothetical avoidance gradient which
2 wk. before a jump, experienced and inhibits a hypothetical approach gra-
novice parachutists could not be dis- dient, and the other of an inhibitory
tinguished from each other, both produc- gradient which inhibits the hypothetical
ing monotonic gradients of similar slope avoidance gradient. Thus, a concept of
on both dependent variables. On the day a hierarchy of inhibition is introduced
of a jump, however, experienced para- in place of the single-factor inhibition
chutists produced inverted v-shaped theory of Hull and Miller. Such a con-
curves, while novices simply produced ceptualization is necessary to account
steeper monotonic gradients. With in- for the appearance of inverted V-shaped
creasing experience, the peak of the curves of avoidance in place of monotonic
inverted v was found to advance toward gradients. It is assumed that inhibitory
the remote end of the dimension. Tested gradients, as higher-order responses, are
repeatedly after different amounts of steeper than the gradients they inhibit,
experience, all individuals demonstrated and that this relationship serves to free
the same developmental pattern, al- higher-order thought processes from pri-
though they differed in their rate of mary stimulus generalization. This for-
peaking back. As an example of an mulation differs from Miller's in that
individual developmental pattern, Fig. 7 Miller assumes a dichotomy between
is presented. A theoretical explanation higher- and lower-order processes, while
was offered which assumed that the the present position assumes a continuum
down-turn on the inverted v is the based upon a chaining of inhibitory
consequence of an inhibitory process that gradients of increasing slope.
serves to keep anxiety within nondisrup- It may be questioned as to whether
tive limits. The progressive peaking it is indeed possible to inhibit anxiety.
back was accounted for by assuming that While the mechanism is not evident and
with repeated exposure to threat, two deserves investigation in its own right,
4Or 80
CO
o " s v jt2 nd Jump ^
X -5 th Jump g
3O -
s ft)
o
o: w
o -19th Jump a
20
z;
QL. a
8 I.O -
5O
is presumably by this mechanism that BOND, D. D. The love and fear of flying.
the experienced parachutist is able to New York: International Univer. Press,
keep from experiencing the intense anxi- 1952.
ety that the inexperienced parachutist EPSTEIN, S. The measurement of drive and
must cope with. An interesting negative conflict in humans: Theory and experiment.
derivation related to this last advantage In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium
on motivation: 1962. Lincoln: Univer.
is that individuals who have successfully Nebraska Press, 1962. Pp. 281-321.
coped with stress over a prolonged period, EPSTEIN, S., & FENZ, W. D. Theory and
if their controls ever were to break down, experiment on the measurement of ap-
should be susceptible to greater panic and proach-avoidance conflict. J. abnorm. soc.
disorganization than inexperienced in- Psychol., 1962, 64, 97-112.
dividuals. Such a derivation is actually FENZ, W. D., & EPSTEIN, S. Measurement of
supported by observations of wartime approach-avoidance conflict along a stim-
pilots (Bond, 1952). A further implica- ulus-dimension by a thematic apperception
tion of the displacement of the peak of test. /. Pers., 1962, 30, 613-632.
the inverted v is that while it should HULL, C. L. Principles of behavior. New
normally be adaptive in alerting the indi- York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1943.
vidual to an area of potential danger, LEWIN, K. Behavior and development as a
should the conflict become unconscious, function of the total situation. In L.
the displacement of the anxiety from its Carmichael (Ed.), Manual of child psy-
chology. New York: Wiley, 1946.
point of origin would result in what
MILLER, N. E. Liberalization of basic S-R
would appear to be meaningless anxiety, concepts: Extensions to conflict behavior,
and the greater the time since the motivation, and social learning. In S. Koch
conflict, the more remote would the (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science.
relationship become between the original Vol. 2. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959.
conflict and the cues that elicit the PAVLOV, I. P. Conditioned reflexes. (Trans,
anxiety. Space does not permit a full by G. V. Anrep) London: Oxford Univer.
development of the implications of the Press, 1927.
inverted v-shaped curve, which will have PAVLOV, I. P. Lectures on conditioned reflexes.
to be reserved for a future theoretical (Trans, by W. H. Gantt) New York:
paper. International, 1928.
REFERENCES PAVLOV, I. P. Conditioned reflexes and
psychiatry. (Trans, by W. H. Gantt) New
BASOWITZ, H., PERSKY, H., KORCHIN, S. J., York: International, 1941.
& GRINKER, R. R. Anxiety and stress.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955. (Received April 17, 1964)