MOCHE Y SUS VECINOS
La pintura mural y la ortodoxia
pictrica moche en Paamarca
Lisa Trever
El centro sureo moche de Paamarca se hizo conocido en la
arqueologa peruana en la dcada de los cincuenta a raz del
descubrimiento de una serie de pinturas murales que reprodu-
can prcticas religiosas y mitologas antiguas1. La pintura ms
conocida en la actualidad es un fragmento de mural en el que
se aprecia una sacerdotisa que porta una corona y que levanta
una copa durante una procesin, acompaada de un par de
ayudantes alados, tres prisioneros atados, un guardia, una
gran serpiente y un recipiente que contiene tres vasos (Fig.
120). La cara de una columna adyacente est pintada con una
gran panoplia. Duccio Bonavia estudi este mural en detalle y
160 el pintor Flix Caycho realiz una rplica a escala con colores
que coincidan con los del original. La pintura se convirti en
una imagen clave en la definicin de Christopher B. Donnan
acerca de la iconografa del Tema de la Presentacin, poste-
riormente denominado Ceremonia del Sacrificio2. A pesar de
la importancia monumental del sitio, pocas investigaciones se
llevaron a cabo en l entre 1958 y 20103. En ese ao, un nuevo
proyecto dirigido por la autora, en colaboracin con Jorge
Gamboa Velsquez, Ricardo Toribio Rodrguez y Ricardo Morales
Gamarra retom el estudio con el fin de documentar los restos
de los murales. Dichas labores tuvieron un xito impresionante
debido a que expandieron el corpus de las pinturas conocidas
en ese complejo4.
Los muros pintados son planos en su integridad y exhiben la
imaginera narrativa de la mitologa y procesin ritual Mochica
Tardo. A diferencia de otros sitios arqueolgicos de la poca,
en los muros del templo de Paamarca no se han hallado relie-
ves pintados o diseos puramente geomtricos. Estas pinturas
pueden haber sido contemporneas con el mural de la escena
conocida como La Rebelin de los Artefactos, ubicada al inte-
rior del Templo Nuevo de la Huaca de la Luna5, su contempo-
raneidad durante la poca ca. 600-800 d.C. fue confirmada
recientemente por anlisis radiocarbnicos6. Ciertamente, en
forma, estilo y contenido, las pinturas de Paamarca son muy
semejantes a los murales Mochica Tardo del Templo Nuevo. El
contenido de estos murales tiende a conformar una ideologa
ortodoxa mochica representada en vasijas de cermicas pro-
ducidas en los valles de Moche y Chicama. La cermica local
mochica elaborada en el valle de Nepea se advierte muy dife-
rente y se parece a aquella del valle del Santa, lo cual sugiere
que la imaginera de los murales fue directamente importada
desde el norte por medio de la cermica durante la expansin
ocurrida en el periodo Mochica Tardo en la regin.
Nuestro corpus extendido de las pinturas murales de Paamarca
demuestra que el tema ms frecuente no era la sacerdotisa
que porta el cliz, sino la narrativa mitolgica de Ai-Apaec (Fig.
123). El dios o hroe con colmillos y cinturones de serpientes
aparece con frecuencia en los murales en escenas de batallas
picas con una serie de enemigos monstruosos, muchos de
ellos procedentes del mar (Fig. 121). Otras pinturas de presen-
tacin y ofrendas rituales parecen tener un carcter secunda-
rio respecto de la narrativa principal en torno a Ai-Apaec (Figs.
122 y 124). Algunas de las figuras que realizan ofrendas visten
prendas o aparecen en escenas que sugieren ambientes de
la sierra, semejantes a las escenas en las que se masca coca
plasmadas en las vasijas. En la iconografa mochica, la sierra
est presentada como un lugar asociado de manera especial
con las prcticas religiosas. De este modo, los escenarios de
la costa y de la sierra pueden ser identificados en los murales
de Paamarca.
La ortodoxia pictrica se cristaliz en las pinturas murales de
Paamarca, complejo situado en el borde sur del mundo mochi-
ca. Pueden considerarse an ms ortodoxas en su contenido
que aquellas encontradas en el rea nuclear, situada al nor-
te. El territorio del lmite sur parece haber tenido un carcter
permeable ya que se conoce de asentamientos, cultura mate-
rial y contextos funerarios moche en valles situados ms al
sur. La presin geocultural que cataliz la ortodoxia pictrica
en Paamarca pudo haber sido motivada, de manera alternati-
va, por la cercana proximidad de los moche a la sierra ocupada
por los recuay al interior del estrecho valle de Nepea. Tal como
Donald Proulx7 observara por primera vez en su prospeccin
del valle, una clara lnea justo ms arriba de Paamarca
divide las dos zonas culturales. Las poblaciones vecinas moche y
recuay negociaron activamente en la zona limtrofe intravalle.
Dentro de este contexto, los sumamente cannicos murales de
Paamarca pudieron haber servido para anunciar y mantener
la identidad religiosa y cultural del centro sureo en escenarios
privados y pblicos para audiencias tanto moche como recuay.
1. Schaedel 1951; Bonavia 1959
2. Donnan 1975.
3. Vase Bonavia y Makowski 1999.
161
4. Trever 2013; Trever et al. 2013, n.d.
5. Uceda et al. 2011a, 2011b.
6. Uceda et al. 2011a:88-90.
7. Proulx 1982:88-91.
Fig. 120
Rplica del mural fragmentado en
el que aparece la sacerdotisa con
corona en una escena de procesin
(Mural E) y que fue analizada por
Duccio Bonavia e ilustrada por Flix
Caycho en 1958.
 MOCHE Y SUS VECINOS
Fig. 121
Dos escenas pintadas de batallas
protagonizadas por Ai-Apaec en un
pilar en Paamarca (Pilar 3 NE).
Dos aves marinas de color rojo vuelan
sobre las escenas de confrontaciones.
Abajo aparece una procesin de
hombres que portan objetos rituales.
162
Fig. 122
Ilustracin que muestra una pintura
mural que mira hacia el pilar mostrado
en la Figura 121. Al centro, un hombre
que viste una tnica listada sostiene
cuatro cuerdas rojas con piedras
azules. Debajo de ese personaje hay
una mujer de pie que sostiene en
alto dos platos. La actividad que
realiza la mujer sentada en el borde
de la pintura expuesta permanece
sin esclarecer.
Fig. 123
Botella escultrica de estilo Mochica
que representa a la mujer bho
curando a Ai-Apaec.

163

Fig. 124
Detalle de pintura mural en
Paamarca que representa a dos
mujeres y un guila pescadora
frente a un templo.

Ai-Apaec in marine battle
Ai-Apaecs arrival in the Mochica world, which had been plunged into chaos,
marks the beginning of his long odyssey. The hero appears on the seashore,
where the Sun was last seen before it disappeared on the horizon. On a
mission to find the captive Sun, Ai-Apaec does battle with the different
marine creatures that begin to emerge from the depths.
First, Ai-Apaec fights an anthropomorphized crab (Fig. 112) appear-
ing to completely subdue his opponent after grabbing it by the hair. A simi-
lar gesture is observed in the ritual system of confrontations among human
warriors. In both situations, the removal of the headdress indicates the end
of the battle and who was defeated. The black sculptural bottle (Fig. 113)
shows the fight against the crab-man, who wears a headdress typical of the
fishermen. The struggle looks even, Ai-Apaec seems to repel the creature by
taking it from its shoulders, although the crab grabs the hero from its ears
with its pincers. The power of this mythical crab is also manifested through
the sharp fangs on the face represented in its shell (JR)
Ai-Apaec domesticates the savage world
After defeating his adversaries, Ai-Apaec claims the savage world for him-
self, manifesting his legitimate control over it by fishing in the sea and hunt-
ing in the heights (Fig. 150).
The bottle in Fig. 114 depicts a deer-hunting scene involving Ai-Apaec
himself, who uses darts and spear-throwers (Fig. 149), launching himself at
230 his prey. In such situations, the hero often transforms into a prowling jaguar
or ocelot (See Fig. 14 e).
Bottle represented in Fig. 115. shows a highly humanized Ai-Apaec,
who wears his characteristic headdress, although he is missing his belt of
snakes. He is shown catching a monstrous fish using a string and a hook.
The marine setting in which this scene transpires includes fish, manta rays,
and crabs, which may mean that the hero may be submerged in the ocean
depths (Fig. 116). (JR)
Marine battle with Strombus
Another of the marine battles with the greatest repercussions on the heros
subsequent actions is his confrontation with the Strombus monster (Fig.
119). This creature lives inside a Strombus shell, a species native to tropical
seas. Its presence in the seas off the northern coast may suggest an epoch of
warmer seawaters, an effect that primarily occurs during the El Nio phe-
nomenon (Fig. 117). The creature is a quadruped with a dragon-like appear-
ance, featuring a feline body, as suggested by the fur and long, spotted tail,
although the head typically combines elements from different species, con-
verting it into a full-on hybrid. Of particular note is a pair of antennae on
the top of the snout and nose, similar to those observed in hill snails. The
back and tail, and sometimes the abdomen, typically feature needles or
spikes that may have served to protect these parts.
Ai-Apaec battles this being just as he does the other marine crea-
tures, brandishing a knife in his hand, although he does not use the weapon.
He may be observed grabbing the creature by the tail, however, or leaving
it overturned on its shell, thus exhibiting his dominance over his foe. Bottle
in Fig. 118 a-b, which combines sculptural elements with fineline painting,
displays a highly unusual scene: the moment at which Ai-Apaec enters into
the Strombus shell after ousting its previous resident. Later on, this same
narrative shows us that the hero not only defeats the marine creature, but
also gains access to Strombus shells, which he will transport on llama-back
and use as a bartering tool to negotiate important alliances (See Fig. 142).
(JR)
MOCHE Y SUS VECINOS
Lisa Trever
(University of California, Berkeley)
Moche Mural Painting and
Pictorial Orthodoxy at Paamarca
The southern Moche center of Paamarca became famous in Peruvian arch-
aeology in the 1950s with the discovery of a handful of mural paintings that
depict ancient religious practice and mythology.1 The most recognizable
painting today is a fragmentary mural of a crowned priestess who raises a
goblet in procession, accompanied by a pair of winged attendants, three
bound prisoners, a guard, a large serpent, and a bowl holding three goblets
(Fig. 120). The face of an adjacent pilaster is painted with a large panoply.
Duccio Bonavia studied this mural in detail and painter Flix Caycho cre-
ated a scale replica with colors matched in the field. The painting became a
key image in Christopher B. Donnans (1975) definition of the iconography of
the Presentation Theme, later renamed the Sacrifice Ceremony.2 Despite the
sites monumental importance, little research was conducted at Paamarca
between 1958 and 2010.3 That year, a new project led by the author in col-
laboration with Jorge Gamboa Velsquez, Ricardo Toribio Rodrguez and
Ricardo Morales Gamarra returned to the site to document the remains of
the murals. That work succeeded in dramatically expanding the corpus of
paintings known at Paamarca.4
At Paamarca, painted walls are entirely flat and exhibit late Moche
narrative imagery of mythology and ritual procession. Unlike elsewhere, no
painted relief or purely geometric designs have yet been found on the temple
walls. The sites paintings may have been contemporaneous with the well-
known mural of the Revolt of the Objects within the New Temple at Huaca
de la Luna.5 Indeed, in form, style, and content, the Paamarca paintings
are most similar to the late Moche murals of the New Temple, and recent
radiocarbon dating confirms their contemporaneity during ca. 600800 CE.6
The content of these murals tends to conform to orthodox Moche ideology
depicted on ceramic vessels produced in the Moche and Chicama Valleys.
Local Moche ceramics made in the Nepea Valley look quite different,
resembling those of the Santa Valley, which suggests that the imagery of
the murals was directly imported via ceramics from the north during the
late Moche expansion into the region.
Our expanded corpus of mural paintings at Paamarca demonstrates
that its most frequent subject is not the goblet-bearing priestess, but the
mythological narrative of Ai-Apaec (Fig. 123). The fanged god or hero with
serpent belts appears frequently in the murals in scenes of epic battles with
a series of monstrous foes, many from the sea (Fig. 121). Other paintings
of ritual presentation and offerings seem to be secondary to the primary
narrative of Ai-Apaec (Figs. 122 and 124). Some of the painted figures making
offerings wear garments or appear within scenes that suggest highland
settings, similar to the coca chewing scenes painted on Moche vessels. In
Moche iconography the highlands are presented as a setting especially asso-
ciated with devotional practices. Both coastal and highland settings may
thus be indicated in the Paamarca murals.

Pictorial orthodoxy crystallized in the mural paintings at Paa-
marca, on the southern margins of the Moche world. These paintings might
be considered even more orthodox in their subject matter than those encoun-
tered in the Moche heartland to the north. The southern Moche boundary
seems to have been a porous one, however, as Moche settlements, material
culture, and burials are known from valleys further to the south. The geo-cul-
tural pressure that catalyzed pictorial orthodoxy at Paamarca might have
been created, instead, by the close proximity of the Moche to the highland
Recuay within the narrow Nepea Valley. As Donald Proulx7 first observed
in surveying the valley, a clear linejust up valley from Paamarca
divides the two cultural areas. The neighboring Moche and Recuay actively
negotiated the intra-valley border zone. Within this context, the highly
canonical Moche murals at Paamarca may have served to announce and
maintain the southern centers cultural and religious identity, in settings
both private and public, for audiences both Moche and Recuay.
1. Schaedel 1951; Bonavia 1959.
2. Donnan1975.
3. See Bonavia and Makowski 1999.
3. Trever 2013; Trever et al. 2013, n.d.
4. Uceda et al. 2011a, 2011b.
5. Uceda et al. 2011a: 88-90.
6. Proulx 1982: 88-91.
7. Proulx 1982:88-91.
Coca Chacchadores
Based on the study of painted scenes such as that observed on this Mochica
style vessel (Figs. 126 a-b) some authors1 have detected a ceremonial charac-
ter in these types of encounters, in which a group of figures chew (chacchar)
coca leaves. These figures may be recognized primarily by the use of lime
containers and thin tubes. The containers are used to store lime, while the
thin tubes are often shown in contact with the figures mouths, being used
to mix the lime with the coca leaves. The use of lime in the chacchado of coca
helped activate the alkaloids, according to comparative studies with histori-
cal and ethnographic sources. The sculptural vessel in Fig. 125 shows a char-
acter carrying a lime container in his right hand, while in his left, he bears
a thin rod, the top end of which is painted white/cream in color, apparently
indicating the presence of lime.
Although these figures use headdresses and earrings similar to
those seen in foreign warriors, they bear no weapons and wear long tunics
with square, cross or stepped designs. These tunics are also used by figures
who participate in the mountaintop sacrifices. (Fig. 127) (JR)
1. Anne Marie Hocquenghem 1987.
TRADUCCIONES AL INGLS
Faces of chacchadores
This pair of vessels comes from two burials at the Huaca de La Luna.
Although they lack the traits typical of an individual portrait, as in various
extant Mochica cases, it is possible to recover valuable information through
their details. Both bottle (Fig. 128) and sculptural vessel (Fig. 129) show
human faces notable for their face paint and the chacchado of coca leaves.
The paint on the faces follows the contours of the cheeks, which exhibit an
exaggerated puffiness that seems to indicate the presence of clumps of coca
inside the mouth. Concentric circles and jagged snake-like bodies that curl
in upon themselves and end in birds heads thus serve to emphasize the act
of chewing the coca leaves. Other, linear designs, which highlight certain
facial features, complete this special kind of mask/skin, adding to the wide
range of forms and shapes depicted on the idealized faces of those recog-
nized as foreigners. (JR)
Ritual Attire
The figure of the hero in the Mochica mythical narrative is crucial in under-
standing the intergroup relationships that may potentially have developed
between the Mochicas and their neighbors. Ai-Apaec, in his quest to find and
bring back the Sun, must travel the same path followed each day by that
celestial body. This leads him to the forest, a primordial source of savage
forces and a place of origin.
This sculptural vessel in Fig. 133 a-b captures a critical moment
in the heros passage through the eastern regions. Here, he may be observed
dressed in foreign garb, such as the hanging, disc-shaped earrings, as well
231
as a headdress with two feathers in the front (Fig. 134). This particular
headdress is also used by the Owl God, and by the hero and his adversaries
in certain marine combat scenes (See Fig. 21 f, k,m,q). The use of certain
headdresses seems to depend on the circumstances of the action being per-
formed, for which reason Ai-Apaec changes headdresses on several occasions.
This figure of Ai-Apaec, with his hands clasped together and his gaze
directed skyward, also wears an article of clothing hung from his back, like
the one observed in the scenes under the bicephalous arch (Figs. 131 and
134). A similar metal outfit (Fig. 130) was one of the archaeological discover-
ies made in a set of grave goods found inside a reed box, very close to a funer-
ary chamber located in the construction fills of the Huaca de La Luna.1
Although the tomb had been sacked in Pre-Hispanic times, the box was not
discovered at that time, remaining intact and in situ. The outfit, which also
comprises gilded copper plates sewn to a cotton-weave structure, features a
feline shape, very similar to that worn by the hero when he takes part in the
ritual of the chacchado of coca and the offering of the Strombus shells to the
chacchadores. This outfit, along with other metal pieces, must have belonged
to a priest or other figure responsible for personifying the hero in the rituals
performed, possibly in the abovementioned Mochica temple.
The presence of the lime container and the Strombus shell on this
vessel assures us of the figures identity. A similar lime container (Fig. 132),
although made from gilded copper and larger in size than typical containers,
was found in another of the elite tombs at the Huaca de La Luna. These
discoveries confirm the important symbolic role of Mochica officiants in
the acquisition of coca leaves and the formation of alliances with neigh-
boring groups.
The presence of a large bicephalous snake at the heros feet stands
in contrast to the creatures position as an arch in the sky, where it seems
to represent the limits of the nighttime firmament, or, as some scholars
argue, a rainbow, an element referencing the rainy season. This snake will
eventually be captured by Ai-Apaec, ultimately ending up wrapped around
his waist like a belt. (JR)
1. Uceda 2008b.

Fig. 3
Cortesa: Patricia Chirinos.
Fig. 4
Cortesa: Alicia Boswell.
Fig. 6
Mapa adaptado de Billman 1999:
151, 154.
Cortesa: Proyecto Arqueolgico
Huacas del Sol y de la Luna.
Ministerio de Cultura del Per.
Fig. 7
Redibujado de Donnan y
McClelland 1999: 56, fig. 3.29.
Fig. 8
Cortesa: Christiane Clados.
Fig. 10 a-b
Fotografa: Daniel Giannoni.
Cortesa: Direccin Desconcentrada
de Cultura, ncash. Ministerio de
Cultura del Per.
Figs. 13 y 14 a
Redibujado de Lieske 1992:209,
fig. 6.
Figs. 14 c, 15 a, 15 c, 15 d, 21 e, 21 n
Cortesa: Instituto Ibero-Americano-
Fundacin Patrimonio Cultural
Prusiano, Berln.
Fig. 16
Cortesa: Bequest of Jane Costello
Goldberg, from the Collection of
Arnold I. Goldberg, 1986.
Fig. 19
Redibujado de Tello: 1923.
Cortesa: Archivo Julio C. Tello
del Museo de Arqueologa y
Antropologa de San Marcos.
Fig. 21 b
Redibujado de Kutscher 1983:
Abb. 320.
Fig. 21 f
Redibujado de Kutscher 1983:
Abb. 254.
Fig. 21 g
Redibujado de Kutscher 1983:
Abb. 262 a.
Fig. 21 h
Redibujado de Kutscher 1983:
Abb. 256.
Figs. 21 , 21 q, 142 y 145
Redibujado de Kutscher 1983:
Abb. 126.
Fig. 21 m
Cortesa: Instituto de Estudios
Peruanos /Jrgen Golte. Museo
Larco, Lima-Per ML 018882.
Fig. 21 p
Cortesa: Museo Larco, Lima-Per
ML 004359 Archivo Museo Larco.
Fig. 21 v
Cortesa: Instituto de Estudios
Peruanos / Jrgen Golte.
Fig. 22
Cortesa: George Lau.
Fig. 23
Dibujo adaptado de Sawyer
1966:21.
Fig. 24
Fotografa: George Lau.
Cortesa: Museo Municipal
de Caraz, ncash.
Fig. 25
Fotografa: George Lau.
Cortesa: Museo Arqueolgico
Zonal de Cabana. Ministerio
de Cultura del Per.
Fig. 27
Fotografa: George Lau.
Cortesa: Horniman Museum
and Collection, Londres.
Fig. 28
Dibujo adaptado de Bennett
y Bird 1960, fig. 31.
Fig. 29
Dibujo: George Lau.
Cortesa: Museo Municipal
de Caraz, ncash.
Figs. 30-42, 56, 128 ,129, 132,
137, 138 a-b, 140 y 155
Cortesa: Proyecto Arqueolgico
Huacas del Sol y de la Luna.
Ministerio de Cultura del Per.
Figs. 43-45, 49, 52, 80 a-b,
100 a-b, 102
Cortesa: Programa Arqueolgico
San Jos de Moro. Pontificia
Universidad Catlica del Per.
CRDITOS FOTOGRFICOS Y DE REPRODUCCIONES
Fig. 55
Mapa adaptado de Quilter
y Koons 2012.
Fig. 57-60
Cortesa: J. Marla Toyne.
Fig. 66
Redibujado de Kutscher 1983:
Abb. 109.
Fig. 116
Redibujado de Kutscher 1983:
Abb 229.
Fig. 120
Dibujo: Felix Caycho.
Cortesa: Bruna Bonavia-Fisher.
Figs. 121 y 122
Dibujo: Jorge Gamboa Velsquez
y Pedro Neciosup Gmez.
Fig. 123
President and Fellows of
Harvard College, Peabody Museum
of Archaeology and Ethnology,
PM# 16-62-30/F 728 (digital file#
98540048).
Fig. 124
Cortesa: Lisa Trever.
Fig. 130
Fotografa: Yutaka Yoshii.
Cortesa: Proyecto Arqueolgico
Huacas del Sol y de la Luna.
Ministerio de Cultura del Per.
Fig. 148:
Cortesa: Museo Larco, Lima-Per
ML 02567.
Fig. 153
Redibujado de Kutscher 1983:
Abb. 124.
Las siguientes fotografas fueron
tomadas por Juan Pablo Murru-
garra para esta publicacin:
Figs. 5, 9 a-b, 12, 18, 20 a-b, 47, 48,
50, 51, 53, 54, 61, 62, 65, 68-71, 74,
75, 77-79, 81 a-c, 84, 86-88, 91-94,
99, 103, 106-110, 112-115, 118 a-b,
125, 126 a-b, 127, 133 a-b, 135 a-b,
136, 141 a-b, 143 a-b, 146, 147, 151,
152, 154, 156, 157 a-b, 158, 160,
162, 163 y 165.
Las siguientes fotografas fueron
tomadas por Daniel Giannoni
para esta publicacin:
Figs. 17, 46, 67, 73, 89, 90, 95,
96, 98, 101, 104, 105, 117, 144,
159 y 164.
Los siguientes dibujos son cortesa
de Christopher B. Donnan and
Donna McClelland Moche Archive,
1963-2011, Image Collections
and Fieldwork Archives, Dumbar-
ton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard
University, Washington, D.C.:
Figs. 11, 14 b, 14 d-e, 15 b, 21 a,
21 c-d, 21 i-l, 21 o, 21 r, 21 t-u, 21
w-x, 21 y, 26, 63, 64, 72, 76 a-b, 82,
83, 85, 97, 111, 119, 131, 134, 139,
149, 150 y 161.
La Fig. 21 s ha sido dibujada por
Madeleine Fang.
Fotografas en blanco y negro
que sirven como separadores:
Pgs. 4-5
Vista de Cerro Blanco, 237
Huacas de Moche.
Fotografa: Eduardo Hirose.
Cortesa: Fundacin Wiese.
Pgs. 16-17
Marcahuamachuco y su entorno,
sierra de La Libertad.
Fotografa: Eduardo Hirose.
Cortesa: Fundacin Wiese.
Pgs. 108-109
Vista de Huaca El Brujo,
Valle de Chicama.
Fotografa: Alex Kornhuber.
Cortesa: Minera Aurfera
Retamas S.A. y Asociacin
MARSA.
Pgs. 196- 197
Vista del valle medio de Chicama.
Fotografa: Alex Kornhuber.
Cortesa: Minera Aurfera
Retamas S.A. y Asociacin
MARSA.