PVC Fact Book Complete

PVC FACT BOOK
2008 Edition
VINYL ENVIRONMENTAL COUNCIL (VEC)
The 2008 Edition of the PVC Fact Book
Four years have passed since the publication of the first PVC Fact Book.
The handbook was intended to improve the public understanding of PVC,
in particular, the environmental advantages of PVC, and to clear
misunderstandings about the relation between PVC and dioxins, and
furthermore, to promote the use of PVC.
We are encouraged to see that many have visited our website and have
appreciated the PVC Fact Book. We hope that the revised handbook helps you
to know PVC better and to give you clearer ideas on how PVC can effectively
contribute to sustainable development.
August 2008
Shigetaka Seki,
Executive Director
Vinyl Environmental Council
Foreword
Publication of the English Version of the "PVC Fact Book"
The origin of the Vinyl Environmental Council goes back to the PVC Association
of Japan which was established in 1953. Along with the development of the
Japanese PVC industry, last year marked our organizations 50th anniversary.
Cumulative production of PVC in the past 50 years is estimated to be 64 million
tons in Japan. Not only did the Japanese PVC industry contribute significantly to
the lives of citizens and the development of the national economy, but also,
along with the internationalization of the economy, had a significant effect on
the economical development abroad, including Asia and surrounding countries.
Within such historical background, the serviceability of PVC and its converted
products is widely known today throughout the world. However, in recent years,
issues have arisen regarding appropriate treatment after use of PVC and safety
of chemical substances used as additives in PVC. There is an increasing need for
us to share a broad range of information both domestic and abroad.
Our organization published the "PVC Fact Book" last year as a public relations
material based on facts and data, which was prepared to serve as a tool for
communication towards society. Based on it, we created this English version for
international communication.
May this brochure be of some use to readers upon acquiring knowledge and
understanding of PVC and its related industries.
August 2004
Shigeaki Nakahara,
Chairman*
Vinyl Environmental
* as of 2004
Foreword
Our Strive Towards Gaining a Deeper Understanding of PVC

The history of the Japanese PVC industry began in 1941, which is 63 years ago, when
Nippon Chisso Hiryo K.K. industrialized production of PVC by acetylene synthesis method.
From then on, production and consumption increased along with the rise of the Japanese
industries and economy. Since PVC is superior in convertibility and durability among
general purpose plastics, domestic production marked 2.6 million tons in 1997.
However, due to increasing consumer consciousness on the environment and safety, the
issue of dioxins generation from waste incineration had drawn attention within Japan
during the latter half of the 90s. There had been excessive attention towards PVC as a
chlorine source upon dioxins generation. Also, plasticizers added to PVC were among the
center of focus regarding the endocrine disrupting substances debate.
In the past, there had been incinerators in Japan that generated excessive amounts of
dioxins due to lack of appropriate incineration control. During that time, there had been
no efficient regulations to cut back dioxins generation. Furthermore, there were no
scientific evaluations regarding the effect of plasticizers on the endocrine system, all of
which resulted in the inclination towards PVC avoidance among consumers and switch
towards other resins. Ultimately, the domestic demand for PVC declined.
The Law Concerning Special Measures against Dioxins was enacted thereafter, and a
limit was set to the level of dioxins generations at incinerators accordingly. The Ministry
of Environment announced last year that dioxins emission at the end of fiscal 2002 was
predicted to be cut down to below 10% as compared with the level in 1997. As for the
alleged endocrine disruptive effect of plasticizers on the ecosystem, which was initially a
concern among the public, tests were conducted and no apparent endocrine disrupting
effects were proven.
At the same time, the Reduce, Reuse and Recycle scheme had been promoted from
the standpoint of effective use of resources and cutting back of environmental burdens.
Recycling laws related to packaging, household electrical appliances, automobiles and
construction materials have been laid down. There has been an increasing expectation for
plastics recycling. Also, in line with the promotion of measures against global warming
based on the Kyoto Protocol, there is an increasing trend towards adopting PVC window
profiles with double glazing in order to boost thermal insulation in housing.
In this way, the climate has changed dramatically regarding the PVC situation in Japan.
In order for the industry to develop in harmony with the environment and citizens
health, it is essential for us to gain understanding from the PVC user industries, consumers
and the media, about the status of PVC - it is crucial for us to share accurate information
with the public. It is also increasingly important for us to share such information not only
within Japan but internationally, and to put such information to use.
In this brochure we included the basic information regarding PVC in Japan. We sincerely
hope that users of PVC, as well as those who have interest in PVC, would further gain a
deeper understanding for this versatile material.
August 2004
Tetsuo Nishide,
Executive Director*
Vinyl Environmental Council
* as of 2004
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION TO
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was first manufactured
in Germany in 1931 as a robust and lightweight new
plastic. This breakthrough material was brought
about to substitute for metals, glass, wood, natural
fibers, papers and fabrics. Over 30 million tons
of PVC is used around the globe today, both in
industrialized and developing countries, due to its cost
efficiency, durability, self-extinguishing properties,
processability, and resources saving features.
Owing to its safe, healthy, convenient and
aesthetical advantages, PVC products support
daily life in a wide variety of fields including urban
infrastructures, electronic products, and consumer
goods.
For example, PVC can be found in public lifelines
such as water supply, sewage pipes, or power lines.
It is also used in building materials such as sidings,
furniture, spouts, window profiles, flooring, decking
boards, and roofing sheets. Agricultural and industrial
applications include green house sheets, semi-
conductor cleansing facilities, exhaust ducts, and
parts for automobile and home electrical appliances.
Consumer products include food wraps, synthetic
leather and stationery. As you can see, PVC, or
polyvinyl chloride/vinyl chloride resin, is a raw material
used in a vast range of applications.
General information on PVC is provided here in
Chapter 1, followed by introductions on four aspects
of PVC; production, characteristics, safety and
applications.
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
1. What is PVC?
A thermoplastic resin reaction known as polymerization, these single

Plastics are also called synthetic resins and are molecules are branched into long chains to form
broadly classified into two categories; thermosetting polymers (which are also called macromolecules). PVC
resins and thermoplastic resins(Fig.1-1). The is also a type of polymer made from VCM through
thermosetting resins include phenol resin and polymerization (Fig.1-1).
melamine resin, which are thermally hardened Some monomers exist in the form of unstable
and never soften again. Thermoplastic resins gaseous chemical substances, and some of these
include PVC, polyethylene(PE), polystyrene(PS) and may cause health hazards when in direct contact
polypropylene(PP), which can be softened again by with humans. In these cases they are manufactured
heating. and processed under strict control for safety. On the
Usually, thermoplastics are supplied in the form of other hand, polymers, which are manufactured from
pelletized material (compounds) with additives (anti- monomers through polymerization, are solid and
oxidants, etc.) already blended in it. However, PVC chemically stable substances, therefore do not affect
is supplied in powder form and long term storage is human health. VCM, which is the raw material for PVC,
possible since the material is resistant to oxidizing is a high-pressure gas that can pose risks on human
and degradation. Various additives and pigments are health such as carcinogenicity, but PVC does not have
added to PVC during the processing stage, and then such carcinogenicity.
molded and fabricated into PVC products. As you can see, plastics possess completely different
PVC is better known as bineel (vinyl) in Japan. This chemical properties before and after polymerization.
is due to the fact that PVC products, in the form of Since names of these substances sound unfamiliar,
films or sheets, were widely used among the public misunderstandings tend to occur regarding their
after World War II, and these products were simply attributes and safety. Also due to the fact that
called bineel. When these PVC products that are soft the Japanese terms Enbi polymer (PVC) and Enbi
to the touch first landed Japan, where only rigid monomer (VCM) are both frequently called Enbi,
thermosetting resins had been known, they left a very there has been further confusion in Japan.
strong impression among the population. This is how One example of such confusion is an erroneous
bineel mistakenly became a synonym for all soft films report made in Japan on February 2003, which ran
including polyethylene films. "Carcinogenic Enbi (PVC) emissions into the air and
soil" - this of course, is a serious misunderstanding.
A safe synthetic resin made from
vinyl chloride monomers (VCM) Resource saving and fire resistant
Most synthetic resins are made up from single properties
molecule units, called monomers. Through a chemical Only 40% of PVC's composition is petroleum-
Fig.1-1 Synthetic resin and their raw materials

Raw material (monomers) Synthetic resin (polymers)
Vinyl chloride monomer (Vinyl chloride: VCM) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Ethylene Polyethylene (PE)
Propylene Polypropylene (PP)
Styrene monomer Polystyrene (PS)
Acrylonitrile/Butadiene/Styrene Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Resin (ABS)
Thermoplastic resin
Bisphenol A/Carbonyl chloride Polycarbonate (PC)
Hexamethylenediamine/Adipic acid Polyamide resin (PA:Nylon)
Methyl methacrylic acid Methacrylic resin (PMMA)
Ethylene/Terephthalic acid Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
Phenol/Formaldehyde Phenol resin
Melamine/Formalin Melamine resin
Caprolactam/Hexamethylenediamine Polyamide resin (PA : Nylon)
Trienediisocyanate/Propylene glycol Polyurethane (PU : Urethane resin)
Thermosetting resin Bisphenol A/Epichlorohydrin Epoxy resin
Dimethylsiloxane Silicone resin (SI)
Maleic anhydride/Styrene monomer Unsaturated polyester resin (FRP)
Source: "Dictionary of plastics in use", Industrial Research Center of Japan, Inc. Production Goods Work Station (1993)
2
derived. PVC is less dependent on petroleum, which the manufacturing process of its raw material, VCM.
is a natural resource that may one day be depleted. According to the results of survey by the Plastic Waste
Therefore PVC can be regarded as a natural resource Management Institute, PVC requires only about 70%
saving plastic, in contrast to plastics such as PE, PP and of energy required for production of other plastics.
PS, which are totally dependent on petroleum. This means less CO2 emissions occur from production
Also, PVC contains components derived from processes, thus contributing to the prevention of
industrial grade salt. Thus, PVC is a fire resistant plastic global warming.
with properties of chlorine containing substances. Furthermore, as PVC products have the required
When PVC is set on fire, the flames go out as the strength, durability, and low thermal conductivity,
fire source is removed due to its self-extinguishing its heat-insulating efficiency is three times as high as
properties. that of metal such as aluminum when used as window
profiles and siding boards. Therefore consumption of
One of four major plastics with the longest history fossil fuels such as petroleum can be cut back, which
Plastics production in Japan for 2007 was contributes to further reduction of CO2 emissions.
approximately 15 million tons, out of which 70% is
represented by PE, PP, PVC and PS (Fig.1-2). PVC is a
Fig.1-2 Production ratio of four major plastics (2007)
general purpose plastic with the longest history in
industrial production both domestic and abroad.
Due to its low price, excellent durability and
processability, PVC became widely used since around PE (total of HDPE
1948 in commonplace consumer applications, such and LDPE)
Other
as air inflated toys including floats and beach balls,
22.1%
films and sheets such as raincoats, bags, containers,
30.0%
or synthetic leather in the form of shoes, hand bags Total plastics
and furniture surfaces. Around that time, PVC began 14.61
to be used for electrical wire covering. Today, PVC is million tons
PP
widely used within civil engineering and construction 12.0% 100%
21.1%
materials that require durability. Examples include PS (including
drinking water and sewage pipes, optical fiber ABS and AS)
14.8%
protective pipes, wallcovering, flooring, window
PVC
profiles (PVC saches), and furniture. Total of four
major plastics
Contributes to energy saving and reduces CO 2 70.0%
emissions
Source: "Yearbook of Chemical Industries Statistics 2007", METI
Production of PVC requires little energy due to
2. Production of PVC
(1) Linkage of PVC related and hydrogen via electrolysis using industrial grade
salt as main raw material.
industries
The PVC industry
Upstream of the PVC industry (the basic
The PVC industry produces an intermediate raw
petrochemical industry, the soda industry)
material called ethylene dichloride (EDC) using
Ethylene and chlorine are raw materials for PVC. ethylene and chlorine, the former of which is supplied
Therefore, industries positioned upstream of the by the basic petrochemical industry and the latter
PVC industry are the basic petrochemical industry, being supplied by the soda industry. EDC is then
which supplies ethylene, and the soda industry, thermally cracked to produce VCM. Finally, VCM is
which supplies chlorine. polymerized to produce PVC (Fig.1-3).
By thermal cracking of naphtha, the basic
petrochemical industry manufactures ethylene and Naphtha :
propylene, etc. Naphtha is mainly supplied from the Crude oil is heated for refining at the refinery to
obtain heavy oil, light oil, kerosene, gasoline,
petroleum refinery industry, which uses imported naphtha fractions, and LP gas. Naphtha is
crude oil as raw material. transferred to petrochemical plants, where
ethylene, propylene, butylene etc. are obtained
The soda industry produces caustic soda, chlorine by thermal cracking.
3
Downstream of the PVC industry and consumer products.

(the PVC converter industry) The PVC industry and the PVC converter industry
PVC is supplied downstream to the PVC converter are closely associated with each other, and in some
industries, where various additives including stabilizers cases, both are called the PVC industries collectively.
and plasticizers are blended, of which are then According to a rough calculation of the industrial
converted by extrusion molding and calendering. statistics for 1998, the number of businesses is 4,600;
Resulting products are further fabricated into the number of employees is 72,000, and the shipped
construction and civil work materials, agricultural and value amounts to 1.5 trillion, or 15% of the total
industrial materials, parts for the assembly industry, shipment value of all plastics.
Fig.1-3 Linkage of PVC related industries
Upstream
Basic petrochemical
industry
Ethylene
Petroleum Naphtha Naphtha Ethylene
Petroleum refining
industry (Electrolysis) EDC VCM PVC PVC
Caustic industries
Industrial soda
Sea water Industrial grade salt
grade salt Chlorine Chlorine
Rock salt
Soda industry
PVC industry
Salt industry
Downstream (Processing Fabrication)
(Installation,
Assembly, Consumption) PVC products PVC
End user industry, PVC converter industry
Consumer
(2) Production process of raw cracked to yield VCM at a few hundred

material for PVC (VCM) ( in Fig.1-4).
When the hydrogen chloride obtained as by-
VCM is a high pressure gas with a molecular weight product from the above method reacts with
of 62.5 and boiling point of - 13.9 , therefore it is ethylene in the presence of catalyst and air (or
manufactured under strict quality and safety control. oxygen), EDC is obtained again. This is called the
There are two ways to manufacture VCM; the direct oxychlorination process ( in Fig.1-4 ). When EDC from
chlorination method and oxychlorination method. the oxychlorination process is dehydrated and then
Under the direct chlorination method, ethylene thermally cracked (likewise with the EDC from the
(obtained from thermal cracking of naphtha) and direct chlorination process), VCM is obtained.
chlorine (obtained from electrolysis of salt) reacts These two methods are combined thus at the major
within a catalyst-containing reactor to form the VCM plants in Japan. Fig.1-5 is a flow chart of VCM
intermediate material EDC. EDC is then thermally manufacturing processes shown in Fig.1-4.
Fig.1-4 VCM production method
Air (Oxygen) Oxychlorination
EDC
Ethylene
Ethylene Chlorine
Thermal
Hydrogen chloride cracking
Direct
chlorination
Polymerization
EDC VCM PVC
Thermal cracking
Source: Prepared from material by the Japan Petroleum Institute (JPI)
4
Fig.1-5 Process flow diagram for VCM
Quench column
Direct Caustic soda
chlorination
reactor Air Caustic soda
(oxygen) washing column
Chlorine Ethylene
Decanter
Ethylene
Oxychlorination
reactor
Monomer
Recovery column recovery column
Quench Caustic
column soda
washing
Dehydrating VCM column
column
Low boiling
point fraction
collection
column Hydrochloric
acid removal
High boiling Cracking furnace column
point fraction
collection column Source: Prepared from material by the JPI
(3) PVC production processes

Generally, the suspension polymerization process is suspended in water as micro particles of 50~200 m
adopted to manufacture PVC. First, the raw material diameter (in slurry form). Therefore, slurry discharged
VCM is pressurized and liquefied, and then fed into from the polymerization reactor is dehydrated, dried
the polymerization reactor, which contains water and and the particle size matched by screening to yield PVC
suspending agent in advance. Through high-speed in the form of white powder. The unreacted VCM is
agitation within the reactor, micro particles of VCM entirely recovered through the stripping process, and
are obtained. Next, the initiator for polymerization is after refining, recycled as raw material for reuse in this
fed into the reactor, and PVC is produced by reaction process (Fig.1-6). Emulsion polymerization process and
under a few atmospheric pressures at 40 - 60 . bulk polymerization process are also adopted.
PVC obtained through suspension polymerization is
Fig.1-6 PVC polymerization process flow diagram
Recovered VCM storage tank

Volumeter
VCM tank Catalyst
Polymerization VCM purification column
reactor Recovered
Gasholder VCM
storage tank
Additives
Vacuum Compressor Crude VCM

pump storage tank
Purified water Stripping
Tank
PVC
Centrifuge storage tank
Fluidized-bed dryer
Screen
PVC
Slurry tank
Source: Prepared from material by the JPI
5
(4) PVC as petrochemical Fig.1-7 Breakdown of ethylene applications (2001)

(ethylene requirement)
product
Unit : Million tons
A petrochemical product manufactured
from ethylene Others
PVC is a petrochemical product, since its LDPE
(Acetaldehyde, etc.)
intermediate raw material, EDC, is manufactured 1.58 1.95
from ethylene (Fig.1-7). 13% of all ethylene demand (21%)
during 2001 was used for production of EDC (ethylene Ethylene (27%)
requirement breakdown). Almost all of EDC is used for Ethyl acetate demand
PVC production in Japan, although a small portion is 0.75 7.38
used for manufacturing of ethylenediamine, organic (10%) (100%)
HDPE
solvents and various pharmaceutical products. SM
0.85 EDC 1.25
Four major applications, i.e., low-density (PVC,
polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (12%) Ethylenediamine, (17%)
others)
(HDPE), EDC and styrene monomer (SM) comprise
0.98
about 70% of all ethylene consumption (almost all
(13%)
styrene is used for PS).
PVC industry and petrochemical complexes Source: Prepared from chemical industry statistics by the Japan
Petrochemical Industry Association, materials by the METI
The petroleum refining industry and the basic
Fig.1-8 Production flow of typical petrochemical complex (focus on ethylene derivatives 2007)
Unit: 1,000 tons/year
Crude oil Ethylene
7,739
LDPE 2,097
232,153 thousand kl
HDPE 1,135
Gasoline
58,403 thousand kl
(25%)
Ethylene oxide 966 Ethylene glycol 754 PET 698
Naphtha
22,630 thousand kl
(10%)
PS 1,749
Acrylonitrile-Styrene 125
Kerosene
23,024 thousand kl Ethyl benzene Styrene monomer 3,533 ABS 547
(10%)
Butanol 537 MBS

Light oil SBR 727
43,058 thousand kl
(19%)
Acetaldehyde 367 Ethyl acetate 261
Acetic acid 587 Vinyl acetate 734 Polyvinyl acetate 230

Heavy oil
53,946 thousand kl
(23%)
EDC 3,603 VCM 3,142 PVC 2,162

Chlorine 3,890
Organic solvents Ethylenediamine
PP 3,087
Phenol 961 Phenolic resin 295
Propylene Octanol 270 Phthalates* 281

Caustic 6,286
soda 4,487 Acrylonitrile 743 Acrylic fiber 16
Propylene oxide 520 Urethane foam 235
Industrial Butadiene 1,024 Synthetic rubber 1,655

grade salt
7,337 Aromatics Benzene, Toluene, Xylene 12,888 Polycarbonate 418
Others High purity terephthalic acid 1,254 Polyester fiber 295
*(for Plastcizers)
Sources: Present Status of Petrochemical Industry: 2008 by the Japan Petrochemical Industry Association,
Yearbook of Chemical Industries Statistics 2007 by the METI
Guidebook for the Soda Industry by the JSIA
NOTE: 1. Imported naphtha of 26,873 thousand kl is not shown here. Total naphtha supply of 49,503 thousand kl is a sum of 22,630 thousand kl
of domestic naphtha and imported naphtha.
2. Derivatives having two or more raw materials are shown against the major raw material.
3. Figures does not represent yields from each material substances.
6
petrochemical industry in Japan are located at coastal caustic soda's by-product, chlorine.
areas, where there is easy access to imported natural VCM plants, which use ethylene and chlorine as
resources such as crude oil, in the same way as energy major raw materials, and PVC plants, are generally
industries such as the thermal power generation located in the petrochemical complex due to this
industry. They form petrochemical complexes, where background. Fig.1-8 focuses on the flow of ethylene
refineries, ethylene centers and the petrochemical which is one of five types of products that are yielded
plants are connected by pipelines. Likewise, the soda by cracking of naphtha, and downstream on to the
industry is located together with petrochemical production of petrochemical products such as general-
complexes in many cases, since it is preferable for purpose plastics. Figures show the production volume
large-sized soda plants to be at the coastal areas for in 2007.
easier access to imported salt and consumption of
(5) PVC as a chlorine product Fig.1-9 VCM share in total chlorine demand (fiscal 2006)
Ratio of VCM within the total

chlorine demands
Ethylene and chlorine are the major
raw materials for VCM. Therefore, VCM is Others 39%
affected by the supply-demand situations VCM 40%
of both ethylene and chlorine, respectively.
As already mentioned, in Japan the share
of VCM amount to 13% of all ethylene
use (ethylene requirement). In contrast, 1%
Food
TDI/MDI (raw material
VCM amounts to 40% of all chlorine use. for urethane) 8% Solvent 2%
Therefore, the demand-supply situation of
chlorine has more impact on VCM than that Propylene oxide 5% Chloromethane 5%
of ethylene (Fig.1-9).
Source: Japan Soda Industry Association (JSIA)
The balance between chlorine and caustic soda soda production was adjusted to meet the chlorine
Chlorine is a by-product of caustic soda production, demand, and the resulting shortage of caustic soda
generated at a ratio of 0.88:1. As applications for was supplemented by imports. Afterwards, chlorine
chlorine and caustic soda are totally different, one became short of supply since demand for PVC grew
striking a balance between supply and demand year by year (Fig.1-10). In order to make up for the
does not necessarily mean the other would also. chlorine shortage, EDC, which is comparatively easy to
In fact, until 1970, the demand for chlorine was transport, was imported.
weaker than that of caustic soda, therefore, caustic
Fig.1-10 Transition of the balance between chlorine and caustic soda

1,000 tons
5,000
Chlorine demand
4,000
3,000 Domestic chlorine supply
Chlorine import
2,000
0
fiscal year '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 01 '02 '03 '04 05 '06
Chlorine demand 2,781 3,025 3,163 3,253 3,292 3,502 3,763 3.921 4,043 3,967 3,914 3,737 3,943 4,188 4,328 4,423 4,203 4,419 4,285 4,042 4,074 4,048 4,092 4,096 4,121
Domestic chlorine supply 2,391 2,530 2,681 2,666 2,715 2,901 3,119 3,271 3,445 3,407 3,361 3,269 3,367 3,544 3,598 3,861 3,684 3,903 3,883 3,689 3,806 3,822 3,936 3,894 3,898
Chlorine import ( ) 390 495 482 587 577 601 644 650 598 560 553 468 576 644 730 562 519 516 402 353 268 224 156 202 223
NOTE: 1. The chlorine demand represents the "net demand" derived by subtracting the recovered chlorine from the gross domestic chlorine demand.
2. The chlorine import is derived from all imported chlorine products in terms of chlorine requirement.
Source: JSIA
7
Dependency of VCM production on imported EDC decline of PVC production. This was partially due to
Especially during the mid 1980s, imports of EDC the general economic recession in Japan and reduced
increased year by year in order to make up for the domestic demands (secondary converters had moved
grave shortage in chlorine due to the growth of abroad). In 2004, the import of EDC further declined
domestic demand for VCM and also the increased to 200 thousand tons, shifting the dependency
export of VCM to China. The import of EDC marked an ratio on imported EDC to below 10%. The price
all time high of 842 thousand tons in 1996. As a result, increase of imported EDC and domestic chlorine was
the dependency of VCM production on imported EDC partially responsible for the deficit of the Japanese
(i.e., the ratio of VCM manufactured with imported PVC Industry after the latter half of 1990s. Thus, the
EDC) reached 34% (Fig.1-11). balance between chlorine and caustic soda as well as
After 1997 when VCM production hit its peak, the the supply-demand situation of VCM both domestic
dependency of VCM on imported EDC started to and abroad are the dominant factors for the amount
decline. The decline resulted from the price hike of of EDC imported as raw material and the domestic
imported EDC partially due to growth in worldwide shipment/export amount of VCM.
VCM demand; domestic VCM manufacturers had
boosted production based on domestic chlorine.
After 2000, the import of EDC decreased to less
than 500 thousand tons per year along with the
Fig.1-11 Transition of EDC import and dependency ratio on imports

1,000 tons 3,000 40
Imported EDC EDC dependency ratio VCM production (EDC requirement)
35
2,500
30
2,000
25
1,500 20
15
1,000
10
500
5
0 0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
(1,000 tons)
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Imported EDC 586 723 842 696 570 553 417 383 295 256 185 153 318 223
PVC production 2,111 2,274 2,511 2,626 2,457 2,461 2,410 2,195 2,225 2,164 2,153 2,151 2,146 2,162
VCM production 2,318 2,586 2,921 3,124 2,995 3,124 3,032 2,895 2,970 2,948 2,977 3,038 3,228 3,142
VCM production (EDC requirement)* 1,942 2,167 2,448 2,618 2,510 2,618 2,541 2,426 2,489 2,470 2,495 2,546 2,705 2,633
EDC dependency ratio (%)** 30 33 34 27 23 21 16 16 12 10 7 6 12 8
* VCM production (EDC requirement) = VCM production x 0.838

Imported EDC
** EDC Dependency Ratio = x 100
VCM production (EDC requirement) Source; Yearbook of Chemical Industries Statistics, METI
Trade Statistics of Japan, Ministry of Finance
Crystalline : Polarity :
Molecules are aligned in a regular grid pattern Tendency within parts of the molecule to be
when the substance is in solid form and stable. slightly charged positively and negatively. Parts
PVC has a dominant amorphous molecular within the molecule that are charged are called
structure, with only 5~10% of crystalline polar parts, as opposed to nonpolar parts where
components. there is very little electrical charge.
8
3. Characteristics of PVC
PVC, PE, PP and PS are called general-

Fig.1-12 Molecular structures of general purpose plastics
purpose plastics. The features of the plastic
are determined by the chemical composition Molecular form Amorphous
and type of molecular structure (molecular part
formation: crystalline /amorphous
structure)(Fig.1-12).
PVC has a unique amorphous structure
with polar chlorine atoms in the molecular Crystalline
part
structure. Having chlorine atoms and Amorphous Crystalline
The crystalline part is fixed,
the amorphous molecular structure are Molecular chains are fixed. the amorphous part is flexible.
inseparably related. Although plastics seem PVC PS PP
PE
very similar in the daily use context, PVC carbon, hydrogen
carbon, hydrogen, chrorine
has completely different features in terms H H H H H H H H
of performance and functions as compared
C C C C C C C C
with olefin plastics which have only carbon
and hydrogen atoms in their molecular H H H H H CH3
structures. Chemical composition
(1) Chemical stability Fig.1-13 Flash ignition and ignition temperatures of mateials
Chemical stability is a common feature Vinylidene Vinylidene chloride

chloride
among substances, containing halogens Low flammability 500 Fluoroplastic Hard to ignite
such as chlorine and fluorine. This applies to PS
Cellulose acetate
PVC resins also, which furthermore possess
fire retarding properties, durability, and oil/ PVC
Nylon Nylon
chemical resistance.
400 PU
PVC
Fire retarding properties
PE
PVC has an inherently superior fire PU PE
retarding property due to its chlorine atom
components, and do not require addition of Methacrylic 300
resin
fire retardants to its products. For example, Pine wood
Pine wood Cotton
the ignition temperature of PVC is as high Paper
as 455 , and is a material with less risk for Paper
High flammability Wool Easy to ignite
fire incidents since it is not ignited easily 200
(Fig.1-13).
Furthermore, the heat radiation in Source: "Technical Information: Five Properties of Polyvinyl Chloride"
by the technical committee of the Vinyl Institute,
burning is considerably low with PVC, when 1988 (PVC and Polymer, Vol.29, No.9, 6-11: No.10, 10-16, 1989)
compared with those for PE and PP, and is
hard to spread fire to nearby materials even
Fig.1-14 Maximum heat release by various materials
while burning (Fig.1-14). Therefore, PVC
is the most suitable plastic to be used in Material Maximum heat releasekW/m2
products requiring fire retarding properties PVC 91
such as housing materials.
Fire resistant ABS 250
Fire resistant PS 315
Durability ABS 746
Under normal conditions of use, the factor
PS 859
most strongly influencing the durability of
a material is resistance to oxidation within Polyester 1216
the air. PVC, having the molecular structure PE 1325
where chlorine atom is bound to every other
PP 1335
carbon chains, is very resistant to oxidative
reactions, and maintains its performance Source: PVC and polymer Vol.29 (1989)
9
almost semi-permanently. In
Fig.1-15 Aging of strength in rigid PVC pipe
contrast, other general purpose
plastics with structures made up 66
only of carbon and hydrogen
64
are susceptible to deterioration
by oxidation in extended use
MPaTensile strength
62
conditions. 60
According to measurements
on underground PVC pipes by 58
the Japan PVC Pipe & Fittings 56

Association, a pipe used
underground for 35 years showed 54
no deterioration, and its strength 52

remained the same as with new
50
pipes (Fig.1-15). 0 10 20 30 40 50
A report from Germany, where Number of years in use
rigid PVC pipes were used from
Source: Japan PVC Pipe & Fittings Association
the early days, states that a
PVC pipe used for over 50 years
displayed the same strength as with new pipes. stabilizers. Recovered products can in fact be molded
Almost no deterioration was observed upon back into the same products through re-converting,
recovery of three kinds of automobile exterior regardless of whether they are pipes or automobile
accessories (flexible PVC products using plasticizers) parts. The physical properties of these re-converted
from end-of-life cars after 13 years of use and products are almost the same as with products made
upon comparison of physical properties with new from virgin resin, and there is also no problem upon
products (Fig.1-16). The shortened time for thermal actual use.
decomposition (loss of durability) is due to the heat As described above, PVC has an outstanding
history in the re-converting process, and can be durability and is a suitable material for long service
recovered to that of the original products by adding life products, and has an excellent recycleability.
Fig.1-16 Change of physical properties of recovered automobile exterior accessories
Degree of polymerization Plasticizer content (%) Hardness (at 23) Brittle temperature ()
Original
2000 25 120 2
13 years later 20 100 0
1500
80 -2
15
1000 60 -4
10
40 -6
500 5 20 -8
0 0 0 -10
A B C A B C A B C A B C
Sample Sample Sample Sample
Tensile strength (kg/cm2) 100% Modulus (kg/cm2) Elongation (%) Thermal decomposition time (mins)
400 250 400 120
200 100
300 300
80
150
200 200 60
100
40
100 50 100
20
0 0 0 0
A B C A B C A B C A B C
Sample Sample Sample Sample
Source: "PVC and environmental issues" by Tetsuya Makino, Seikei Kakou (a journal of the Japan Society of Polymer Processing), Vol.10, No.1 (1998)
Oil/Chemical Resistance
PVC is resistant to acid, alkali and almost all Taking advantage of this characteristic, PVC is used in
inorganic chemicals. Although PVC swells or dissolves exhaust gas ducts, sheets used in construction, bottles,
in aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones, and cyclic ethers, tubes and hoses.
PVC is hard to dissolve in other organic solvents.
10
(2) Mechanical stability
Fig.1-17 Circumferential stress by internal pressure and
PVC is a chemically stable material, which shows breaking time of rigid PVC pipes
little change in the molecular structure, and also 100
Circumferential stress (MPa)

exhibits little change in the mechanical strength.
However, high-polymer material is a viscoelastic body
50
and deformed by continuous application of exterior
force, even if the applied force is well below its yield
point. This is called creep deformation. Although 25
PVC is a viscoelastic body, its creep deformation is
very little compared with other plastics due to little
molecular motion at ordinary temperature, in contrast 10
to PE and PP, which have greater molecular motion in 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
their amorphous sections. Through a joint research Elapsed time (hrs) 50 years
with the Kyoto Institute of Technology, it was found Source: Japan PVC Pipe & Fittings Association
out that the service lives of rigid PVC pipes were over
50 years. Specifically, internal pressure creep tests years of service. This is proof that PVC can maintain its
revealed that rigid PVC pipes retain about three times mechanical strength for an extended period of time
the designed circumferential stress even after 50 (Fig.1-17).
(3) Processability and moldability

The processability of a thermoplastic material
depends largely on its melt viscosity. PVC is not meant
for injection molding of large sized products, since
its melt viscosity is comparatively high. On the other
hand, the viscoelastic behavior of molten PVC is less
dependent on temperature and is stable. Therefore
PVC is suitable for complex shaped extrusion profiling
(e.g., housing materials), as well as calendering
of wide films and sheets (e.g., agricultural films
and PVC leather). The exterior surfaces of molded
PVC products are excellent, and displays superior
embossing performance - enabling a wide variety of
surface treatments with textures ranging from enamel
gloss to the completely delustered suede. Since PVC
is an amorphous plastic with no phase transition,
molded PVC products have high dimensional accuracy.
PVC also exhibits excellent secondary processability
in bending fabrication, welding, high-frequency
bonding, and vacuum forming, as well as on-site
workability.
Paste resin processing such as slush molding, screen-
printing and coating is a convenient processing
technique that is feasible only with PVC. These
processing methods are used in flooring, wall
covering, automobile sealants and undercoating.
Interior decoration films
Viscoelastic body : Yield point :

Refers to material having both viscosity and When external force is applied to a material, elastic
elasticity. Distortion occurs as soon as external deformation (strain) takes place up to the yield
force is applied and thereby absorbing the force point, and the strain disappears as soon as the
(elasticity), but when the force is continuously external force is removed. When the external stress
applied, deformation occurs to a certain extent is greater than the yield point, plastic deformation
(viscosity). (permanent set) takes place and the material would
not recover its original shape even after removal of
exterior force.
11
(4) Others (versatility in designing

through compounding)
PVC has polar groups (chlorine), and is amorphous, of its superior printability, adhesion properties and
therefore mixes well with various other substances. weatherability. Patterns such as wood grain, marble,
The required physical properties of end products (e.g., and metallic tones are possible. Familiar examples
flexibility, elasticity, impact resistance, anti-fouling, include wall coverings and floorings, housing
anti-bacteria, anti-mist, fire retarding) can be freely materials, furniture, home electric appliances, or
designed through formulation with plasticizers and signboards and ads on airplanes, bullet trains, buses
various additives, modifiers, and coloring agents. PVC and trams.
is the only general purpose plastic that allows free,
wide and seamless adjustment of the
required physical properties of products Fig.1-18 Comparison of physical properties of PVC materials
such as flexibility, elasticity, and impact with polyolefin materials
resistance, by adding plasticizers,
additives, and modifiers.
Fire retardance
Since the physical properties of
end products are adjustable through 5
Moldability Oil resistance
4
compounding, it requires only a
3
few types of resin to cover all the
2
applications of high-polymer materials Exterior appearance Abrasion resistance
1
(fiber, rigid and flexible plastic, rubber,
paint, and adhesive). This controllability
is also extremely beneficial recycling-
Tensile strength Scratch resistance
wise.
The polar groups in PVC contribute to
ease in coloring, printing and adhesion, Compression Set Adhesion
therefore PVC products do not require
pretreatment, which enables a wide Gloss
variety of designs. PVC is used in
various scenes taking full advantage PVC materials
Polyolefin materials
Improved polyolefin materials
Source: "PVC and environmental issues" by Tetsuya Makino, Seikei Kakou, Vol.10, No.1 (1998)
4. Safety of PVC
(1) Production safety (2) Safety upon use

VCM, which is the intermediate raw material for PVC is a chemically and mechanically stable material
PVC, has a boiling point of - 13.9 and a flash point with excellent fire retarding properties, and is a safe
of - 78 . Caution is required upon handling since it plastic under normal conditions of use. Fig.1-19 is an
is a dangerous substance in gaseous form. The PVC excerpt of the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
industry in Japan handles VCM with utmost care at prepared by PVC manufacturers. The MSDS shows data
PVC manufacturing facilities and has safe working for the safe use of PVC.
environments. No hazard has ever been brought to
local communities. Neither has there been any death
incidence or sufferers due to improper manufacturing
process control throughout the years.
12
Fig.1-19 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
Product designation Polyvinyl chloride Explosion preventive measures

Distinction of single/mixed material Single material Concentration control Not applicable
Chemical name Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Permissible Concentration None (Japan Society for Occupational Health)
Chemical formula (CH2CHCl)n Measures for facilities Desirable to install local ventilators
Structural formula with dust filters where diffusion tends
H H
to occur
C C Protective gears Use the following protective gears
when necessary

Respirators (dust masks in operation, and
H n air breathing apparatus mask in case of fire)

Protective spectacles
Classification # in official gazette 6-66 (Japanese Chemical Substances Control Law) (dustproof spectacles)
CAS No. 9002-86-2

Protective gloves

Protective clothes
Classification of hazardousness (not required generally)
Title of classification Not applicable to classification standards Physical/Chemical characteristics
Danger None External appearance White powder
Hazardousness None Property
First aid Boiling point Not applicable
If in contact with eye Do not rub, rinse with water for 15 mins Vapor pressure Not applicable
and consult a physician Volatility Not applicable
If in contact with skin Rinse with water True specific gravity 1.4 (20)
If swallowed Consult a physician Solubility Not soluble in water
Measures in case of fire Info on danger (Stability/Reactivity)
Extinguish method Extinguisher must use air breathing apparatus Flash ignition temperature 391 1
Extinguishing Agent Water, dry chemical, foam Ignition temperature 454 2
Others Irritant gas is emitted when burnt. Combustibility Self-extinguishing resin with
Major component of gas: HCl, CO and CO2. oxygen index of approx. 45
Measures upon leakage Collect the diffused in empty containers Oxidative property Stable in room temperature
Cautions upon handling Dust explosiveness Stable in terms of dust explosiveness
Handling Do not expose to fire. Do not diffuse Stability/Reactivity Stable under normal handling conditions
Storage Avoid exposure to direct sunlight, and store Info on hazardousness Unclear, but no case known
at a well ventilated, cool and dark place to show hazardousness
Cautions upon disposal Incinerate by incinerators with exhaust
gas treatment facilities, or landfill as
non-dangerous waste
Cautions upon transportation Avoid damage to containers
and collapse of cargo
Applicable laws and regulations None specifically
References
1) "Plastic Data Handbook" Edited by Kimimasa Itoh. Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co., Ltd. (1980) P.116
2) Same as above. P.110
Disclaimer
PVC PVC material The contents herein are based on documents, information and data available at the time of press.
(White powder) for molding However, no guarantee is extended as to the physical/chemical characteristics and dangerousness.
(Colored pellets) Cautions are meant for normal conditions of handling. Appropriate safety measures must be taken
for each special conditions of handling.
(3) Evaluation of carcinogenicity

In 1974, cancer incidents were reported among In Japan, a new guideline was introduced in 1975
workers who had been employed by the PVC industry where the geometrical average was to be within
in the U.S., and VCM were reported to be responsible. 2ppm in the general work environments and within
As a result of an epidemiological survey, a very rare 5ppm inside the polymerization reactor. Subsequently,
type of cancer (angiosarcoma) was identified in better process control technologies were introduced
workers who had been exposed to high concentrations such as enhanced polymerization rates and recovery
of VCM for an extended period of time. of unreacted VCM from the reactor. The PVC industry
Following this report, improvements of work also worked on the reduction plan for hazardous air
environments were accelerated through closed system pollutants in cooperation with administrations (see
EDC/VCM manufacturing processes and automated Chapter 3).
cleaning of PVC polymerization reactors, in the U.S. There were once cancer incidents among workers
and across of the world. who cleaned polymerization reactors for extended
13
periods of time, but

Fig.1-20 Evaluations of carcinogenicity by the IARC
after the carcinogenic As of Mar. 2008
effects of VCM surfaced, Substances
Classification Agents Mixtures Number
improvements were made
immediately for the safety Group 1 Carcinogenic to Asbestos, Alcoholic beverages, 105
and hygiene in the work humans VCM, 2,3,7,8- TCDD, Tobacco smoke, Soot
Formaldehyde, Cadmium,
environment, and methods
Benzene,Benzopyrene,
to use VCM safely was
Group 2A Probably Acrylamide,
established within a short carcinogenic to Ultraviolet radiation Diesel engine exhaust 66
period of time. humans Lead & lead compounds
For reference, the (inorganic)
International Agency for Group 2B Possibly Acetaldehyde, Coffee, Gasoline, 248
Research on Cancer (IARC), carcinogenic to Styrene, Pickled vegetables
which is a branch of the humans Lead compounds (organic) (Asian traditional)
World Health Organization Group 3 Not classifiable as Caffeine, Chlorinated
(WHO), classified VCM to its carcinogenicity drinking-water, Tea (black tea, green tea) 515
as substance belonging in humans DEHP,
PVC
to Group 1 (Carcinogenic
Group 4 Probably not Caprolactam
to humans) in June, 2001
carcinogenic to (raw material for nylon) 1
(Fig.1-20). On the other humans
hand, PVC was classified as
Source: IARC website
Group 3 (Not-classifiable as
to its carcinogenicity to humans), along with tea and caffeine.
(WHO is continuing its quantitative risk assessment on carcinogenicity).
with migration levels. On February, 1977, the Ministry

(4) Residual monomers in PVC of Health and Welfare set the standard of residual
VCM in PVC to be below 1 ppm and announced this
Trace amounts of unreacted VCM are found in PVC,
through public notification No.17. The notification
but their concentrations are not a problem upon
continues to be effective to date.
processing and use of PVC products. Food packaging
and medical appliances require stringent safety
Voluntary Standard by Japan Hygienic PVC
measures; therefore the following specifications have
Association (JHP Standard):
been established.
In 1970, prior to the abovementioned public
notification, Japan Hygienic PVC Association (JHPA),
Specifications for food packaging which consists of PVC manufacturers and PVC product
Standards in the Food Sanitation Law manufacturers, had worked out voluntary standards
In 1973, a research was conducted in Italy where oral based on the Food Sanitation Law in the form of
doses of VCM were given to experimental animals, positive list (JHP standard: recommendable substances
which resulted in manifestation of angiosarcoma. for use/guideline upon manufacturing of food
This lead to further investigations on residual VCM in packaging) ahead of the Responsible Care concept
PVC across the world, and the US National Toxicology (see footnote of page 38).
Program (NTP) was one such example. In Japan, review JHPA had decided to work out this voluntary
of the Food Sanitation Law started immediately from standard when the result of the animal experiment in
a hygienic standpoint. Safety evaluations were made Italy was reported. By the time the public notification
based on residual monomer levels and its relationships No.17 was announced by the Ministry of Health and
Fig.1-21 JHP standard

The JHP standard by JHPA consists of: Positive list
1) Positive list (list of recommended A list presenting the designations of chemical substances which can be used as
raw materials to be used), and raw materials, their quality, quantity, application and elution limit, etc.
2) Material test and leach test methods Polymer (resin), additives, plasticizers, stabilizers, antioxidants, UV absorbers,
for PVC food packaging based on the surfactants, lubricants, colorants and fillers foaming agents, and others
Material test
Food Sanitation Law.
Substances not to be used intentionally or to be included in the product and their
The level of residual VCM is stipulated test methods are stipulated
to be below 1ppm. Cadmium, lead, dibutyltin compounds, cresol, phosphates, VCM
Elution test
Non-volatile residues, heavy metals, and consumption of KMnO4
Source: Prepared based on "Voluntary standards for food sanitation etc. of PVC products, (JHP standard: version 12)" March, 1993, JHPA
14
Welfare in February 1977, reduction of residual VCM bags, liquid/blood transfusion sets, artificial heart
had already been achieved. lung apparatus and artificial kidneys. PVC has been
The voluntary JHP standard is a comprehensive used safely for more than 40 years both at home and
voluntary standard that integrates official regulations, abroad, in accordance with the Pharmacopoeia of
and following the revision of the Food Sanitation Japan, voluntary standards established by the Japan
Law, the 1ppm limit of residual VCM was immediately Medical Devices Manufacturers Association (Fig.1-22),
adopted (Fig.1-21). and GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice). PVC resins
in compliance with standards shown in Fig.1-22 are
Standards for medical equipment used for medical products. The level of residual VCM
Another example of measures against residual VCM is set below 1ppm in this application field as well.
is the case in medical PVC products including blood
Fig.1-22 Standards for medical apparatus
Test method for transfusion bags PVC compound I II for medical apparatus
(Pharmacopoeia of Japan ) (voluntary standards by the Japan Medical
Devices Manufacturers Association)
Designation of Plasticized PVC transfusion bags Blood set, Disposable set for artificial
medical products heart/lung equipment, Blood tube for
hemodialysis, Blood catheter, Transfusion set,
Blood transfusion set, Others
Transparency/External No abnormality by visual inspection Same as with left
appearance
Material tests VCM Same as with left
below 1g (1 ppm) (others: omitted)
Tests on eluates PH, KMnO4 reducing substance,
UV absorption spectrum Same as with left
(others: omitted)
Biological tests Acute toxicity tests, Intracutaneous reaction Same as with left
Source: Prepared based on the document by the Japan Medical Devices Manufacturers Association
5. JIS and PVC Applications
(1) The Japanese Industrial (2) JIS for PVC products

Standard (JIS) for PVC
PVC is controlled under the following test methods PVC has a wide variety of applications, and
and shipped in uniform quality. PVC compound more than 200 JIS items are relevant. PVC products
is a form of PVC product but it is marketed as contribute to society under support by these vast
an intermediate material to be molded into PVC number of standards.
products. Therefore test methods for compounds are
also shown.
JIS K 6720- Plastics-PVC homopolymer and copolymer:

12 designations, specification, specimen, properties*
K 6737 PVC: Method to measure impurities*
K 7117-2 Method of viscosity measurement with rotational viscometer*
K 7365 Method to measure apparent density*
K 7367-2 Method to measure viscosity of diluted solution (reduced viscosity of PVC/K value)*
K 7380 PVC homopolymer and copolymer (method to measure residual VCM)*
K 7381 PVC paste resin (method to measure apparent viscosity)*
K 7382 PVC homopolymer and copolymer (method to measure volatile component/ moisture content)*
K 7383 Method to prepare PVC paste (dissolving method)*
K 6723 Plasticized (flexible) PVC compound
K 6740 Materials for molding and extrusion of un-plasticized PVC (PVC-U) (Rigid PVC compound)
K 7366 Plastic: Materials for molding and extrusion of plasticized PVC (PVC-P)
* Changeover to a new JIS standard will take place in October 2004 in line with the international standardization towards ISO. 13 other new JIS standards will be introduced.
15
(3) Applications of PVC (PVC products)

PVC has superior features in one, and is used in of products, e.g., rigid, flexible, electric cables and
various fields ranging from the lifeline (water supply, others. The most prominent feature of PVC product
sewage, electric cable, etc.), basic industries (housing), is applications requiring long service lives. Fig.1-23
consumer products, and front line electronics, to shows the applications in the vertical direction and
medical apparatus and products. The application the service life in the horizontal direction, with some
of PVC is divided, in general, based on the hardness photographs of applicable products.
Fig.1-23 Applications
Fig.1-23 Applications and
and
service life
life of
of PVC
PVC -- 11 Long
Long Service life
Service life Short
Short
service
Long term
Long term (several
(some years50
years50years)
years) Less than
Less than aa few
few years
years
ducts, tanks, semi-conductor cleansing devices,
ducts, tanks, semi-conductor cleansing devices,
Industrial
Industrial clean rooms
rooms
flanges, other
flanges, other facilities/equipments,
facilities/equipments, clean
plates
Flatplates
anti static
anti static plates
plates
name plates,
plates, displays
Flat
General
General
name displays
construction materials,
construction materials,
sign boards,
sign boards,
stationeries,
stationeries,
agricultural applications
agricultural applications
displays
displays
Non food
Non food casing,
casing, separated trays
separated trays
producrs

Rigidproducts
packaging lightweight packaging

lightweight packaging blister packs
blister packs
packaging
dimpled sheets
dimpled sheets
Food
Food packaging
packaging packaging
packaging (for eggs,
eggs,
(for
Rigid
tofu, fruits)
tofu, fruits)
Films/Sheets
Films/Sheets
caps,
caps,
separated trays
separated trays
food trays
food trays
Others cooling towers,
towers, accessories
accessories
Others
cooling
toys,
toys,
electronic equipment
electronic equipment accessories,
accessories,
stationeries,
stationeries,
cards,
cards,
FDJ
FDJ
cards cards
Construction
Construction terraces, dormers,
terraces, dormer, carports,
car ports,blinds,
blinds,sheds,
sheds,arcades,
arcades snow fences
snow fences
temporary structures,
materials
materials temporary structures
Corrugatedsheets
Corrugated sheet
corrugated sheet
corrugated sheet terrace roofing
terrace roofing
Agricultural
Agricultural name plates,
name plates, construction
construction materials
materials
applications
applications
16
service life of PVC - 2 Long Service life Short
Long term (several years50 years) Less than a few years
Water supply waterworks

exclusive water works
simplified water works
waterworks
Agricultural paddy field irrigation pipeline

water irrigation for farmland
agricultural water system
Sewege public sewage system

farm village sewage system
development of housing premises
Pipes
Sewage system
Industrial, plant piping, well drilling, natural gas pipelines

facility industrial waterworks, marine structures, components
drainage water discharge facility buildings,
roadworks, railroad sathletic fields,
air conditioning, gray waterworks
water draining from retaining walls,
Rigid products
highways
Cable electric conduits (telecommunication,
protection signals, indoor wiring, lighting, vehicles)
optical fiber
protection cables
Other
applications aquacultures, hot springs, coil core
Special NTT cable protecting tube

purposes base pipes for PVC lined steel pipes
power tubes
power tube
pipe fittings
Fittings
adaptor for steel pipes right angle elbow Y shaped fitting

rainspouts, chicken farm spouts, accessories
Spouts
rainspout
17


Construction window profiles, wire screens, girt, bargeboards,
materials fascias, decks, trim, parting, angles, panels, ribs,
knobs, accordion doors, sidings window profiles
various construction materials

siding (exterior of stations)
Profile extrusion
siding (exterior of housings)
drain boards, bath tub lids,

Consumer
rails, hanger,
products
pen tray penholder
E&E wiring ducts, wire protectors, IC carriers

handle for radio-cassette players,
battery separators
speakers IC carriers
Furniture/ edges, trims, outside corners,
Wooden product squinches, deck plates
applications
Rigid products
decks, etc. counter table

Vehicle vehicle interior
applications
interior of JR sleeper express trains

For food soy sauce, Worcester sauce,
Blow molded products
packaging vinegar, seaweed
For non food cosmetics, shampoo, detergents

applications
various bottles
Other applications valves, flanges, night soil tanks, rain water sumps,
wastewater sumps, in-house sumps, keyboards
various rigid PVC

extrusion molded products
sumps valves/flanges
18
Laminated printed plywood, PVC laminated steel plates non woven fabric
products printed films for interior finishing,
printed sheets for exterior finishing
hot springs (ceiling) theaters (walls) stores (exterior wall)

General films/Sheets
pianos (surface)
doors (surface)
Packaging various covers, fabric wrapping blood bags, IV infusion bags, food wraps,
stickers (labels)
shrink film
Flexible products
waste fluid storage bags

Vehicle instrument panels, consoles, door sheets, ceiling,
applications carpet, trunk room sheets, insulating tapes
Consumer furniture, accessories stationeries, bags, toys, raincoats, umbrellas,

products adhesive tapes, adhesive plasters
green house gardening,

Agricultural films
vegetables, fruits, paddy, tobacco
agricultural
PVC films
Artificial leather wallcovering, footwear

vehicle seats,
furniture,
baggage,bags,
garments,
stationeries
wallcovering, sofa
baggage, footwear
19

Extruded profiles waterstops, industrial hoses/tubes, gaskets (for residences, medical tubes, garden hoses,
home electrical appliances, automobiles), tubes for food, skipping ropes
machinery/equipment parts,flooring of housings
housing
draining hoses
Flexible products
material parts
side molding
table edges
artificial heart-lung catheter
various shaped extruded profiles refrigerator door gaskets
Injection-molded tarpaulins (canvases, tents, sunshades), mattresses, sealing sheets, dolls, shoe soles, boots,
products and civil work sheets, roofing sheets, waterproof sheets, insulation sheet gloves, industrial tapes
others
carrier cart
bumpers
vacuum cleaners automobile parts
Cable covering electric power cable, machine control cable, construction/housing

cable, electric wire for machine/equipment (cords, wires, harnesses),
consumer products, telecommunications
Electric cables and others
cables for construction power cords

works (low-voltage )
high-voltage cables
tape/ribbon cables
interfacing cables flat-shaped cables
Flooring homogeneous tiles, composite tiles, cushion flooring, flooring for stores such as
long sheet flooring, tile carpet, laminated tile department stores,
super markets, and DIY shops
Fiber fishing nets, ropes, insect screens, brushes, wigs
paints,
Others expanded products (floats, heat insulators, cushion material)
20
CHAPTER 2:
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
AND CURRENT STATUS OF
PVC AND PVC PRODUCTS
PVC has become widespread among our daily
lives and industrial activities in the form of various
products. For such reasons, its safety and impact on
human health has become the center of concern by
the general public. PVC and PVC products have been
scrutinized based on the following beliefs:
Dioxins tend to generate when incinerated at
inappropriately conditioned waste incinerators
Phthalate plasticizers contained in flexible PVC
products are under evaluation as alleged endocrine
disrupters
Phthalates are also taken up for evaluation as
substances suspected to cause sick-house syndromes
Hydrogen chloride generated from incineration
is regarded as the major contributor to incinerator
corrosion and acid rain
However, gradually the record is set straight for PVC
and its products as a result of measures taken to solve
these issues, such as improvement of incineration
systems, progress of scientific researches and
accumulation of experimental data.
In this chapter, facts about the environmental
issues taken up in relation to PVC and its products are
explained with focus on dioxins, endocrine disrupters,
the sick-house syndrome and hydrogen chloride
generation upon incineration.
CHAPTER 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CURRENT STATUS OF PVC AND PVC PRODUCTS
1. Dioxins Issues
PVC de-selection campaigns developed on a in the course of time because of their acute toxicity,
worldwide basis on assumption that PVC is the carcinogenicity, and accumulation in eco-systems. As
source of dioxins generation when incinerated. shown in Fig.2-1, from its peak value in 1970, dioxins
PVC was perceived as bad, especially in Japan. emitted to the environment decreased sharply by
Also, incineration of PVC waste became a serious 1984 as a result of regulation and emission prevention
social issue due to remarkable advancement of efforts.
analytical technologies which enabled detection of After 1985, dioxins emissions to the environment
even trace amounts of dioxins at various segments through agricultural chemicals became negligible, and
of the environment including waste incinerators, emissions from waste incinerators were highlighted
coupled with the perception that dioxins are deadly as the major source. Japan's national land area is
poisonous substances. The PVC industry has been modest and population is concentrated in urban
committed to activities to win correct understanding areas. Thus, the public sanitation policy to incinerate
of PVC, PVC products and dioxins. wastes for volumetric reduction rather than landfilling
has been unavoidable. Municipal governments in
(1) Actual condition of dioxins Japan installed municipal waste incineration facilities
according to the volume of waste generated, in order
emissions to the environment to meet the national policy (Waste Disposal and Public
When a substance is incinerated in atmospheres Cleansing Law) which makes municipal governments
that include chlorine compounds, dioxins are responsible for domestic waste disposal. As a result,
generated unintentionally due to incomplete many relatively small-scale waste incinerators are
combustion, whatever the incinerated substance may operated in Japan as compared with other major
be. For example, dioxins are generated from natural countries (Fig.2-2).
phenomena such as the volcanic activities and forest In contrast, the basic policy for waste disposal in the
fires, which have taken place time and again from U.S. and Europe is based on wide-area coverage and
prehistoric ages. In fact, dioxins have been detected larger scale incinerators. The number of incinerators
from 8,000 years old sediment at the bottom of Osaka is far less than in Japan; therefore not many dioxin
bay, from the soil of the South Pole, and volcanic issues from waste incineration occurred. Dioxin issues
dusts. directly relate to the size of national land and the
The major contributors of dioxins pollution in Japan national waste disposal policy.
and elsewhere in the world are agricultural chemicals After peaking in 1997, dioxins emissions in Japan
(herbicides, etc.) and poly-chlorinated biphenyl have been reduced remarkably after 1998, through
(PCB) used in the past, when the presence of dioxins improvement of waste incinerators and incineration
included in them as impurities were yet unknown. conditions following the enactment of the Air
Such agricultural chemicals and PCB were banned Pollution Control Law and Law concerning Special
Measures against Dioxins, along with activities to
Fig. 2-1 Transitions of dioxins emissions into the environment
60,000 <Origin of dioxins>

Agricultural chemical (PCP)
Agricultural chemical (CNP)
50,000 co-PCBs originated
from PCB (ex.insulating oil)
Industrial waste incinerators
g-TEQ/year
40,000 Municipal waste incinerators

Other sources (industrial etc.)
30,000 Data source for 1958-1995: trial calculations by Prof.

Shigeki Masunaga of Yokohama National University
No data exists for 1996, therefore the average
20,000 of '95 and '97 is indicated.
Data source for 1997-2006, MoE
10,000
22
reduce waste generation. Lake. Once dioxins are emitted into the environment,
However, dioxins were detected from the sediments they do not decompose easily and they accumulate.
of bays and lakes including Tokyo Bay and Shinjiko
Fig. 2-2 Number of waste incinerators, incineration capacity and regulated dioxins emission value
Germany Netherlands Sweden U.S. Canada Japan
# of waste incinerators 53 11 21 148 17 1841

Average incineration capacity
(1,000 tons/incinerator/year) 208 255 81 223 71 20
Regulated dioxins emission value
(ng-TEQ/m3N) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.21 0.14 0.110
Source: Data from assistant professor S. Sakai of Kyoto University
Brief chronology of dioxin issues
1967 : The cause for mass mortality of chickens in the U.S. (1957) was revealed to be dioxins
in the fat mixed in chicken feed.
1962~71 : Tremendous amounts of Agent Orange dispersed during the Vietnam War in which
dioxins were included as impurities.
1976 : An agricultural chemical manufacturing plant exploded at Seveso, Italy, where
dioxin-containing chemicals were widely released.
1977 : A scientist in the Netherlands discovered dioxins in waste incinerator ashes for the
first time.
1983 : Professor Tachikawa of Ehime University found dioxins in Japanese municipal waste
incinerators.
1985 : Sweden regulated dioxin concentrations in exhaust gases of waste incinerators to be
below 0.1 ng/m3.
1985 : A technical committee in the Ministry of Health and Welfare (the present MHLW)
concluded that the level of dioxins emitted from municipal waste incinerators in
Japan pose "no problems to human health".
1990 : Ministry of Health and Welfare announced an initial guideline to reduce dioxins
emission from waste incinerators.
Around 1996 : It was revealed that dioxins emissions from municipal waste incinerators throughout
Japan were extremely higher than levels in the U.S. or Europe.
1997 : PVC products were highlighted as the cause of dioxin generation, and "PVC = Dioxin"
campaign was launched in Japan.
January, 1997 : Ministry of Health and Welfare announced a "new guideline" for reduction of dioxin
generation from waste incinerators.
February, 1999 : Erroneous media reports on dioxin pollution of vegetables from Tokorozawa in
Saitama prefecture.
July, 1999 : "Law concerning Special Measures against Dioxins" was promulgated (and partially
entered into force from January 2000. Full enforcement: December 2002).
September, 2004 : MoE announced that "the target at the end of Fiscal 2002, which is 90% reduction
from the level in 1997, is likely to be attainable".
Dioxins :
9 9 1 1 3 2 3 2
Isomers Allegedly toxic
Designation C 2 Cl Cl
8 2 8
isomers Cl Cl Cl Cl 4 4
7 3 7 3
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) 75 7 C C
5 6 5 6
6 5 4 6 5 4
Polychlorinated dibenzo furans (PCDFs) 135 10
Polychlorinated-dibenzo Polychlorinated Coplanar-PCB
Coplanar PCB(Co-PCB) 14 12 -p-dioxins (PCDD) dibenzofurans (PCDF)
23
(2) Dioxins generation from combustion as possible in order to control dioxins

generation. The proper incineration conditions set by
incineration and control the Japanese government stipulates temperatures to
measures be over 800 , the residence time in the combustion
chamber to be over 2 seconds, and sufficient
Through complete combustion, PVC can be broken
turbulence with air. Furthermore, dioxins emission
down into water, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
is controlled through quenching (rapid cooling) of
chloride (HCl). However, complete combustion is rarely
combustion gas downstream the combustion chamber
feasible in reality, and dioxins are unintentionally
at below 200 , and generated soot (fly ash) is to
generated as byproducts according to incineration
be collected by bag filters etc. The common view
conditions. For example, trace amounts of dioxins
expressed from related ministerial offices in Japan
are generated through incineration of newspapers
is; if appropriate measures and controls are taken,
or paraffin which is composed only of carbon and
the influence of PVC and other chlorine containing
hydrogen. These materials generate the same level
compounds in waste becomes a relatively smaller
of dioxins as with PVC when common salt is added
factor, and on the other hand, the combustion
as chlorine source1) . Dioxins are composed of carbon,
and waste-gas treatment conditions become more
hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine as shown in the
important factors affecting the concentration of
structural formulas of the preceding page, and dioxins
dioxins 2).
are generated through incineration when these
Remarkable achievement is shown in the data
four elements are present. Chlorine, out of the four
supplied by the union of public cleansing offices of
elements, is ubiquitous (widely present) in the natural
the 23 wards of metropolitan Tokyo which prove that
environment as well as in food that are consumed
the concentration of dioxins emission into air from
by humans. Therefore, dioxins are generated by
existing waste incinerators is 1/100th to 1/10,000th
incineration of kitchen wastes, paper, wood and waste
of the standard value, 1 ng/m3 N, set by the law. This
plastics alike.
improvement was materialized in just in three years
Japan, likewise with other major countries of the
from 2000 (website of the union, titled results of
world, decided to have the incinerators at the clean
dioxin measurements at waste incineration plants,
centers operated in conditions as close to complete
etc., in Japanese only).
once per year the concentration of dioxins in exhaust

(3) Regulations set by the Law gas and water.
Concerning Special Measures
against Dioxins Tolerable daily intake (TDI) :
( The Dioxins Law) 4 pg-TEQ/kg body weight/day
The Dioxins Law was enacted July 1999 in order Environmental quality standards :
to set up a dioxins reduction target for the end of for ambient air < 0.6 pg-TEQ/m 3
2002 and to reduce about 90% from the total dioxin (annual average)
emissions level in 1997 (843~891 g-TEQ/year). The for water < 1 pg-TEQ/L
law entered into force in January 2000. The law has (annual average)
established the target as the foundation of measures for soil < 1,000 pg-TEQ/g
to be taken in order to control and mitigate the (survey level: 250 pg-TEQ/g)*
environmental pollution by dioxins. The law has also for sediment < 150 pg-TEQ/g
regulated necessary treatment for soil polluted by
* If soil monitored exceeds the survey level,
dioxins. an additional survey will be conducted.
The Dioxins Law has stipulated Tolerable Daily
Intake (TDI) and environmental quality standards Standards for exhaust gas : Unit : ng-TEQ/m3 N
as measures to be taken against dioxins. In addition, Types of Capacity of Standard for Standard for existing facilities
the law has specified the applicable emission sources, specified facilities incinerators new facilities 2001.1-2002.11 2002.12-
and emission standards for exhaust gas and water Waste incinerators > 4 t/hr 0.1 1
(with hearth area
discharge. (Further reinforcement has been made of over 0.5 m2 or
incineration
2 t/hr~4 t/hr 1 80 5
possible). capacity of over
50 kg/hr) < 2 t/hr 5 10
Survey of actual conditions of pollution is
conducted throughout Japan. Obligation to Electric steel-making furnaces 0.5 20 5
monitor dioxin pollutions in air, water and soil Sintering facilities for
steel industry 0.1 2 1
has been imposed on both national and municipal
governments in each region. Also business entities Facilities for collecting zinc 1 40 10
which own and manage specified emission sources Facilities for manufacturing
aluminum base alloy 1 20 5
are also obligated under the law to measure at least
24
(4) Total emission of dioxins sintering processes for the steel industry are the most
dominant (Fig. 2-4). Out of the total emission to the
The Ministry of the Environment (MoE) has environment, emission to water amounts to only about
announced the total dioxins emission every year since 0.5%, and the majority of the emission is to air.
1997, in line with the plan for reducing the release In August 2004, the MoE announced that the
of dioxins generated by business activities in Japan reduction target for total emissions of dioxins at the
which was established based on the Dioxins Law. end of fiscal 2002, which is 90% reduction from the
According to these announcements by the ministry, level in 1997, is likely to be attainable 3) .
about 90% of the total dioxins emitted used to
originate from waste incinerators in 1997. However,
after the introduction of the Dioxins Law and
Fig. 2-4 Dioxins emissions per industrial sector (2006)
subsequent emission regulations on waste incinerators,
the total annual dioxins emissions dropped a
remarkable 96% from about 8,100g in 1997 to 317g 40 39.5
in 2006 (Fig. 2-3). Dioxins emissions from industrial
activities including electric steel making furnaces and
30
g-TEQ/year
Fig. 2-3 Dioxins emissions per sources 21.1
20
9000
7,6808,135
7.5 Others 11.4
8000 470 10 8.1
700 Industrial 4.5
7000 1,153 source 289317 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.1 1.1 0.63
7.0 0.36
6000 Small-scale 93 0
1,505
Aut ment ecove acility

tion ity
er p Therm ufactu cility
ma er s ac.
lum nufac tations
.
l ces
tion ty
pro cturing y
tion fac.
lity
ry
cab Lim m roll ing fac
VCM anufa facilit

waste
wir oduc facili

refi indust
obil produc y facil
faci
incinerators 76101 Alu s for s furna
al p ring
fa
5000
Ce inc r ing f
le & e pr ing
tur
r
g-TEQ/year
63
ng
min tee
n
ucts ow
duc
Incineration
roce aki
4000 54
Facilities of
an
ng p steel-m
um
inu
em
em
Industrial
3000
s
5,000
waste
A
Sin lectric
rod
om
2000 Incineration
teri
E
Facilities of
opp
1000 Municipal
per
ht c
waste
Cop
oug
0
Wr
1997 2006
Source: Dioxins emission inventory, MoE Source: Dioxins emission inventory, MoE
(5) Dioxin levels government have been met at most monitoring

in the environment points.
Fig.2-5 shows the transition of average Fig. 2-5 Transition of dioxin levels in the environment
dioxin concentrations in the environment Average
Medium Environmental
for 1998~2006, studied by the national 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 quality standard
and municipal governments. According
Air pg-TEQ/m3 0.23 0.18 0.15
0.13 0.093 0.068 0.059 0.052 0.050 0.6
to the results of research in 2006,
average dioxin concentrations in the Public Water
0.40 0.24 0.31 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.21 1
environment were:0.050 pg-TEQ/m3 in water pg-TEQ/L
bodies Sediment 7.7 5.4 9.6 8.5 1.1 7.4 7.5 6.4 6.7
air, 0.21 pg-TEQ/L in water (public water pg-TEQ/g
150
bodies), 6.7 pg-TEQ/g in sediment (public Groundwater 0.081 0.096 0.097 0.074 0.066 0.059 0.063 0.047 0.056 1
pg-TEQ/L
water bodies) and 2.6 pg-TEQ/g in the
Soil pg-TEQ/g 6.5 - 6.9 6.2 3.8 4.4 3.1 5.9 2.6 1000
soil. This proved that the environmental
quality standards established by the Source: Results of environmental investigations regarding dioxin emissions, MoE
(6) Dioxins emission from standards for the quality of discharged water under
vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) the Dioxins Law is applicable (see 2. Production of PVC
manufacturing facilities within Chapter 1).
During the oxychlorination process in EDC/VCM
The ethylene dichloride (EDC) cleansing facility is production processes, it has been known that at
one of the specified emission sources, to which the 250~300 , besides carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
25
chlorine, catalytic effects of metals such as

copper chloride can generate trace amounts
of dioxins through side reactions. Fig.2-6 Fig. 2-6 Results of dioxins emission survey from VCM production facilities
shows the results of surveys on dioxins Unit: g-TEQ/year
emission from VCM production facilities
during 1997~2006. During the period of this 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
survey, total dioxins emission from VCM Emissions to air 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.29 0.29 0.30 0.21 0.22 0.28
facilities was less than 1g per year, which is
equivalent to about 0.4% of total emissions Emissions to water 0.54 0.53 0.55 0.20 0.58 0.16 0.10 0.07 0.10 0.08
from all industries (93.0g-TEQ) and about Total 0.74 0.73 0.75 0.39 0.87 0.45 0.40 0.28 0.32 0.36
0.1% of total emissions including emissions
from waste incinerators. Source: Dioxins emission inventory, MoE
enhance effects of other carcinogens (promotional

(7) The toxicity of dioxins effects), and have a threshold value.
The informational brochure issued by the Japanese
1) Acute toxicity government states, present levels of dioxins in the
Dioxins are said to be the deadliest poison of all, general environment in Japan are lower than those
since the median lethal dose (LD 50 ) of 2,3,7,8-TCDD known to cause cancer risks 2).
for guinea pigs was determined to be 1 g (one-
thousandth of a mg)/kg body weight (Fig.2-7), which 3) Tolerable daily intake (TDI)
is far less than that for sarin or potassium cyanide. The Japanese government determined the TDI for
However, the LD 50 value varies largely among animal dioxins to be 4 pg/kg body weight/day, which will
species. The Japanese government has referred to the bring forth no hazardous effects through lifetime
acute toxicity of dioxins to humans as follows, in the intake. The TDI value has been determined by taking
governmental brochure: The toxicity referred to is into consideration the exposure impacts on new born
the acute toxicity that occurs from very high levels of babies, who are thought to be the most vulnerable to
exposure, such as ingesting at one time a dose of some exposure. It is thought that there would be no adverse
hundred thousand times the regular daily intake effect on human health even if exposure levels slightly
.the regular levels of daily intake are very unlikely exceed the TDI value for short periods of time during
to lead to acute toxicity, such as would happen in the life.
case of accidental ingestion2). According to the survey by the Ministry of Health,
Labour and Welfare (MHLW), 99% of dioxins intake
2) Carcinogenicity by the Japanese is estimated to be through food.
Although dioxins are speculated to be carcinogenic The average daily intake of dioxins by the Japanese
to humans, the International Agency for Research on population is estimated to be about 1.04g-TEQ per 1kg
Cancer (IARC), which is an affiliate organization of body weight per day. Dioxin intakes are declining year
the World Health Organization (WHO), has classified by year, and are well below the TDI.
2,3,7,8-TCDD under Group 1:carcinogenic to humans ,
based on the results of animal experiments. On Fig. 2-7 Acute toxicity of 2,3,7,8-TCDD (Oral dosing)
the other hand, there are other PCDDs such as
1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD, which are classified under Group 3: Animal species LD50 (g/kg)
not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. Guinea pigs 1
However, the epidemiological study literature Rats 22
from which IARC drew the above conclusion states 45
that the relative risks for people exposed to 20 years Monkeys 5070
or more in high concentrations of 2,3,7,8-TCDD - up Rabbits 115
Mice 284
to 100~1,000 times the value for the general public Dogs 500
- would be 1.2~1.6 4) . Incidentally, the risk for lung Hamsters 5000
cancer for a cigarette smoker consuming one packet a Humans
day is reported to be 4~5 times higher than that of a * The toxicity is 64,000 times that of sodium cyanide.
non-smoker. Furthermore, it is said that 2,3,7,8-TCDD Death observed after 2-6 weeks.
do not have direct carcinogenic effects on genes, but Source: O.Wada, Journal of Academia, No.830, January, 2001
2,3,7,8-TCDD : LD50 : Relative risk : Threshold value :

A type of PCDD with Value of chemical substances that would Ratio indicating enhanced Indicates concentrations that start to exhibit
additional four chlorine result in 50% mortality of experimental manifestation of diseases impacts on health. Generally, threshold values
atoms on the basic animals, expressed in terms of 1kg body or mortality rates through are assigned to chemical substances with no
chemical structure. weight. It is the most widely used index exposure to the risk element carcinogenic effects. No threshold values are set for
2,3,7,8- indicates parts to express acute toxicity of chemical (chemical substances, etc.). carcinogens that cause genetic disorder. Threshold
where chlorine atoms are substances. The smaller the LD50 value, values are assigned to chemical substances which
attached. the stronger the toxicity. do not have gene damaging effects.
26
2. Endocrine Disrupter Issues
In the past, the media often reported on the so project at the World Wildlife Fund (WWF: the largest
called risks brought by PVC products, expressing as environment protection organization in the world),
to contain endocrine disruptive substances. This all published a book titled Our Stolen Future. In 1997,
started when Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), a plasticizer the Japanese translation of the book was published,
used for paints and adhesives, and Di-(2-ethylhexyl) and was widely read in Japan. The subtitle of the
phthalate (DEHP), the major plasticizer used for soft book reads A scientific detective story, insinuating
PVC products, was included in the list of suspected presentation of endocrine disruptor issues based on
endocrine disrupters under the Strategic Programs on gathered information and scientific inferences. This
Environmental Endocrine Disruptors 98 (SPEED98) was taken up as a realistic issue in Japan together with
prepared by the MoE. the easily understandable Japanese term kankyo
The evaluation results by the ministry have already horumon(environmental hormones).
been announced, and suspicions on DBP and DEHP It developed into an issue of public concern,
have been cleared. Below is the background to this resulting in de-selection of substances listed
event. as suspected endocrine disrupters in SPEED98
announced by the MoE in May, 1998, before any
plausible results of scientific studies were announced
(1) Brief history of the endocrine on the suspected substances.
disrupter issue
During the early 1990s, size reduction
Fig. 2-8 Report concerning effects on wildlife
in penises of male alligators and their
decreased headcount at Lake Apopka in Place
Wildlife
Florida was reported, and the correlation Phenomena
between organic chlorine compounds Sea snails Around the world (more than 140 types)
and endocrine disruptive effects became (such as reishia) Virilescence
the center of concern (Fig.2-8). In July, River Aire in the UK
Roaches
1991, the Wingspread Statement was Hermaphroditism, vitellogenin detected
(a kind of carp) from males (the protein is usually found
announced, stating that The release
in females for producing eggs)
and use of toxic substances have had
Lake Apopka, Florida, U.S.
substantial unintended consequences Alligators
Male penis atrophy, reduced hatchability of ovum
affecting human health and the The Great Lakes, U.S.
environment, at a natural science expert Seagulls Dying chicks, abnormal behavior such as
meeting held in Wingspread, Wisconsin, female pairing, thyroid tumors
U.S. Mammals in sea such as Northern Europe etc.
dolphins, seals Sharp decline in population
In 1996, Theo Colborn, current director
of the Wildlife and Contaminants Source: Food Science Information Center News, vol.1 (April 1999)
(2) What are endocrine perform unique functions on specific target organs.
disrupters? These substances perform roles such as homeostasis
i.e. keeping physical conditions at a constant state
When a specific chemical substance is taken into a in order to cope with the environmental changes, or
living organism and affects the inherent hormonal controlling differentiation and growth of tissues, and
functions, it is scientifically defined as endocrine controlling the development of reproductive organs.
disrupting chemicals or endocrine disrupters. There are natural substances called phytoestrogens
Hormones are generally defined as substances created by plants, which also act like estrogens in the
secreted by endocrine glands (hormone secreting body. The phytoestrogen intake is largely through
organs) such as the pituitary and thyroid glands, and food such as soy beans. Therefore upon estimating the
Lake Apopka : Phytoestrogen :

There are many lakes in Florida, but this was In the early 1940s, infertility was observed in
the only lake which suffered pollution by water Australian sheep feeding on significant amounts
discharge from a nearby agricultural chemical plant. of clover. This was due to the fact that a large
No such abnormalities were observed in alligators quantity of a substance in clover had estrogenic
in other lakes of the region. effects. Isoflavones in soybean are well known as
phytoestrogen and is also considered as good to the
human body.
27
effects of endocrine disrupters it is necessary to study Millenium Project the Japanese government conducted
the effects of phytoestrogens also. risk assessments for more than 40 chemical substances
from 2000. On March 2005, the MoE published the
results to SPEED98 as well as the future policy called
Fig. 2-9 Major human endocrine organs
ExTEND2005 on endocrine disruptors, which mainly
consists of observation of wildlife and risk assessments.
Posterior
pituitary Hypothalamus
Anterior
pituitary
Summary of activities by the government
Cerebrum
1997:
Pituitary Cerebellum An informational exchange group organized
gland
by the Environment Agency, Ministry of
Health and Welfare, Ministry of International
Parathyroid Trade and Industry, Ministry of Agriculture,
gland Forestry and Fishery, and Ministry of Labour.
The Environment Agency established a study
Thyroid gland group for the endocrine disrupter issue and
evaluated literature and results of
environment monitoring both domestic and
Adrenal abroad in order to decide subjects of survey
gland
and policy.
Adrenal
cortex May, 1998:
Adrenal
medulla
The Environment Agency announced "SPEED
'98".
Kidney
June, 1998:
Pancreas The Environment Agency established a study
committee for endocrine disruptive chemicals
Ovary issues.
Digestive tract
Placenta December, 1998:
The Environment Agency organized the
Testis International Symposium on Environmental
(male) (female) Endocrine Disrupters (held every year
thereafter).
November, 2000:
Source : SPEED '98, MoE The Environment Agency announced the
revised version of "SPEED '98". The number
of listed substances was reduced to 65.
June, 2003:
(3) Actions taken by the Japanese MoE (former Environment Agency)
government announced the results of risk assessments for
40 chemical substances, and decided to
The Environment agency (the present MoE) review "SPEED '98".
announced SPEED98 in 1998 to deal with the September, 2004:
endocrine disrupter issue. 67 groups of chemical MoE summarizes the results of
substances selected for the list were picked up Speed '98" and publishes a leaflet.
from the literatures both domestic and abroad as March, 2005:
suspected endocrine disrupters, therefore they MoE publishes ExTEND 2005 which is a
were not necessarily asserted as endocrine disrupters future policy for endocrine disruptive
at that time. The SPEED98 was later reviewed, chemicals.
and only 65 chemical substances were included in
the November 2000 Version. In order to avoid such
misunderstandings as the listed substances are
dangerous, a special note was added which read
NOTE: The existence of endocrine-disrupting effects,
strength and mechanisms have not been proven or
clarified for these substances. These are groups of
substances for which continued study and research
is a priority. It is expected that the number will be
reduced as study and research proceeds. Through its
28
(4) Results of assessment for had endocrine disrupting effects on fish (or Oryzias
endocrine disruptive effects latipes), although the effects were lower compared to
17--estradiol (a natural hormone). Regarding human
Results of assessment by the Japan Plasticizer (mammal) impact for DEHP (and 9 other substances
Industry Association(JPIA) and academia tested), there were no apparent endocrine disruptive
In 1997, JPIA not only conducted in vitro tests but effects observed at low-dose 6) (comparatively low
also uterine hypertrophy tests on ovariectomized rats, concentration based on estimated human exposure
which was the most advanced test method during that obtained through literature etc.).
time, and confirmed that phthalate esters including Furthermore, the results of tests regarding
DEHP do not have estrogenic activities. endocrine disruptive effects to ecological systems
Similar tests were later repeated in academia also, (Oryzias latipes) revealed that even though a few cases
and it was revealed that even though very weak of testis ovum manifestation was indeed observed,
estrogenic activities were (about one-millionth of taking into account the results of additional tests
female hormone) observed in some in vitro tests, no conducted in 2002 regarding the correlation of testis
estrogenic activities were seen for phthalate esters in ovum manifestation and fertility, it is hard to conclude
actual animal tests. that there are adverse effects on fertility, and no
apparent endocrine disruptive effect were proven for
Assessment results by the MoE the 5 tested chemicals (including DEHP) 7) . This means
The MoE conducted studies on 24 prioritized that the endocrine disruptive effects of DEHP have
chemical substances listed in SPEED98, and been denied. Fig.2-10 is a summary of the evaluation
reported the results in June 2002, which revealed that results by the MoE.
nonylphenol, octylphenol and bisphenol A possibly
Fig. 2-10 Results of assessment for endocrine disruptive effects of chemicals listed in "SPEED '98 "
Tests on endocrine disruptive effects Test results for endocrine disruptive effects
on human health using mammals on ecosystems using fish
Tested chemicals
No endocrine No endocrine Endocrine disruptive
disruptive effects disruptive effects effects observed
DEHP
Butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP)
di-n-butyl phthalate DBP
Plasticizers
Dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP)

Diethyl phthalate (DEP)
Dipentyl phthalate
Dihexyl phthalate
Dipropyl phthalate
Di-2-ethylhexyl adipate (DEHA)
Tributyl tin
Triphenyl tin
Nonylphenol
Octylphenol
Benzophenon
Others
Octachlorobutylene
Pentachlorophenol
Amitole
Bisphenol A
Dichlorophenol
Nitrotoluene
herachlorobenzene
-hexachlorocyclohexane
PP' - DDT
OP' - DDT
PP' - DDD
General purpose plasticizers used for

PVC products Source: 2nd Review session on endocrine desruptive substances, MoE 2005
29
3. Sick House Syndrome Issues
DEHP used for flexible PVC products is included in are called sick school. Since 1996, the issue of
the indoor air concentration guideline established by indoor air pollution by chemical substances has been
the MHLW. However, the objective of the guideline highlighted, as the number of people with allergies,
is to prevent the indoor air pollution and to secure atopic dermatitis or hypersensitivity to chemical
healthy and comfortable air quality. The inclusion substances has increased.
of DEHP in the guideline does not necessarily mean According a sick house issue study group of the
that the substance is determined as cause for the sick MHLW, the sick house syndrome is defined as follows:
houses syndrome. As with the endocrine disrupter
issue, these measures were taken in response to
Numerous reports have been made on
social concerns, such as regulations abroad, public
physical dispositions of residents due to
comments and widely used products.
indoor air pollution by chemical substances
in newly built or reformed houses or
buildings. Improved air-tightness and use of
(1) What is the sick house housing and interior materials emit
syndrome? chemical substances. Symptoms vary, and
data still insufficient to prevent these
Sick houses are residential buildings that induce problems and to clarify the mechanism of
headaches, eye irritations or nausea on residents. It the syndrome development. It is called the
is a word devised in Japan after sick building which sick house syndrome, since various elements
was a social issue in the U.S. and Europe during the are thought to cause the issue.
1980s. Similar phenomena seen in school buildings
(2) Possible causes behind the sick (3) Governmental actions

house syndrome
As a result of increased use of new construction
The sick house syndrome is not unique to Japan. It is materials, new materials in general and various
said that the following factors are combined to make chemical substances, new health issues have been
matters complex: raised. In 1996 the Ministry of Health and Welfare
Increased use of building materials, furniture, started to consider guidelines for volatile organic
consumer products, etc. with high chemical chemicals in residential environments in their study
substances emission group on comfortable and healthy housing. As a
Emission of combustion gases from heating result, guideline values for indoor concentration of
appliances formaldehyde was established in June 1997.
Changes in design and construction methods that Later in April 2000, a study committee for
increase air-tightness of housing the sick house (indoor air pollution) issues was
Changes in the life style, e.g., ventilation established in the ministry, where standards for indoor
Individual sensitivity to chemical substances concentration of volatile organic chemicals, sampling
The above suggests that the modern way of living methods, and the analysis methods were established.
in airtight spaces with less flow of air is quite different On the other hand, from July 1996, a study group
from traditional Japanese housing where natural for healthy housing was jointly established by the
ventilation was inseparable. Institute for Building Environment and Energy
Conservation (IBEC), experts, related industries, and
relevant ministerial offices (Ministry of Construction,
Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Ministry
of Health and Welfare, and the Forestry Agency) in
Sick building : Hypersensitivity to

In the U.S. and Europe, it was revealed that most of the chemical substances :
sick buildings were not old buildings but modern buildings Once hypersensitivity develops due to exposure hypersensitivity to chemical substances. The
with air conditioning facilities constructed after 1977. It to relatively high concentrations of chemical syndrome may be caused by sick houses, but the
is said that the major cause of the sick building issue was substances, or after repeated exposure to same can be observed with workers in chemical
the increased number and concentration of pollutants comparatively low concentrations of chemical products manufacturing industries who are
emitted within buildings as a result of reduced ventilation substances for extended periods of time, a occupationally exposed to high concentrations.
air volume in order to cut back on energy. subsequent exposure to even trace amounts Accordingly, hypersensitivity to chemical
of the same chemical substances may trigger substances is not synonymous with the sick
hypersensitivity. Such symptom is called house syndrome.
30
order to study measures to reduce health impacts substances concentration in indoor air.
of chemical substances in indoor air of residential As the result of the survey in fiscal 2000, it was
buildings. In addition, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure revealed that the ratio of residences that exceeded
and Transport and five other relevant ministerial the guideline value for formaldehyde was very
offices jointly established a subcommittee for survey high 9) , and it was considered necessary to take
of actual conditions under a study committee for immediate countermeasures. Consequently, the
indoor air measures in order to conduct nationwide Building Standards Law was revised July 2002 to deal
survey and to study concentrations of chemical with the sick house issue.
Revision of the Building Standards Law
The Building Standards Law was partially construction materials indoors will be
amended on July 12 2002 in order to prohibited.
introduce hygienic countermeasures for Use of formaldehyde-emitting housing
volatile chemical substances inside rooms. materials for interior finishing will be
The outline of the amendment is as follows: regulated.
Concentrations of chlorpyrifos and Installation of ventilation facilities
formaldehyde will be regulated. indoors will be obligated.
Use of chlorpyrifos-containing
(4) Guideline values for indoor concentration of chemical substances

Fig. 2-11 Concentration guideline values of chemical substances indoors
As of July, 2003
Designation of substance Indoor concentration Toxicity index Emission source Month/Year of

guideline value establishment
Irritation to the nasopharyngeal Adhesives for plywood and
Formaldehyde 100 g/m3 0.08 ppm mucosa by human inhalational exposure glass fibers, etc 1997.6
Impacts on the nervous system/behavior and Solvent for varnish, paint or
Toluene 260 g/m3 0.07 ppm reproductive fertility by human inhalation wood preserving agents, etc 2000.6
Impacts on the development of the central
Solvent for varnish, paint or 2000.6
Xylene 870 g/m3 0.20 ppm nervous system of offsprings by inhalational wood preserving agents, etc
exposure to pregnant rats
Impacts on liver and kidney, etc. by exposure Insecticides and aroma
Para-dichlorobenzene 240 g/m3 0.04 ppm through oral dosing to beagles agents for chest of drawers 2000.6
Impacts on liver and kidney by inhalational Solvent for paints and
Ethylbenzene 3.80 mg/m3 0.88 ppm exposure to mice and rats adhesives 2000.12
Impacts on the brain and liver by Expanded polystyrene and
Styrene 220 g/m3 0.05 ppm inhalational exposure to rats polystyrene foam (insulation) 2000.12
3
1 g/m 0.07 ppb Impacts on the development of the nervous
Chlorpyrifos system and morphological impacts on Anti termites (insecticides),
the brain of offsprings by oral exposure to etc. 2000.12
3
for young children 0.1 g/m 0.007 ppb pregnant rats
Impacts in the form of genitalia abnormalities etc. Contained in paints and
DBP 220 g/m3 0.02 ppm of offspring by oral exposure to pregnant rats adhesives 2000.12
Impacts on liver by oral dosing exposure of Solvents to substitute
Tetradecane 330 g/m3 0.04 ppm C8~C16 mixtures to rats toluene or xylene 2001.7
Histopathological impacts on the testes of Plasticizers for PVC products
DEHP 120 g/m3 7.6 ppb rats by oral dosing exposure (flooring, wallcovering). 2001.7
3 Impacts on plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase Contained in insecticides
Diazinon 0.29 g/m 0.02 ppb activities by oral dosing exposure to rats 2001.7
Acetaldehyde Impacts on the olfactory epithelium in the nasal

48 g/m3 0.03 ppm cavity by exposure through the trachea to rats Contained in adhesives 2002.1
3 Impacts on cholinesterase activities, etc. Agricultural chemicals,
Fenocarb(BPMC) 33 g/m 3.8 ppb by oral dosing exposure to rats anti termites, etc 2002.1
TVOC Will be decided within the lowest range possible,

(Total Volatile Organic Compounds) 400 g/m3 Provisional
target value based on the research for actual concentrations 2000.12
of indoor VOC in Japan
Toxicological impacts by oral dosing of Generated in the body through
Nonanal 41g/m3 7 ppb C8~C12 mixtures to rats exposure to ozone, aroma oil Draft
mg = 1,000 g NOTE: The figures in ( ) are the converted values at 25.
ppm = 1,000 ppb Source: Press release document: interim report by the study committee for sick house issues
Room : Total Volatile Organic Compound (TVOC) :

Defined as spaces continuously used for The concentration level of various volatile organic
living, office work, other works, meetings, compounds, converted to the toluene equivalent value.
entertainment, and similar purposes.
31
Many chemical substances are present within

indoor air. Guideline values for indoor concentration
(5) Facts from results of survey for
of chemical substances have been established to indoor concentration of DEHP
improve indoor air quality and to secure healthy and
The hygiene bureau of the Tokyo Metropolitan
comfortable air quality by the MHLW (Fig.2-11). The
Government measured the indoor concentration
guideline values are established under concentrations
of phthalates for the first time as a municipal
thought to be non hazardous to human health upon
government, in order to check the pollution level of
lifetime exposures based on existing scientific data
indoor air (Fig.2-12).
(formaldehyde is an exception, where the guideline
Furthermore, the DEHP concentration in fiscal 2000
value has been established as an index based on short-
was reported to be 0.011~2.38 g/m 3 and more than
term exposure toxicity), and this guideline is not
85% of DEHP was collected as particulaes10) . It was
legally binding.
also reported that room concentrations in summertime
Besides theses guideline values, a provisional value
amounted to twice as much as in the winter.On the
called TVOC (total volatile organic compounds)
other hand, the report on the measurement of indoor
has been set at 400 g/m 3 for standard indoor air
phthalate ester concentration during the August-
quality. Since this provisional value is not based on
September 2001 period conducted by the MoE for 71
toxicological data, it is treated independently from the
detached houses and 21 apartments throughout Japan
volatile organic compounds (VOC) guideline values,
revealed that the indoor concentration of DEHP was
and research will be conducted in order to make this
0.023~3.4 g/m3 (outdoor concentration: 0.04~0.51
value formal in the future.
g/m3 ) 11) .
In both survey reports, the actual concentration
was confirmed to be two orders of magnitude smaller
than the guideline for the indoor concentration of
120 g/m3 established by the MHLW. In other words,
no special measures for use of PVC wallcoverings and
interior materials are needed, considering the wide
disparity between the guideline value and the actual
indoor concentrations.
Fig. 2-12 DEHP indoor air concentrations
Indoor concentration Average

(g/m3) Point of measurement Literature
(g/m3)
(Outdoor concentration)
0.052 2.38 0.31 Detached houses (64 rooms)

Tokyo* Collective housing (28 rooms) 10)
('00)
0.011 0.83 0.26 Buildings (50 rooms)
MoE** 0.023 3.4 Detached houses (71 rooms)
('01) Collective housing (21 rooms) 11)
(0.04 0.51)
MHLW*** 0.04 0.87 0.35 About 30 housing 12)

('01) (0.023 0.20) (0.085)
* Tokyo Metropolitan Government

** Ministry of the Environment
*** Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
32
4. Hydrogen Chloride from Incineration
(1) Establishment of measures

against exhaust gases
When wastes are incinerated for disposal, not only
dioxins, as already mentioned, but sulfur oxides (SOX ), Fig. 2-13 Simplified flow diagram of a waste incinerator system
nitrogen oxides (NOX ) cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
and hydrogen chloride are emitted also. Especially
with hydrogen chloride, PVC wastes contribute to
hydrogen chloride generation in the same way as Lime/Caustic
soda
with kitchen waste and waste paper, all of which Waste
are chlorine sources. PVC packaging which was once
widely used have been reduced significantly, and
Hopper
the current ratio of waste PVC products in municipal Gas
waste is now reduced to below 1%. In Japan, emission cooler
Bag filter
of the abovementioned chemical substances from Boiler

waste incineration facilities is strictly regulated to
prevent air pollution. In addition, development of
modern incineration facilities has been promoted since De-nitrification
1970, since HCl, SOX and NOX which generate acidic Combustor Unit
gases are closely associated with the corrosion of
conventional furnaces.
The modern waste incinerators are equipped with Stack
various facilities to control exhaust gases, including
neutralization of acid gas by charging lime and caustic
soda, or cracking of NOX by NOX removal equipment the air of 700 mg/m3 N (430 ppm) (some municipalities
downstream the bag filter, etc (Fig2-13). As a result, have additional values) has been cleared, and the
corrosion of waste incinerators is improved, and the emission value is controlled down to the order of
standard value for the hydrogen chloride emission to 10 ppm.
(2) Major causes of acid rain Fig. 2-14 Atmospheric chemistry for acid rain
In the past, PVC products were accused of as the

the major cause of acid rain in Europe and other
Emission Transport / Deposition
regions, since hydrogen chloride gas is emitted Conversion
through incineration of PVC waste. However, Process
Cloud in cloud
Gas/Aerosol
according to an intensive survey in Europe to Cloud water
identify the emitted quantities of SOX , NOX and Intake drops(solution)
H2SO4 H+
hydrogen chloride, it was revealed that the major Evaporation
Oxidation HNO3 SO 4
2-
,NO3-
cause of acid rain were SOX and NOX emitted of water
SO2 Process
mainly from power stations, manufacturing plants Evaporation of under cloud
NOx water
and automobiles, not by hydrogen chloride from Rain, etc.
Intake
waste incinerators. Fig.2-14 shows a diagram of Dry
deposition Wet deposition
acid rain formation based on existing information. Emission of
In any case, emission of SOX and NOX which causative agents
cause air pollution and acid rain is associated
Impacts
with all human activities including production, Emission H+,SO42-,NO3-
consumption and waste disposal. In a broad sense, sources
Receptive fields soil/plants, inland water, goods,
structures, human body, etc.
measures to prevent them have a lot to do with
energy saving which would reduce fossil fuel
Source : "Acid rain and the environment" March 1999 by the Acid Deposition and
consumption. Oxidant Research Center of the Japan Environmental Sanitation Center
Hydrogen chloride :
Gas composed of chlorine and hydrogen. Forms hydrochloric acid
when dissolved in water. Also major component of gastric acid.
33
5. Impacts on the PVC Industry
The dioxin issue and the endocrine disrupter issue industry.

shocked the Japanese PVC Industry, and substitution On the other hand, the production of PVC resin
with alternative materials started within the during the 1991~2006 period increased 1.2 times in
consumer products field. Such PVC de-selection Europe, 1.5 times in North America, and 4.4 times
moves have spread to some parts of the durable in Asia (excluding Japan) . Japan's growth was 1.06
product field and the production material field within times for the same period. But Japan's decline after
recent years. After peaking in 1997, the decrease in 1998 has been significant (Fig.2-15). From 2002
PVC production onwards owes mainly to the shrinking onwards, Japanese production has been seesawing,
market due to the recession in general and the but the declining trend has come to a halt due to the
transfer of production activities to other countries. As somewhat recovering economy, diffculty to substitute
a result, the number of PVC resin manufacturers has to other materials, and the rise in environment
decreased to 7 companies as of April 2003 from 15 in friendly applications such as PVC window frames.
1995, partly due to loss of competitive edge of the
Fig. 2-15 Transition of PVC resin production by world regions
(Million tons)
14
12
Asia
(excluding Japan)
10
8
Europe
6 North America
4
Other regions
2
Japan
0
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Source: Future demand trends for global petrochemical products 2007, METI
34
References :
1) T. Makino, K. Tsubota et al., Chemosphere 46(2000) 1003~1007
2) Informational brochure Dioxins 2003 by the Council of Ministries and Agencies on Dioxin Policy
3) Dioxins Emission Inventory, September 27, 2004, MoE
4) O. Wada, Journal of academia 830(2001) 9~19
5) Welfare science project for fiscal 2001,
Survey of dioxins pollution situation and study to reduce intake
6) Results of SPEED '98, September 2004, MoE
7) Press release document by the MoE
The 1st meeting of study committee for endocrine disruptive substances issue, fiscal 2002
8) Press release document by the MoE
The 1st meeting of study committee for endocrine disruptive substances issue, fiscal 2003
9) Study Group for Indoor Air Pollution Countermeasures, Actual Conditions Survey Group
Survey report on situations for 2000: executive summary
10) I. Saito et al., Measurement of Phthalate Esters in Indoor Air,
Journal of indoor environment academia, 5(1)2002, 13~22
11) The 2nd meeting of study committee for endocrine disruptive substances issue, fiscal 2002
proceeding No.3-2
12) M.Ando.,Investigative research on substances in indoor air
Research report 1998-2000, p.120
35
36
CHAPTER 3:
ENVIRONMENTAL
ACTIVITIES BY THE
PVC INDUSTRY
Disposal of plastic wastes have been a major

challenge in the context of waste disposal and
prevention of environmental pollution. Issues have
been pointed out regarding PVC and PVC products;
quite a few of which are based on misunderstanding
due to lack of accurate information, especially
regarding dioxin formation.
The present status of various activities jointly
promoted by the PVC industry, PVC converter
organizations, relevant businesses, and the
government administrations will be introduced here in
chapter 3 in order to provide proper understanding of
PVC and PVC products.
CHAPTER 3 : ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVITIES BY THE PVC INDUSTRY
1. Responsible Care
geometrical average concentration) were established.

(1) Pollutant Release and Transfer The Japanese PVC industry, mainly VEC (then called
Register (PRTR) in the PVC the PVC Industry Association) determined its own
industry voluntary rules for reduction of VCM emission and
started its 1st voluntary reduction plan in fiscal 1997.
Ethylene dichloride (EDC) and vinyl chloride The targets of the voluntary reduction plan were
monomer (VCM), which are raw materials of PVC, set at 22% reduction for VCM emissions and 30%
have been included in Class I Designated Chemical reduction for EDC within three years. As a result,
Substances under the PRTR Law. From fiscal 2002, it 24% reduction of VCM and 59% reduction of EDC
has been made mandatory for relevant businesses to were achieved, both of which far exceeded the initial
report actual emission figures of the preceding year targets.
regarding these substances to municipal governments
of the region. The 2nd voluntary emission reduction plan
Prior to this the Vinyl Environmental Council (VEC)
VEC has been addressing its 2nd voluntary emission
had taken the measures for improvement of emissions
reduction plan since fiscal 2000, subsequently to its
based on Responsible Care and made use of the
1st plan. Emissions have been set at 100 g-VCM/t-VCM
economically viable best available technology (BAT)
upon production of VCM, 100 g-VCM/t-VCM for use in
through its "2nd three-year plan for reduction of EDC/
suspension polymerization process, and 1,000 g-VCM
VCM emissions to air" which started from fiscal 2000.
/t-VCM for use in emulsion polymerization processes.
Emission upon EDC production is set at 250 g-EDC/t-
Backgrounds of the voluntary standards for
EDC. Further reductions are aimed for.
EDC/VCM emissions
Carcinogenicity issues upon EDC/VCM
Measurement of concentrations in the
manufacturing processes triggered publication
environment
of a work environment standard of VCM in Japan
Since 1997, the Ministry of the Environment is
in 1975 (work environment; below 2 ppm, inside
continuing annual measurements of EDC/VCM
polymerization reactors; below 5 ppm, both
Fig. 3-1: Transition of VCM emission to air and investments for reduction measures
End of 1973: VCM related cancer incidents in the U.S.
Early-1974: VCM emission reduction measures
7,000 70 launched in Japan
General emission Gross emission PRTR
Total investment for reduction measures ( billion)
(VEC members only) (Includes related organizations) Occupational hygiene measures: establishment
6,000 60 of the Industrial Safety and Health Law in 1975
Food hygiene measures: establishment of the
Food Sanitation Law in 1977
5,000 50 General environmental measures
44.3 billion Feb. 1980: Establishment of the "voluntary standards
VCM emission (t)
for emissions reduction"

4,000 40 1988: Degradability tests based on the Japanese
33.6 billion Chemical Substances Control Law
3,000 30 1995: Survey of actual conditions by the Ministry of
25 billion International Trade and Industry (present METI)
1997: Start of the 1st reduction plan
2,000 20 2000: Participation in OECD's investigation of
HPV chemicals program
2000: Start of the 2nd reduction plan
1,000 10
<Total capital investment for reduction measures>
Fiscal 1975-1995: 25 billion
0 0 Fiscal 1997-1999 (1st):8.6 billion (including EDC)
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Fiscal 2000-2003(2nd):10.7 billion (including EDC)
fiscal year
Source: VEC
Responsible Care (RC) : Pollutant Release and Transfer High production volume (HPV)
Voluntary control activities of chemical manufac- Register (PRTR) : chemicals :
turers and dealers to conduct and improve envir- A system to track, compile and release to the pub- Any existing chemical substance manufactured
onmental, safety and health measures throughout lic the data regarding various hazardous chemical over 1,000 tons per country per year. The HPV
the lifecycle of chemical substances (from R&D to substances such as emission sources, emissions chemicals program by the OECD collects and eval-
production, logistics, use, consumption, and waste to environment, or amount transported outside of uates data on safety. In Japan also the Japan
disposal) based on the principles of self-determi- business premises in the form of wastes. Chemical Industry Association mainly undertakes
nation and self-responsibility. related tasks.
38
concentrations in the
general environment. Fig. 3-2 VCM and EDC concentrations in the general environment
In fiscal 2006, more
Unit: g/m3
than 2,400 samples
were taken for VCM
measurements of VCM Fiscal year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
and EDC respectively- # of sites 11 152 162 169 184 197 218 219 227 226
from 254 sites for VCM Average 0.21 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05
and from 247 sites for Min. value 0.012 0.009 0.008 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.003
EDC (Fig.3-2). Max. value 0.9 2.2 1.8 1.1 1.6 2.7 1.4 1.8 0.6 1.5
The results of
analysis showed that
EDC
from 1997 to 2006,
Fiscal year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
the average VCM
# of sites 184 212 220 216 227 228 233 229 249 249
concentration declined
Average 0.20 0.19 0.15 0.16 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.13 0.10 0.13
from 0.21 g/m3 to
Min. value 0.017 0.025 0.010 0.008 0.006 0.017 0.008 0.005 0.005 0.005
0.05 g/m3 . As for
Max. value 2.7 2.6 2.0 2.1 1.1 1.3 1.0 1.7 0.7 1.7
VCM, annual average
concentration in air of
Source: Monitoring of hazardous air pollutants, MoE
10 g/m3 (0.0036 ppm)
as a guideline was set in
2003, but the present actual concentration is far below
Emissions to air
this guideline level.
The annual emissions to air is calculated per facility
Likewise, the average EDC concentration in the
based on the results of voluntary measurements of
general environment was 0.20 g/m 3 in 1997 but has
exhaust gases resulting from liquid waste incineration
been reduced to almost one half since 2001.
(7 facilities throughout Japan: 0.019~1.3 ng-TEQ/m3 N)
Furthermore, an annual average concentration
and results of voluntary measurements of exhaust
guideline in air of 1.6 g/m3 is set for EDC.
gases from waste gas incineration (5 facilities
throughout Japan: 0.00025~0.29 ng-TEQ/m 3 N). The
total annual emission is calculated by summing all of
these.
(2) Dioxins emissions from VCM The emission per ton of VCM production is 78.2 ng-
production facilities TEQ/ton in the case of liquid waste incineration (i.e.,
the total annual emission is divided by the total of
annual VCM production of 3,228 thousand tons by
Under the Law Concerning Special Measures against
the facilities incinerating liquid waste). Likewise,
Dioxins, every year the Ministry of the Environment
emission per ton VCM production is 6.7 ng-TEQ/ton
(MoE) conducts a survey of the status of dioxins
in the case of waste gas incineration (i.e., the total
emissions from specified facilities and facilities
annual emission is divided by the total of annual VCM
(industries) likely to be the emission sources based on
production of 2,721 thousand tons.
available information.
Fig.3-3 shows the results of survey for dioxins
emission from the VCM production facilities. Emissions
Emissions to water
The annual emissions to water for 2006 was
from VCM production facilities in 2006 were 0.36g,
estimated by summing the total annual emissions from
which amounts to less than 0.4% of emissions from all
the eight industrial establishments (0.0017~2.0 pg-
industries, which totaled 93 g.
TEQ/L) in Japan, owned and operated by the member
companies of VEC.
Fig. 3-3 Results of dioxins emission survey from VCM production facilities
Unit: g-TEQ/year
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Emissions 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.29 0.29 0.30 0.21 0.22 0.28
to air
Emissions 0.54 0.53 0.55 0.20 0.58 0.16 0.10 0.07 0.10 0.08
to water
Total 0.74 0.73 0.75 0.39 0.87 0.45 0.40 0.28 0.32 0.36
Source: Dioxins emission inventory, MoE
39
2. Recycling of PVC Products
recycling applications.
(1) Status and activities
Recycling activities of the PVC industry
Status of recycling, processing and disposal of
plastics and PVC products There are roughly three types of recycling process
for plastics.
According to the Plastic Waste Management
Institute, the total discharge of plastic waste in 2006
was 10.05 million tons, out of which 2.04 million tons Mechanical recycling:
(20%) were treated by mechanical recycling, 280 A recycling process to return the recovered and
thousand tons (3%) by feedstock recycling (use in sorted plastic waste back into plastic material by
blast furnaces and liquefaction), and 4.89 million tons physical procedures
by thermal recycling (heat recovery)49% . Therefore, Feedstock recycling:
A recycling process to convert recovered plastic
the total recycling rate was 72%, and the remaining
waste into feedstock through thermal processing,
28% were either incinerated or disposed in landfills pressurizing and chemical reactions. Plastic waste
(Fig.3-4). is converted into reducing agents for blast furnaces,
As for waste PVC products the total discharge fuel/feedstock for cement kilns, and raw material
was approximately 1.0 million tons, out of which gas for chemical processes.
approximately 390 thousand tons (38%) were treated Thermal recycling:
by mechanical recycling. Compared with plastics as A recycling process where waste plastics are
a whole, the mechanical recycling of PVC waste is a incinerated for thermal energy recovery
step ahead. This is because PVC is less affected by
contamination of foreign matters and has various
The Japanese PVC industry
primarily promotes mechanical
Fig. 3-4 Scheme of the three methods of recycling recycling, but this recycling
process is not suitable for
1. Mechanical recycling Sorting excessively deteriorated or
(Physical processing) fouled plastic waste. Also, since
Material Material
necessary there are still some difficulties
Pipes Pipes
in further developing
Agro-film Flooring applications and distribution
channels, the increase of
2. Feedstock recycling recycling volume is limited.
For such reasons, feedstock
Material (Chemical processing) Material
mixed plastic recycling is also promoted due
PVC waste Reducing agent for blast furnaces
waste ok to its versatility.
Fuel/Feedstock for cement kilns Recycling projects are shared,
Chemical raw material gas for instance the Japan PVC
Environmental Affairs Council
3. Thermal recycling (JPEC) mainly takes charge of
Material (Incineration) Energy recovery mechanical recycling, while
mixed plastic VEC mainly takes charge of
PVC waste Thermal energy waste ok
feedstock recycling.
Electrical energy
(2) Mechanical recycling order to promote recycling of PVC pipes, the Japan
PVC Pipe and Fittings Association (JPPFA) took the
Pipes initiative to establish 10 recycling centers throughout
Pipes are the largest application for PVC, and Japan in December 1998 under cooperation with
approximately 500,000 tons of PVC pipes (including existing recycling business entities. In addition to
fittings) are manufactured annually. This amount these recycling centers, intermediate collection
represents roughly one-third of the annual PVC facilities were provided for nationwide collection
consumption. The amount of waste pipes are of waste pipes. As of May 2007, 17 recycling centers
estimated to be about 35,500 tons in 2002, out of and 33 collection facilities (a total of 50 facilities)
which about 48% are recycled back to pipes. In have been established. Along with the conventional
40
pipe purchasing system, an intermediary treatment The Law Concerning Recycling of Materials
consignment system was newly started from 2003. from Construction Work (in short, Construction
Material Recycling Act) established in 1999 has made
Outer layer
Outer layer mandatory the recycling of specified construction
(virgin resin)
(virgin resin) materials. Concrete, asphalt and wood are specified
Middle layer
(recycled material) for recycling at the moment, and PVC construction
Inner layer
materials are not included.
(virgin resin) On the other hand, PVC construction materials
are widely used due to their excellent properties as
construction materials (fire retarding properties,
durability, designability, processability, etc.). VEC,
JPPFA, PVC windows industries association, PVC
spout manufacturers association, Interiorfloor
(Nominal diameter) Industrial Association (flooring), Japan Vinyl Goods
100, 150, 200 and 300mm
(Color) Blue grey Manufacturers Association (wallcovering), and the
Recycled three-layer pipes Japanese Electric Wire & Cable Makers' Association
jointly organized a "study group for recycling of PVC
Agricultural PVC films construction materials" with participation from the
Presently, about 70,000 tons of agricultural PVC chemical industry division and the ceramics industry
films (agro-films) are discharged per year, out of which division of the Ministry of International Trade and
about 50% is mechanical recycled. Industry (the present METI). This study group is
The mechanical recycling of agro-films started active to date under the name of "PVC construction
during the mid 60s. Today, farmers, agricultural material liaison conferece" and continues to
organizations, and municipal governments have set contribute to recycling systems within each industry
up a council in order to systematically collect agro- through information sharing and close horizontal
film waste for appropriate recycling. More than 10 communications among the PVC construction material
manufacturing centers for recycled raw material related industries.
products have been established throughout Japan, This group discussed the ways to promote
and a system for recycling has been set up. At these the recycling activities, and proactively made
centers, flooring, footwear, sheets and others are recommendations to the Japanese government. As a
manufactured out of the recovered agro-films. In result, the Law for Promotion of Effective Utilization
order to further promote the mechanical recycling of of Resources was enacted in April 2001. Rigid PVC
agro-films, 7 agro-film producers and the National pipes and fittings were specified as products to be
Federation of Agricultural Cooperative Association recycled under the Law for Promotion of Effective
(Zen-Noh) established the "Noubi Recycle Acceleration Utilization of Resources, and recycling efforts were
Council (NAC)" in July 1999. made mandatory. Also, rigid PVC pipes, spouts,
NAC is expected to promote the implementation of window profiles, flooring and wallcovering were
nationwide recovery and processing systems in order required to attach the common " PVC" mark to
to develop new agro-film processing technologies and show that they are PVC construction materials.
applications, to realize a totally recycle-based society Following the decision, the PVC construction
in the future. material industries further promoted recycling
PVC construction materials activities, and PVC construction materials gained credit
as products that are easy to use. Furthermore, sewage
pipes and heat insulating window profiles made of
recycled rigid PVC material were specified as products
to be procured (for public construction projects) under
the Law on Promoting Green Purchasing. The recycling
activities for PVC flooring installation wastes by 8 PVC
Homogeneous tiles flooring manufacturers of the Interiorfloor Industrial
(Recycled agro-film Association were given the sanction of specified
material is used as industrial waste disposer for wide area recycling from
backing )
the minister of the environment for the first time as a
trade organization. The recycling activities have been
launched in 2003.
Tile (Modular) carpets

(Recycled agro-film
material is used as
backing )
41
(3) Feedstock recycling

Plastic contributing to steel manufacturing -
feedstock for blast furnaces
By this recycling technology, coke, which works as
a reducing agent to remove oxygen from iron ore in
steel manufacturing, can be partially replaced with
plastic waste. From the environmental standpoint,
various advantages are expected from this technology
including saving cokes and CO2 reduction.
The Japanese PVC industry conducted research and
development of blast furnace feedstock technologies
for plastic waste (including PVC waste), jointly with
the present JFE Kankyo. Following pilot tests in 1998
and operations at a demonstration plant in 2000, the JEF Steel's Keihin Steelworks (Kawasaki City)
preparation for commercial operation is now under
way at JFE Kankyo since fiscal 2004.
(HCl) Chemical raw material /

Industrial chemicals
HCl Absorption /
PVC waste de-HCl Purification
Reducing agent for blast furnaces
(Char) Fuel / Raw material
for cement kilns
Generating new chemical raw materials or

energy - gasification
By thermal cracking at high temperatures, PVC
waste can be recycled into gas components such as
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen and carbon monoxide,
which can be put to use.
The Japanese PVC industry has been working to
materialize gasification technologies to treat various
plastic wastes including PVC, jointly with Nippon Steel,
Daicel and Sumitomo Metals. Hydrogen and carbon
monoxide derived from this process can be used for
ammonia and methanol production, or as fuel gas for
power plants. Hydrogen chloride (hydrochloric acid) is
widely used as chemical raw material or as industrial
Showa Denkos Kawasaki plant (Kawasaki City )
chemicals. Also, Ube Industries/Ebara Corporation
(EUP) and Showa Denko are operating plants with
pressurized two-stage gasfication furnaces to meet
the requirements of the Container and Packaging
Recycling Law.
(Syngas)
HCl Absorption / Chemical raw material /

PVC waste Gasification Industrial chemicals,
facility Purification
Fuel gas
(Molten slag) (HCl)
Material for roadbeds,

etc.
42
Collection of metals by chlorinated
volatization (Kowa Seiko)
This process separates iron and non ferrous metals
from iron rich matters (such as dust collected at the
collection ducts of steel making plants) by using
chlorine. PVC is incinerated to collect thermal energy
and at the same time the hydrogen chloride generated
is proactively used as the chlorine source for this
chlorinated volatilization process. As an example,
during the 5 years between 2003 and 2007, 200 tons
per year of scrap or waste PVC wallcovering generated
from either building or renovating collective housings
and buildings were collected and treated under the
Kowa Seiko
Wallcovering Association of Japans initiative. (Kitakyushu City)
Collection of Metals Chlorinated Volatitization
PVC waste HCl CaCl2 Ferric oxide containing

Pb , Zn
Metal chloride collecting device Metal chloride gas Pelletize
Wet separation process Chlorinated volatilization/

12000C
Rotary kiln calcination
Calcinated ferric oxide
Pb Zn Cu Fe Calcium sulphate
(4) Recycling under new technologies

Material recycling by dicing and PVC layers from modular carpets with precision and
pulverizing technology separating them in powder form to reuse as a raw
material component for the manufacture of new tile
Refinverse Inc. had launched the recycling of (modular) carpets. It has been commercialized at their
PVC layers from used modular carpet discharged plant in Chiba with an annual processing capacity
from office buildings and intermediate processing of 18,000 tons since 2006. This quantity amounts to
companies. The technology involves scraping off about 15% of the total modular carpets discharged.
Tile carpet
Recycled waste
tile carpet
Separation of
PVC backing
Recycled Recycled
PVC backing PVC compound
Source: Technical document from Refinverse Inc.
43
3. Constructing Social Systems
(1) Recycling of "PVC construction collection facilities in Yonago city and Sakaiminato
material wastes" generated city, processed into regenerated materials, and then
recycled back into PVC pipes by pipe manufacturers.
from the western Tottori A part of the waste material was reused (by feedstock
prefecture earthquake recycling) as the fuel/raw material for cement kilns.
Under cooperation with the Fig. 3-5 Recycling flow of PVC construction materials
Tottori prefecture government, waste generated by the earthquake
Yonago city authorities, and
Sakaiminato city authorities,
the Japanese PVC Industry Temporary collection facilities
undertook recycling of PVC for PVC construction materials waste
(Yonago city, Sakaiminato city)
construction material wastes"
recovered from destroyed
houses and buildings by the
western Tottori prefecture Recycle cooperation companies
earthquake (magnitude 7.3), (processing into recycled raw materials)
which occurred on October 6,
2000. This was the first case
in the world to recycle wastes
generated by a natural hazard Cement manufacturers
PVC pipes and fittings manufacturers (utilization as fuel/raw material
(not limited to PVC waste, but (production of recycled pipes) for cement kilns)
other plastics as well).
The PVC construction
materials waste including
pipes, spouts, corrugated Procured by the national government
sheets, etc. recovered from the and municipal governments
collapsed houses and buildings
were stored temporarily at the
Recycled pipe
Temporary collection facilities for wastes
Recycled pipe (3 layer pipe)
PVC construction materials

waste generated by
natural hazard collected in
containers Raw material for pipes
44
(2) Recycling of "PVC construction materials wastes"
recovered from demolition sites of residential buildings
owned by the Tokyo metropolitan government (TMG) :
an example of public-private sector cooperation
VEC, JPPFA, and Sumitomo Metals are promoting materials from residential building" (edited and
the demonstration experiment for feedstock recycling published by the technical development division,
of waste PVC construction materials in cooperation regional housing department of the housing bureau,
with the TMG. TMG. 2003).
In July 2002, waste PVC
construction materials Fig. 3-6 Demolition of residential buildings owned by the TMG and recycling
generated from the demolition
site at Niijuku, Katsushika-
ku, Tokyo, were processed Housing bureau, TMG
into raw material for recycled
pipes by mechanical recycling PVC wastes generated from
("Recycling model project for residential buildings at
Niijuku 6-chome, Katsushika-ku, Tokyo,
residential buildings owned by owned by the TMG
the housing bureau of TMG"). Incorporation of results
Also, a part of PVC construction to the recycling manual
materials waste, which were
VEC
excessively fouled or mixed
with foreign matters, were
Feedstock recycling
processed by a pilot gasification
melting plant of Sumitomo
Metals, in November 2002, for Sumitomo Metals
JPPFA
reuse as chemical feedstock. It (gasification melt plant)
was confirmed that there was
no technical difficulties with Mechanical
the gasification. The results recycling
of feedstock recycling as well
Recycled pipes
as mechanical recycling were manufacturers
reflected on the "manual of
recycling waste construction
Regenerated pipes
Demolition of residential
buildings owned by the TMG
Collected PVC waste pipes
Gasification melting plant
45
(3) Recycling of PVC Profiles frames are enough to meet the JIS standards.
Furthermore, the two-layer extrusion molding
The PVC sash (PVC profile) is widely used as an technology to use recycled material in the core section
energy saving construction material with a high heat- and use virgin resin in the surface layer of window
insulating feature. The PVC profile manufacturing profiles has already been put into practice. It has also
industry is specified as the applicable industry along been confirmed that the color variance of the recycled
with the PVC pipe and fittings manufacturing industry material with the color of finished product window
under a "waste processing and recycling guideline for profiles would not be a major problem for "sash-to-
industries" by the industries structure council, (METI). sash" recycling.
The environmental working group which was For information, this PVC window profiles recycling
jointly formed by the technical committee of was selected by the METI as one of the evaluation
the PVC Windows Industries Association and the themes for the ministry's open invitation for fiscal
environmental issue committee of the Japan Sash 2002, and evaluated under "PVC profiles recycling
Manufacturers Association tested the physical system survey", chaired by Mr. Tsuyoshi Seike, assistant
properties of recycled PVC profiles, and confirmed professor of Tokyo University. The details of this survey
that there is no problem with the molding operation, are included in the "Handbook of recycling: 2002
and that the physical properties of molded window edition" by the Hokkaido municipal government.
Fig. 3-7 Model scheme of PVC profiles collection and recycling
Scope of activities
Registered demolisher
Building demolition site Construction site of housing
Glass
Demolished waste materials including PVC
Specified processor PVC profile manufacturers
Subcontractor
Primary intermediate processing
Mortar/Caulking, etc.
Auxiliary parts
Secondary intermediate processing
Aluminum
Steel
Roughly crushed waste PVC material
Scraps from
manufacturing
Manufacturers of plants
Processing for raw material preparation Molding tests extruded products PVC
profiles
Raw materials
Raw materials Profile manufacturing plants
PVC product manufacturing plant
Collected waste PVC profiles Washing waste PVC profiles with water
46
(4) Recycling of PVC flooring manufacturers after crushing and processing. PVC
flooring sheet, cushion flooring and homogeneous
PVC flooring is an important application that can be flooring tiles are recycled by the above 6 companies
derived partially from used agricultural films or used and 3 other subcontracted companies.
cable covering. The feature of this recycling activity is "horizontal
The recycling of waste flooring itself have been recycling from flooring into flooring" by the flooring
initiated from April 2003 within 8 regions of manufacturers themselves. In March 2003, the
Japan by 8 PVC flooring manufacturers which are Interiorfloor Industrial Association was specified as
members of the Interiorfloor Industries Association. industrial waste disposer for wide area recycling"
Installation waste discards from new housings and from the Environment minister for the first time as a
buildings construction and reform sites are sorted trade organization, and have launched its activities.
and recovered, then recycled into flooring at each
New housings &

Discards, scraps buildings construction sites,
Building contractors,
General contractors, Products
Housing manufacturers
Freighters Flooring manufacturers
Crushing plants
Crushed raw materials
Areas conducting flooring recycling
Kyoto Saitama
Hyogo
Tokyo
Chiba
Kanagawa
Aichi
Osaka
47
(5) Recycling of PVC wallcoverings intermediate processing, and then transported to

Tobata Plant of Kowa Seiko in Kita-Kyushu City,
It has been over 30 years since PVC wallcovering was Fukuoka Prefecture, where wallcovering waste was
first introduced to Japan. Production of wall covering utilized as heat source for industrial waste processing,
in Japan amounts to about 700 million m3 , or about or as feedstock to cement kilns. Recovered chlorine
200 thousand tons. The PVC wallcovering has become from the process was effectively used in the extraction
an inseparable part of comfortable residences, having of valuable metals under chlorinated volatilization
durability, serviceability, and fire retarding properties, process. Also, a part of waste PVC wallcovering was
and has established its own position in the modern utilized as raw material in the manufacturing of
life. boards and blocks by mechanical recycling.
On the other hand, recycling of wallcovering was The WACOA of Japan successfully completed this
not conducted partially due to the small amount of model experiment in 2007, and is currently considering
wastes, due to its long service life of over 10 years. a new business model for wallcovering recycling based
However, gradual increase of discharged waste on the outcome.
wallcovering is expected, in line with the increased
number of demolished or renewed houses and
buildings after a few tens of years of construction.
Labeling of " PVC" mark to PVC wallcoverings is
now mandatory in the same way as with PVC pipes
and flooring, as a "specified product for indication
obligations" under the 1999 revision of the Law
for Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources.
As a result, how to cope with social requirements
has become a major issue to be tackled by the
wallcovering industry.
An experimental recycling model was carried out
as preparation for full-scale recycling systems, by the
Wallcoverings Association of Japan (WACOA), which
is comprised of manufacturers/whole sellers and
servicing companies, from April 2003.
Fig.3-8 shows the flow of the recycling scheme.
The waste wallcovering collected and sorted by the
building contractors were temporarily transferred
to collection facilities, compressed/crushed upon Compressed and packed PVC wallcovering waste
Fig. 3-8 Model scheme of recycling experiment for PVC wallcovering waste
Discharge sites
(Construction/
Remodeling/
Demolition sites,
Heat source for Wholesellers, Plants)
industrial waste processing
Raw material for Land transportation
cement manufacturing
Recovery of valuable metals by
chlorinated volatilization process
Recycle processing
WACOA Storage
(Kowa Seiko, (Supporters: JPEC, VEC) (Collection sites)
Tobata Plant)
Land transportation
Shipboard
Intermediate processing
(Shinmoji port Ariake port)
(Crushing-Compressing/
Volume reduction or
Conversion to RDF)
Flow of PVC wallcovering waste
48
(6) Recycling of refrigerator door
gaskets
In the past, the municipal governments collected
end-of-life refrigerators, TV, air-conditioners and
washing machines as large-sized wastes, and the
majority of them were disposed in landfills. In April
2001, the Electric Household Appliances Recycling
Law was enacted and about 10 million units of these
products were recycled at more than 30 recycling
plants throughout Japan. Steel for casing and glass
used as the cathode-ray tubes were the major
Separation of magnets from PVC gaskets at the
materials for recycling. recycling plant
Although PVC parts were not applicable for
recycling under the law, an effort to recycle
refrigerator door gaskets made of PVC was initiated
by recovering the gaskets and removing magnets from
them, as a part of activities to materialize a recycled-
oriented society. Recovered door gaskets are crushed
into small pieces, molten by heating, and converted
into synthetic wood for indoor flooring applications.
Sorted refrigerator Synthetic wood for
door gaskets flooring
4. PVC Products and Recycling Related Laws
Basic Law for Establishing a Sound Material are also specified for marking indication. Furthermore,
-Cycle Society (January 2001) PVC-made spouts, window profiles, wallcovering, and
It is the basic framework law for the realization flooring are also specified products for identification
of a recycle-based society through the promotion mark of " PVC".
of 3Rs (i.e., Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) and
subsequent incineration and volumetric reduction
for appropriate disposal by landfill. Also, "the Identification mark
discharger responsibility" of business enterprises and
citizens, as well as the concept of Extended Producer Containers and Packaging Recycling Law
Responsibility (EPR) for manufacturers has been (April 2000)
clarified. From the standpoint of implementing a Of the solid municipal wastes, about 60% by
recycle-based society, PVC is a plastic which can realize volume and about 25% by weight are containers and
the 3Rs, since PVC products are resources saving, packaging. The law was first applied to PET bottles
durable and easy to recycle. and glass bottles in 1996, and subsequently to plastics
in general "as other plastics" and waste paper in April
Law for Promotion of Effective Utilization of 2000.
Resources (April 2001) Specified business entities, such as the
It is a general law showing the basic framework manufacturers of containers, packaging and their
for the promotion of the waste generation reduction contents, are required to entrust recycling to the
(Reduce), the reuse of materials (Reuse), and the re- specified corporate body by paying recycling charges.
utilization (Recycle) by converting the materials into PVC bottles and sheets for commercial applications
resources, and for extended service lives of products. have been decreased, and presently they are
The law has specified the industries which are estimated to occupy only 3-4% of total plastic wastes
obligated to manufacture recyclable products, and has in solid municipal wastes.
specified the products to which identification marks
are to be affixed in order to make sorting easier. Of
the PVC products, rigid PVC pipes and fittings are Identification marks
for containers and packaging SPI code
specified products for mandatory recycling. PVC pipes PVC PVC
49
Home Appliance Recycling Law recycling systems for waste rigid PVC pipe is readily
(April 2001) implemented, and intermediate collection facilities
The law promotes recycling of 4 large-sized have already been deployed throughout Japan.
electrical household appliances (i.e., refrigerators,
TV, washing machines and air-conditioners) disposed End-of-Life Vehicles Recycling Law
from households as wastes, which had previously been (January 2005)
collected and landfilled by municipal governments. The law promotes recycling of end-of-life
The law is now applicable to these waste products automobiles (5 million cars per year). Collection
from April 2001. Presently, the main materials and recycling of CFC gas, air bag and shredder dust
specified for mandatory recycling are steel and glass, generated in the dismantling operation of waste cars
which amount to 50-60% of the total collected are mandatory under the law.
volume. Although recycling of PVC materials are not
mandatory under the law in the same manner as Law on Promoting Green Purchasing
with other plastics, some of the electric household (April 2001)
appliance related companies have started recycling of The law is aimed to prioritize procurement by the
PVC gaskets on refrigerator doors. national and municipal governments of products
and services that contribute to the reduction of
Construction Material Recycling Law environmental burdens, specified as "environment
(May 2002) compatible products, etc.", and to promulgate
The law promotes recycling of construction material information useful for such procurement system. Of
waste, amounting to about 20% of the total industrial the PVC products, heat insulating profiles (February
waste. Waste asphalt, concrete and wood are the 3 2002) and recycled rigid PVC pipes for sewage systems
items in "specified construction material wastes" to (February 2003) have been selected as "specified
be recycled under the law. Although PVC materials are items for green procurement (for public construction
not included in the specified materials under the law, projects)".
Fig. 3-9 Structure of Recycling Related Laws
Put into force: Fundamental Law for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society
January 2001 (basic framework law)
<Proper waste management> <Promotion of recycling>

Amended: Law for Promotion of Effective Put into force:
June 2006 Waste Management Law April 2001
Utilization of Resources
1. Curb generation of waste 1. Recycling of recovered resources Recycle

2. Proper waste disposal 2. Development of structure/material (1R)
(incl. recycling) for easy recycling
3. Regulations for 3. Labeling products for
waste processors selective collection Reduce
4. Establishment of Identifying mark : PVC Reuse
standards for 4. Promotion of effective utilization Recycle
waste disposal of by-products (3R)
Regulations in accordance with the characteristics of specific products
Put into force: Put into force: Put into force: Put into force: Put into force:
April 2000 April 2001 May 2001 May 2002 Jan 2005
Containers Home Food Construction End-of-Life

and Appliance Recycling Material Vehicles
Packaging Recycling Law Recycling Recycling
Recycling Law Law Law
Law
glass bottles, air conditioners, food waste wood, automobiles
PET bottles, refrigerators, TV, concrete,
paper & plastic washing machines asphalt
packaging etc.
Green Purchasing Law Put into force:

(Promotion of procurement of recycled products by the national government on its own initiative) April 2001
50
CHAPTER 4:
THE SAFETY
OF ADDITIVES
Additives used in plastics consist of plasticizers

which soften plastics which are inherently hard,
stabilizers which enhance the heat stability in molding
and heating operations, antioxidants and UV
absorbents which prevent quality deterioration during
use of plastic products, and lubricants, pigments
and fillers which give additional properties to plastic
products.
After addition of these various additives, PVC is molded
and fabricated into durable products such as pipes for
water supplies and sewers, electric cable coverings and
construction materials, or agricultural films (agro-films)
and medical devices, which have long been used as
important materials supporting our society and daily life.
Data revealing the safety of two major additives for
PVC, i.e., plasticizers and stabilizers are shown in this
chapter.
CHAPTER 4 : THE SAFETY OF ADDITIVES
1. Safety of Plasticizers
(1) Role of plasticizers molecules and the plasticizer molecules are electrically
attracted to each other as shown in Fig.4-1, and
PVC is basically a hard plastic at ordinary the non-polar parts widen the distance among the
temperature. This is due to the short distances polymer molecules to keep softness. PVC products
between the molecules since there are strong pulling which are softened by plasticizers are called soft
forces between them (intermolecular forces). When (flexible) PVC products. About 40% of the total PVC is
heated, the energies of molecular motions become used for flexible PVC products.
greater than the intermolecular forces, which widen Plasticizers conform well to PVC (compatibility),
molecular distances, resulting in softening of the resin. and keep the required softness at minimal quantity
When plasticizers are added to PVC at this stage, the (plasticizing efficiency). Plasticizers should not
plasticizer molecules make their way between the PVC easily migrate into air or water (low volatility, low
molecules and prevent the PVC polymer molecules migration). The plasticizers widely used for PVC
from coming closer with each other. Consequently the products are di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and di-
polymer molecules are kept apart even at ordinary isononyl phthalate (DINP), which have well balanced
temperature and softness is kept. This is the role properties described above. These plasticizers account
of plasticizers and such process is technically called for about 80% of all plasticizers used for PVC.
plasticizing. Apart from these two, adipate plasticizers for low
PVC polymer molecules have positive and negative temperature resistance and trimellitate plasticizers for
polarities within, while plasticizer molecules also have heat resistance are used to meet specific requirements.
such polar and non-polar parts. The PVC polymer
Fig. 4-1 PVC molecules, plasticizer molecules and molecular formula of DEHP

O C2H5
C O CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
C O CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

Plasticizer
molecules O C2H5

Polar part Non-polar part
PVC molecules PVC molecules
Source: Prepared from the website of JPIA
(2) Type of plasticizers Fig. 4-2 Ratio of phthalates in plasticizer production (2006)
There are several kinds of plasticizers, such as Other plasticizers

phthalates, adipates, phosphates and trimellitates,
and phthalates account for more than 80% of all Other phthalates 14.6%
plasticizers used (Fig.4-2). 6.6%
Although the major application of phthalates is DEHP
plasticizers for PVC, they are also used for other DINP 51.2%
applications as shown in Fig.4-3. 27.6%
Phthalates 85.4%
Source: " Plasticizer information No.21", Japan Plasticizer Industry Association
52
Fig. 4-3 Characteristics and applications of major phthalates
Name of substance Abbreviation MW bp() Features Major applications

di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate DEHP(DOP) 390 386 Average General purpose
di-n-octyl phthalate DnOP 390 Low volatility, Low temperature resistance Cables/Wires, Films
di-isononyl phthalate DINP 418 403 Low volatility, Low temperature resistance General purpose
di-nonyl phthalate DNP 418 Low migration, Electrical insulation Cables/Wires, Flooring
di-isodecyl phthalate DIDP 446 420 Low volatility, Electrical insulation Heat resistant cables, Artificial leather
mixed alkyl chain phthalates (C6~C11) 610P, 711P, etc. Low volatility, Low temperature resistance General purpose
di-methyl phthalate DMP 194 282 Compatibility Cellulose acetate, Diluents
di-ethyl phthalate DEP 222 298 Compatibility Cellulose acetate, Polystyrene, Cosmetics
di-butyl phthalate DBP 278 339 Processability, Plasticizing efficiency Paint, Adhesive
butyl-benzyl phthalate BBP 312 370 Processability, Oil resistance Adhesive, Sealants
: General purpose plasticizer used for PVC products Source: Website of JPIA
(3) Safety of plasticizers Fig. 4-4 Acute toxicity of DEHP and general substances
This section explains the safety of DEHP which is the Acute toxicity to rat via oral dosing (LD50) (g/kg body weight)
most generally used plasticizer amounting to about 0 0.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
50% of all plasticizers, based on the data prepared by
Japan Plasticizer Industry Association(JPIA). Acetic acid
Ethyl alcohol
Acute toxicity, skin irritation and Common salt
mutagenicity
Sugar
As shown in Fig.4-4, the acute toxicity (LD 50 ) of
Soap
DEHP is lower than that for common salt or sugar, and
is almost equivalent to non-toxic. Citric acid
Fig.4-5 shows the results of evaluation on the safety DEHP
of phthalates, mainly DEHP, in terms of acute toxicity
and other indexes. The level of skin irritancy is within Toxic Slightly Practically Comparatively harmless
toxic non-toxic
the range of non-irritancy or slight irritancy, which
would not affect the human or animal skin. It has
Source: Yearbook of chemical industries statistics 1999, METI
also been confirmed that toxicity upon cutaneous
absorption is very low. carcinogenic to humans. Tea and tap water (drinking
As for its mutagenicity (meaning the potency to water sterilized with chlorine) are also included in
cause damage to the gene), it has been proven that Group 3, which means that the carcinogenicity of
DEHP is negative through microorganism tests. DEHP is lower than that of coffee (Fig.4-6).
Carcinogenicity Endocrine disruptor issues

In 1980s, the liver tumor of rats and mice was In the past, slightly estrogenic effects of DEHP
reported upon an extremely high concentration were reported as a result of in vitro tests. Therefore
dosing of DEHP, but subsequent studies clarified the Ministry of the Environment listed DEHP as a
that such effects are unique to rodents such as rats suspected endocrine disrupter in its Strategic Programs
and mice and would not occur in primates such as on Environmental Endocrine Disruptors 98 (SPEED98).
monkeys. However, JPIA subsequently confirmed that DEHP
In 2000, the International Agency for Research has no estrogenic effects, likewise with other major
on Cancer (IARC: an affiliate organization of World phthalates, i.e. DBP, DnOP, DINP or DIDP, through
Health Organization: WHO) re-classified DEHP in vitro tests and uterine hypertrophy tests using
from Group 2B to Group 3 in their carcinogenicity ovariectomized rats.
evaluation, thus clearly showing that DEHP is not A study committee for endocrine disruptive chemical
LD50 : Mutagenicity :
An index for amount of chemical substance rendering The property to damage DNA, and substances identified through accumulation of scientific data.
50% death rate in experimental animals, expressed with such properties are called mutagenic Today the two terms are differentiated.
in terms of 1kg body weight (median lethal dose). It substances. In the past, mutagenicity was
is the most widely used index to show acute toxicity synonymous with carcinogenicity. Subsequently,
of chemical substances. The smaller the LD50 value, however, existences of many mutagenic
the stronger the acute toxicity. substances that are not carcinogens have been
53
Fig. 4-5 Safety of phthalates, mainly of DEHP
Index Evaluation Remarks Reference

Acute toxicity Lower acute toxicity than those for general The LD50 value of DEHP (rat, oral) is 30~34 g/kg body weight. 1)
substances such as common salt and sugar
The LD50 value of common salt (rat, oral) is 8~10 g/kg body weight,
while that of sugar is 8~12 g/kg body weight.
Skin irritation and Within the range of non-irritation or 2)

Toxicity upon percutaneous absorption was tested in the range
percutaneous slight irritation. Toxicity also very low. of 5~20 ml/kg body weight and no mortality in experimental animals
absorption toxicity observed. It can be said that toxicity is extremely low.
Metabolism Metabolism in and excretion from In the case of oral dosing to dogs, about 90% of the dosed amount 3)
the animal body very rapid is excreted from the body within 24 hours.
No mutagenicity has been observed in microorganisms

Mutagenicity Negative (no damage to DNA) in tests for 12 major phthalates.
4)
Teratogenicity Teratogenicity occurs in mouse by extremely Fetal toxicity manifests in rats at 856~1,055 mg/kg body weight/day,
and for mice, at 191~293 mg/kg body weight/day. 5)
high-concentration dosing to mother mice,
but the effect not clear for rats.
Subacute/Chronic High concentration dosing affects the liver, JPIA conducted 13-week oral repeated administration tests for DEHP
toxicity the kidney and testes of rats/mice, but no impact and DINP on primates and checked the impacts on respective organs. 6)
confirmed for primates.
Testicular High concentration dosing introduces As to testicular toxicity with rats/mice, no damage was observed in
toxicity the testicular atrophy of rats/mice, sperms themselves or on spermatocytes, and testicular atrophy has 6)
but no such phenomenon confirmed also been identified as recoverable.
for primates (Research continued).
In 1980, manifestation of liver tumor was reported upon dosing of
Carcinogenicity No carcinogenicity in humans. (IARC has 7)
an extremely high-concentration of DEHP to rats, but subsequent
categorized DEHP as a Group 3, meaning 8)
studies clarified that the mechanism of liver tumor manifestation is
non carcinogenic substance to humans.) unique to rodents. Presently, it is thought that there are no
carcinogenic effects on humans.
Endocrine disruptive No estrogenic effect thought to exist. Estrogenic effects of 8 major phthalates were studied. BBP,
9)
effects (Endocrine DBP and DHP exhibited a weak estrogenic activity at a high 10)
disrupter issues) concentration in the in vitro tests. However, all 8 phthalates
showed no estrogenic activities in the in vivo tests (uterine
hypertrophy tests with ovariectomized rats).
1) JPIA, Q&A on safety of phthalates (PAEs) Part 1 P.89~92, 1974

4) T. Otsuka et al., National institute of health sciences report No.93.1, 1975
5) Tyl, R.W. et al., Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 10, 395~412, 1988 or NTP 86~309, National Toxicology Program, 1986
6) JPIA, Plasticizer information No.7. 1997
7) JPIA, Plasticizer information special edition. 2000
8) Kurata, Y., Kidachi, F. et al., Toxicological Sciences 42. 49~56. 1998
9) JPIA, Q&A on phthalates and endocrine disrupting issue P.8~9. 1998
10) Zacharewski, T., Meek, M.D., Clemons, J.H. et al., Toxicological Sciences, 46. 282~293. 1998
Teratogenicity :
Degree of occurrence of fetal malformation by
exposure of substances through the placenta of
the pregnant mother animal. Fetuses in the early
phase of pregnancy is said to be more susceptible
to the impacts on the organ development.
54
substance issues of the Ministry of the Environment in June 2003, the committee also reported that DEHP
also conducted animal experiments with mammal (and other 4 chemical substances tested along with
(rodents), fish (medaka, i.e. Orzias latipes) as well as DEHP) had shown no apparent endocrine disruptive
in vitro tests. In June 2002, the committee reported effects on the ecosystem. Similar tests were conducted
that DEHP (and other 9 chemical substances tested also in other countries on 8 phthalates, with no
along with DEHP) had shown no apparent endocrine estrogenic effects observed in the in vivo tests.
disruptive effects on humans (mammal). Furthermore,
Fig. 4-6 Evaluations of carcinogenicity by the IARC
Group/Evaluation Substance / Item
1 Carcinogenic to humans Asbestos, Tobacco smoke, Alcoholic beverages, etc.

2A Probably carcinogenic to humans Diesel engine exhaust, Lead & lead compounds (inorganic), etc.
2B Possibly carcinogenic to humans Coffee, Pickled vegetables, Gasoline, etc.
3 Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity in humans DEHP , Tea, Chlorinated drinking water, Lead compounds (organic), etc.
4 Probably not carcinogenic to humans Caprolactam (only one substance)
Souce: IARC
Reproductive toxicity
Some tests in the past reported atrophy of the
testes as a result of high concentration dosing of DEHP
to rats and mice. Based on the test results, use of
DEHP in toys and food apparatus/food packaging was
regulated, effective from August 2003, in Japan.
JPIA, in cooperation with counterpart industries
in Europe and the U.S. commissioned a two-year
study, titled long-term dosing tests of DEHP to young
marmosets to an independent research organization
in September 2000, for an overall evaluation of safety
of DEHP, including the testes and the behavior of
DEHP in the animal body. The result of the study was
announced in January, 2003, and the following points
were made clear:
Microphotograph of marmoset testis tissue after 65 weeks of
DEHP dosing at the rate of 2,500 mg/kg body weight/day. No
DEHP does not affect the testes of primates as abnormality observed.
opposed to the case with rats (rodents), and
Behavior of DEHP in the body of primates is quite
different from that in rats (rodent), including Test items of long-term dosing tests of
accumulation in the testes, etc. DEHP to young marmosets
Based on the test results on primates, JPIA affirms

General condition observation and measurement
that the time has come to review the evaluation of body weight
results in the past which were based on experimental
Hematological tests
data with rats. Furthermore, it has become clear that
Biochemical examination of blood
Histopathological examination
carcinogenicity and testes toxicity are apparently
Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor
different by animal species as seen between rats and
primates. Presently, further studies on reproductive (PPAR-) assay
Sperm count
toxicity (the impacts on pregnant state) are under way
Pharmacokinetic tests, etc.
to evaluate the differences between species.
55
(4) Regulation of plasticizers used extended period of time (mouthing hours), to prevent
possible exposure in excess of the TDI.
for some PVC products by
revision of the Food Sanitation Food apparatus and food packaging
Law (Public Notification No.267 Use of DEHP to PVC products (i.e., food apparatus
by the MHLW, August 2, 2002) and food packaging), which may come into contact
with oil/fat or oil/fat containing food (food with
In June 2000, the Ministry of Health and Welfare oil/fat content of about 20% or more, excluding the
(the present MHLW) announced that DEHP had case of dry solid food) was prohibited, effective from
leached from PVC gloves designed for kitchen August 1, 2003.
applications. The Food Sanitation Law was amended
on grounds that there could be health risks from the Toys
exposure level which exceeded the Tolerable Daily Use of DEHP or DINP containing PVC products to
Intake (TDI) for humans estimated based on testicular toys intended to be mouthed by babies and young
toxicity and the reproductive toxicity test results with children under 6 years of age (such as pacifiers and
rodents. teethers) and use of DEHP containing PVC products to
The amended Food Sanitation Law became the other toys were prohibited effective from August
applicable to toys which include DEHP and DINP which 1, 2003. Plasticizers other than DEHP and DINP are
are intended to be mouthed by young children for an outside the scope of the modified regulation.
2. Safety of Stabilizers
(1) Role of stabilizers soften during the molding process, prevention of

hydrogen chloride elimination due to heat history
When PVC is heated to 170~180 , chlorine and and subsequent decomposition is required. The
hydrogen in the molecules are eliminated and release stabilizer prevents such initial elimination of hydrogen
of hydrogen chloride becomes evident. Once such chloride from PVC. Therefore, use of stabilizers (metal
decomposition starts, unstable structure is formed compounds) is essential to prevent the chain reaction
in the molecule, which further accelerates HCl of decomposition.
elimination and decomposition. As PVC is heated to
(2) Types of stabilizers of the total stabilizers for PVC. Use as substitutes for
Pb stabilizers is increasing mainly for cable covering
The major metals contained in stabilizers are lead in automobiles and household electric appliance
(Pb), barium (Ba), calcium (Ca), and tin (Sn). The fields, except for cables for electric power grids and
stabilizers are classified into Pb stabilizers, Ba-Zn telecommunications. Also, Ca-Zn stabilizers are mainly
stabilizers, Ca-Zn stabilizers, and Sn stabilizers. used for flexible PVC products, including consumer
Ba-Zn stabilizers and Ca-Zn stabilizers are used as products and medical devices as non-toxic stabilizers
metallic soaps such as stearates, while Sn stabilizers approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
are used as organic tin (dialkyl tin compounds). Other (FDA), and Japan Hygienic PVC Association (JHPA).
than metallic soap, Pb stabilizers are used as basic
sulfate, basic carbonate, or basic phosphate. <Ba-Zn stabilizers>
Ba-Zn stabilizers are essential for soft PVC products
<Ca-Zn stabilizers> such as films and sheets, which require higher
Ca-Zn stabilizers amount to a little more than 20% transparency, and amount to slightly less than 20% of
TDI : Metallic soap :

Abbreviation of Tolerable Daily Intake. An index Soap used in our daily life is a sodium salt of
for the quantity of chemical substances deemed fatty acid manufactured from natural oil/fat.
harmless through lifetime intake considering Fatty acid salts with calcium, zinc or barium in
impacts on human health. It is expressed in terms the place of sodium are called metallic soaps.
of intake per day per 1 kg of body weight. The abovementioned metal stearate is a typical
metal soap.
56
total stabilizers.
<Pb stabilizers>
<Sn stabilizers> Pb-stabilizers have the longest history as stabilizers
Sn stabilizers amount to about 10% of all stabilizers. for PVC, and amount to a little more than 40% of
For rigid PVC products which require higher total stabilizers. Their stabilizing effects are excellent
fabrication temperatures, octyl-Sn (not tributyl-Sn) and used for PVC products with long service life and
stabilizers are used to substitute Pb-stabilizers, are required to endure longer fabrication (heating)
since this type of stabilizer offers better transparency, hours. Also they are used for rigid PVC in construction
weatherability and stabilizing effects to PVC products. material applications such as extruded profiles (e.g.,
window profiles).
(3) Hazard data of compounds values below 300 mg are called toxic substances,
used in stabilizers those with 30~300 mg are called deleterious
substance, and those over 300 mg are called
Fig.4-8 shows the acute toxicity data (LD50) of ordinary substance. The LD50 values of typical
stearates, which are the major PVC stabilizers. compounds used as PVC stabilizers are over 300 mg,
Generally in Japan, chemical compounds with LD50 and are classified as other substances.
Fig. 4-7 Acute toxicity data for stearates
Zn stearate1) Ba stearate1) Pb stearate2)
Rats LD50 (Oral) 10 g/kg 2,506 mg/kg 12,428 mg/kg

Mice LD50 (Oral) 10 g/kg 1,832 mg/kg 10,428 mg/kg
Mice LD50 (Intra-abdominal) 354 mg/kg 319 mg/kg
Guinea pigs LD50 (Oral) 3,600 mg/kg 6,000 mg/kg
Mammal LC (Inhalation) 1,241 mg/m3/4H
1) The MSDS search site, The University of Vermont

2) Catalogues, etc. of reagent manufacturers
(4) Stabilizer by applications <Agro-films and flexible sheets >

Ca-Zn and Ba-Zn stabilizers are mainly used for
< Cable/Wire covering>
PVC agro-films and wall covering. Especially, Ba-Zn
Cable/wire can be classified into various categories,
stabilizers are essential for agro-films, which require
such as overhead high-voltage cables, high-voltage
transparency. Sn stabilizers were used for food wraps
drop wire, overhead low voltage cables, low-
and consumer products in the past, but replacement
voltage drop wire, low-voltage wire, wire for various
with non PVC alternatives has been promoted rapidly,
equipments, wire for OA equipments, and wire
and not many PVC packaging and consumer products
harnesses for automobiles. Pb stabilizers are used
with Sn stabilizers are used today.
for electric power grid cables such as overhead high-
voltage cables, which require durability for extended
<Other flexible PVC products>
periods of time, weatherability and electric insulating
properties. Non-toxic Ca-Zn stabilizers conforming to the FDA
Although there are moves to avoid use of Pb- provisions and specified by JHPA are used for flexible
containing products from an environmental PVC products such as food wraps, containers for
viewpoint, power cable covering using Pb stabilizers toiletry and hoses, which are all used widely in our
will not be placed in the human mouth, and daily lives.
furthermore the recycling systems for waste cables/
wires have been set up within the society and are <Pipes and fittings>
working well. For applications other than electric In the past, Pb stabilizers were used for almost
cables, Ca-Zn stabilizers are used in the place of the all rigid PVC products. Today, octyl-Sn stabilizers
Pb stabilizers for indoor wiring and automobile wire conforming to FDA provisions and specified by JHPA
including wire harness.
57
are used in pipes for water supplies subsequent to

the revision of drinking water quality standards in <Other rigid PVC products>
1993. The same trend can be seen with hot water The major products under this category are window
supply systems. On the other hand, Pb stabilizers profiles, spouts and sidings. Ca-Zn stabilizers are
continue to be used for pipes other than water and phasing in increasingly to replace Pb stabilizers which
hot water supply systems. There is no adverse effect were the main plasticizers used for window profiles.
on wastewater or contacting soil, because water Pb or Sn stabilizers were used for rainwater spouts
does not penetrate into the pipe material and the in the past, but the moves to use non-Pb stabilizers
stabilizers would not elude or migrate out of the pipe. have already been commenced. Sn stabilizers have
Furthermore, Japan PVC Pipe and Fittings Association been used all along for construction materials such as
have already implemented the recycling systems sidings and transparent boards.
for end-of-life rigid PVC pipes and fittings, and the
systems are functioning satisfactorily.
(5) Demand trends in Pipe and Fittings Association set up a voluntary

PVC stabilizers standard in 1993 for water supply pipes to become Pb-
free before the Pb criteria in water quality standard
Fluctuations of PVC stabilizers are shown in Fig. 4-8. became stricter. As seen in such example, the use of
Although Pb stabilizers have superior properties as lead stabilizers are declining in recent years, and the
described above, there are concerns on the toxicity demand for Ca-Zn based PVC stabilizers is on the rise.
of Pb (metallic lead) used as raw material. The PVC
Fig. 4-8 Transition of shipment of PVC stabilizers

Unit: Tons
Types 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Pb stabilizers 31,360 30,125 27,008 24,399 23,921 21,823 19,538 18,176
Ba-Zn stabilizers 9,130 8,140 8,230 8,398 8,026 7,742 7,867 6,794
Ca-Zn stabilizers 9,614 8,750 9,281 10,614 11,666 11,383 12,260 11,967
Sn stabilizers 6,203 5,396 5,465 5,409 5,641 5,171 5,655 5,279
Organic stabilizing auxiliary 4,871 4,123 3,699 3,749 3,806 4,021 4,548 4,477
Total 61,178 56,534 53,683 52,569 53,060 50,140 49,868 46,693
Source: Japan Inorganic Chemical Industry Association
58
CHAPTER 5:
SERVICEABILITY OF
PVC AND
PVC PRODUCTS
In recent years, the impacts of industrial products

and their raw materials on the environment in all
phases of production, use and waste disposal have
drawn attention from the standpoint of global
environment and depletion of natural resources.
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) is highlighted as one
of the tools to evaluate quantitative impacts on
the environment, and its effectiveness has been
demonstrated.
Compared with other plastics, PVC products are
less dependent on oil, which is a fossil fuel, and are
chemically stable, therefore PVC is a plastic which
has suitable characteristics for production of durable
products.
In this chapter, the features of PVC and PVC
products will be explained based on LCA and physical
properties of PVC to help gain understanding on the
serviceability of PVC and PVC products.
CHAPTER 5 : SERVICEABILITY OF PVC AND PVC PRODUCTS
1. Effect of PVC and PVC Products

on the Global Environment
The energy consumption upon production of raw Contributes by producing long life products
materials and fabrication of plastics is considerably Plastics are often perceived as symbols of
small; therefore the total energy requirement for throwaway or single use. However, in reality plastics
production of end products is significantly smaller as are durable materials which do not rust or corrode.
compared with other materials. PVC is an exceptionally durable plastic, used in water
Of all plastics, PVC has excellent environmental
features such as low CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions
in the production phase, which contributes to the
Fig. 5-1 CO2 emissions upon production
prevention of global warming and saves resources and
energy. <Water pipes>
3 2.72
(15 cm diameter,
CO2104kg
per 1 km length)
Contributes to prevention of global warming
2
Upon considering the global warming issue, the
magnitude of CO2 emission for the material we
1 0.78
use throughout its lifecycle, from production to
consumption and disposal, is an important index. PVC
0
is proven as a material with minimal environmental PVC Steel
load in terms of CO2 emission, when compared with
<Agricultural green houses> 9.500
metal or glass products of the same application 10 (per 1 km2)
(Fig.5-1).
CO2106kg
Contributes to energy saving 6

PVC is an energy efficient plastic which saves
4
significant amounts of energy in the production stage
as compared with other plastics (Fig.5-2). 2
PVC window profiles have three times the heat 0.177 0.346
0
insulation efficiency of aluminum profiles, and are PVC Polyolefin Glass
compatible with the Next Generation Energy Saving
Standard. They cut down energy consumption for Source: Prepared from the survey report by Chem Systems
heating and air conditioning (Fig.5-3).
Contributes to saving natural resources

Fig. 5-2 Energy consumption up to the production stage of plastics
57% of PVC is made up of chlorine, which is derived
from natural salt that is abundant on earth. Therefore
Mcal/kg
PVC contributes significantly to saving oil, which is a
20
limited natural resource, in contrast to other plastics 16.38 16.53 17.26
15.70 16.25
whose composition depends entirely on oil. 14.35
15
10.85
10
0
PVC
PET
HDPE
PP
PS
LDPE
Expanded PS
Source: Prepared from "A report on LCI data for petrochemical products", PWMI
A house with plastic window frames and plastic siding
60
Fig. 5-3 Rate of heat loss
*1 The heat loss through single glazing aluminum profiles is defined as 100 for comparison.
*2 low-e : low emissivity
High Heat insulation Low

0 20 40 60 80 100 ( % )*1
Aluminum profiles (single glazing) 100
Aluminum profiles (double glazing) 71.4
PVC & aluminum hybrid profiles

(double glazing) 53.5
Double profiles
(aluminum profile + PVC inner window 35.7
(single glazing) (low-e*2 double glazing)
PVC & aluminum hybrid profiles 35.7

(low-e double glazing)
PVC profiles
(low-e double glazing) 35.7
Source: Prepared from "A document by the energy saving construction materials promotion center"
within the Federation of Construction Material Industries, Japan
supply and sewage pipes, which can be used for over

50 years. Much of PVC products are used in durable Fig. 5-4 Service life of plastics
applications. More than half of all PVC products are
> 15 years 2 - 15 years < 2 years Other
long life products with service lives of over 15 years,
which ultimately contributes to society (Fig.5-4).
PVC
Contributes to recycling
PVC is a material suitable for recycling. It has the HDPE
longest history of recycling among plastics, and it is
most advanced in mechanical recycling. For example, LDPE
about 68% of end-of-life agricultural films (agro-
films) were recycled and used for flooring, etc. in 2005 PS
(Fig.5-5).
ABS
PP
0 20 40 60 80 100
Source: Prepared from A plastics demand structure survey reportby the MITI
Fig. 5-5 Recycling of agro-films
recycled
About 68%
The Next Generation Energy-Saving Standard :

The revision of the Japanese Housing Energy Efficiency took 60~70 thousand tons
place in 1999, triggered by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol which (annual discharge quantity)
required 6% reduction of CO2 emission from the level in 1990.
Reduction standards, etc. for heat loss from openings (e.g.,
windows and entrances) of housing have been defined.
61
2. LCA for PVC and PVC Products
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) is a quantitative mainly composed of hydrocarbons from oil require
and objective method to evaluate environmental 8.301~10.710 Mcal/kg. PVC, of which more than half
loads (consumption of resource energy, emission of of its weight is composed of chlorine, requires 4.857
environmental load substances and wastes), through Mcal/kg, which amounts to less than half the resource
all phases of a product including resource extraction, energy needed for other plastics, meaning that it takes
production, use and waste disposal. It is important to half the load to the environment. The sum of process
collect and provide proper LCI (Life Cycle Inventory) energy and resource energy for PVC is 10.849 Mcal/kg,
data for correct LCA evaluations. which amounts to 65.6% of the sum needed for low-
density polyethylene (LDPE) (16.532 Mcal/kg), which is
widely used as packaging. PVC is an excellent material
(1) LCI Data for PVC with the least energy load (upper graph of Fig.5-6).
As for the environmental load of PVC, CO2 emission
According to the LCI data worked out by the Plastics from PVC is 1.430 kg/kg, which is higher than that of
Waste Management Institute (PWMI) for general polyolefin and lower than that of PS. NO X and SOX
purpose plastics, the process energy from extraction emissions from PVC are 2.131 g/kg and 1.941 g/kg
of oil to plastic production is 4.989~6.850 Mcal/kg, respectively, which are the lowest of all other plastics
and there is no remarkable difference between each (lower graph of Fig.5-6).
plastics. As for resource energy however, the plastics
Fig. 5-6 LCI data for production of general purpose plastics
<Energy consumption for plastics production>

(Mcal/kg) Resource energy
Process energy
18 16.381 17.257
16.532 15.699 16.250
16
14.352
14
12 10.233 10.407 10.849
10.689 10.710 10.623 8.301
10
8 4.857
6
4
2 5.843 4.989 5.627 6.147 6.850 5.992 6.052
0
LDPE HDPE PP PS Expanded PS PVC PET for bottles
<Environmental load of plastics production>

3.5 CO2
CO2=kg/kgNOX/SOX=g/kg
NOX
3.0 SOX
2.5
2.0
1.5
2.706 2,534 2.663 2.717 2.871 1.941 3.205
1.0 2.632 2.356 2.546 2.882 3.015 2.131 2.540
0.5 1.421 1.231 1.379 1.756 1.862 1.430 1.416
0
LDPE HDPE PP PS Expanded PS PVC PET for bottles
Source: Survey report for LCI data of petrochemical products by PWMI, July 1997
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) :

Method to evaluate the magnitude of resources life cycle (production, use, waste disposal evaluates from a comprehensive viewpoint. It
consumption and impacts on the environment and recycling) by overall analysis. Rather than has been highlighted as a guideline provider for
for a material or product throughout its whole focusing on the environmental load alone, it material selection and green procurement.
62
(2) LCI data for PVC products the processing energy is 2.006 Mcal/kg for flat plates,
0.580 Mcal/kg for pipes, and 2.252 Mcal/kg for agro-
Flat plates, pipes and agro-films are typical PVC films. Therefore the environmental load from pipes is
products. According to the results of LCI data research the smallest (upper graph of Fig.5-7).
by Japan PVC Environmental Affairs Council (JPEC),
Fig.5-7 LCI data for representative PVC products
<Energy consumption for PVC products>
(Mcal/kg) Processing energy

Material energy 13.211
14
11.597
12 10.855 2.252
2.006 0.580
10
8
6 10.959
9.591 10.275
4
2
0
Rigid PVC flat plates Rigid PVC pipes Agro-films
(extruded) (extruded) (calendered)
<Environmental load from PVC products>

6
CO2
5
NOX
(CO2 = kg/kg NOX/SO X = g/kg
4 SO X
5.711
3 5.784
2
2.077 1.957 2.304
1 2.248 2.154
1.662 1.485
0
Rigid PVC flat plates Rigid PVC pipes Agro-films
(extruded) (extruded) (calendered)
Source: "Report on Investigation of LCI Data Concerning PVC Products" October 1999, JPEC
Energy consumption from plastic processing pipes (medium diameter pipes for water supply):
originates from electric power requirements. In the 33.9% of ductile iron pipes, sewage pipes: 30.4% of
case of PVC products, the environmental load differs ductile iron pipes, agro-films: 73.7% of polyolefin
for processes that require steam (i.e. use of heavy oil) films (Upper graphs per product in Fig.5-8).
such as calendering, in comparison to extrusion (lower Similarly, the environmental loads of PVC products
graph of Fig.5-7). are reported to be lower than those made from other
Results of comparison between PVC products and materials - water pipes (small diameter pipes for water
non-PVC products of the same applications revealed supply): 81.9% of polyethylene pipes, water pipes
that the total energy consumption (sum of material (medium diameter pipes for municipal water supply):
energy and processing energy) of PVC products is 28.8% of ductile iron pipes, sewage pipes: 25.7% of
lower. Energy consumptions of PVC products amount ductile iron pipes, agro-films: 51.2% of polyethylene
to the following percentages of products made by films (Lower graphs per product in Fig.5-8 ).
other materials - water pipes (small diameter pipes
for water supply): 57.7% of polyethylene pipes, water
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) : Resource energy :

Accumulated set of quantitative data of for each phase of the life cycle (production, use, Evaluation in terms of calorific values of each
resources and energy consumption and emission waste disposal) for a product. Provides basic hydrocarbon sources used as raw materials.
in terms of various environmental load items data for life cycle assessments (LCA).
63
Fig. 5-8 Comparison of LCI data between PVC products and non-PVC products
<Small diameter pipes for water supply> <Medium diameter pipes for water supply>
(50 mm, per 1 km) (150 mm, per 1 km)
(thousand MJ) Total energy consumption (thousand MJ) Total energy consumption
100 97 1,200 1,102
80 56 1,000
Energy
(comparison with
Energy
800
60 PE pipes 57.7%) 374
600 (comparison with
40 ductile iron pipes 33.9%)
400
20 200
0 0
PVC pipes Polyethylene pipes PVC pipe Ductile iron pipes
kg CO2 emission kg CO2 emission

1,500 1,163 1,420 30,000 27,173
(comparison with
1,200 PE pipe 81.9%) 25,000
Environmental load
Environmental load
20,000
900
15,000 7,824
10,000 ductile iron pipes 28.8%)
300 5,000
0 0
PVC pipes Polyethylene pipes PVC pipes Ductile iron pipes
<Sewage pipes> (250 mm, per 1 km) <Agro-film> (per 1 km2)
(thousand MJ) Total energy consumption 1,797

(thousand MJ) Total energy consumption
1,800 10,000 8,962
1,600 6,603
8,000 (comparison with
1,400 PE films 73.7%)
Energy
1,200
6,000
1,000 546
Energy

ductile iron pipes 30.4%) 4,000
600
400 2,000
200
0 0
PVC pipes Ductile iron pipes PVC Polyolefin
kg CO2 emission kg CO2 emission 346,000

50,000 44,300 350,000
300,000
40,000
Environmental load
Environmental load
250,000 177,000
(comparison with
30,000 200,000 PE films 51.2%)
11,400
20,000 (comparison with 150,000
ductile iron pipe 25.7%) 100,000
10,000
50,000
0 0
PVC pipes Ductile iron pipes PVC Polyolefin
Source: Summarized and prepared based on the survey report by Chem Systems
64
SUMMARY : Comparison of LCI data (PVC products versus non-PVC products)
1) Comparison of environmental loads up to production with other various general purpose plastics
2) LCI data for water pipes, sewage pipe and agro-film
Example: pipes for water supply (small diameter, per 1 km) Example: pipes for water supply (medium diameter, per 1 km)
Small diameter (50mm) Medium diameter (150 mm)
PVC pipe PE pipe PVC pipes ductile iron pipes
(1.00 kg/m) (1.22 kg/m) (6.70 kg/m) (23.80 kg/m)
Energy consumption Energy consumption
(MJ) 5.6104 9.7104 (MJ) 37.4104 110.2104
CO2 (kg) 1,163 1,420 CO2 (kg) 7,824 27,173
NOX (kg) 8 3 NOX (kg) 51 77
SOX (kg) 11 2 SOX (kg) 76 89
Example: sewage pipes (per 1 km) Example: agro-films (per 1 km2 )

Medium diameter (250 mm)
PVC polyolefin
PVC pipes ductile iron pipes
(9.80 kg/m) (123 t/km2 ) (96 t/km2 )
(38.80 kg/m)
Energy consumption Energy consumption
(MJ) 54.6104 179.7104 (MJ) 660.3104 896.2104
CO2 (kg) 11,400 44,300 CO2 (kg) 177,000 346,000
NOX (kg) 75 126 NOX (kg) 690 520
SOX (kg) 111 144 SOX (kg) 860 330
65
(3) LCI data for mechanical Fig. 5-9 Environmental load of virgin PVC/recycled material
recycling
(1) pipes
Both rigid and flexible PVC waste has been widely
recycled from the early days. Compared with other Virgin
(Energy = Mcal/kg, CO2 = kg/kg, NOX/ SOX = g/kg)

12
materials, PVC is the most versatile upon mechanical 10.86
Recycled
recycling. Specialist recyclers collect PVC waste and 10
distribute them crushed for rigid PVC waste and in 8

the form of sheets or pellets for flexible PVC wastes.
6
These are reused as raw materials. For example,
the production energy of recycled pipes made from 4
2.50 2.154 1.957
rigid PVC waste is 2.50 Mcal/kg, which amounts to 2 1.485
0.483 0.499 0.440
20% of the energy required for production of pipes
made from virgin (new) PVC. Similarly, comparing 0
Energy CO2 NOX SOX
environmental loads, CO2 emission from recycled pipes
made from rigid PVC waste amounts to fewer than
40% of that required for pipes made from virgin PVC.
Likewise, NOX and SOX emissions amount to about
(2) flooring intermediate layer
20% respectively. As you can see, recycled PVC can be
Virgin

manufactured with less environmental load, yielding 8
comparable qualities (Fig.5-9(1)). 7.06 Recycled
The intermediate layer used in PVC flooring is 6
manufactured from flexible PVC sheet waste. The
production energy required for production of such 4
recycled intermediate layer amounts to about 30% 2.853
2.39
of the energy required for manufacture using virgin 2
1.703
PVC, and the environmental load amounts to 20~50% 1.071 0.517
0.516 0.655
(Fig.5-9(2)).
0
Furthermore, end-of-life PVC agro-films, which Energy CO2 NOX SOX
among flexible PVC waste has an advanced track
record upon collection and recycling, are reused as
material to be molded into new applications, with
little environmental load. Its production energy is less (3) agro-films
than 20% and CO2 , NOX and SOX emissions are about
Virgin
20% as compared to using virgin PVC (depending on 12

10.85
the composition of each resin) (Fig.5-9(3)). Recycled
10
Generally, environmental loads resulting
from production, processing, and recycling of 8
plastic products are far greater than those from 6

transportation or landfill. Environmental load
4
resulting from production of virgin resin represents 2.131
1.60 1.941
the largest proportion. 2 1.430
0.322 0.304 0.287
Mechanical recycling eliminates the environmental 0
load for final treatment such as incineration or landfill, Energy CO2 NOX SOX
and therefore makes up for the substantial load
resulting from virgin material production. Mechanical Source: Survey data by VEC
recycling is the most advanced recycling method for
PVC products.
Mechanical recycling : Virgin material :

Method of recycling where plastic wastes properties or loss of functionality due to mixture Colloquial term for materials manufactured
undergo treatment such as crushing and sorting, of foreign matters. Therefore PVC is a material entirely from unused raw materials, in other
and then recycled back into materials for plastic that can be mechanically recycled with ease. words made without using any recycled
products. PVC shows less degradation of physical materials.
66
3. Characteristics and Property
Modification of PVC
stress-strain behavior of PVC has little temperature

(1) PVC and PVC products dependence. Therefore various molding processes can
be employed for PVC:
PVC is an amorphous thermoplastic with significant
polarity within the polymer molecular structure, since
Calendering process rigid/flexible sheets, films
hydrogen and chlorine atoms are connected to the (compression molding)
main chain made up of carbon atoms. PVC itself comes Extrusion molding pipes, drain spouts, window
in the form of white fine powder with the average profiles, food wraps
Injection molding fittings, valves, machine parts
particle size of 100~150 m. The apparent density is Inflation molding films
0.4~0.7 g/cm2 , due to countless micro voids within the Blow molding bottles
particles.
Generally, ancillary materials (called additives) such
as thermal stabilizers, lubricants, pigments, and fillers
are added before the molding processes. Plasticizers (2) Characteristics of PVC products
in particular can change the moldability and property
of products considerably. It is possible to manufacture Fig.5-10 shows the general properties of rigid/
products with various physical properties from rigid flexible PVC products, respectively. The type and
to flexible, by adding plasticizers at the ratio of 0~120 composition of additives used at the time of molding
parts by weight to 100 parts of PVC resin. can yield different properties such as moldability, and
At temperatures over its softening point, the other characteristics of the molded product.
Fig. 5-10 Properties of PVC products
PVC polymer and (vinyl acetate) copolymer

ASTM test
Test items method Flexible Flexible
Rigid (without filler) (with filler)
Melting point Tg (amorphous) 72105 75105 75105
Compression molding temperature 140205 140176 140176
Compression molding pressure kg/cm2 53140 35140 35140
Moldability
Injection molding temperature 149213 160196 160196

Injection molding pressure kg/cm2 7032,812 5621,758 70140
Compression ratio 2.02.3 2.02.3 0.22.3
Molding shrinkage (linear shrinkage) cm/cm 0.0020.006 0.0100.050 0.0080.035
Specific gravity D792 1.301.58 1.161.35 1.31.7
Specific volume cm3/g 0.770.63 0.860.74 0.770.59
Tensile break strength kg/cm2 D638 415527 105246 70246
Tensile elongation at break % 4080 200450 200400
Mechanical properties
Tensile yield strength kg/cm2 415457

Tensile modulus kg/cm2 24,60042,200
Compressive strength kg/cm2 D695 562914 63120 70127
Bending strength kg/cm2 D790 7031,125
Young's modulus in flexure kg/cm2 (23 ) 21,10035,200
Izod impact strength cmkg/cm with notch D256A 2.212 Variable according to type
and amount of plasticizer
(3 mm thickness test piece)
Shore hardness D2240/D2583 6585 50100 50100
Shore D Shore A Shore A
Thermal conductivity 10-4 calcm/sec/cm2/
Thermal properties
C177 3.55.0 34(continued to 34

next page)
Specific heat cal/ /g 0.250.35 0.30.5 0.30.5
Coefficient of linear expansion 10-6cm/cm/ D696 50100 70250
Heat distortion temperature (bending load 18.6 kg/cm2) D648 6076
(bending load 4.6 kg/cm2) 5782 67
Volume resistance -cm D257 1016 10111015 10111014
(humidity50%temperature23 )
Voltage resistance (short time test)
Bending strength kg/cm2 D790 7031,125
Mechanic
Young's modulus in flexure kg/cm2 (23 ) 21,10035,200
Variable according to type
CHAPTER 5 Izod impact strength cmkg/cm
: SERVICEABILITY OFwithPVC
notch AND PVC PRODUCTS
D256A 2.212
and amount of plasticizer
(3 mm thickness test piece)
Shore hardness D2240/D2583 6585 50100 50100
Shore D Shore A Shore A
Thermal properties Thermal conductivity 10-4 calcm/sec/cm2/ C177 3.55.0 34 34
Specific heat cal/ /g 0.250.35 0.30.5 0.30.5
Coefficient of linear expansion 10-6cm/cm/ D696 50100 70250
Heat distortion temperature (bending load 18.6 kg/cm2) D648 6076
(bending load 4.6 kg/cm2) 5782
Volume resistance -cm D257 10 16
10 10
11 15
10 1014
11
(humidity50%temperature23 )
Voltage resistance (short time test) D149 350500 300400 250300
Electrical properties
(thickness 3 mm, V/mil)

Dielectric constant 60 Hz D150 3.24.0 5.09.0 5.06.0
1 KHz 3.03.8 4.08.0 4.05.0
1 MHz 2.83.1 3.34.5 3.54.5
Power factor 60 Hz 0.0070.020 0.080.15 0.101.05
1 KHz 0.0090.017 0.070.16 0.090.16
1 MHz 0.0060.019 0.040.14 0.090.10
Arc resistance sec D492 6080
Refractive index nD20
properties
D542 1.521.55
Optical
Light transmissibility % 7682

Haze % 818
Water absorption (24 hour, 3 mm thickness) % D570 0.040.4 0.150.75 0.501.0
Chemical properties
Sunlight influence Generally changes Changes according to stabilizer None-slight

Weak acid influence D543 None None None
Strong acid influence None-slight None-slight None-slight
Weak alkali influence None None None
Strong alkali influence None None None
Organic solvent influence not soluble in alcohol, aliphatic hydrocarbon or
oil/fat, either soluble or swells in ketone and
ester, swells in aromatic hydrocarbons
Source: Various annual editions of the Modern Plastics Encyclopedia
(3) Advantages and disadvantages advantages and disadvantages of PVC in terms of

of PVC products physical properties can be summarized as follows.
Disadvantages can be improved by polymer alloy
PVC is a general purpose plastic whose products which will be mentioned at (5) Property modification
strike an excellent cost-performance balance. The of PVC products.
<Advantages> <Disadvantages>
Superior mechanical properties Lack impact strength at low temperatures
Superior creep resistance Slightly low heat distortion temperature
Flexibility can be changed at ease using plasticizers (maximum temperature upon use)
Superior chemical resistance Leaching of plasticizers in the case of flexible PVC products
Transparence High viscoelasticity, not suitable for injection molding of
Superior adhesion properties and printability large-sized products
Fire resistant properties
Good electrical properties
For flexible PVC products, elastomer texture of
rubber or leather-like texture can be obtained
68
(4) Physical properties of among the molecular chains. Plastics can be
categorized according to the tensile stress-strain
PVC products curve (S-S curve) as one of the indexes for mechanical
strength. As shown in Fig.5-11, rigid PVC products are
mechanical properties
hard and robust, while flexible PVC products are soft
PVC is a polar polymer and its mechanical and tough.
properties are excellent due to strong interaction
Fig. 5-11 Classification of plastics by type of S-S curve
Features
Type Tensile Tensile Examples
modulus strength Elongation Others
A Soft and weak low low medium High-polymer soft gel

B Hard and brittle high medium~high low Break below yielding point General purpose PS, phenol resin
C Hard and robust high high medium Break around yielding point Rigid PVC , AS resin
low medium high Yielding point is low, Flexible PVC , LDPE
D Soft and resistant
medium medium~high high and the curve is flat HDPE, PP, ABS
E Hard and resistant high high high Yielding point is high Polyamide, PC
Source: "Plastics" , 46 (5), 90 (1995)
Specific mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of PVC product in
specific are as follows:
Tensile strength Fig. 5-12 Tensile strength of various plastics

Fig.5-12 shows the comparison
of tensile strength of PVC
PVC (rigid) 3462
products with other plastics. The
tensile strength is expressed in PVC (flexible) 6.925
terms of the maximum stress PS (general purpose) 3482
per unit area of the cross section 3459
ABS
when the test piece breaks by
PE (high density) 2238
applied loads to both ends of
the test piece. PP 2938
(an index to show the magnitude of 0 20 40 60 80 100
force at break, when both ends of Tensile strength (MPa)
the test piece are pulled apart) Source: Plastic materials guidebook, new edition by Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co. Ltd (1993)
Tensile modulus
Fig.5-13 shows the comparison Fig. 5-13 Young's modulus of various plastics
of tensile modulus of PVC
products with other plastics. The PVC (rigid) 2.54.1
tensile modulus is also known as
PS (general purpose) 2.74.1
the Young's Modulus, which is
PS (impact resistant) 1.43.2
expressed in terms of the ratio
between the tensile stress per ABS 2.32.7
unit area of the cross section HDPE 0.41.1
and the elongation in the LDPE 0.10.3
direction of the tensile stress.
PP 1.11.6
Plastics possessing large tensile
modulus have small stress-strain. Polyamide (nylon 6) 1.13.1
(an index to show the magnitude PC 2.5
of elongation, when a test piece
0 1 2 3 4 5
is pulled apart. It is like the
Modulus (103 MPa)
equivalent of the spring constant) Source: Prepared from the "Dictionary of practical plastic terms"
edited by Osaka City Industry Research Institute
69
Bending strength
Fig. 5-14 Bending strength of various plastics
Fig.5-14 shows the bending
strength of PVC products in
Rigid PVC 69114
comparison with other plastics.
It is expressed in terms of the PS 3472
maximum stress upon break of ABS 2593
the test piece, where the test PE 9.3
piece is supported at two points 7689
PC
apart and a vertical stress load is
applied at the center. 0 50 100 150 200
(an index to show the magnitude of Bending strength (MPa)
force at break, when the test piece Source: "Plastic materials guidebook, new edition" by Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co. Ltd.
is bent)
Fig. 5-15 Compressive strength of various plastics
Compressive strength Rigid PVC 5589

Fig.5-15 shows the PS (general purpose) 8289
compressive strength of PVC
ABS (general purpose ) 4552
products in comparison with
other plastics. It is expressed in HDPE (high density) 1925
terms of the maximum stress PP 3855
at break per unit area of the PC 6978
cross section, when a vertical
0 50 100 150
stress is applied to the test piece Compressive strength (MPa)
sandwiched by two pieces of the
Source: "Plastics guidebook" by the Osaka Municipal Technical Research Institute and others
test panel.
(an index to show the magnitude of
Fig. 5-16 Fatigue strength of various plastics
force at break of a cubic test piece,
i.e., resistance to crushing force) Fatigue strength at 107 times
Plastics application of external stress
Fatigue strength kg/mm2 MPa
Fig.5-16 shows the fatigue strength of PVC PVC 1.7 17
products in comparison with other plastics. 1.02 10.0
PS
It is expressed in terms of the maximum stress
PE 1.12 11.0
at which the test piece would not break after
applying repeated stress for 107 (10 million) times. PP 1.12 11.0
(the maximum stress, which the test piece can endure ABS 1.2 11.8
after repeated application of an external force).
Source: "Plastics almanac" by Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co. Ltd.
PVC is used for municipal water supply/sewage

pipes, spouts, frames, etc., since its mechanical
properties such as tensile strength and tensile modulus
are better than those of other general purpose olefin
plastics, and are robust and durable.
When plasticizers are added, PVC shows rubber- Fig. 5-17 Creep properties of various thermoplastics
like elasticity with high tensile strength and fatigue
strength, and used for industrial hoses, gaskets, 10 20 30 40
7
automobile parts, and electric cable covering in the
place of natural synthetic rubber. 6
PE
5
Creep strain (%)
4
Creep properties PP
Plastic products show creep phenomenon, 3
where product is deformed in room temperature 2
as time elapses when an external force is applied
1 PVC
continuously. The phenomenon is also known as
cold flow. When plastics are used for construction 1 2 3 4
or industrial applications, cold flow is an especially Stress (kg/mm2)
important point to be considered. Under normal Source: "Plastics" 21(6), 24 (1970)
70
environmental conditions, rigid PVC products show
very little creep and are superior in comparison with
other plastic products such as PE or PP, as shown in
Fig.5-17. Therefore, PVC is used in various interior and
exterior construction materials (e.g., ducts, panels,
window frames and decks) and electric or machine
parts.
Fig. 5-18 Effect of plasticizers (tensile strength, elongation)

kg/cm2
Plasticizing effects 800 1: Polyester adipate
PVC is a polar polymer with strong intermolecular 2: DEHP
3: DEHA
forces, therefore in room temperature it comes in a 600
Tensile strength
molded form. On the other hand, when plasticizer 2 1
is added upon fabrication, flexible PVC products are 3
obtainable. This is a major advantage of PVC. 400
PVC products without any plasticizers are called
rigid PVC products, while PVC products that include 200
plasticizers are called flexible PVC products. The
softness of the flexible PVC products is obtained as
a result of plasticizers coming between molecules to 0 0 10 20 30 40
separate them, reducing intermolecular forces.
400
Fig.5-18 shows the correlation between plasticizer
concentration and tensile strength and tensile
elongation of the molded product. It can be seen 200 3
Elongation
that as the concentration of plasticizer increases, the 2

1
softness of the flexible PVC products is enhanced,
0
resulting in a soft state that is easier to stretch. Since 0 10 20 30 40
rubber-like elasticity or pliable texture of leather is Plasticizer concentration (%)
obtainable, flexible PVC is used for packaging, hoses, Source: Encyclopedia of PVC, 2nd edition Vol.1, p.494 Leonard I.
automobile parts, synthetic leather and surfaces. Nass, Charles A. Heibergen (Marcel Dekker Inc.)
Chemical resistance Fig. 5-19 Chemical resistance of various plastics

Since the main chain of the polymer is comprised and relative indexes
of single bonds of carbon atoms, PVC has excellent Relative resistance
chemical resistance, as with other general-purpose Oxidizing agents
olefin plastics such as PE, PP, or PS. Fig.5-19 shows the Plastics
solvents
Organic
Alkalis
chemical resistance of PVC in comparison with other

Acids
Salts
plastics. Some of the engineering plastics and specialty

resins are susceptible to acid or alkali, and some Nylon 66 7 10 7 3 2
plastics have excellent chemical resistance properties, PC 6 10 1 7 6
such as polyfluorocarbons. PVC has excellent chemical Polyester (chemical resistant) 6 10 4 7 6
resistance together with mechanical properties, PE 5 10 10 10 8
therefore used for chemical storage tanks, plastic Polyfluorocarbon 10 10 10 10 10
Polymethyl methacrylate 4 10 7 9 4
valves/flanges, drainage/sewage pipes, and plant
PP 5 10 10 10 8
piping. PS 2 10 10 10 4
PU 8 10 6 6 4
PVC (flexible) 4 10 9 10 6
PVC (rigid) 6 10 10 10 9
ABS 4 10 8 9 4
Epoxy resin 6 10 7 9 2
NOTE : The 1~10 scale has been set by empirical means.
Higher value shows higher effectiveness.
Source: "Plastic almanac" by Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co. Ltd.
71
Transparency Fig. 5-20 Haze value and gloss value of various films
PVC is an amorphous polymer; therefore its
products are basically transparent. Non-transparent Haze value Gloss value
Films
PVC products are thus since they are manufactured (%) (%)
using compounding agents that are non-compatible.
High-pressure process PE
The haze value is used to measure the transparency (inflation molding) 515 65
of plastic products. This value is a percentage value
calculated by dividing the diffused light transmittance High-pressure process PE
(T-die extrusion) 210
of the test piece with the total light transmittance.
It is also possible to manufacture PVC products with Medium-low pressure process PE
superior gloss. Gloss is expressed in terms of gloss (inflation molding) 1575 22
value, which usually shows the amount of reflected Medium-low pressure process PE
light from the test piece compared to amount of (T-die extrusion) 210 65
reflected light from glass (amount from glass defined
as 100%). Fig.5-20 shows the haze value and gloss Non-drawn PP
(T-die extrusion) 23 7075
value of PVC films compared with other films made of
generous purpose plastics. The smaller the haze value Biaxial drawn PP 1.52 80
the higher the transparency, and higher gloss values 12 79.5
Rigid PVC
indicate higher gloss.
Rigid PVC products which have high transparency
Source: "Plastic films: processing and applications"
are used in construction materials such as daylighting, by Gihodoh Shuppan Co., Ltd.
transparent partitions for clean rooms, or industrial
flat plates, corrugated panels, wrap films, and films
for photo albums. Examples of flexible PVC products
requiring transparency are wrap films, agro-films, and
transparent bags.
Adhesion properties and printability Fig. 5-21 Adhesion property and printability of various plastics
Adhesion properties and the printability of plastic
are also due to the molecular structure of polymers. Adhesion
Structure Properties properties-
Generally, polar and amorphous structures offer Printability
better properties. In contrast, the non-polar and
PVC Good
crystalline structure inherently causes difficulty in
adhesion and printing, unless the product surface is Thermo- PS Good
Polar/Amorphous
treated and effectiveness of such surface treatment is plastics Polycarbonate Good

comparatively low. Fig.5-21 shows the adhesion and
Polymethyl methacrylate Good
printing properties of major plastics.
PVC has excellent adhesion properties and Thermo- PU Good
printability, and is used for the decoration or design- sets Epoxy resin Good
oriented products such as wall covering, flooring,
Polyester (PET) Good
polar/Crystalline
synthetic leather, displays, and stone or wood grain Thermo-

printed films. PVC is also used as adhesive/paint by plastics Polyamide (Nylon) Good
mixing with water or solvent.
Thermo-
sets
HDPE Poor
Non-polar/Crystalline
Thermo-
plastics LDPE Poor
PP Poor
Thermo- Polyimid Poor
sets Silicon resin Poor
Source: Prepared by VEC
72
Fire retarding property Fig. 5-22 Oxygen index of various plastics
One of the major drawbacks of plastics which are
Self-extinguishing plastics
entirely derived from petroleum is their flammability.
Materials Oxygen index
In contrast, PVC is a fire resistant plastic, the only
exception among the general-purpose plastics, since
Polytetrafluoroetylene 95.0
more than 50% of its component is derived from salt.
PVC 4549
When PVC products are burned, hydrogen chloride gas
resulting from thermal cracking stops the continuous PC 2628
combustion reaction and prevents burning progress by Nylon 66 2429
warding off the PVC product surface from oxygen in PET 20.0
the air.
PS 17.618.3
There may be many ways of evaluating the fire
retarding properties, but the oxygen index can PP 17.4
PE 17.4
be used for the evaluation with a comparatively
high precision and reproducibility of the results.
Source: M.M. Hirschier "Macromol. Chem."
It represents the minimum oxygen concentration Macromol. Symp. Vol.29, p.133~153, 1989
required for the test piece to continue burning in
mixed gas of oxygen and nitrogen. When the value fire resistant, it is widely used in exterior construction
is higher, the fire retarding property is higher. Since materials such as window profiles, siding boards, or
the oxygen concentration in the air is 21%, a plastic interior housing materials, such as wallcovering and
with an oxygen index greater than 22 has self- flooring. It is also used in industrial facilities such
extinguishing property, while a plastic with oxygen as tanks, ducts, parting strips, or for sign boards,
index smaller than 21 is flammable. Since PVC is highly corrugated boards, and cable coverings.
Electrical characteristics since higher fire resistant properties are required for
The electrical characteristics of PVC such as electrical electrical components, PVC is used widely in a variety
insulating properties or dielectric constant are of applications such as electric cables for residential
excellent. To express electrical insulating properties, buildings, vehicles, household electrical appliances,
volume resistivity or dielectric strength is widely cable coverings, insulating tapes, switch boxes,
used as an index. The volume resistivity is expressed wire coverings, and protecting tubes for power and
in terms of electrical resistance calculated per unit telecommunications cables.
volume of the test piece. The dielectric strength Fire resistant properties can also be given to olefin
is expressed in terms of the magnitude of voltage plastics such as PE and PP by crosslinking treatment
withstood without destruction of the test piece or by adding large quantities of fire retardants, but
when a specified amount of voltage is charged for a it would be difficult for these plastics to compete
specified period of time. In both cases, greater value with the versatility of flexible PVC whose softness can
means better electrical characteristics. As shown in be controlled with ease and can be easily material-
Fig.5-23,24, the volume resistivity of PVC products is recycled.
slightly lower than those of olefin resin products, but Apart from its excellent electrical insulating
Fig. 5-23 Volume resistivity of various materials Fig. 5-24 Dielectric strength of various materials
Value Materials
Materials (-cm) Rubber
PE 16
10 10 20
Ceramics
PP 10161020 Thermoplastics
PS 10171019 Thermosets
Tetrafluoroethylene 10151019
Various plastics
PVC 10141016
(flexible)
PVC
(rigid)
Methacrylate 10141015
PP
PU 10131015
Nylon 10131014 PS
PE
Polyester 10121014
Neoprene 10111013
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Epoxy resin 1081014 Dielectric strength (kV/mm)
Source: "Plastics almanac" by Kogyo Chosakai Source: "Plastic utilization: 3rd edition", "Introduction to plastics:
Publishing Co. Ltd., p.422, 1976 fully revised edition" by Kogyo Chosakai Publishing Co., Ltd
73
properties, PVC also features large dielectric Fig. 5-25 Dielectric constant of various plastics
losses. Due to this feature, high frequency welding
(gluing) is possible, making secondary processing Frequency (Hz)
easier. Fig.5-23 shows the dielectric constant (which Plastics
1103 1106 1108
correlates to dielectric losses) of PVC in comparison to
those of other plastics. PE -12 2.37 2.35 2.33
Production of wide films/sheets as well as bags, PVC 25 4.55 3.3
covers, files, and pouches of various size and shape PS 25 2.542.56 2.542.56 2.55
would be easier by such welding process. For PE 25 3.224.3 3.124.0 2.942.98
example, welded PVC products are used for bags for
Source: "Polymeric Materials Encyclopedia"
medical applications, air inflated toys and flexible by J.S. Salamone. p.8949, CRC Press (1996)
containers.
Fig. 5-26 Specific gravity of various plastics

Specific gravity (density)
The true specific gravity of PVC is about 1.4, Plastics Specific gravity
which is comparatively heavy among plastics, as
with PET. This could be a disadvantage depending LDPE 0.910.93
on the application. By taking advantage of the fact HDPE 0.940.97
that PVC does not float in water, it is used in water PP 0.900.91
sealing sheets for agricultural water reservoir or PS 1.041.07
swimming pools, or revetment materials for rivers PVC 1.351.45
and gulfs. ABS 0.991.10
As for flexible PVC products, the specific gravity Polyester 1.381.39
falls within the 1.1~1.3 range depending on the PC 1.2
amount of plasticizer used, which is slightly lower Nylon 66 1.131.15
than that of rigid PVC. Teflon 2.12.2
Source: "Polymer dictionary" by Taiseisha Co., Ltd (1970)
Heat distortion temperature (softening Fig. 5-27 Heat distortion temperature of various plastics
temperature) (Load 18.6 kg/cm2)
The molecular structure of PVC is comprised of Heat distortion temp.
Plastics
continuous carbon - carbon single bonds in the ()
main chain. As this main chain is highly flexible, PVC 5480
PVC products have the disadvantage of having
PS (general purpose) 104
low heat distortion temperature (softening
PS (impact resistant) 99
temperature) compared with other plastics of the
ABS 104106
similar molecular structure. Fig.5-27 and Fig.5-28
HDPE 4349
show the thermal deformation temperature and the
LDPE 3241
softening temperature (called theVicat softening
PP 5764
temperature) of major plastics. The heat distortion
PC 130138
temperature is the temperature when the test
piece placed in the heat medium with bending load Source: "Practical dictionary of plastic terminology" edited
applied reaches specified deflection as temperature by the Osaka Municipal Technical Research Institute
rises. Vicat softening temperature is defined as the
temperature where the needle shaped penetrator Fig. 5-28 Vicat softening temperature of various plastics
sinks into the test piece to a specified depth as (1 kg load)
temperature of the heating medium rises and
Measured value
specified vertical load is set to the test piece. Plastics
()
PS 102.5
ABS 102.3
PVC 92.0
PC 156.2
PE 127.3
PP 152.2
Source: report by Japan Society for Testing Plastics, 1972
74
Impact strength absorbed by test pieces when they are fixed and
The glass transition temperature (second order hammered to break (impact failure). Higher values
transition point) of PVC is over 70 , which is higher show higher impact strength.
than room temperature, representing low impact Fig.5-30 shows the relation between the
strength. Having poor impact resistance especially at temperature and the impact strength of major
low temperature range is one of the disadvantages plastics.
of PVC. There are many ways to measure impact
strength. Fig.5-29 shows the results of energies Fig. 5-30 Impact strength and temperature for various plastics
Fig.5-29 Impact strength of various plastics 140
Charpy impact (kgcm/cm2 kJ/m2)

120 HDPE
High pressure PE not broken
LDPE
Low pressure PE 100
(kgcm/cm2kJ/m2)
PP 80
Rigid PVC 60
PS
40 Rigid PVC
ABS
PC 20
PS
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0
Notched impact strength k (kgcm/cm2 kJ/m2) -50 -30 -10 0 10 20 40 60 80
Temperature ()
Source: K. Oberbach: Z.f. Werkstofftechnik, 2.281 (1971) Source: "Plastics" 22(5), 28 (1971)
Bleeding and volatilization of plasticizers

Fig. 5-31 Volatilization of phthalate plasticizers
Plasticizers may sometimes bleed or be volatilized
from the surface of the PVC product after years of use.
Weight loss of test sheet upon heating (wt.%)
Plasticizers may also migrate to other materials which

come in contact with PVC products. Such cases can be
20 DOP
seen when plasticizers of low-molecular weights or DHP
(DEHP)
low compatibility (low miscibility) are used, or when
large amounts of plasticizers are used, and these are 15
disadvantages of flexible PVC products. Fig.5-31 shows DnOP
the result of accelerated tests on the volatilization of
plasticizers. Test sheets using plasticizers are heated in 10
an oven. Heat loss (weight loss) due to volatilization of
plasticizers is shown on the graph. DIDP
5
0
15 60 135 240
Heating time (hrs) Oven temp. 165
Source: "Revised practical manual for plastics and
rubber additives" by Kagaku Kogyosha
75
(5) Property modification of PVC of rigid PVC products can be modified. Fig.5-32 shows
products the outline of property modification through polymer
alloy.
Since PVC has high polarity and high compatibility Other than the polymer alloy technique,
with a variety of other high-performance plastics, it modifications on heat resistance etc. can be made
is possible to mix these to form polymer alloys with possible by selecting plasticizers with high molecular
ease. By polymer alloy techniques, the disadvantages weight.
Fig. 5-32 Property modification of PVC by polymer alloy
EVA
Ethylene-vinyl
acetate copolymer
NBR CPE
W
Acrylonitrile Co eathe Chlorinated
Impact resistance
st, ra
Freeze resistance
butadiene rubber Pro bili polyethylene
Fre ce ty, e,
Processability
Anti migration
ssa c
Oil eze bili tan
res res ty r e sis ity
i
ista sta ct bil
nc nce pa sa
e , El Im oces
High elasticity,
ast
icit Pr High fluidity, Heat resistance,
Abrasion resistance, Flexibility y, Impact resistance
TPU PVC Fire retardance
ABS
Processability, Cost
Im
Thermoplastic ility pa
Impact resistance
ib Acrylonitrile-butadiene-
polyurethane lex Pro ct res
Heat resistance
styrene
y, F
Processability
i t ce ista
sti c , ssa nc
ce
h ela istan tance bili
ty
e
Hig e res resis
ez on
Fre rasi
TPEE Ab MBS
Thermoplastic Methacrylate
polyester elastomer Acrylic resin butadiene styrene
Source: Polymer alloy utilization, edited by Takashi Inoue, Kogyo Chosakai (1992)
Impact resistance
Generally, in order to improve the impact resistance Fig. 5-33 Effect of blending impact modifiers
of PVC products, impact modifiers (toughening
agents) which have rubber-like properties such as 150 ABS
ABS, MBS, acrylic rubber, chlorinated polyethylene or 20
EVA, are mixed with PVC. Sufficient impact resistance
Izod impact strength (kgcmcm-1)
MBS
for practical use can be obtained by blending 5~20
EVA CPE
weight parts of these impact modifiers to 100 weight 100
parts of PVC. The impact modifier in the form of micro
particles is dispersed within the molecular structure
of PVC. When the PVC products receive impact, these
EVA (Ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer)
micro particles in the molecular structure absorb
50 ABS (Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene)
the impact energy and prevent damages to the PVC
MBS (Methacrylate butadiene styrene)
product.
PVC whose impact resistance is modified is used CPE (Chlorinated polyethylene)
in a wide range of applications including exterior
0
construction materials (window frames, siding), 0 5 10 15 20 25
industrial boards, impact resistant water pipes, rigid Amount of impact modifier (phr)
PVC packaging (blister packs, caps, casings), surface
protecting films, or electrical parts (connectors). Source: PVC and polymers by Mitsui Polychemical, 19(12), 26 (1979)
76
chlorinated PVC, respectively.
Heat distortion temperature PVC with enhanced heat resistance is used for
(softening temperature) heat resistant rigid PVC pipes, such as hot water
In order to enhance the heat resistance, heat supply pipes or electric cable protecting tubes, and
distortion temperature or softening temperature of instrument panels of vehicles.
PVC products, heat resistant resins such as ABS resins, On the other hand, soft PVC products with modified
-methylstyrene copolymers, or after-chlorinated heat resistance are used for heat resistant cable
PVC is usually blended. Fig.5-34 and Fig.5-35 show covering and others, by blending the high-polymer
the improvement of the softening temperature by plasticizer.
blending ABS as an example, and the improvement of
thermal deformation temperature by blending after-
Fig. 5-34 Effect of blending heat resistant ABS Fig. 5-35 Effects of blending after-chlorinated PVC
Condition for vicat softening temperature: 1 kg load
Heat distortion temp. ( at 18.5 kg/cm2)

120 100
"Ther-alloy" A-15
Sekisui PVC-HA 31K
90
Vicat
110
100 80
90 70
80 60
PVC 100 80 60 40 20 HA 100 50 0
"Ther-alloy" 0 20 40 60 80 PVC 0 50 100
PVC/ "Ther-alloy" (phr) Blending ratio (%)
Source: Extracted from a technical document by Kaneka Corporation Source: Extracted from a catalogue by Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd.
Fig. 5-36 Effect of polyester plasticizer for

Prevention of plasticizer bleed prevention of volatile loss
and volatilization
s
In order to prevent bleeding, volatilization or
10 part
migration of plasticizers to other materials from soft
P 50
PVC products, plasticizers with high molecular weight DO
or high compatibility with PVC is adopted. Fig.5-36 8
rts
2.5 +
shows an example where a polyester plasticizer with

r 1 arts
pa
ste 5 p
the molecular weight of 1,500 is used to replace s+ s

Volatile loss
6 art art
lye 37.
DOP, which is a general-purpose plasticizer with the 5 p r 25 p

Po OP
P e2
DO lyest
D
molecular weight of 390. Test pieces are placed in an

oven of 160 and rates of weight loss are measured to 4 Po
arts +
represent volatilization of plasticizers as time elapses. P 1 2.5 p 7.5 parts
DO ester 3
On the other hand, plasticizer free flexible PVC 2 Poly
rts
products are manufactured as in the case of graft Polyester 50 pa
polymerized EVA (ethylene vinyl-acetate copolymer)
and PVC, or a terpolymer composed of ethylene-vinyl 0
0 20 40 60 80
acetate-carbon monoxide. Heating time (min)
PVC including non-migrating or non-bleeding * PVC 100 parts, plasticizer 50 parts, 160 geer oven
plasticizers at high temperatures is used for electric/
Source: "Revised practical manual for plastic
electronic parts and heat resistant cables. Some of the and rubber additives" by Kagaku Kogyosha
non-migrating type plasticizers are used for medical
bags/tubes or industrial hoses. Artificial leather and After-chlorinated PVC :
gaskets manufactured with volatilization preventive It is a thermoplastic manufactured by further reacting PVC with
chlorine, also known as chlorinated PVC or CPVC. The chlorine
content of regular PVC is 56.8%, but that of CPVC is 60~70%. As
a result, the heat distortion resistance, fire resistance, electrical
insulating properties and chemical resistance are further improved.
77
78
CHAPTER 6:
BRIEF HISTORY AND
DATA REGARDING
THE JAPANESE PVC
INDUSTRY
This chapter introduces a brief history of PVC,
which has the longest history among general purpose
plastics, dating back to the postwar period (initial
phase) and its growth thereafter to mark 2.5 million
tons of production per year. Related information such
as the transition of production and shipment, the
growth of the PVC industry in the world, the position
of the Japanese PVC market, and the unique features
of the PVC industries and markets in Japan, the U.S.
and EU will also be explained though comparison of
data per application.
The excellent physical properties of PVC are
highly regarded globally. PVC will sustain its broad
applications and would further expand in construction
materials such as window profiles and sidings.
CHAPTER 6 : BRIEF HISTORY AND REGARDING THE JAPANESE PVC INDUSTRY
1. Brief History of the Japanese PVC Industry through
Fig. 6-1 Transition of PVC production in Japan (calendar year)

Thousand tons
3,000
PVC Association of Japan
Initial phase Development phase (technology introduction) Boom phase (upsizing Structural reform
(domestic technology)
(Active exports of PVC
2,500 production technologies)
First VCM center by oxychlorination process
The 1st oil crisis

2,000
Introduction of oxychlorination process
The Nixon Shock

Switch from emulsion to suspension polymerization
Introduction of the EDC process

1,500
2nd largest production in the world
1,000
carcinogenicity by VCM
Commercialization
Countermeasures
for plastic wastes
Production broke
1 million ton mark
Measures for
500
0
'46 '47 '48 '49 '50 '51 '52 '53 '54 '55 '56 '57 '58 '59 '60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65 66 '67 '68 '69 '70 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '
(1) Initial phase (1937~1951) (2) Development phase (1952~1965)

In 1941, Nippon Chisso Hiryo K.K. produced the In 1952, Zeon Corporation (former Geon) imported
first PVC in Japan via emulsion polymerization using the suspension polymerization process from B.F.
VCM made of acetylene synthesis method, and Goodrich Chemicals Co. of the U.S. and started
marketed with the trade name "Nipolit". However, commercial production. In 1953, the PVC Association
the production was terminated in the post World of Japan was established. Suspension polymerization
War II period. In 1946, the Yokohama Rubber Co., Ltd process replaced the emulsion polymerization process
and Tokyo Shibaura Electric Co., Ltd (todays Toshiba) as the mainstream production method, which initiated
restarted the test production of PVC for electric cable the full-fledged industrial production of PVC in Japan.
covering, and 18 companies subsequently started In those days, VCM, which is the raw material of PVC,
commercial production of PVC by 1952. Industrial was produced from acetylene produced by carbide,
production of PVC applications was achieved in and chlorine produced as by-product from electrolysis
succession, such as general purpose films in 1947, upon caustic soda production, or as by-product from
synthetic leather in 1949, agro-films and rigid PVC potassium chloride production.
pipes in 1951. PVC products were highlighted as epoch making
80
Production Volume
the PVC Industry Association the PVC Industry Association VEC

ructural reform phase (intensive production, new application development) Restructuring and counter-environmental issues phase
polymerization
Innovation to
processes
Countermeasures
for dioxins issues
Hollowing out
of the industry
Establishment of Japan PVC Environmental Affairs Council (JPEC)

The 2nd oil crisis
The Heisei
recession
Pilot study on feedstock for blast furnaces

Promulgation of Container and Packaging Recycling Law
Break up of the joint sales companies and reorganization
Establishment of Japan PVC Recycle Promoting Council
2 million ton mark
Production broke
Recession
caused by
the strong
yen
carcinogenicity by VCM
Production facility
closedown
joint sales companies
Establishment of four
Measures for (450 thousand

structural reform tons : 22%)
4 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '89 '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07
innovations previously unheard of, and a series of industry started to study on possible raw material
exhibitions were held from 1954 at major commercial switchovers and dispatched survey teams to Europe.
facilities such as Nihonbashi Shirokiya department In 1963, Kaneka Corporation imported the "EDC
store, Kintetsu department store, and Ohtemachi process" for VCM manufacturing from UCC of the U.S.
Sangyo Kaikan. In addition to consumer products such In 1965, Mitsubishi Monsanto Kasei Co., imported
as synthetic leather shoes, watchstraps and handbags, the "oxychlorination VCM production process" from
industrial products such as water pipes, cable Monsanto, U.S. Subsequently, several manufacturers
coverings and agro-films drew the attention of citizens started to use this production process, forming
and industries alike. mass production systems for PVC as a petrochemical
Subsequently, construction material applications product. As a result of increased PVC production, the
expanded to include corrugated boards, flooring demand for chlorine exceeded that for caustic soda in
tiles etc. In 1959, Japan became the second largest 1965, and this trend continues today.
PVC producer country in the world with 179,000
tons/year, exceeding production in the UK. As a result,
securing chlorine and hydrocarbon sources became
an impending issue in Japan, and the Japanese PVC
81
prepared and distributed to appeal to various public

(3) Boom phase (1966~1974)
and private sector organizations. In the same year,
In 1966, the Ministry of International Trade and the PVC Industry established the "plastic waste
Industry (MITI, METI at present) announced its VCM disposal research association" (the present Plastic
center plan. Two years later, Kashima VCM center Waste Management Institute, PWMI) jointly with the
which was jointly established by Shin-Etsu Chemical Japan Petrochemical Industry Association and the
Co. and Kaneka Corporation etc. started up in Japan Plastic Industry Federation, to cope with waste
1968, accelerating the establishment of large-scale disposal issues.
production facilities. In 1969, PVC production in Japan In 1972, "Japan PVC Industry Association" was
exceeded one million tons for the first time. formed, and "VCM conference" was merged to it.
In November 1970, disposal issues of PVC waste were Along with the Japanese economic boom, demands
taken up at the regular Diet session (Pollution Diet). for PVC and VCM grew largely, and MITI made a
The Japanese PVC industry had jointly established request to the industry to secure supply at the time of
a "PVC waste disposal measures conference" with the First Oil Crisis in 1973.
related PVC converting industries in April 1970, In 1974, carcinogenicity of VCM was reported in the
establishing systems to cope with the situation by U.S. Our association established voluntary standards
the industry as a whole. In 1971, "situation and for the working environment of VCM production
measures to deal with plastic waste issues" was plants.
Fig. 6-2 Transition of PVC production (1945~2007, calendar year)

Unit : Tons
Structural reform Restructuring and

Initial phase Development phase Boom phase counter-environmental
phase issues phase
1937 small-scale 1952 9,667 1966 489,664 1975 1,106,126 1991 2,024,386
1944 production
1953 16,203 1967 711,099 1976 1,022,588 1992 1,952,020
1945 0
1954 21,960 1968 941,778 1977 1,026,622 1993 1,940,401
1946 0.5
1955 32,210 1969 1,047,078 1978 1,200,322 1994 2,077,418
1947 5
1956 55,852 1970 1,162,058 1979 1,581,477 1995 2,223,763
1948 3
1957 108,905 1971 1,019,269 1980 1,413,191 1996 2,473,235
1949 190
1958 91,160 1972 1,079,248 1981 1,105,981 1997 2,607,172
1950 1,493
1959 179,247 1973 1,313,098 1982 1,191,828 1998 2,470,391
1951 5,085
1960 257,561 1974 1,459,230 1983 1,400,436 1999 2,466,007
1961 307,526 1984 1,487,011 2000 2,397,963
1962 303,144 1985 1,529,943 2001 2,195,220
1963 348,061 1986 1,511,625 2002 2,212,337
1964 473,376 1987 1,634,701 2003 2,147,923
1965 482,992 1988 1,809,378 2004 2,131,270
1989 1,940,746 2005 2,122,210
1990 2,015,782 2006 2,105,097
(NOTE) Figures for 1946~1951 are fiscal year (Apr-Mar) based,
while the figures after 1952 are calendar year (Jan-Dec) based. 2007 2,121,766
Source: VEC
(4) Structural reform phase and to enhance international competitive edge.

(1975~1990) In 1982, four joint sales companies were established
prior to the enactment of the Law Concerning Special
After 1975, a depression cartel was formed under Measures for the Stabilization of Specified Industries.
guidance of MITI in order to adjust the demand- On the other hand, the production technology
supply discrepancies due to excessive competitions and of the Japanese PVC Industry has been clearly
imports. At the same time, production and sales was established to be the highest level in the world,
rationalized as part of structural reform, in order to since PVC production processes and plants were
meet the requirements of sustainable growth phase exported, and establishment of overseas production
82
subsidiaries were actively deployed in the U.S., Europe volume of PVC wastes generated.
and other Asian countries by Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., The Japanese PVC industry successfully overcame
Tosoh Corporation, Kaneka Corporation, Tokuyama the business recession due to the strong yen which
Corporation, Mitsubishi Monsanto Chemical Co. started from 1985. Partially due to joint efforts with
(V-Tech Corporation at present), etc. the PVC converter industries for quality improvement,
In 1983, a professor of Ehime University announced domestic PVC demand increased further in housing
that dioxins were detected from municipal waste construction materials, automobiles and electronic
incinerators, which triggered the issue to become a products, and in 1990, the domestic PVC production
matter of public concern. The Japanese PVC industry exceeded 2 million tons for the first time. Prior to that,
promptly established a "subcommittee for measures "PVC Association of Japan" changed its designation to
against dioxins", and in 1981 confirmed that there "Japan PVC Industry Association" in May 1987.
was no correlation between dioxins emission and the
(5) Restructuring and counter- In January 1998, the Japanese PVC industry
environmental issues phase established the "PVC Environmental Association" as
(1991~2007) a succeeding organization to the special committee
for measures to deal with environmental issues,
From 1987 to 1992, attempts were made to find as measures for the PVC de-selection trend which
ways to realize a recycle oriented society, such as had become critical and to bear responsibilities not
"The Limits to Growth" by the Club of Rome and only as the PVC resin industry, but also as the PVC
propositions at the Rio Summit to prevent global related industries as a whole. During May of the
warming. Our association established the "Japan PVC same year, "Japan PVC Industry Association" and
Recycle Promoting Council" jointly with PVC processor "PVC Environmental Association" merged to form the
industries under the guidance from MITI in order present "Vinyl Environmental Council (VEC)".
to effectively utilize used PVC products. The council In 1999, mass media reports on dioxins pollution
deployed various model recycling activities for rigid in Tokorozawa, Saitama Prefecture, brought back
PVC products such as PVC bottles and egg packaging, attention on waste incineration issues, and a
jointly with soy sauce manufacturers and consumers "campaign to ban PVC products to prevent mixing into
cooperative, prior to the enactment of the Container waste streams" was launched widely, and the societys
and Packaging Recycling Law in 1995. view on PVC industries as a whole became tougher.
Around 1997 when PVC production in Japan peaked, As a result of actions by the Japanese government
PVC was suspected to cause dioxins generations upon such as legal regulations including the "Law
combustion, and coupled with the endocrine disrupter Concerning Special Measures against Dioxins" and
issue related to phthalate plasticizers, the trend moved the "PRTR Law" in 1999, the level of dioxins emission
further towards PVC avoidance. In 1997, "Japan PVC was cut drastically. As of today, there are almost no
Recycle Promoting Council" was reorganized and sensational mass media reports or attacks on PVC.
renamed to "Japan PVC Environmental Affairs Council VEC has been promoting activities to establish the
(JPEC)", and besides PVC recycling they started to PVC industry that contributes to health and safety,
cover environmental issues comprehensively. having self awareness of responsibilities for safe
Recycling of used PVC pipes initiated by Japan PVC management through "Responsible Care" and "HPV"
Pipe and Fittings Association in this period showed (high production volume chemicals) by the OECD.
significant progress, and sewage pipes manufactured Simultaneously, amount of export increased largely,
from regenerated PVC were approved as specified mainly to China. In 1997, the production of PVC in
items for green procurement in March 2003. Along Japan peaked at 2.6 million tons. On the other hand,
with pipes, flooring, wallcovering, spouts and window some companies withdrew from the business due to
profiles were also specified to be labeled under sluggish domestic demands which reflected the long
the "Law for Promotion of Effective Utilization of term economic recession. As of April 2008 there are
Resources". The Japanese PVC industry actively backed 10 member companies within VEC.
up the efforts of these industries.
83
(6) Our stride towards future civil work materials, electrical cables, films and sheets
developments etc. There are also new useful applications such as
heat insulating window profiles, which are highly
In May 2003, JFE Steel Corp. started its recycling tests effective for reduction of CO2 emissions. The present
using agro-films, pipes etc. at a 3,000 tons/year facility, growth of PVC in the world is proof.
to prepare for its full fledged industrial operation of We firmly believe that our efforts to protect these
blast furnace feedstock preparation from used PVC application fields from ungrounded rumors and to
products. It is a new recycling system jointly developed make the usefulness of PVC widely known will meet
by JFE Steel, PWMI, and VEC, with financial support the benefits of citizens and the national economy,
from NEDO (the New Energy and Industrial Technology enabling coexistence of the environment and the
Development Organization). This system provides economy.
future directions to take for appropriate treatment of We will have to win trust for PVC and PVC products,
industrial PVC waste other than incineration. and cooperate with the PVC converter industries, the
Due to concerns and misunderstandings on additives end users, governments and citizens to develop the
such as lead stabilizers and plasticizers used for PVC appropriate waste disposal systems.
products, an increased number of companies are Currently, three specific programs, i.e. the
heading for PVC de-selection, from the health and development of new applications to prove the
safety standpoint. serviceability of PVC, safe management and
However, there are many conventional application informational disclosure, and recycling systems to deal
fields where PVC is irreplaceable such as construction/ with the waste disposal issues are being implemented.
84
2. PVC Related Data
Fig. 6-3 PVC production & shipment statistics, Japan (fiscal year) Unit : Tons
Production Breakdown of shipment Total shipment Year-end
inventory
For rigid For flexible For cable Domestic
(%)* PVC (%)* PVC (%)* /others (%)* shipment (%)* Export (%)* (%)* (%)*
1965 445,486 87.7 176,877 75.5 140,079 92.1 62,666 84.6 379,622 82.4 66,579 177.2 446,201 89.6 16,049 95.7
1966 533,906 67.5 250,298 63.2 167,927 69.2 74,527 72.8 492,752 66.5 46,984 98.8 539,736 68.5 10,471 57.7
1967 791,503 82.3 395,783 81.6 242,674 88.9 102,434 87.2 740,891 84.6 47,551 57.5 788,442 82.3 18,135 72.2
1968 961,473 90.1 485,243 92.7 272,839 91.0 117,527 89.4 875,609 91.7 82,743 70.6 958,352 89.4 25,127 128.3
1969 1,066,899 94.6 523,718 96.3 299,923 99.3 131,525 98.4 955,166 97.5 117,272 81.8 1,072,438 95.5 19,588 50.6
1970 1,127,265 107.4 543,696 101.8 301,972 103.6 133,688 119.6 979,356 104.4 143,361 97.9 1,122,717 103.6 38,736 52.9
1971 1,050,049 93.1 534,341 89.6 291,582 96.3 111,784 98.4 937,707 92.6 146,509 102.7 1,084,216 93.9 73,166 160.4
1972 1,127,436 107.4 596,203 111.6 302,850 103.9 113,489 101.5 1,012,542 108.0 142,619 97.3 1,155,161 106.5 45,610 62.3
1973 1,379,621 122.4 770,847 129.3 359,111 118.6 133,830 117.9 1,263,788 124.8 110,141 77.2 1,373,929 118.9 60,488 132.6
1974 1,344,678 97.5 665,917 86.4 325,063 90.5 116,701 87.2 1,107,681 87.6 98,380 89.3 1,206,061 87.8 199,105 329.2
1975 1,091,169 81.1 601,244 90.3 326,321 100.4 121,690 104.3 1,049,255 94.7 122,624 124.6 1,171,879 97.2 118,395 59.5
1976 1,041,854 95.5 533,560 88.7 294,413 90.2 117,154 96.3 945,127 90.1 103,207 84.2 1,048,334 89.5 114,527 96.7
1977 1,024,438 98.3 553,850 103.8 319,346 108.5 121,367 103.6 994,563 105.2 75,914 73.6 1,070,477 102.1 68,488 59.8
1978 1,308,890 127.8 688,740 124.4 392,721 123.0 147,403 121.5 1,228,864 123.6 53,966 71.1 1,282,830 119.8 94,548 138.1
1979 1,631,623 124.7 852,530 123.8 487,744 124.2 214,028 145.2 1,554,302 126.5 89,868 166.5 1,644,170 128.2 81,994 86.7
1980 1,304,340 79.9 638,857 74.9 405,432 83.1 173,999 81.3 1,218,288 78.4 40,144 44.7 1,258,432 76.5 127,902 156.0
1981 1,062,252 81.4 593,595 92.9 362,155 89.3 160,446 92.2 1,116,196 91.6 14,639 36.5 1,130,835 89.9 59,319 46.4
1982 1,250,280 117.7 635,159 107.0 394,377 108.9 182,892 114.0 1,212,428 108.6 22,231 151.9 1,234,659 109.2 74,940 126.3
1983 1,470,547 117.6 722,148 113.7 446,635 113.3 202,627 110.8 1,371,410 113.1 65,399 294.2 1,436,809 116.4 108,678 145.0
1984 1,481,683 100.8 754,425 104.5 474,821 106.3 202,824 100.1 1,432,070 104.4 59,377 90.8 1,491,447 103.8 98,914 91.0
1985 1,515,145 102.3 749,401 99.3 476,484 100.4 207,743 102.4 1,433,628 100.1 75,853 127.7 1,509,481 101.2 104,578 105.7
1986 1,541,899 101.8 748,459 99.9 465,071 97.6 206,162 99.2 1,419,692 99.0 125,145 165.0 1,544,837 102.3 101,640 97.2
1987 1,673,764 108.6 870,819 116.3 489,179 105.2 254,182 123.3 1,614,180 113.7 67,246 53.7 1,681,426 108.8 93,978 92.5
1988 1,852,502 110.7 961,607 110.4 522,102 106.7 294,096 115.7 1,777,805 110.1 58,754 87.4 1,836,559 109.2 109,921 117.0
1989 1,951,745 105.4 1,018,394 105.9 557,412 106.8 300,379 102.1 1,876,185 105.5 65,465 111.4 1,941,650 105.7 120,016 109.2
1990 2,052,759 105.2 1,044,039 102.5 597,303 107.2 326,928 108.8 1,968,270 104.9 61,679 94.2 2,029,949 104.5 142,826 119.0
1991 1,969,985 96.0 953,439 91.3 559,022 93.6 317,501 97.1 1,829,962 93.0 121,243 196.6 1,951,205 96.1 161,606 113.1
1992 1,951,089 99.0 936,462 98.2 545,982 97.7 310,948 97.9 1,793,392 98.0 201,264 166.0 1,994,656 102.2 118,039 73.0
1993 1,958,761 100.4 920,819 98.3 532,720 97.6 299,905 96.4 1,753,444 97.8 230,777 114.7 1,984,221 99.5 92,579 78.4
1994 2,134,201 109.0 981,100 106.5 548,757 103.0 309,043 103.0 1,838,900 104.9 302,514 131.1 2,141,414 107.9 85,366 92.2
1995 2,260,181 105.9 982,724 100.2 548,707 100.0 326,693 105.7 1,858,124 101.0 383,377 126.7 2,241,501 104.7 104,046 121.9
1996 2,546,325 112.7 1,102,481 112.2 587,792 107.1 364,062 111.4 2,054,335 110.6 480,006 125.2 2,534,341 113.1 116,030 111.5
1997 2,558,881 100.5 1,051,151 95.3 545,951 92.9 346,965 95.3 1,944,067 94.6 628,256 130.9 2,572,323 101.5 102,588 88.4
1998 2,433,901 95.1 938,564 89.3 463,192 84.8 293,511 84.6 1,695,267 87.2 727,207 115.8 2,422,474 94.2 119,861 116.8
1999 2,526,407 103.8 942,732 100.4 473,931 102.3 296,393 101.0 1,713,056 101.0 776,955 106.8 2,490,011 102.8 156,257 130.4
2000 2,340,802 92.7 899,236 95.4 465,058 98.1 304,400 102.7 1,668,694 97.4 717,846 92.4 2,386,540 95.8 110,520 70.7
2001 2,153,514 92.0 782,213 87.0 420,687 90.5 270,987 89.0 1,473,887 88.3 694,564 96.8 2,168,451 90.9 95,583 86.5
2002 2,215,159 102.9 777,587 99.4 418,161 99.4 265,826 98.1 1,461,574 99.2 742,519 106.9 2,204,093 101.6 106,649 111.6
2003 2,152,537 97.2 820,557 105.5 375,875 89.9 248,984 93.7 1,445,416 98.9 723,558 97.4 2,168,974 98.4 90,212 84.6
2004 2,119,885 98.5 824,421 100.5 377,875 100.4 240,508 96.6 1,442,465 99.8 660,619 91.3 2,103,084 97.0 107,013 118.6
2005 2,108,142 99.4 785,439 95.3 363,437 96.3 241,410 100.4 1,390,286 96.4 723,989 109.6 2,114,275 100.5 101,846 95.2
2006 2,117,666 100.5 763,463 97.2 347,365 95.6 246,611 102.2 1,357,439 97.6 767,486 106.0 2,124,925 100.5 94,587 92.9
2007 2,059,892 97.3 708,437 92.8 318,217 91.6 237,167 96.2 1,263,821 93.1 779,090 101.5 2,042,911 96.1 111,567 118.0
* against the previous year Source: VEC
85
Fig. 6-4 Transition of raw material plastics production & ratio of general purpose plastics production
<Transition of plastics production> Unit : 1,000 tons
MEMO 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
PE (total of HD & LD) 41 1,305 1,860 2,888 3,342 3,176 3,165 3,238 3,240 3,166
Transition of plastics production
PVC was the first general purpose PP 581 927 1,942 2,721 2,641 2,751 2,908 3,063 3,049
plastic produced in Japan in 1950, and 1 258 1,161 1,429 2,049 2,410 2,225 2,164 2,153 2,151 2,146
PVC
full scale commercial production
started soon thereafter. PS (incl. ABS & AS) 22 668 1,129 2,092 2,024 1,837 1,801 1,825 1,734 1,746
During the 1960s, the PVC
applications were extended to PET 455 699 697 603 720 684 686
construction and industrial fields, and PC 14 32 114 354 386 409 411 431 413
the production volume exceeded one
million tons in 1969, and 2 million tons Other thermoplastics 5 16 239 508 1,047 1,440 1,376 1,470 1,528 1,556 1,568
in 1991.
The present production level is Thermosets 11 217 1,160 1,633 2,043 1,746 1,271 1,261 1,301 1,286 1,276
around 2.2 million tons, which is the Total 17 554 5,128 7,518 12,630 14,736 13,609 13,624 14,084 14,145 14,050
third largest production next to PE and
PP. PVC production in Japan is <Production ratio of general-purpose plastics>
declining as with other general-
12,000 thousand tons
purpose plastics.
Production ratio of general-purpose
plastics 10,000
19.3 PS
18.6 18.2 18.0 17.0 17.3
(incl. ABS
8,000 23.3 & AS)
Comparison with other general- 23.0 21.1
22.5 21.9 21.3 21.2
purpose plastic productions. PVC
The ratio of PVC production among 6,000 22.8
general-purpose plastics was 31.3% in
1970, and 25% during the 1980s when 21.1 25.9 28.7 30.1 30.2
26.7 27.8
4,000 PP
other general-purpose plastics 21.6
18.0 26.7
became well established and 21.2% in
2006. 31.3 PE
17.3 (total of
2,000 15.6 31.8 32.1 32.0 32.0 31.8 31.3
32.2 HD & LD)
34.8
35.1
Source: Plastic raw-materials production statistics, 0
the Japan Plastics Industry Federation '60 '70 '80 '90 '00 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06
Fig. 6-5 Domestic shipment and exports of PVC (fiscal year)

3,000 thousand tons
2,500 Total shipment
2,000
1,500
Domestic
1,000
Export
500
0
'65 '70 '75 '80 '85 '90 '95 '00 '05
MEMO The domestic shipment of PVC has the following four major peaks:
1973: About 1.26 million tons affected by the first oil crisis
1979: About 1.55 million tons affected by the second oil crisis
1990: About 1.97 million tons by general growth of the domestic economy
1996: About 2.05 million tons due to increased public works
Declines of domestic shipment after fiscal 1990 was caused by decreased public works, collapse of the bubble economy
and decreased demands in the packaging/wrapping application fields. In contrast, the export started increasing due to
the sharp increased of the demand in China and others.
The declines of the domestic shipment after 1997 were caused by the combined effects of the extended slump in the
domestic economy, end-user industries moving abroad, and PVC de-selection trend in the packaging field.
Source: VEC
86
Fig. 6-6 World PVC production (calendar year) Unit : %
30 Million tons 9.3
9.9 9.8 Others
MEMO 9.8
10.2 9.9
25 11.2
PVC production in Japan decreased 11.1 39.8
about 0.3 million tons during the 7 years 33.8 37.1
32.2
from 1999 to 2006. North America's 29.9 Asia
20 24.9 26.5 29.3
production roughly levelled off, while
Europe's increase was 1 million.
The increase in the Asian region
was the most remarkable with about 7 15
million tons, which was approximately a 26.3 25.6 24.4 24.1 Europe
27.4 27.5 27.2 27.1
twofold increase during the same 7
years. Especially in China, further 10
enhancement of PVC production North
Ame-
capacity is expected with active capital 24.9 24.1 23.6 21.8 20.3 rica
investments. 5 26.8 25.5 25.0
Japan
9.8 9.3 8.3 8.1 7.7 7.1 6.9 6.5
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Unit : Million tons
Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Japan 2.46 2.41 2.20 2.23 2.16 2.15 2.15 2.15
North America (U.S. & Canada) 6.76 6.55 6.63 6.80 6.80 7.13 6.52 6.70
Europe (incl. CIS & East Europe) 6.91 7.07 7.22 7.41 7.41 7.73 7.61 7.94
Asia (except Japan) 6.09 6.56 7.49 7.94 8.90 9.96 11.29 13.11
Others 2.80 2.89 2.72 2.70 2.77 2.98 2.99 3.06
Total 25.02 25.49 26.25 27.07 28.04 29.95 30.87 32.95
Fig. 6-7 World PVC consumption (calendar year)

35 Million tons Unit : %
MEMO Others
11.2
30 11.1
Asia has shown the greatest growth with an 11.1
annual average of about 9.2%. 11.9 11.1
Among the Asian countries, China has shown a 25 12.0
sharp increase in consumption, and there are 12.1 12.6 38.7
36.2 37.2 Asia
wide varieties of applications from 35.1
20 32.9 33.1
infrastructure related such as watersupply/
sewage pipes or electric cables, to construction 27.7 28.6
materials for housing, parts for household
electrical appliances, decoration films, and 15 Europe
consumer products. 27.0 26.3 25.5 25.6 25.2 24.9 25.7 26.5
The outstanding characteristic of PVC demand 10
in Asia is window profiles. North
About one million tons of PVC is estimated to Ame-
be used for production of window profiles in 26.3 25.6 23.7 24.0 23.5 23.1 21.5 19.4 rica
5
China, while about 0.2 million tons are estimated
for the same purpose in South Korea. 6.9 5.9 5.4 Japan
6.9 5.1 4.9 4.6 4.1
PVC is drawing attention as a construction 0
material that substitutes for wood. 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Unit : Million tons
Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Japan 1.73 1.74 1.55 1.48 1.43 1.47 1.44 1.38
North America (U.S. & Canada) 6.60 6.47 6.26 6.53 6.51 6.92 6.69 6.46
Europe (incl. CIS & East Europe) 6.78 6.66 6.74 6.99 6.98 7.45 7.99 8.81
Asia (except Japan) 6.93 7.23 8.70 9.01 9.74 10.84 11.58 12.84
Others 3.02 3.18 3.16 3.25 3.07 3.29 3.44 3.73
Total 25.06 25.28 26.40 27.25 27.72 29.98 31.14 33.22
87
Fig. 6-8 PVC consumption in the U.S. and Canada (calendar year)
8,000 thousand tons MEMO
7,000 Extruded PVC products

doubled in ten years from
Calendering 1991 to 2000 in North
6,000
America.
Coating
This is probably due to the
5,000 Extrusion (films, sheets) fact that PVC's durability had
gained credit in the
Injection molding construction field and
4,000
demands grew for pipes,
Paste resin converting
sidings, window profiles, and
3,000 Compounds cable coverings.
In contrast, injection
Others molded products such as
2,000
Export bottles and fittings, and resin
for exports have both
1,000 decreased.
PVC consumption in North
0 America has grown 1.6 times
'91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 year during the same ten years.
unit : thousand tons

year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Calendering Flooring 100 110 103 105 99 104 109
Others 355 381 396 425 412 454 426
Total 455 491 499 530 511 558 535 547 534 556
Coating Flooring 61 76 89 96 94 102 100
Wallcovering/Fabrics 33 42 44 54 49 51 46
Paint 34 23 24 25 24 27 30
Others 9 11 12 12 12 11 11
Total 137 152 169 187 179 191 187 201 202 198
Extrusion Pipes 1,411 1,691 1,775 2,091 2,063 2,433 2,630 2,668 2,887 2,851
Wires/Cables 163 187 179 195 189 204 209 216 269 304
Siding 361 442 536 669 654 790 846 953 988 970
Window profiles/Doors 155 182 101 133 147 161 232 224 254 257
Wrapping 128 89 129 150 165 156 125
(films, sheets) Non-wrapping 24 25 26 27 35 50 194 227 208
Others 132 139 175 222 224 255 291 327 682 691
Total 2,350 2,754 2,920 3,486 3,469 4,034 4,383 4,583 5,307 5,281
Injection molding Bottles 92 87 81 86 78 76 68 73 75 71
Fittings 98 104 109 127 115 125 132 145 148 141
Others 105 42 49 47 48 54 59 60 67 81
Total 295 233 239 260 241 255 259 278 289 292
Paste resin converting 102 90 95 104 98 97 306 73 65 65
Compounds 155 178 208 233 264 96
Others 33 41 46 55 61 73 46 340 70 54
Total domestic consumption 3,372 3,916 4,146 4,830 4,792 5,472 5,812 6,022 6,466 6,447
Export 679 625 521 521 672 606 580 642 371 177
Total shipment 4,051 4,541 4,667 5,351 5,464 6,078 6,392 6,664 6,837 6,624
NOTE: Data for the 1991~1997 period covers only the U.S.,
while the data after 1998 represent the total for the U.S. and Canada.
NOTE: The result for 2000 is tentative.
Source: Modern Plastics International
88
Fig. 6-9 PVC Consumption in Western Europe (calendar year)
6,000 thousand tons

MEMO
"Profiles" in construction
Bottles
applications, mainly window
5,000 profiles, have grown largely.
Films/
Sheets Apart from profiles,
for Rigid products

Injection consumption for flooring,
molding films/sheets, pipes and
Pipes/ conduit tubes have steadily
4,000 Conduit tubes increased.
Profile Thus, PVC consumption in
extrusion
Western Europe is growing
Rigid products steadily.
& others
3,000 Synthetic
leather
Films/
for Flexible products

Sheets
2,000 Flooring
Tubes & other
extruded products
Wires/Cables
1,000 Flexible &
others
Others
0
'91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 year
unit : thousand tons

Examples of application calendar year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Bottles 438 420 421 436 420 385 315 260 185 165
Films/Sheets 557 554 515 570 520 585 615 614 690 696
Injection molding 27 28 40 40 38 45 45 72 148 143
Pipes/Conduit tubes 1,307 1,395 1,390 1,415 1,440 1,430 1,473 1,449 1,460 1,530
Profile extrusion 782 827 903 1,017 1,044 1,100 1,135 1,231 1,204 1,292
Others 159 138 124 150 120 120 65 108 102 98
Total for rigid products 3,270 3,362 3,393 3,628 3,582 3,665 3,648 3,735 3,789 3,924
Synthetic leather 219 222 205 225 210 220 224 225 229 217
Films/Sheets 384 370 357 309 363 375 425 435 443 417
Flooring 241 263 252 239 260 280 300 306 285 305
Tubes & other extruded products 199 214 210 226 215 205 180 190 195 185
Wires/Cables 426 437 432 409 448 430 454 443 460 472
Others 283 248 240 299 255 275 279 285 294 285
Total for flexible products 1,752 1,754 1,696 1,707 1,751 1,785 1,862 1,884 1,906 1,881
Others (Adhesives, Paper coating) 10 9 8 8 7 10 10 22 12 12
Total 5,032 5,125 5,097 5,343 5,340 5,460 5,520 5,641 5,707 5,817
Growth (%) against the previous year -2.1% 1.8% -0.5% 4.8% -0.1% 2.2% 1.1% 2.2% 1.2% 1.9%
Sources: Modern Plastics International
89
Fig. 6-10 PVC consumption in major countries (2006)

MEMO
Japan The world PVC consumption

1,376 amounted to more than 33 million tons
U.S. 5,709 in 2006.
Canada 750 Some predict that "the world PVC
consumption may reach 50 million tons
West Europe(incl. Turkey) 6,589 per year in 2020".
CIS/East Europe 2,219 This forecast is based on steady
Middle East 714 growth in major countries, mainly
construction materials, and steep
China 8,582
Korea growth in Asia, especially in China,
854 and also the African region.
Taiwan 755
India 1,121 The forecast is also based on
Thailand 472 important roles expected of PVC
Indonesia 220 products in various application fields,
Vietnam 222 such as water supply and sewage
Malaysia 187 systems; agricultural water supplies
Hong Kong 174 which are indispensable for the
Pakistan 118 improvement of agricultural
the Philippines 96
Singapore productivity through soil modification;
42 and general industrial water supply
Other Latin America 926 systems, to enhance the standard of
Brazil 752 living and to protect people's health.
Mexico 484
Australia 210
New Zealand 40
Africa 603
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 Thousand tons

Source: Future demand trends for global prtrochemical products 2007, METI
Fig. 6-11 World PVC resin demand forecast (2009 - 2012)

Unit : Million tons
1999 2006 2009 2010 2011 2012 Av. annual Av. annual
forecast forecast forecast forecast growth rate growth rate
('99 / '06) ('06 / '12)
Japan 1.73 1.36 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 - 3.2 - 0.9
North America 6.60 6.46 6.94 7.08 7.22 7.30 - 0.3 2.1
Europe (including CIS) 6.78 8.81 9.43 9.66 9.84 10.02 3.8 2.2
Asia (excluding Japan) 6.93 12.84 16.83 18.06 19.39 20.74 9.2 8.3
Others (Latin America, Middle East, Oceania) 3.02 3.73 3.44 4.66 4.91 5.19 3.0 5.7
Total demand 25.06 33.22 37.95 40.79 42.66 44.55 4.1 % / yr 5.0 % / yr
20 Million tons
15
10
0
'99 '06 '09 '10 '11 '12 '99 '06 '09 '10 '11 '12 '99 '06 '09 '10 '11 '12 '99 '06 '09 '10 '11 '12 '99 '06 '09 '10 '11 '12
Japan North America Europe (including CIS) Asia (excluding Japan) Others (Latin America,
Middle East, Oceania)
MEMO According to METI, the world annual average growth rate of PVC demand is projected to be 4.1% between 2006
and 2012. Growth in Asia is expected to be as high as 8.3% with particular leverage from China, where the growth potential for
urban infrastructure products such as pipes, electric cables and PVC sashes are high. Growth in North America and Europe
is expected to be about 2% respectively. Negative growth is expected in Japan affected by investment cuts in public projects
and overseas transfer of PVC user industry plants.
Source: Future demand trends for global prtrochemical products 2007, METI
90
OUTLINE
Outline of the Vinyl Environmental Council
OF THE VINYL in Japan
ENVIRONMENTAL
COUNCIL
91
Outline of the Vinyl Environmental Council
Designation : Vinyl Environmental Council (Abbreviation: VEC)

Date of Establishment : May 26, 1998
Address : 8th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Telephone Number: 81-3-3297-5601
Facsimile Number: 81-3-3297-5783
Objective :
(1) Promote correct understanding of PVC through survey and research
on the environment and safety related issues surrounding the PVC industry
(2) Contribution to the development of the PVC industry through research
on production, technology, distribution and consumption facets
of the industry
Activities : VEC shall perform the following activities to achieve the above:
(1) Survey and research on the environment, security and safety related issues
within the PVC industry, and promote countermeasures.
(2) Survey and research on PVC recycling related issues, and promote
countermeasures.
(3) Propagation and education for the correct understanding of PVC.
(4) Survey and research on production, technology, distribution and
consumption of PVC.
(5) Interaction and cooperation with other domestic or foreign PVC related
organizations.
(6) Other activities for attainment of the above mentioned objective
Members : 10 PVC and VCM manufacturers and 4 associates
Board : Chairman Kimikazu Sugawara
Vice-chairman Shigeaki Nakahara
Vice-chairman Yukio Nakamura
Executive director Shigetaka Seki
MEMBER COMPANIES OF VEC

V-Tech Corporation
Kashima VCM Co., Ltd.
Kaneka Corporation
Keiyo Monomer Co., Ltd.
Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd.
Shin Dai-ichi Vinyl Corporation
Taiyo Vinyl Corporation
Tosoh Corporation
Tokuyama Corporation
Tokuyama Sekisui Co., Ltd.
ASSOCIATE MEMBER COMPANIES OF VEC

Itochu Corporation
Mitsui & Co., Ltd.
Marubeni Corporation
Mitsubishi Corporation
92
VCM Production capacity by manufacturers PVC Production capacity by manufacturers
Unit: 1,000 tons/year Unit: 1,000 tons/year
Manufacturers As of As of Manufacturers As of As of
December, 2006 December, 2007 December, 2006 December, 2007
Kashima VCM 600 600 Kaneka 466 466
Kaneka 540 540 Shin-Etsu 550 550
Keiyo Monomer 200 200 Shin Dai-ichi Vinyl 292 292
Tokuyama 330 330 Taiyo Vinyl 564 558
Tosoh 1,454 1,454 Tokuyama Sekisui 116 115
V-Tech 391 391 Tosoh 28 28
Total 3,515 (A) 3,515 (B) V-Tech 334 304
(B) (A) 0 Total 2,351 (A) 2,314 (B)
Source: Chemical division of the METI (B) (A) 37
Source: Chemical division of the METI
LIST OF VEC MEMBER COMPANIES
V-Tech Corporation 4-14-1, Shiba, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 108-0014 tel. 81-3-6414-4710
Kashima VCM Co., Ltd. 2, Higashi wada, Kamisu-shi, Ibaragi, 314-0102 tel. 81-299-96-3415
Kaneka Corporation 3-2-4, Nakanoshima, Kita-ku, Osaka, 530-0005 tel. 81-6-6226-5355
Keiyo Monomer Co., Ltd. 11-6, Goiminamikaigan, Ichihara-city, Chiba, 290-0045 tel. 81-436-24-8535
Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd. 2-6-1, Ohtemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100-0004 tel. 81-3-3246-5071
Shin Dai-ichi Vinyl Corporation 1-4-5, Nishishinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-0003 tel. 81-3-3595-0721
Taiyo Vinyl Corporation 3-8-2, Shiba, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-0014 tel. 81-3-5427-5441
Tosoh Corporation 3-8-2, Shiba, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8623 tel. 81-3-5427-5100
Tokuyama Corporation 3-3-1, Shibuya, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo, 150-8383 tel. 81-3-3499-1030

Tokuyama Sekisui Co., Ltd. 2-4-4, Nishi Temma, Kita-ku, Osaka City, Osaka, 530-0047 tel. 81-6-6365-3410
93
LIST OF PVC RELATED INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS
Designation Assignments/Products
Vinyl Environmental Council Survey, research, and measures for the environment, safety, production,
(VEC) distribution and consumption relating to the PVC industry
Japan PVC Environmental Affairs Council Information of PVC and PVC products, technical development and
(JPEC) research for solving environmental issues
Japan PVC Pipe and Fittings Rigid PVC pipes and fittings and their recycling
Association
Japan Plastic Sheet Association Rigid PVC sheets, polycarbonate sheets
Japan Vinyl Goods Manufacturers Compounds, films, wallcovering, synthetic leather, stretched films, agro-films
Association
Interior Floor Industrial Association Floor tiles, floor sheets and their recycling
Japan Carpet Manufacturers Association Tile (modular) carpet products

(Carpet Tiles Committee)
Noubi Recycle Acceleration Council Recycling of used agro-films
The Japanese Electric Wire & Electric cables in general

Cable Makers' Association
Japan Plasticizer Industry Association Plasticizers for PVC and others (DEHP, DINP, etc.).
Japan Inorganic Chemical Industry Stabilizers for PVC, etc.

Association (PVC stabilizers committee)
Japan Hygienic PVC Association Voluntary standards for safety of PVC food packaging
Japan Hygienic Association of Vinylidene chloride stretched films

Vinylidene Chloride
Japan Chemical Industry Association Chemical products in general, Responsible Care
Japan Petrochemical Industry Petrochemical products in general

Association
Japan Soda Industry Association Caustic soda, chlorine, and hydrogen
Plastic Waste Management Institute Survey, research, and promotion of proper disposal for plastic wastes
The Japan Plastic Industry Federation Standards for PVC and PVC products (ISO, JIS) and measures for
national/social policies e.g. the Container and Packaging Recycling Law
Japan Chemical Industry Ecology- Survey and tests on safety of chemical substances
Toxicology and Information Center (JETOC)
Plastic Sash Industries Association Promotion of PVC windows
Plastic Windows Promotion Committee Promotion of PVC windows, and aluminum & PVC combined windows
(JMADO)
PVC Siding Promotion Committee Promotion of PVC siding
94
Address Contact (phone / fax. and website)
TEL.81-3-3297-5601 / FAX.81-3-3297-5783
8th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033
http://www.vec.gr.jp
TEL.81-3-3297-5601 / FAX.81-3-3297-5783
8th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033
http://www.pvc.or.jp
TEL.81-3-3470-2251 / FAX.81-3-3470-4407
Tobu Building, 1-5-26 Moto-Akasaka, Minoto-ku, Tokyo, 107-0051 http://www.ppfa.gr.jp
TEL.81-3-3408-4342 / FAX.81-3-3403-6990
Tobu Building, 1-5-26 Moto-Akasaka, Minoto-ku, Tokyo, 107-0051 http://www.p-bankyo.com
TEL.81-3-5413-1311 / FAX.81-3-3401-9351
Tobu Building, 1-5-26 Moto-Akasaka, Minoto-ku, Tokyo, 107-0051 http://www.vinyl-ass.gr.jp
TEL.81-3-3578-1260 / FAX.81-3-3578-1250
Uchiyama Building, 3-9-3 Nishi-Shinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-0003 http:www.ifa-yukazai.com
TEL.81-6-4704-2150 / FAX.81-6-5545-1648
Osaka Shoko-Kaikan Building, 4-3-6 Minami-Honmachi, Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0054 http://www.carpet.or.jp
TEL.81-3-5775-2051 / FAX.81-3-5775-2053
Tobu Building, 1-5-26 Moto-Akasaka, Minoto-ku, Tokyo, 107-0051 http://www.noubi-rc.jp
TEL.81-3-3542-6035 / FAX.81-3-3542-6037
Konwa Building, 1-12-22 Tsukiji, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0045 http://www.jcma.jp
TEL.81-3-3404-4603 / FAX.81-3-3403-4604
Tobu Building, 1-5-26 Moto-Akasaka, Minoto-ku, Tokyo, 107-0051 http://www.kasozai.gr.jp
TEL.81-3-3663-1235 / FAX.81-3-3663-1237
3rd Floor, Taisei Building, 2-4-10 Nihonbashikayabacho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 103-0025 http://www.mukiyakukyo.gr.jp
TEL.81-3-5541-6901 / FAX.81-3-5543-6902
6th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033 http://www.jhpa.jp
TEL.81-3-3864-8030 / FAX.81-3-3864-8031
3rd Floor, Marutomo Daiichi Building, 2-10-16, Higashikanda, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 101-0031 http://vdkyo.jp
TEL.81-3-3297-2550 / FAX.81-3-3297-2610
7th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033 http://www.nikkakyo.org
TEL.81-3-3501-7041 / FAX.81-3-3501-3895
8th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033 http://www.jpca.or.jp
TEL.81-3-3297-0311 / FAX.81-3-3297-0315
8th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033 http://www.jsia.gr.jp
TEL.81-3-3297-7511 / FAX.81-3-3297-7501
7th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033 http://www.pwmi.or.jp/ei/index.htm
TEL.81-3-3586-9761 / FAX.81-3-3586-9760
Kaseihin-Kaikan Building, 5-18-17 Roppongi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 106-0032 http://www.jpif.gr.jp
TEL. 81-3-3297-8051 / FAX. 81-3-3297-8055

2nd Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033 http://www.jetoc.or.jp
TEL.81-3-3597-5133 / FAX.81-3-3597-5133
Tokuyama Building, 1-4-5 Nishi-Shimbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8249 (c/o Shanon Corp) http://www.p-sash.jp
TEL.81-3-3297-5781 / FAX.81-3-3297-5783
8th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033 http://www.jmado.jp
TEL.81-3-3297-5782 / FAX.81-3-3297-5783
8th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0033 http://www.psiding.jp
95
Abbreviation:
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

JHPA Japan Hygienic PVC Association
JICIA Japan Inorganic Chemical Industry Association
JPI the Japan Petroleum Institue
JPIA Japan Plasticizer Industry Association
JPPFA Japan PVC Pipe & Fittings Association
JSIA Japan Soda Industry Association
Designed by
METIGL Design
Ministryworks
of Economy, Trade and Industry
MHLW
Kazuo Terao Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry (now METI)
MoE Ministry of Environment
PWMI Plastic Waste Management Institute
VEC Vinyl Environmental Council
WACOA Wallcoverings Association of Japan
WHO World Health Organaization
ABS Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
DBP Dibutyl phthalate
DEHA Di-2-ethylhexyl adipate
DEHP Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate
EDC Ethylene dichloride
HDPE High-density polyethylene
LDPE Low-density polyethylene
PC Polycarbonate
PE Polyethylene
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
PP Polypropylene
PS Polystyrene
PU Polyurethane
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
SM Styrene monomer
VCM Vinyl chloride, Vinyl chloride monomer
Reference : Units for trace quantities

Weight units : kg (kilogram)
g (gram)
mg (milligram) 10 -3 g (one thousandth of a gram)
g (microgram) 10 -6 g (one millionth of a gram)
ng (nanogram) 10 -9 g (one billionth of a gram)
pg (picogram) 10 -12 g (one trillionth of a gram)
Published by VINYL ENVIRONMENTAL COUNCIL (VEC), JAPAN

8th Floor, Rokko Building, 1-4-1 Shinkawa, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Telephone Number: 81-3-3297-5601 / Facsimile Number: 81-3-3297-5783
Edition : First print of the second edition, August 2008
Research & Text : Vinyl Environmental Council (VEC), Japan
Production : Musashino create Co., Ltd.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without first obtaining written approval from VEC.

PVC Fact Book Complete

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

PVC Fact Book Complete

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

PVC FACT BOOK

Publication of the English Version of the "PVC Fact Book"

Our Strive Towards Gaining a Deeper Understanding of PVC

A thermoplastic resin reaction known as polymerization, these single

Fig.1-1 Synthetic resin and their raw materials

Downstream of the PVC industry and consumer products.

Fig.1-3 Linkage of PVC related industries

(2) Production process of raw cracked to yield VCM at a few hundred

Fig.1-4 VCM production method

Air (Oxygen) Oxychlorination

Source: Prepared from material by the Japan Petroleum Institute (JPI)

(3) PVC production processes

Fig.1-6 PVC polymerization process flow diagram

Recovered VCM storage tank

Vacuum Compressor Crude VCM

Source: Prepared from material by the JPI

(4) PVC as petrochemical Fig.1-7 Breakdown of ethylene applications (2001)

Butanol 537 MBS

Acetic acid 587 Vinyl acetate 734 Polyvinyl acetate 230

EDC 3,603 VCM 3,142 PVC 2,162

Phenol 961 Phenolic resin 295

Propylene Octanol 270 Phthalates* 281

Propylene oxide 520 Urethane foam 235

Industrial Butadiene 1,024 Synthetic rubber 1,655

Others High purity terephthalic acid 1,254 Polyester fiber 295

Ratio of VCM within the total

Fig.1-10 Transition of the balance between chlorine and caustic soda

3,000 Domestic chlorine supply

Fig.1-11 Transition of EDC import and dependency ratio on imports

* VCM production (EDC requirement) = VCM production x 0.838

PVC, PE, PP and PS are called general-

Chemical stability is a common feature Vinylidene Vinylidene chloride

the Japan PVC Pipe & Fittings 56

no deterioration, and its strength 52

Fig.1-16 Change of physical properties of recovered automobile exterior accessories

Circumferential stress (MPa)

(3) Processability and moldability

Viscoelastic body : Yield point :

(4) Others (versatility in designing

(1) Production safety (2) Safety upon use

Product designation Polyvinyl chloride Explosion preventive measures

Extinguishing Agent Water, dry chemical, foam Ignition temperature 454 2

(3) Evaluation of carcinogenicity

periods of time, but

with migration levels. On February, 1977, the Ministry

Fig.1-21 JHP standard

Fig.1-22 Standards for medical apparatus

5. JIS and PVC Applications

(1) The Japanese Industrial (2) JIS for PVC products

JIS K 6720- Plastics-PVC homopolymer and copolymer:

(3) Applications of PVC (PVC products)

packaging lightweight packaging

Long term (several years50 years) Less than a few years

Water supply waterworks

Agricultural paddy field irrigation pipeline

agricultural water system

Sewege public sewage system

Industrial, plant piping, well drilling, natural gas pipelines

Special NTT cable protecting tube

adaptor for steel pipes right angle elbow Y shaped fitting

Fig.1-23 Applications and

Long term (several years50 years) Less than a few years

various construction materials