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Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)

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DOI: 10.1007/s00024-015-1173-z

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Pure Appl. Geophys.
 2015 Springer Basel
DOI 10.1007/s00024-015-1173-z Pure and Applied Geophysics

Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers: Case Study
from Amdoun, Northwestern Tunisia
BELGACEM REDHAOUNIA,1 BATOBO OUNTSCHE ILONDO,2 HAKIM GABTNI,1 KHOMSI SAMI,1,3 and MOURAD BEDIR1

AbstractThe Amdoun region is characterized by a high
degree of karstification due to the climate impact
(1500 mm year-1) and the development of fracture network.
Survey using electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is deployed to
provide a cost-effective characterization of the subsurface karst
environments. A total of seven ERT profiles with lengths of 315 m
were evaluated at the Beja governorate (NW Tunisia). The area
represents a small syncline of Boudabbous limestone rocks (Lower
Eocene), which is covered by a thin layer of clay. In this study, an
ERT survey was conducted to examine the spatial distribution and
shape of underground cavities in the karst area in Jebel Sabah
anticline and An Sallem-Zahret Medien syncline. In this study,
geological, hydro-geological and electrical resistivity tomography
(ERT) methods were applied to determine the geometry of the
perched aquifer in the Amdoun region (NW Tunisia). The area is
characterized by fractured and karstic limestone aquifer of Late
Cretaceous (Abiod Fm.) and Lower Eocene (Boudabbous Fm.).
The aquifers have a karstic functioning and drain aquifers of eco-
nomical interest, despite some wells exploiting them. Seven
resistivity profiles were conducted along the survey area at three
sites. The orientation, extension and the degree of inclination of
those profiles are shown in the location map. The correct resistivity
data were interpreted using Earth Imager 2D software. The results
of the interpreted geo-electrical sections showed that the resistivity
of the carbonate aquifer varied between 2.5 to over 5794 Xm. The
thickness of the perched aquifer ranged from 15 to 50 m, while its
depth from the surface lies between 10 and 60 m. The ERT not
only provided precise near surface information, but was also very
useful for establishing the 3D geometry and the position of several
potential cavities and karts. The results show the presence of small
to large isolated cavities at various depths. The low resistivity of
cavities in the Boudabbous Formation has been explained by the
groundwater saturation. The ERT technique could be effectively
used for 3D detection of underground limestone cavities.
1
Water Researches and Technologies Center Borj-Cedria
(CERTE), BP 273, Soliman 8020, Tunisia. E-mail: belgacem.red-
haounia@yahoo.fr; gabtni_hakim@yahoo.ca; bedmour@yahoo.fr
2
Advanced Geosciences Europe-Spain, Madrid, Spain.
E-mail: ilondo@agiusa.com
3
King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: samykhomsi@yahoo.ca
Key words: Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), Karst,
Cavities, Perched aquifer, Amdoun (NW Tunisia).
1. Introduction
Karst aquifers are known to be highly heteroge-
neous, formed by a complex conduit system that is
generally impossible to locate. Moreover, the
resources are very hard to exploit, with permeability
coefficients ranging from 10-9 to 10-1 m s-1, and
flow velocities ranging from a few millimeters a day
to hundreds of meters an hour (BAKALOWICZ 2005).
Carbonate rock is soluble in the presence of acid
dissolved in water, most commonly resulting from
CO2 solution. The process that combines solution of
carbonate rock and flow in openings is named
karstification (FORD and WILLIAMS 1989). Karst
aquifers constitute 12 % of the global land surface
and store water on which approximately 2030 % of
the Tunisia population depends, as stated in classical
textbooks on karst. These carbonate reservoirs (Abiod
and Boudabbous/El Gueria formations) in the study
area constitute approximately less than 1 % of all
limestone outcrops in Tunisia. Hydro-chemical
analyses aid in the identification of the mechanisms
causing the accumulation of carbonates in ground-
water and the water type.
The stable isotopes of water have been analyzed
in investigations of karst aquifers to understand the
recharge processes, reservoir mixing and the inter-
actions between groundwater and surface water and
to identify water sources in karst springs (KATZ et al.
1997; VANDENSCHRICK et al. 2002; MALOSZEWSKI et al.
2002; PERRIN et al. 2003; ANDREO et al. 2004; LONG
and PUTNAM 2004; SCHWARZ et al. 2009; HAMED et al.
 B. Redhaounia et al.
2014). Geophysical methods are very useful for
studying karst terrains because of the intrinsic
heterogeneity of the medium (SACKS and TIHANSKY
1996; SUMANOVAC and WEISSER 2001; VAN SCHOOR
2002; VOUILLAMOZ et al. 2003; SMITH 2005; JARDANI
et al. 2006; NEUKUM et al. 2010). However, the
electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) imaging
provided significant information of the structural
setting of the Amdoun region characterized by high
groundwater potential, fractured and chalky lime-
stone bodies due to the elevated density and
concentration of open fracture network within the
very brittle chalk of the lower Eocene (Boudabous/El
Gueria Formations) and Upper Cretaceous (Abiod
Formation). These two units are characterized by
open fractured limestones, interconnected drainage
paleochannels, shallow and deep karst and caves
(REDHAOUNIA et al. 2014b, c; AYADI et al. 2014).
The present study is an approach using the ERT
imaging technique to identify and characterize the
discontinuities, faults and water investigation of the
fractured and karstified limestone aquifers in the
Amdoun Mounts. The conducted research demon-
strated that the ERT method was an effective tool for
imaging the subsurface in the karst terrain.
2. Geology of the Study Area
Tunisia is located at the intersection between the
African, and European and Mediterranean plates
(Fig. 1a). Its structural framework is characterized by
a transition from the Saharan platform in southern
Tunisia to Alpine folded structures (Atlasic domain
and Tellian troughs) in the north (BOUAZIZ et al.
2002). The Amdoun region is divided both geologi-
cally and geographically into two zones roughly of
equal importance, characterized by highly faulted
outcrops of Oligo-Miocene Numidian Flysch series
unconformably over folded and faulted para-au-
tochthonous to autochthonous Cretaceous to Eocene
units (Fig. 1b, c). The Nappes Zone (Alpine thrust
belt) and the Imbricated Zone is immediately situated
and affected by thrusts and reverse faulting (GOTTIS
and SAINFELD 1956; ROUVIER 1985; KHOMSI 1998; EL
EUCHI et al. 1998, 2004; KHOMSI et al. 2009; RIAHI
Pure Appl. Geophys.
et al. 2010; ARIDHI et al. 2011; REDHAOUNIA et al.
2012, 2013a, b; ANENE et al. 2013).
From the structural point of view, the Meso
Cenozoic formations in northwestern Tunisia are
intensely folded and faulted. The tertiary formations
are structured in a series of anticlines and synclines in
the NESW direction. The main structural features
are anticlines and synclines, faults and fractures. The
structural and geomorphological features have
affected the limestone sedimentary rocks in the
Amdoun study area and have a great impact on the
karst processes. The oldest rocks are the EW Tri-
assic diapiric outcrop of the Jebel Ezzouza, and
except for the lithological sequences in this study
area it varies in age from the Upper Cretaceous to the
Quaternary (GOTTIS and SAINFELD 1956). The major
part of the Amdoun basin (35 % of the carbonate
units) is underlain by carbonate rocks with moderate
to high degree of karstification. The densities of caves
and karstic springs are the hydro-geological features
used to check the calculated degree of karstification.
These types of surface karst features are common in
the Amdoun study area where relatively pure car-
bonate bedrock is present and precipitation levels are
high (REDHAOUNIA et al. 2014c). Karsts developed in
the Upper Cretaceous limestones as well as in the
tertiary carbonate (Eocene Formations). The karst
systems in the Upper Cretaceous limestones are
independent of those in the carbonate limestones
(Abiod Formation). The most extended caves systems
develop in the Upper Cretaceous and constitute the
regional karst system which can be divided into
several subsystems.
3. Hydrogeological and Petrophysical
Characteristics
The region where the aquifer is located presents a
typically Mediterranean climate, where cool and
rainy seasons alternate with hot dry seasons. The
average temperature is 16.5 C and the potential
evapotranspiration estimates range between 1000 and
1800 mm year-1. The mean precipitation is
1400 mm year-1 and there are marked seasonal
variations. Most rainfall takes place in the autumn.
 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers

Figure 1
a Geographical location of the study area; b general geological map of the Amdoun study area; c geological map of the study area including
ERT survey of the three sites, 1, 2, and 3; d positioning plan of ERT profiles in site 3

Amdoun carbonate aquifers are made up of Upper
Cretaceous limestones (Abiod Formation) of three
members whose thickness ranges between 200 and
250 m and presents anticlines structures in the axis
direction NESW (Jebel Sabbah). The Boudabbous
perched carbonate aquifer, about 4.7 km2, is com-
pletely isolated from other aquifers (Abiod
Formation) and presents a synclinal structure in the
axis direction NESW. The hydro-geological stocks
of the perched carbonate aquifers are estimated by
ENNABLI (1980) and ENNABLI and DRAS (1981) and
represented more than 200 9 106 m3 year-1 with
more than 13 % of groundwater resources of Tunisia.
These formations present as very karstifiable
geologic units in the Amdoun Mounts, because the
karstic rock masses are pervaded by a network of
open discontinuities and fractures with calcite filling
and epikarst forms (Lapiaz, Karren and Kamenitza)
(Figs. 2a, b, 3c, d). These discontinuities are the
primary flow paths and infiltration of meteoric water
for groundwater and the development of the karsti-
fication process.
 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 2
a Interconnecting fissures and open fractures of limestone (upper Abiod member), b epikarst forms include the solutional hollows (Kamenitza)
and open structures (Lapiez); c photo shows a view of fractured and karstified limestone with a large cavern in the left developed in the Jebel
Sabah anticline (SW flank); d, e, f photos show the front view of three caverns in the Abiod limestone formation (Upper Cretaceous) of the
Jebel Sabbah anticline (SW flank), which developed at the intersection of the open fracture networks

The investigations of cavern networks generally
agree that conduits are related to discontinuities and
major faults within the rock mass of Abiod Formation
(Fig. 2c). It is unknown to this point how large these
caverns are (Fig. 2df), but these caverns were about
14 m in diameter and about 5 m long. The system is
drained by six springs (An El Goussa, An Menzel
Gourchi, An El Kbira, An Sabbah, An El Hadj and
An Sallem) (Fig. 1).
According to the results of the ERT approaches, the
petrophysical analyses of carbonates limestones of
Abiod and Boudabbous/El Gueria Formations shows a
significant potential aquifer with a high porosity per-
meability EL EUCHI et al. (1998) and ETAP (2006).
However, the hydro-geological potential of carbonate
aquifers is largely the main reservoirs of the Amdoun
region which is divided into two separate aquifers:
Both the upper and lower members of the Abiod
Formation (CampanianMaastrichtian lower) are
composed of fractured limestones with a high matrix
porosity of 820 % and a permeability of
100120 mD and average thickness of 250 m (EL
EUCHI et al. 1998). These limestones have a good
groundwater potentiality, confirmed by several
springs: An El Goussa (10 l/s), An Menzel Gourchi
(1725 l/s), An El Kbira (5 l/s) and An Sabbah
(4 l/s);
Fractured limestones of the Ypresian are repre-
sented by Boudabbous Formations (Globigerina)/El
Gueria (nummulites), and these bioclastic limestones
were deposited in a carbonate platform type of ramp,
with a porosity of 512 % and improved permeability
in the presence of fractures from 100 to 700 mD and
average thickness of 250 m (EL EUCHI et al. 1998).
 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers

Figure 3
a Panoramic view of the mountain shows the abandoned quarry in the Zaouiet Medien-An Sallem syncline (site 2); b thick layers of fractured
limestone (Boudabbous Formation). c The Karren epikarst forms can vary between 0.5 and 1.5 m in length, developed in the Boudabbous
Formation; d photos show the alignment of Kamenitza structures with major fractures

These limestones are of great hydro-geological
potential due to the high number of sources that
spring to the surface through faults and fractures as
the source of An El Hadj and An Sallem (1520 l/s).
Groundwater flow is predominantly through frac-
tures, which are often solutionally enlarged to form
fissures or small karst conduits.
Karst developed in the Upper Cretaceous car-
bonate as well as in the Lower Eocene carbonate
formation. The karst systems in the Upper Cretaceous
carbonate at anticlines are local and independent
from those developed in the Lower Eocene limestone
synclines.
Upper Cretaceous and early Eocene Limestones
outcrops are extremely cracked and present a similar
geomorphological index in the epikarst zone; while
networks fracture of joints and faults explain surface
hydrology and especially to determine the under-
ground hydrology. Karstification develops
intensively, mainly in the first 30 m of the upper
part of the Late Cretaceous limestones and Lower
Eocene. Groundwater flow is predominantly through
fractures, which are often solutionally enlarged to
form fissures or small karst conduits. These various
lineaments have great interest in the recharge and
infiltration of the groundwater (Figs. 2a, c, 3b). In
addition, the minor and major faults affecting the
Abiod and Boudabbous/El Gueria influence karsti-
fication development in the study area. During the
rainy period, the karst system evacuates part of its
waters by some major sources (An El Goussa, An
Sabbah, An Sallem), but also as multiple local
seeps into contact marly levels. The low thickness
of the limestone nummulitic did not allow the
evolution of a deep network and lapiaz which
developed from the joints or larger fractures
(Fig. 3).
4. Geo-Electrical Resistivity Imaging
Different geophysical prospecting techniques are
used to detect underground karst and cavities
including seismic methods (RECHTIEN and STEWART
1975; BENDERITTER 1997; GRANDJEAN 2006),
gravimetry (CHICO 1964; BERES et al. 2001; JACOB
et al. 2010), GPR (ROBERT and DE BOSSET 1994;
BENSON 1995; MCMECHAN et al. 1998) and ERT (LOKE
2000; LOKE et al. 2003; MARTINEZ-PAGAN et al. 2013;
GELIS et al. 2010).
 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 4
a Photo shows the protocol ERT survey of EP2 in site 3; b details of the geophysical instrumentation that was used in the ERT survey; c,
d photos show a top view of these sinkholes in the limestones karst terrain of Boudabbous Formation (Ypresian)

The geophysical survey was complemented with a
field investigation to gather information on the
underground cavities of the prospected area. The
investigation is based on collecting information from
the inhabitants who had a relatively accurate knowl-
edge of known cavities. The ERT 2-D data acquired in
February 2014 (EP1 and EP 2) and December 2015
(EP3 to EP 7) by the Centre of Water Research and
Technologies (CERTE), using the SAS-4000 ABEM
Terrameter with the 32 or 64 electrodes configuration
to characterize the shape and depth of the groundwater,
provides a resistivity distribution section of a subsur-
face portion of the earth from potential measurements
made on the surface (Fig. 4b). The data acquisition was
performed using a Wenner electrode array, which
provides good sensitivity for the detection of vertical
heterogeneities and a good signal-to-noise ratio than
other arrays (DAHLIN and ZHOU 2004; LOKE 2011). This
facilitates studying sub-horizontal structures consid-
ered to be probable in the study area.
Measuring the resistivity with ERT 2-D enables
us to interpret the data in pseudo-section resistivity
profile after inversion and topographic correction
using the EarthImager 2D software. Outliers were
removed and topographic corrections were carried
out with measurements of elevation and geographic
coordinates for each electrode position through a
Trimble GPS. After completing the field survey, the
resistance measurements were regularly converted
to apparent resistivity values. The data were devel-
oped to produce two-dimensional resistivity earth
model of the subsurface. An inversion program
converts the array of apparent resistivity data into a
model of the geology that would yield the observed
distribution of apparent resistivity values. The data
inversion software used in this study was AGI
EarthImager 2D with a maximally smooth least
squares algorithm (CONSTABLE et al. 1987; LOKE and
BARKER 1996). The modeling was done by an
inversion process based on an iterative method that
attempts to minimize the difference between the
measured pseudo-section and a pseudo-section
recalculated from a model of electrical resistivity
theory. This modeling process is modified with each
 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers

Figure 5
Results of electrical imaging by Wenner array along the profile EP1 in the Jebel Sabbah NW flank (site 1)

iteration until the calculated and measured data
reach an acceptable agreement or until no further
improvement is possible. The deviation between the
theoretical model and the true resistivity model is
expressed as root mean square RMS. While this is
a good indication of the quality of a cross section, it
is not always the iteration which has the lowest RMS
error profile that gives the most geologically correct
one. In general, the most reliable model is located
just after the iteration where the RMS error does not
significantly change (\0.5 % improvement), which
usually happens between four and six iterations
(NOUIOUA et al. 2015).
We used for the continuous dataset, inversions to
earth model resistivity values. Between two and four
iterations were run for the December 2013
(EP1 ? EP2) and April 2015 (EP3 to EP7) surveys,
respectively, with best-fit model RMS errors between
1.24 and 5.29 %. The RMS error statistics enumer-
ated the distribution of the percentage differentiation
between the logarithms of the calculated resistivity
values and those calculated from the true resistivity
model. This allows us to judge the quality of inver-
sion images achieved from field data inversion.
The distribution of resistivity in the subsurface
soil of the study shows a wide variation of resistivity
of carbonates from Abiod and Boudabbous/El Gueria
limestones at different depths along each profile line,
starting from a low value of 2.5 Xm to a higher value
of 5794 Xm.
The electrical profile EP1 on the NESW direc-
tion was located in the west flank of Jebel Sabbah
anticline (site 1). In the inverted resistivity section
(final model), an RMS of 2.73 % was reached in the
fourth iteration. The reliability of ERT detection of
potential caves was verified by geological exploration
of four newly discovered caves at the Jebel Sabbah
anticline before the ERT campaign. The EP1 line is
run near large caverns about 15 m south of the
entrance (Fig. 2c, d). Wenner array electrode con-
figuration was used to provide a good horizontal and
vertical resolution for a clear image of the cave. The
resistivity model obtained is seen at a distance
between -95 and -52 m and at 1020 m of depth.
The presence of an important zone of high-resistivity
values with a concentric resistivity anomaly body
(10005794 Xm) has been interpreted as the presence
of an ovular cave (Fig. 5). The low resistivity may be
due to resistivity contrasts between the ambient car-
bonates rocks of the Abiod Formation outside of the
cave. The unsaturated zone of the upper part of the
Abiod Formation shown in the EP1 contains fissures
 B. Redhaounia et al. Pure Appl. Geophys.

Figure 6
Results of electrical imaging by Wenner array along the profile EP2 (site 2) in the abandoned quarry. Measured apparent resistivity pseudo-
section (a), calculated apparent resistivity pseudo-section (b) and inverted resistivity section of the profile

and solution channels that provide conduits for the
vertical and horizontal flow direction of surface water
into the underlying aquifer (saturated zone)
(50100 Xm). The difference in resistance between
the cavity and the surrounding limestone of Upper
Cretaceous may be the most outstanding physical
feature of a cave. However, the section shows a rel-
atively higher resistivity layer (marly limestones)
overlaying a very low-resistivity layer of strongly
karstic limestones (14.830 Xm).
The ERT measurements reveal an increase of high
resistivity (5794 Xm) of the topmost layer from the
external to the center of EP1. This can also lead to the
formation of a larger cave, as observed in the EP1 at
depths of about 10 m. Resistivity varying from 1000
to 5794 Xm of the karstic void is indicative of the
karstified limestone bedrock (Abiod Fm.). The cave
has a diameter of several meters and is partly filled
with sediments and/or void from the upper strati-
graphic unit of the Abiod limestone formation
(Fig. 5).
Contrary to the NESW profile EP1, the electrical
profile EP2 in the NESW direction located in the
abandoned quarry of Zaouiet Madien-An Sallem
syncline (site 2) is shown in the location map, in
Fig. 1, Structurally, the area is an elongated syncline
that extends in the NESW direction and for about
4 km (Fig. 3a). The apparent resistivity pseudosec-
tion uses a Wenner array configuration of 32
electrodes, and the length of the profile is 155 m with
an electrode spacing of 5 m. In the inverted resistivity
section, an RMS of 2.98 % was reached in the second
iteration (Fig. 6). The interpretation of the EP2
deduced from the joint inversion of both arrays, using
the two-inversion techniques, shows the presence of
three cavities with heterogeneous and complex aspect
and two major vertical faults affecting the sub-hori-
zontal limestone of the Boudabbous Formation. We
observe also a very resistant block (*280 Xm) with
a length of approximately 15 m, limited by resistant
horizontal structure of cavity on the east and west of
the inverted resistivity section. The resistivity con-
trast in the inverse image between the cavities and
surrounding rock environment is very important
(about *200 to *280 Xm) (Fig. 6).
Profiles 37 were compiled in site 3 located in the
central portion of the Zaouiet Madien-An Sallem
syncline (Figs. 1d, 4a). These inverted resistivity
models of profiles were obtained using a Wenner
configuration of 64 electrodes, and the length of each
 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers

Figure 7
3D view for inverted ERT sections along the different profiles 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 in site 3 in the carbonate limestone of Boudabbous Formation
with high-resistivity zone. 5 m electrode spacing, 64 electrodes, EarthImager 2D software inversion in two and three iterations

profile was 315 m with electrode spacing of 5 m
(Fig. 7).
4.1. The Interpretation of Results
Figure 7 shows the interpretation of five profiles
with 3D inverted resistivity image. A 3D picture of the
fracture system was drawn showing a geo-syncline
structure of carboante limestone bedrock (Boudabbous
Fm.). Geo-electrical data were interpreted with
Zond2Dinv software, leading to geometric construc-
tion of Boudabbous fractured aquifer and to 3D
modeling of subsurface architecture. The geo-electical
cube illustrated in Fig. 7 was obtained by the intersec-
tion of five 2D ERT sections, allowing detecting,
delineating important fractures and also characterizing
the hydro-geology of the underground karst. The
interpretation of 3D ERT images is based on the
distribution and contrasts in electrical resistivity.
A small zone of lower resistivity in the EP7 is
imaged on top of the southeastern corner of the
cube (Fig. 7); this low-resistivity (416 Xm) is
interpreted as due to the weathered zone of clays
and marls (Souar Formation).
Under this zone, an anomaly of moderate
resistivity (480 Xm) is present; this epikarst
zone shows a concentration of large fractures
and karstic features clearly visible on the
outcrop.
Under the epikarst zone, a higher resistivity
anomaly (801670 Xm) was associated with the
endokarst zone of the Boudabbous Formation.
The aim was to test the efficiency of ERT in
detecting secondary faults and sinkholes (S1 and S2)
observed in situ in the Boudabbous Formation and
illustrated in the picture of the landscape (Fig. 4a, b).
The use of ERT and the additional information in this
site coupled with the 2D and 3D visualization and
analysis softwares has led to a far better understand-
ing of the geometric construction and the subsurface
architecture of Abiod and Boudabbous fractured
aquifers.
 B. Redhaounia et al.
5. Results and Discussion
An El Goussa An Menzel Gourchi and An Sab-
bah Sallem springs discharge is the output of a karst
groundwater system and its changes should correspond
with those of the input to the karst groundwater system
(precipitation), although there is often a lag in its
response to precipitation. As a result of the effect of
human activity and other uncertain factors, a great deal
of noise is overlapped in the response and the internal
relations between spring discharge and precipitation
are concealed or even distorted (HAMED et al. 2014;
HAMED and DHAHRI 2013).
The geochemical analyses of the groundwater from
these two reservoirs of Abiod limestone formations
(CampanianMaastrichtian) and Boudabbous (Ypre-
sian) show that they belong to calcium bicarbonate
facies, indicating a good quality of water (REDHAOUNIA
2013; REDHAOUNIA et al. 2014a).
The natural effect is not the only factor that
threatens the karstic aquifers; thus, the anthropogenic
effect has a significant impact: the three deep wells
drilled in Zahret Medien-An Sallem syncline [Sidi
Saadoun (109 m), An Sallem deep wells 1 (105 m)
and 2 (50 m)] and An Sallem spring are excessively
exploited, especially by the domestic sector (drinking
water) (DGRE 1992, 1997, 1998; O.T 2008). The
overexploitation of this aquifer could change the
water quality along with the climate variability which
is observed in the TDS difference between the winter
(TDS = 0.3 g/l) and summer (TDS = 0.6 g/l).
Groundwater salinity in the study area varies both in
the vertical and lateral directions. Higher values of
these parameters characterize wells located in the
central and the southern parts of the basin Generally,
TDS increases from the mountainous regions (the
piedmont zone of the study area, which characterizes
the recharge areas) toward the discharge area
(southern part), as a result of the scarcity of recharge
in these regions due to the relatively long-term
waterrock interaction. The pCO2 in the groundwater
ranging between 1.2 9 10-3 and 0.6 9 10-3 atm
compared to the precipitation pCO2 of 10-3.5 atm
suggested that the water gained CO2 from root res-
piration and the decay of soil organic matter.
Subsequently, an increase in pCO2 caused a drop in
pH (Fig. 8a).
Pure Appl. Geophys.
Groundwater input by springs can promote car-
bonate dissolution (carbonate-rich rocks) along the
fringes of alluvial fans and directly into surface water
(dams: Kasseb and/or drainage network: Majerda).
The decrease in bicarbonate concentration causes the
water to be undersaturated with respect to dolomite
and promotes dissolution of dolomite (HAMED et al.
2014). CaMgHCO3 water is the predominant type
in the carbonate-rock aquifers in this study area, and
the lithology of rapid weathering and erosion rate
suggests that dissolution of carbonate minerals will
add significant amounts of Ca and Mg to the reser-
voir. This is generally produced by dissolution of the
carbonate minerals (calcite and dolomite) karstifi-
cation processes. The reaction of these minerals
with water and carbon dioxide can be written as
follows:
CaCO3 calcite H2 O CO2
, Ca2 2HCO 3; 1
CaMgCO3 2 dolomite 2H2 O 2CO2
, Ca2 Mg2 4HCO 3; 2
Ca2Mg5Si8O2 2OH2 14CO2 22H2 O
, 2Ca2 5Mg2 14HCO 3 8SiOH4 :
3
Other types of rocks (e.g. calcium sulfate depos-
its) may additionally contribute to hydrochemical
properties. However, the composition of groundwa-
ters and the formation of other precipitates such as
calcite/dolomite, gypsum or Mg clays depends not
only on the hydrology, but also on the tectonic, cli-
mate and/or the presence of source rocks containing
evaporites (Triassic sediments) from Tunisian and
Algerian territories.
Groundwaters from Cretaceous aquifers (Abiod
and Boudabbous Formations) and karst waters in the
NW basin of Tunisia and around the springs [An
Sabbah, An Sallem, An Menzel Gourchi (Fig. 8c,
d)] have been abstracted for water supply and for
the agricultural sector at the Amdoun region. The
impact of karst water use on the spring discharge
should be the most intensive, but the extent of use is
quite small. The so-called restored spring discharge
was calculated by adding the observed spring dis-
charge with the volume of exploited karst water.
 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers

Figure 8
a Conceptual hydrogeological model of An El Goussa (S1) and An Menzel Gourchi springs (S2); b fractured and karstified limestone of
Abiod Formation in the Jebel Sabbah Anticline (NW Flank); c, d PHOTOS show the panoramic view of the An Menzel Gourchi spring (S2)

Stable isotopes of water are ideal environmental
tracers; they are constituents of water molecules, which
allow them to be used as tracers of water molecules
through various segments of the hydrological cycle and
are excellent tracers for determining the origin of
groundwater and widely used for studying the ground-
water recharge, migration pathways and mixing of
waters from different sources (FAURE 1986; SACKS and
TIHANSKY 1996; SUBYANI 2004). Moreover, the isotopic
composition of monthly recent meteoric waters is in the
range -8.45 to -4.12 % d18O and -55.4 to -22.6 %
dD (Fig. 8a). The average values of d18O and dD in the
precipitation are -6.28 and -39 %, respectively (JOU-
ZEL et al. 1991; CLARK and FRITZ 1997). This variation is
controlled by local climatic parameters, including the
origin of the vapor mass, re-evaporation during rainfall
and the seasonality and monthly rate of precipitation
(HAMED and DHAHRI 2013). The isotopic composition of
precipitation is strongly influenced by temperature,
which is reflected as a seasonal effect (as a result of the
lower condensation temperature in winter than in sum-
mer) and the depletion of heavier isotopes (2H and 18O)
at higher elevations, which is known as the altitude
effect (HAMED and DHAHRI 2013). However, the present
recharge is high due to the humid conditions within the
catchment and depends mostly on infrequent storm
events. The carbonate aquifers of the study area are
recharged by the recent meteoric water by vertical
infiltration from the fractures and/or the permeable
faults.
The isotopic compositions of the groundwater
samples from the NW aquifer range from -6.37 to
-0.82 % for d18O and from -40.8 to -7.7 % for
d2H (HAMED and DHAHRI 2013). These samples are
taken from different depths and altitudes of the study
area. This groundwater is interpreted as contempo-
raneous recharge at the high-altitude surrounding
mountains (Atlas Monts) and a mixing groundwater
resulting from the dominant upward leakage from the
deep artesian water table.
Seven 2D geo-electrical measurements were car-
ried out in three sites aiming to characterize the near
surface problems of the fractured and karst lime-
stones aquifers (Abiod and Boudabbous Formations)
 B. Redhaounia et al.
in the Amdoun study area. The results of tomography
ERT profiles, the most representative ones, are
described below to present the characteristics of the
cavities existing in the three sites. The cross sections
of the true resistivity distribution are displayed. The
high-resistivity zones interpreted as karstic galleries,
which represent the level that is the fractured lime-
stones of the upper member of the Abiod Formation,
were noted in the indices of the epikarst (fractures,
alteration, kamenitza, caverns) to the outcrop. The
presence of faults can be deduced from the abrupt
change between the lower and upper range limits of
resistivity.
The ERT imaging provided significant informa-
tion about the sub-surface structural setting in the
Amdoun region. This area is characterized by high
groundwater potential fractured and chalky lime-
stones bodies, showing elevated density and
concentration of open fracture network within the
very brittle chalk of the Lower Eocene (Boudabous/
El Gueria Fms.) and Upper Cretaceous (Abiod Fm.)
(Fig. 8a, b). The results proved that ERT was capable
of detecting karst, sinkholes or caves of variable
dimensions. Several other Wenner profiles with 5 m
spacing were measured in the area of study and the
presence of other sinkholes and cavities developed in
the Abiod and Boudabbous Formations was detected
(Fig. 4c, d). Finally, the interpretation process favors
smooth contouring over the abrupt resistivity con-
trasts that cave passages show in seven electrical
profiles (Figs. 5, 6 and 7). Because of this fact, the
resistivity values that the model applies to the cave
passages depend on the surrounding rocks resistivity.
The karst system in the Amdoun region is a
unique and complex system. The genesis and the
original structure of karst are known through various
works (MANGIN 1975; BAKALOWICZ 1979; MARSAUD
1997; AL-FARES et al. 2002). The karstic aquifer itself
has three main areas: the epikarst, the infiltration zone
(vadose zone) and flooded area (saturated zone)
(MANGIN 1975; BAKALOWICZ 1979). In the nearest part
of the surface, water infiltration can be temporarily
retained by forming a small temporary tank perch,
the epikarst. This part is characterized by a high
degree of fracturing and alteration, giving it a sec-
ondary porosity in the limestone of the Upper
Cretaceous and Lower Eocene.
Pure Appl. Geophys.
6. Conclusions
This study presents the results of a multi-method
approach of characterizing of the carbonates lime-
stone aquifers in northwestern Tunisia. The
groundwater was affected by the climate impact and
human activities (mostly in the form of groundwater
overabstraction). A dual-porosity model that includes
a fissure-porous aquifer (baseflow) and karstic con-
duits (rapid infiltration) best described the analyzed
systems of Amdoun carbonate aquifers. This study
revealed that the recharge was dominated by winter
precipitation; the dual-porosity system dominated by
the baseflow of the individual springs has different
degrees of karstification. Joint interpretation of geo-
physical (ERT), hydro-geological, structural and
synthetic simulation data allowed identifying the
carbonate aquifer of the Amdoun region.
The application of geophysical method of ERT
measurement reveals three distinct three sites in the
subsurface below strong fracturation zones. ERT
survey supports the theory of significant shifts in the
resistivity parameters of the carbonate limestones
with height resistivity in the Jebel Sabbah
([5000 Xmsite 1) and along the syncline of
Zaouiet Medien-An Sallem with low resistivity
(\350 Xmsites 1 and 2). The 3D model of these
cavities and sinkholes in site 3 resulted from the
application of geo-electrical methods in the fractured
carbonate limestone of the Boudabbous Formation.
Geo-electrical measurements with ERT method
were carried out in the studied area with seven geo-
electrical profiles to obtain a better characterization
of the geological anomalies associated with perched
carbonate aquifers. This work also introduces a new
tool for the identification of karstic, sinkholes, frac-
tures and voids, since cave detection may be the first
application of this ERT approach in the study area.
Moreover, this approach gives an easier interpretation
of its size and position of the subsurface anomaly
caves, sinkhole, faults, etc.
In future works, it will be necessary to contem-
plate other approaches, such as for example,
integration of ERT imaging and ground penetrating
radar (GPR) to investigate and characterize the
hydro-geological perched groundwater bodies with
more accuracy.
 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Applied to Karst Carbonate Aquifers
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by Water Researches
and Technologies Center Borj-Cedria (CERTE),
research program MESRS/CERTE 2010-2013:
Caracterisation et valorisation locale des micro-
aquiferes de montagnes , research project : Iden-
tification et caracterisation des aquiferes perches et
des reservoirs fractures associes de la Tunisie Nord-
occidentale . We would like to express our gratitude
to the AGI EarthImager 2D software Office in
Madrid-Spain and the Water, Environmental and
Energy Laboratory at the University of Sfax for their
collaboration and valuable comments.
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(Received May 8, 2015, revised August 24, 2015, accepted September 2, 2015)

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